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THE 


AMERICANA 

I ) 

A Universal Reference Library 


COMPRISING THE ARTS AND SCIENCES, 
LITERATURE, HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, 
GEOGRAPHY, COMMERCE, ETC., 

OF THE WORLD 


EDI TOR-IN- CHIEF 

FREDERICK CONVERSE BEACH 

# 

EDITOR SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN 

MANAGING EDITOR 

GEORGE EDWIN RINES 

* 

ASSISTED BY MORE THAN ONE THOUSAND OF THE MOST EMINENT 
SCHOLARS AND AUTHORITIES IN AMERICA 


flssueb unfcer tbe jEbitorial Supervision of 
Xlbe Scientific Bmerican 


IN SIXTEEN VOLUMES 
ILLUSTRATED 


) > 
> > > 


SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN COMPILING DEP’T 

258 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK 


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COPY 8. 


Copyright 1903-1906, 

BY 

Frederick Converse Beach. 


Copyright 1907, 

BY 

Frederick Converse Beach. 


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THE AMERICANA 


DEPARTMENT AND ADVISORY EDITORS 


ASTRONOMY 

SIMON NEWCOMB, Ph.D., LL.D., D.Sc. 

PHILOSOPHY 

JAMES E. CREIGHTON, A.M., Ph.D. 
Professor of Philosophy, Cornell University 

PHYSICS 

ROBERT S. WOODWARD, Ph.D., LL.D. 
President of Carnegie Institution 

PURE MATHEMATICS 

CASSIUS J. KEYSER, M.A., Ph.D. 
Adrian Professor of Mathematics, Columbia 

University 

EDUCATION 

ANDREW SLOAN DRAPER, LL.D. 
Commissioner of Education, State of New York 

ZOOLOGY 

DAVID STARR JORDAN, Ph.D., LL.D. 
President of Leland Stanford Jr. University 

ENGLISH LITERATURE 

WILLIAM P. TRENT, A.M., LL.D. 
Professor of English Literature, Columbia 

University 

WILLIAM T. BREWSTER, A.M. 
Professor of English, Columbia University 

AMERICAN LITERATURE 

EDWARD EVERETT HALE, S.T.D., LL.D. 
Author of “ The Man Without a Country ” 

CLASSICAL LITERATURE 

JAMES H. KIRKLAND, Ph.D., LL.D. 
Chancellor of Vanderbilt University 

ARCHITECTURE AND THE FINE ARTS 

RUSSELL STURGIS, F.A.I.A. 

Author of “ Dictionary of Architecture ” 

RELIGION AND THEOLOGY 

SYLVESTER BURNHAM, D.D. 

Dean of Hamilton Theological Seminary, 
Colgate University 

REV. P. A. HALPIN 

Saint Angela’s College, New Rochelle, N. Y. 

MEDICINE 

SMITH ELY JELLIFFE, M.D., Ph.D. 
Editor “ Medical News.” 

CHEMISTRY 

ALLAN DOUGLAS RISTEEN, Ph.D. 
Hartford, Conn. 

MINERALOGY 

GEORGE LETCHWORTH ENGLISH 
New York 

LAW 

HENRY M. EARLE 
New York 


ELECTRICITY 

WILLIAM MAVER, Jr., C.E. 
Consulting Electrical Engineer, New York 

ENGINEERING AND MACHINERY 

WILLIAM MOREY, Jr., C.E. 
Consulting Civil and Mechanical Engineer 
New York 

STEEL 

ALBERT SAUVEUR, S.B. 

Professor of Metallurgy, Harvard University 

JUDAISM 

ABRAM S. ISAACS, A.M., Ph.D. 
Professor of Semitic Languages, New York 

University 

HISTORY OF THE NATIONS 

UNITED STATES 

Andrew c. McLaughlin, a.m. 

Editor of “American Historical Review ” 

CANADA 

GEORGE McKINNON WRONG, A.M. 
Professor of History, University of Toronto 

CHARLES WILLIAM COLBY, A.M., Ph.D. 
Professor of History, McGill University 

MEXICO 

ELISHA HOLLINGSWORTH TALBOT 
Author “ Commercial and Industrial Mexico ” 

GREAT BRITAIN 

HALFORD JOHN MACKINDER, M.A. 
Director of the School of Economics and Polit¬ 
ical Science in the University of London 

GERMANY 

HUGO MUNSTERBURG, Ph.D., LL.D. 
Professor of Psychology, Harvard University 

FRANCE 

HON. HILAIRE BELLOC 
M.P. for Salford (Eng.) ; Author of “ Danton,” 
“ Robespierre,” “ Paris,” etc. 

ITALY 

J. S. KENNARD, Litt.D, D.C.L., L.H.D. 
Author of “ Italian Romance Writers,” “ Studi- 
Danteschi,” “ Romanzi e Romanzieri Italiani,” 
“ Les Femme dans le Roman Italien,” “ The 
Fallen God,” etc. „ 

JAPAN 

GEORGE TRUMBULL LADD, D.D., LL.D. 
Professor of Philosophy, Western Reserve Uni¬ 
versity; formerly Professor of Philosophy, 
Yale University; Lecturer on Education in 
the universities of Japan. 

AUSTRALIA 

HON. JOHN GREELEY JENKINS 
Premier of South Australia 1901-5; Agent- 
General in London for South Australia 



A Few of the Leading Articles in Volume One 

WRITTEN AND SIGNED BY SPECIALISTS 


ADULT EDUCATION 


ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY. . Isaac M. Bentley 

Assistant Professor of Psychology, Cornell University 

ACOUSTICS. . Wallace Clement Sabine 

Assistant Professor of Physics, Harvard University 

. Henry M. Leipziger 

Supervisor of Lectures, New York Board of Education 

ADVERTISING.. Frank Presbrey 

The Frank Presbrey Company, New York 

AGATE... George Letchworth English 

Mineralogist, New York City 

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION.Charles W. Dabney 

President of the University of Cincinnati 

AIR BRAKE. R. A. Parke 

Expert for Westinghouse Company 

ALABAMA. 

Authc 

ALASKA. George Davidson 

Professor of Geography, University of California 

ALASKA, RECENT DEVELOPMENT OF.William R. Stewart 

Editorial Staff ‘New York Daily News' 

ALBANY, N. Y. William Boucher Jones 

Secretary Albany Chamber of Commerce 

ALGEBRA. Cassius J. Keyser 

Adrian Professor of Mathematics, Columbia University 

ALUMINO-THERMICS. . Edward S. Farrow 

Consulting Railroad and Mining Engineer, New York 

AMERICA. Forrest Morgan 

Connecticut Historical Society 

AMERICA, DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION. Charles Worthen Spencer 

Professor of History, Colgate University 

AMERICA, UNITED STATES OF. Frederick W. Webber, M.A. 


John Witherspoon DuBose 

hor of 4 Life and Times of Yancey’ 


AMERICAN DIPLOMACY. John W. Foster 

Author of ‘A Century of American Diplomacy’ 

AMERICAN FARM IMPLEMENTS. R. L. Ardrey 

Chicago, Ill. 

AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR... Samuel Gompers 

President American Federation of Labor 

AMERICANISMS. Joseph Fitzgerald 

Author of ‘Word and Phrase’ 

AMERICAN LABOR . Carroll D. Wright 

Formerly U. S. Commissioner of Labor 

AMERICAN LITERATURE. Edward Everett Hale 

Author of ‘The Man Without a Country’ 

AMERICAN MANUFACTURES. Edward D. Jones 

University of Michigan 

AMERICAN MINES . .... Edward S. Farrow 

Consulting Railroad and Mining Engineer, New York 

AMERICAN NEWSPAPERS. Charles H. Taylor 

Editor of the * Boston Globe' 

AMERICAN POLITICAL ISSUES. Charles Francis Adams 

Historian and Diplomat 

AMERICAN PRINTING TRADE. A. B. Nichols 

The Herald Company of Binghamton 

AMERICAN PUBLISHING. H. H. McClure 

Of McClure, Phillips & Co., New York 

AMERICAN RAILROADS. Edward S. Farrow 

Consulting Railroad and Mining Engineer, New York 



































AMERICAN STREET RAILWAYS 


AMERICAN UNIVERSITY, THE 

ANALYSIS SITUS. 

ANATOMY. 

ANATOMY, COMPARATIVE. 

ANATOMY OF PLANTS. 

ANT. . 


. . Edward S. Farrow 

Consulting Railroad Engineer, New York 

. Edward Delavan Perry 

Columbia University, New York 

. Paul Wernicke 

Professor of Mathematics, State College of Kentucky 

. Smith Ely Jelliffe, M.D. 

Editor 'Journal of Nervous Diseases’ 

. Edwin Grant Conklin 

Professor of Zoology, University of Pennsylvania 

. Hermon Theodor Holm 

Expert Botanist, Washington, D. C. 

. A. S. Packard 

Late Professor of Zoology, Brown University 


ANTHROPOLOGY, AMERICAN. W. J. McGee 

Smithsonian Institution 

APOLOGETICS . George Wm. Knox, D.D. 

Professor of Philosophy and History of Religion, Union Theological Seminary 

APPALACHIAN AMERICA. W. G. Frost 

President Berea College 


APPENDICITIS . John B. Deaver, M.D. 

Specialist, Philadelphia, Pa. 

AQUINAS, SAINT THOMAS, PHILOSOPHY OF.William Turner, S.T.D. 

Saint Paul Seminary, Saint Paul, Minn. 

ARCHAEOLOGY, AMERICAN. Charles Conrad Abbott, M.D. 

Archaeologist 

ARCHITECTURE AND AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE. Russell Sturgis, F.A.I.A. 

Author of ‘ Dictionary of Architectur* ’ 

ARCHITECTURE, EDUCATION IN. Henry R. Marshall 

Fellow American Institute of Architects, New York 

ARISTOTLE . James E. Creighton 

Professor of Philosophy, Cornell University 

ARISTOTELIANISM. William A. Hammond 

Professor of Ancient and Mediaeval Philosophy, Cornell University 

ARITHMETIC. David Eugene Smith 

Professor of Mathematics, Teachers’ College, Columbia University 

ARIZONA. . F. W. Hodgf. 

Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. 

ARKANSAS. U. M. Rose 

Ex-President American Bar Association 

ARMAMENT OF THE WORLD. Capt. Edward S. Farrow 

Late Assistant Instructor of Tactics at the United States Military Academy 

xVRMY AND NAVY. Alfred T. Mahan 

Author of ‘Influence of Sea Power’ etc. 


ARMY OF THE UNITED STATES, THE 

ARMY AND NAVY MANEUVERS. 

ARMY TRANSPORT SERVICE. 

ART. 

ARTHROPODA. 


. H. C. Corbin 

Major-General and Adjutant-General, U. S. A. 

. Col. W. A. Simpson 

Asst. Adjt.-Gen. U. S. Army 

. William H. Carter 

Brigadier-General General Staff 

. .... Charles H. Miller, N.A. 

Municipal Art Society, New York 

. A. S. Packard 

Late Professor of Zoology, Brown University 


ASSEMBLAGES.. . . Cassius J. Keyser 

Adrian Professor of Mathematics, Columbia University 

ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS... Isaac M. Bentley 

Assistant Professor of Psychology, Cornell University 

ASSYRIOLOGY . .... Ira M. Price 

Professor of Semetic Language and Literature, University of Chicago 

ASTRO-PHOTOGRAPHY.. F. S. Luther 

Of Trinity College 

ASTRONOMY; ASTRONOMY, HISTORY OF ; ASTRONOMY, PRACTICAL; 

ASTRONOMY, THEORETICAL. Simon Newcomb 

Astronomer and Scientist 

ASTROPHYSICS. S. A. Mitchell 

Department of Astronomy, Columbia University 




































KEY TO PRONUNCIATION 


a far, father 

a fate, hate 

a or a at, fat 

a air, care 

a ado, sofa 

a all, fall 

ch choose, church 


e eel, we 

e or e bed, end 

e her, over: also Fr. e, as in de ; eu, 

as in neuf; and oen, as in boeuf, 
coeur; Ger. d (or oe), as in 
okonomie. 

e befall, elope 

e agent, trident 


n Span. it, as in canon (can'yon), pinon 

(pen'yon) 

ng mingle, singing 

nk bank, ink 

6 no, open 

o or 6 not, on 
6 corn, nor 

6 atom, symbol 

o book, look 

oi oil, soil; also Ger. eu, as in beutel 

6 or oo fool, rule 
ou or ow allow, bowsprit 

s satisfy, sauce 

sh show, sure 


ff off, trough 

g gas, get 

gw anguish, guava 

h hat, hot 

h or h Ger. ch, as in nicht, wacht 

what 


hw 


l or i 

* 

l 

J 

kw 

n 


file, ice 
him, it 

between e and i, mostly in Oriental 
final syllables, as, Ferid-ud-din 

gem, genius 

* i 

quaint, quite 

Fr. nasal m or n, as in embonpoint, 
Jean, temps 


th 

t’h 

u 

u or u 

u 

ii 


z 

zh 


thick, thin 
father, thither 

mute, use 
but, us 
pull, put 

between u and e, as in Fr. sur, Ger. 
M iiller 

of, very 

(consonantal) yes, young 

pleasant, rose 
azure, pleasure 


' (prime), " (secondary) accents, to indicate 
syllabic stress 



INTRODUCTORY. 


/ 



T HE publication of a great reference work like the Encyclopedia Americana is 
an undertaking of such supreme importance and responsibility that the 
reasons and purposes which have inspired the publishers and editors to under¬ 
take its production, at such great expense and involving so many years of 
preparation, should be briefly summarized. 

First .— After surveying the encyclopedic field very carefully the publishers of the 
Americana were convinced that no work had as yet appeared which gave to America 
— her history, literature, biography, geography, industries and commerce — that thor¬ 
ough and careful treatment which the rapidly advancing life and importance of the 
nation made imperative. They also believed that the time was auspicious for the produc¬ 
tion by Americans, who alone could appreciate and faithfully represent the life, thought, 
and need of their own country, of a National Work — so broad, comprehensive and genu¬ 
inely great that it would everywhere be recognized as the product of native genius, and 
be acknowledged worthy of the great people for whom it was prepared. This was the 
Ideal, and upon this foundation the whole superstructure has been built, the result being 
the natural and harmonious development of the entire sixteen volumes, because for the 
first time a sustained and systematic attempt has been made to make a distinctively 
American encyclopedia. It naturally follows, therefore, that the Americana differs 
from all other similar productions, and it is this difference which makes it superior as a 
reference work of information for the American people. 

Second .—The Americana is designed to give complete and practical information. 
Its scope is universal — there is absolutely no subject that should be included in such 
a work that does not find its place somewhere in the Americana, but the practical utility 
of the work has constantly been kept in view, with the result that the relative impor¬ 
tance of subjects, both foreign and American, has been most carefully gauged by the 
editors, rendering the Americana of the greatest practical service. All modern ency¬ 
clopedias have followed, to a greater or less degree, the path marked out by earlier 
works, omitting much of present-day interest, and continuing second-rate topics of little 
or no importance. The Americana has not hesitated to make a new departure and 
eliminate this dead-wood, and in its place the reader will find hundreds of important top¬ 
ics treated that are not even mentioned in other works, besides a great amount of what 
might be called miscellaneous information, including biographical and geographical 
names, actual and legendary characters in fiction, notable buildings, works of art, books, 
plays, operas, etc. It will be seen therefore, that the Americana contains more subjects 
of living practical interest to Americans than any other encyclopedia in existence. The 
maps and illustrations have been prepared especially for the Americana at a large ex¬ 
penditure, and they will be found so numerous, correct, interesting and helpful as to 
lend great charm and value to the work. 

Third .— The Americana is designed to be the standard authority in this country 
upon all subjects covered in its pages. No existing source of information has been relied 

v. 


INTRODUCTORY. 


upon. Important articles are written by America’s leading scholars anti authori¬ 
ties, and are signed by their respective authors, so that the reader knows at once the 
source of his information. Every department has had the active editorial supervision 
of men eminent in their professions in this country, and it is largely to the untiring devo¬ 
tion and the intelligent work and advice of the associate editors on the staff that the 
Americana owes its majestic originality of conception and treatment, and the marvel¬ 
ous success which has attended every stage of its production. In this connection the 
acknowledgment of publishers and editors is due to the more than one thousand contrib¬ 
utors to the Americana for the generous and patriotic manner in which they have re¬ 
sponded, giving their time and invaluable service in order that America might have a 
thoroughly representative encyclopedia. The Americana represents, to a far greater 
extent than any other reference work, the authority of American scholarship and suc¬ 
cessful practical experience, and must prove indispensable for the daily use of the 
scholar, the statesman, the student, the professional or business man, and especially to 
the home circle. 

Fourth .—The articles of the Americana are written in a style to commend it to 
the judgment of all. Clear, concise, comprehensive and attractive, the seeker for infor¬ 
mation will find the pages of the Americana a perfect delight, so different from the 
heavy, dull encyclopedic style, while the ease and convenience with which it may be 
consulted, the fulness of its cross-references, and the richness and recency of its informa¬ 
tion render it the most useful, valuable, and popular work yet offered to the American 
public. 

While not ignoring the lessons to be learned from the great works of the past and 
present, the Encyclopedia Americana has independently made its own way along new 
lines, profiting both by the excellencies and defects of its predecessors and contempo¬ 
raries, and it stands to-day the Twentieth Century’s monument to American genius, 
scholarship, and energy. 

Believing therefore that the Encyclopedia Americana represents in its plan and 
purpose, its arrangement and treatment, its scholarship and authority, an advance upon 
all former reference works, it is respectfully dedicated by its editors to the American 
people, whose life and progress it so fully and faithfully portrays. 




THE 

ENCYCLOPEDIA 

AMERICANA 


A the first letter of every alphabet ex¬ 
cept the old German or Runic and 
the Ethiopian : the (( futhark ® of the 
former places it fourth, the latter 
makes it thirteenth. As all alphabets 
ultimately come through the Phoeni¬ 
cian (witness the name itself), this 
arrangement is natural. Our own is inherited 
irom the Latin, which was derived from the 
Greek; and the latter in its alpha confirms its 
traditional derivation from the Phoenician 
where and in Hebrew it is called aleph, Ara¬ 
maic alph. The name is said to have meant 
<( ox, 8 and so strongly resembles the root-ele¬ 
ment of eleph-ant that there is little doubt the 
original meaning of both was the same. Hence 
formerly the shape of the lower-case a was de¬ 
rived by some from the rough outline of an ox- 
head with its horns; but in fact, as evidenced 
by a comparison of the gradual evolution of 
forms, the small letters in all cases are derived 
from the capitals, and the Greek capital A (see 
table under Alphabet) in its original shape was 
a somewhat more cursive form of the Phoeni¬ 
cian aleph, which itself was a conventionalized 
form of the Egyptian hieratic, and that in turn 
(the final step backward) was conventionalized 
from the picture of an ibis in the ancient Egyp¬ 
tian hieroglyphics or ideographs. 

The sound of the letter has varied little more 
than the form — perhaps less — except in mod¬ 
ern English, which owing to its composite cha¬ 
racter has made it a symbol of so many different 
vowel-sounds as to be well-nigh meaningless. 
Yet even here most of them have never quite 
lost connection with the earlier vocal efforts 
it stood for, and their fluctuations are fixed by 
the character of the vocal opening. The Phoe¬ 
nician sound represented by the letter aleph 
cannot have corresponded to the Greek alpha 
or any of its derivatives, as the former alpha¬ 
bet assumed that all syllables began with con¬ 
sonants, and aleph was in some sort con¬ 
sonantal; but the Greeks made it a pure vowel, 
the so-called <( Continental® or broad a as in 
<( ah.® This is the simplest and most funda¬ 
mental of all vowel-sounds, the earliest uttered 
by infants,— whence many grotesque theories 


of its divine origin and the reasons for its 
position,— since it results from opening the 
throat and mouth wide and emitting the tone 
from the larynx, with the least friction or 
interference possible from the other organs; 
and it is still the most general on the Con¬ 
tinent of Europe. But even there it has been 
largely flattened by the French into the short 
sound as in <( at®; at the end of words in 
all languages the dropping of the voice tends to 
slur it toward the sound of u in (( but,® which 
in English it quite attains; and with us it has 
become the representative of nine distinct 
sounds, seven of them each recognizably de¬ 
veloped from one of the others, and all from 
the parent sound, while two are of a different 
order, yet still explicable. The usual arrange¬ 
ment ( (( fate, fat, far, fall,® etc.) is entirely mis¬ 
leading, as it obliterates this evolution, which 
the following makes clear: 

(1) ah, explained above. 

(2) all, a closer sound than (1), formed by 
drawing back the tongue, compressing the sides 
of the throat, and speaking more toward the 
diaphragm. In general utterance this is perhaps 
the first change from ah. It is almost uni¬ 
versal among the Hindu and Persian masses 
( <( ghaut ® for ghat, etc.), and was very com¬ 
mon in England and America in the 18th cen¬ 
tury : witness pronunciations like (( spaw ® for 
<( spa ®; the curious aberrant <( vawz ® for 
vahz, which has more curiously become ac¬ 
cepted as a sort of social touchstone in a smal 
group; family names like Raleigh, Decatur 
Taney, etc., in American pronunciation. 

(3) was, what. The same pronounced still 
deeper in the diaphragm, and cut short instead 
of prolonged. 

(4) oval. This is the <( neutral® sound, cor¬ 
responding to (< short u ® ; used in Western lan¬ 
guages only in unaccented syllables, and made 
by lazily opening the organs as little as possible 
and putting no stress on the expiration of the 
breath. It is the closest of the vowel-sounds, 
and the most diaphragmal, and therefore seem¬ 
ingly the antithesis of <( broad a ®; it has in 
truth no special relation to that more than to 
e and 0 ( (< silant,® <( apron ® ), but is the common 


A — AAHMES 


weakened form of all. In Hindu speech it is 
used stressed, as in the familiar « Juggernaut » 
(Jaganath), « Buckergunge » (Bakarganj), etc. 

(5) bare. An opener sound than (1), formed 
in precisely the same manner as (2) except by 
expanding instead of contracting the throat. 

(6) at. Identical with (5) except being cut 
short instead of prolonged; in fact, its short 
sound. 

(7) ask. Always a different sound from the 
others, but not always the same in itself. With 
the less cultivated speakers it is nearly iden¬ 
tical with (5), even with (6). With others, 
anxious to avoid this flatness and exaggerating 
in the opposite direction, it is made identical 
with (1). With the majority of good speakers 
it is akin to (1), but shorter and more dia- 
phragmal, and with the organs rather closer 
together. 

(8) any, many. This is not one of the group 
of a-sounds, but is « short e.» The change was 
caused by assimilation of the a-sound to the i- 
sound of the closing letter. 

(9) ate. This, in usual order the first given, 
considered the typical English a-sound, and 
actually furnishing the pronunciation of that 
letter in its alphabetic position, is not merely 
not an a-sound at all, but not even a simple 
vowel-sound, being nearly ei, sliding quickly 
from a closer and more diaphragmal « short e » 
to a vanishing sound of « short i.» As in (8), 
the cause appears to have been originally as¬ 
similation with a final vowel (the sonant e 
now so often silent but «lengthening» the a 
before it), and afterwards extended to words 
where this principle could not act. 

A, in general, the first term of any series. 

In music, the first note of the scale of A, 
major minor; and A minor is the relative (or 
related) minor of (or belonging to) C major; the 
Continental la. The open second string of the 
violin sounds it, and the instruments of an or¬ 
chestra are all tuned to it. 

In logic, the universal affirmative (« all trade 
is barter))}, distinguished from the particular 
affirmative («some trade is barter))}. See 
Logic. 

In algebra, the first letters of the alphabet, 
a, b, c, etc., are used to denote known quanti¬ 
ties, while the last, down to z, denote the un¬ 
known,— a and x being used first in all cases, 
the others being added according to need. 

In geometry and mechanical diagrams, the 
capitals A, B, C, etc., are used to mark off 
points, lines, angles, and figures; in compli¬ 
cated diagrams, often supplemented by the 
small letters and accented, to indicate closer 
relations of parts. 

As an abbreviation, see Abbreviations. 

As an adjective or attributive, shaped like the 
letter A; as, an A tent. 

A, word. (1) The form of « an » used before 
consonants. (2) Broken-down form of «on,* 
or ellipsis of « for a » («twice a day»). (3) 
Old form of «ah,» as a war-cry («A Doug¬ 
las ! »). 

Ai, a-one' (colloquially, «first-class»), the 
mark for highest-grade wooden vessels in 
Lloyd’s (q.v.) « Register of Shipping.) A re¬ 
fers to hull, 1 to rigging and equipment. This 
rank is assigned by Lloyd’s surveyors to new 
ships for a term of years (prefixed to the sym¬ 


bol, as 10A1) dependent on quality of mate¬ 
rials and mode of building; but to retain it 
they must be periodically resurveyed, and if fit 
are. granted continuation for one to eight years, 
marked 10A1 Cont. 5A1, etc. A in red means 
over-age, but still fit for any voyages which 
perishable goods can endure; A in black, fit for 
short trips with similar goods. In all cases the 
1 is omitted if rigging, etc., are inferior. Iron 
and steel vessels have a Gothic A preceded by 
numerals from 100 down, 100A to 90A re- 
surveyed once in four years, 85A and below 
once in three; rigging, etc., marked same as on 
wooden ships. In the German Lloyd’s Ai and 
A are the two best grades of wooden ships; 
Bi, B, CL, and CK, lower ones; iron and steel 
ships are marked as in the English classification, 
but with the resurvey term marked under the A* 

Aa, a (« water®: a general Indo-European 
word in various shapes,— Ger. ach or aach in 
Aachen, Biberach, etc.; Lat. aqua, pi. aqua, 
whence O.F. Aigues, Mod.F. Aix, in com¬ 
pounds; etc.), the name of some forty streams 
in northern and central Europe: among the 
chief, a French river rising in dept. Pas-de- 
Calais, flowing into dept. Nord, and reaching 
the Strait of Dover at Gravelines; about 50 m. 
long, navigable below St. Omer, and connected 
with Calais and Dunkirk by canals. 

Aachen, a'Hen. See Aix-la-Chapelle. 

Aahmes I., a'mess, the founder of the 18th 
dynasty in Egypt, c. 1600 B.C., and its final 
liberator from the Hyksos or Shepherd Kings, 
Asiatic nomads who had conquered the land a 
century or two before. Native kings had already 
recovered it in part; but Aahmes captured the 
last Hyksos fortress, Hatwaret (Awaris), ex¬ 
pelled them from Egypt, and followed them into 
southern Palestine, besieged their army five 
years in ^Sharuhen® and captured it. He then 
penetrated farther into Palestine, levying tribute 
on it and on the seaboard. This began a long 
series of Egyptian retaliatory expeditions into 
West Asia and a long dominance over it. He 
had an admiral of the same name, whose sell- 
laudatory inscription on his tomb is a most 
valuable mine of knowledge on the military and 
naval operations of the time. Aahmes-Nefer- 
tari was his queen: her mummy-case, one of 
the most magnificent ever discovered, is in the 
museum at Gizeh. 

Aahmes II., the Amasis of Herodotus, 
fifth Pharaoh of the 26th dynasty, c. 570-526 
b.c. An officer of Apries headed a revolt 
against him, and overthrew and killed hiiru 
Though he seems to have risen from the ranks, 
and to have loved roystering and disliked royal 
etiquette, he made a capable and judicious sov¬ 
ereign ; saved Egypt from conquest by Nebu¬ 
chadrezzar (who ravaged it, but retreated), 
and managed to preserve it from invasion by 
Cyrus the Great. He was on very friendly 
terms with the Greeks: lending his influence 
to promote their commerce and colonization; 
assigning them the excellent port of Naucratis, 
which soon grew into a flourishing city; con¬ 
tributing liberally toward the rebuilding of the 
burned temple at Delphi; and according to Greek 
story having cordial relations with several phi¬ 
losophers and princes — Pythagoras, Polycrates, 
etc. Under the reign of Aahmes Egypt enjoyed 
much prosperity. 


AALBORG — AARGAU 


Aalborg, al'bork (“eel-town®), Denmark, 
the chief city of N. Jutland; on the S. side 
of the Limfjord (a sea-arm which joins the 
Cattegat to the North Sea), and on the Danish 
State Ry., which crosses the fjord by an iron 
bridge 1,250 feet long, one of the finest pieces 
of engineering in the kingdom. An important 
commercial town as far back as the nth cen¬ 
tury (Wallenstein sacked it in 1627, the Swedes 
in 1644 and 1657), despite a shallow harbor it 
still has much trade, by means of small vessels, 
with Scandinavia and England; while its manu¬ 
factures — distilleries, leather, lumber, soap, 
cement, cotton goods, etc.— are now building it 
up with great rapidity. A bishop’s seat, it has 
a cathedral; also two old churches and an old 
castle, a museum, and a library of 30,000 vol¬ 
umes. Pop. (1890) 19,503; (1901) 31,462. 

Aalesund. See Alesund. 

Aali Pasha, Mehemed Emin, a-le' pa-sha', 
me-hem-ed' a-min', a Turkish statesman: b. 
Constantinople 1815; d. 6 Sept. 1871. Entering 
public life at 15, he was charge d’affaires 
at London 1838, ambassador to Great Britain 
1841-4; chancellor of the divan 1845; thrice min¬ 
ister of foreign affairs in the troublous years 
1846-52; grand vizier a short time in 1852, but 
soon displaced as not in political accord with his 
companions. Recalled as foreign minister dur¬ 
ing the Crimean war of 1854, in March 1855 
he took part in the treaty of the (( four guaran¬ 
tees® ; in July again became grand vizier, and 
at the Treaty of Paris in 1856 showed great 
decision and cleverness in looking after Turkish 
interests, but without entire success. November 
1 his political tone forced him to resign, but he 
remained minister without portfolio, and mem¬ 
ber of the Great Council. After Reshid Pasha’s 
death in 1858 he was again grand vizier, and 
soon again withdrawn; but in November 1861 
he resumed the office of foreign minister. He 
was president of the convention on Rumanian 
affairs 1864, and member of the Black Sea 
Conference in London 1871. During the Sul¬ 
tan’s absence at the Paris Exposition in 1867 
he was regent; and while the very soul of the 
reform movement energetically suppressed the 
Cretan rebellion and the movement for Egyptian 
independence. In the full tide of activity he 
suddenly died,— an excellent man and states¬ 
man who wasted his life trying to vitalize and 
purify a body of death. 

Aar, ar, Alex, pseudonym of Anselm 
Rumpelt, German poet: b. Chemnitz, Saxony, 
10 Feb. 1853. His best work was in historical 
lyrics, collected as ( Will-o’-the-Wisps ) (1878). 

Aar or Aare, ar (“river®), the name of sev¬ 
eral German streams: chiefly, a Swiss river 
tributary to the Rhine, about 175 m. long* the 
largest in Switzerland save that and the Rhone. 
Formed by torrents from the vast and famous 
Oberaar and Unteraar glaciers of the Bernese 
Alps in E. Bern, it flows N.W. through the 
romantic valley of Hash, over the celebrated 
Handeck Falls, 200 feet high, expands into 
Lake Brienz, and then past Interlaken into Lake 
Thun, becomes navigable, passes Bern, turns N. 
and then N.E. along the southern slopes of the 
Jura past Solothurn and Aarau, and, joining 
the Limmat, shortly after breaks through the 
ridge and empties into the Rhine at Waldshut. 
Chief affluents, the Saane, Zihl, and Emme, the 


Reuss feeding it from the lake of Lucerne and 
Zuger See, the Limmat from the lake of Zurich, 
and the Lutschine from the two splendid Grin- 
delwald glaciers. 

Aarau, arow (“Aar-meadow®), Switzer¬ 
land, capital of Aargau; right bank of the Aar, 
41 m. N.E. of Bern, 1,100 ft. above sea-level, in a 
fertile plain just south of the Jura, whose 
peaks close by are the Wasserfluh (2,850 ft.) 
and Giselahfluh (2,540 ft.). It has famous man¬ 
ufactures of cannon, bells, and fine scientific 
instruments, besides cutlery, leather, silk, and 
cotton; and holds eight fairs yearly. There 
are also historic, scientific, and ethnographic 
museums, a cantonal library of 89,000 volumes 
rich in Swiss history, and a bronze statue of 
the historian and novelist Heinrich Zschokke 
(q.v.), who lived here. Plere, December 1797, 
the old Swiss confederacy held its last session; 
April to September 1798 it was the capital of 
the Helvetic Republic. Pop. (1901) 7,824. 

Aardvark, ard'vark (Dutch, “earth-pig®), 
the Cape ant-eater (Orycteropus capensis). 
Also called ground-hog and ant-bear. A 
South African mammal measuring about five 
feet from end of tubular snout to tip of 
long naked tail. It lives in shallow bur¬ 
rows and is of timid, nocturnal habit; it feeds 
on ants and other insects, licking them up with 
a long tongue which secretes a sticky saliva. 
The head is slightly pig-like, with erect ears; 
the stout body is sparsely covered with short 
stiff hairs; the limbs are short, with strong 
claws for digging; the flesh is edible and con¬ 
sidered delicate, though of peculiar flavor. See 
Ant-eater. 

Aardwolf (Dutch, “earth-wolf®), a timid, 
nocturnal South African carnivore ( Pro- 
teles Icilandii), the only representative of the 
family Protelidcc. It resembles the hyena, to 
which it is closely related, but has less strength 
of jaw and teeth. Its fur is coarse; color, ashy- 
gray irregularly striped with black; muzzle, 
black and nearly naked; ears, brown outside, 
gray within. It inhabits burrows, and being 
unable to kill vertebrates lives upon insects, 
larvae, and small carrion. 

Aarestrup, Emil, a're-stroop, Danish poet 
(1800-56). He was not duly appreciated until 
after his death, but is now acknowledged one 
of the foremost lyric poets of Denmark, ranking 
next to Christian Winther. His Collected 
Poems , ) with critical sketch by G. Brandes, was 
published at Copenhagen in 1877. 

Aargau, ar'gow (“Aar-shire®: Fr. Ar- 
govie, ar-go-ve), Switzerland, an extreme N. 
canton between Basel W., Zurich E., Luzern 
S., and the Rhine and Baden N. Area, 543 sq. 
m.; capital, Aarau. It consists mainly of spurs 
of the Alps and Jura, nowhere over 3,000 ft. 
above sea-level, with numerous fertile valleys 
watered by the Aar and its S.E. tributaries, 
the Limmat (or Linth) and Reuss (see Aar) 
being chief. The climate is moist and variable, 
and stock-farming and agriculture are advanced : 
fruit, vegetables, and vines abound, but the 
wines are inferior. Timber is plentiful. Man¬ 
ufactures : cottons, silks, ribbons, linens, hosiery, 
straw-plait, etc., and important machine works. 
The boat traffic on the Aar and Rhine, and the 
active land and water transit trade, employ 


AARHUUS —AB 


many. It has several picturesque ruined castles. 
Aargau, part of old Helvetia, then conquered 
by the Franks (5th century), a Hapsburg fief 
1173-1415, then captured by the cantonal league 
and divided between Bern and Luzern, was split 
up and a part made a member of the Helvetic 
Republic 1798. Its constitution was first fixed 
by the Congress of Vienna in 1815; in 1831 it 
gained a democratic one, and has ever since been 
a champion of liberalism. In 1841 it suppressed 
its eight monasteries, and this led to the forma¬ 
tion of the Sonderbund (q.v.), or Secession 
League, of Catholic cantons in 1847. Legisla¬ 
tive power is vested in the Great Council, one 
for every 1,100 people, which has to submit laws 
and decrees to a referendum; executive power 
in the Small Council of seven, chosen by and 
from the Great one. Pop. (1900) 206,460, nearly 
all German. 

Aarhuus, ar'-hoos, Denmark. (1) District, 
the E. central part of Jutland, divided into 
Aarhuus and Randers amfs (or bailiwicks) ; 
area, 1,821 sq. m.; pop. about 325,000, mainly 
employed in fishing industries. (2) City, the 
second largest of Denmark, capital of Aarhuus 
amt, on a bay of the Cattegat and the Danish 
State Ry.; has a harbor made in 1883-90, with 
a breakwater and six feet of water, regular 
steamer lines to Copenhagen and England, and 
a large trade in grain, cattle, etc.; and much 
shipbuilding, iron-founding, cotton-spinning, and 
other manufactures, which are giving it rapid 
growth. It is a bishop’s seat, and has been such 
since 948, making it one of the oldest cities in 
Denmark; and its cathedral, begun in 1201, is 
one of the largest and finest church buildings in 
the kingdom. It has a museum also. Pop. 
(1890) 33 , 306 ; (1901) 5 i, 909 - 

Aaron, a prominent but subordinate figure 
of the Exodus period in Jewish history, whose 
importance increases with the distance of the 
recorder from the early epochs, and with the 
remodeling of the early histories by the priest¬ 
hood to support their later pretensions and their 
theocratic ideal of Judaism. In the earliest or 
Elohistic (q.v.) portions of the Hexateuch, he 
is brother of Miriam (Ex. xv. 20) ; but it is 
Joshua who is Moses’ minister for religious rites 
and who keeps guard over the tent of meeting 
(Ex. xxiii. 11), the young men of Israel offer 
sacrifice, and Moses alone is the high-priest. 
Aaron, however, seems to be regarded as ances¬ 
tor of one set of priests, those at the Hill of 
Phinehas, and perhaps of those at Bethel. In 
a later portion it is he who yields to the demand 
for an idol, and fashions the golden calf — an 
evident genealogy of Baal-worship, accredited 
to the ancestor of rival priests. In the Yah- 
vistic portions he is Moses’ older brother, but 
is brought upon the stage only to be ignored: 
Pharaoh sends for him and Moses to take away 
the plagues (Ex. vii.), but he has no independ¬ 
ent power and is merely Moses’ agent in per¬ 
forming miracles, bringing on plagues, etc. The 
supererogatory nature of his functions makes 
it probable that his role is introduced by the 
priestly redactor, under whose hands he becomes 
a mighty leader little inferior to Moses: he 
sometimes receives laws directly from Yahwe 
(Num, xviii.) ; he with Moses numbers the peo¬ 
ple ; the Israelites rebel against him as well as 
Moses, though, when he criticises Moses, curi¬ 


ously his inciter Miriam is punished, not him¬ 
self'(Num. xii.) ; he and Moses jointly disobey 
Yahwe’s command at Meribah; and he is pun¬ 
ished by having his life close before entering 
Canaan. This magnifying connects itself clearly 
with the post-exilic books, where he is the 
ancestor of all legitimate priests, consecrated 
high-priest by Moses, and alone permitted to 
enter the Holy of Holies yearly: he represents 
the tribe of Levi, and even within it his descend¬ 
ants alone are rightful priests, and interlopers 
(see Korah) are stricken dead by Yahwe. 
The pre-exilic prophets know nothing of this 
claim: Ezekiel traces the origin of the Jerusa¬ 
lem priesthood only to Zadok (q.v.). He be¬ 
longs to the tribe of Joseph and its struggle 
to secure admission to the Jerusalem priest¬ 
hood. 

Aaron, Hill of, a lofty mountain range of 
Arabia Petrjea, in the district of Sherah or Seir, 
15 miles S.W. of Shobeck. On its highest pin¬ 
nacle— called by the Arabs Nebi Haroun — is 
a small building supposed by the natives to in¬ 
close the tomb of Aaron; and it may be the 
Mount Hor of Num. xxxiii. 

Aaron ben Asher, Jewish scholar: lived 
in Tiberias early in the 10th century. He com¬ 
pleted one of the two existing recensions of the 
vowels and accents of the Hebrew Bible. His 
rival Ben Naftali also completed a similar work, 
but the readings of the former are usually pre¬ 
ferred. 

Aarsens, Frans Van, ar'sens, Dutch diplo¬ 
mat: b. The Hague, 1572; d. 1641. From 26 on 
he represented the States-General at the court 
of France for many years, first as agent and 
then as ambassador; and Richelieu ranked him 
one of the three greatest politicians of his time. 
He also held embassies to Venice, Germany, and 
England. The judicial murder of John of 
Barneveld by Maurice of Orange in 1619 was 
greatly helped on by Aarsens, who has gained a 
tardy popular opprobrium for it through Mot¬ 
ley’s life of John. 

Aasen, Ivar Andreas, a'sen, e'var .aiFdra 
as, Norwegian philologist and poet: b. Orsten, 
5 Aug. 1813. At first a botanist, he turned 
philologist and student of native dialects from 
patriotic enthusiasm: his great aim was to con¬ 
struct from their older elements a new national 
language (^Landsmaal®), as a substitute for 
Danish, in pursuance of which end he published 
several valuable philological works and set going 
the nationalistic movement called ^maalstroev.® 
As a poet he produced ^ymra) a collection of 
lyrics, and ^rvingen, 5 a drama. 

Aasvar, as'-var, Norwegian islands near 
the Arctic Circle, where the great Nordland 
herring are caught in December and January to 
the extent of sometimes 200,000 tons, and 10,000 
men are employed, who live elsewhere the rest 
of the year. 

Aasvogel, as'fo-gel (^carrion-bird®), the 
South African vulture, of several different 
species. 

Ab, the nth month of the Hebrews’ civil 
year and the 5th of their ecclesiastical (which 
begins with Nisan), has 30 days, and answers 
to the July moon, or part of our July and Au¬ 
gust. The 9th day was a great fast in memory 


ABA —ABADIR 


of the destruction of the first temple by Nebu¬ 
chadrezzar, 586 B.c., and the second by Titus, 
70 A.D. 

Aba or Abu Hanifah, or Hanfa, a'ba or 
a'boo ha-ne'fa, or han'fa, surnamed Alnooma: 
b. in the 80th and d. in the 150th year of the 
Hegira (701-771). He is the most celebrated 
doctor of the orthodox Mussulmans, and his 
sect is the most esteemed of the four which 
they severally follow. 

Aba, a'ba, a mountain in Armenia, part of 
Mount Taurus, where the rivers Araxes and 
Euphrates have their rise. 

Abab'deh, Abab'de, Abab'idek, or Hab'ab, 

a Hamitic people of E. Africa, descendants of 
the ancient Nubians, scattered throughout Nubia 
and between the Nile valley and the Red Sea, 
but chiefly from 23 0 N. lat. to the W. border of 
Lower Egypt. They are small-limbed, but well 
formed; very dark, but not negroid in features. 

Abaco, a'ba-ko (or Lucaya), Great and 
Little, two Bahama islands 150 m. W. of 
Florida. Great Abaco, the largest of the Baha¬ 
mas, is about 80 m. long by 20 wide, with a 
lighthouse at its S.E. point, at a natural per¬ 
foration of the rock known to seamen as (( The 
Hole-in-the-Wall.® Little Abaco, 28 m. long, 
lies W. of its N. point. Area of both, 879 sq. 
m.; pop. 2,400. 

Abacus. In architecture, the flat stone form¬ 
ing the highest member of a column, next under 
the architrave and bearing its first weight. In 
the Tuscan, Doric, and Ionic orders, its four 
sides are arched inward, with generally a rose 
in the centre. In Gothic architecture it was 
variously employed, according to the architect’s 
fancy. 

Abacus (Greek from the Semitic 
abq, dust). In mathematics, a term applied to 
several forms of reckoning apparatus, and hence 
for some centuries to arithmetic itself. The 
primitive form seems to have been a board cov¬ 
ered with fine dust, whence the generic name. 
Among the Hindus this was a wooden tablet 
covered with pipe clay, upon which was sprinkled 
purple sand, the numerals being written with a 
stylus. (Consult Taylor, in the preface to his 
translation of the < Lilawati, > Bombay 1816, p. 6). 
That this form was used by the ancient Greeks 
is evident from Iamblichus, who asserts that 
Pythagoras taught geometry as well as arith¬ 
metic upon an abacus. Its use among the Ro¬ 
mans of the classical period is also well attested. 
Another form of the abacus, having many modi¬ 
fications, is a board with beads sliding in grooves 
or on wires. Herodotus tells us that this in¬ 
strument was used by the Egyptians and the 
Greeks, and we have evidence that the Romans 
also knew it, although preferring a form de¬ 
scribed below. It is at present widely used, 
appearing in the form of the swan pan in China, 
the saroban in Japan, and the tschoty in Russia, 
the latter being the same as the modern Arabian 
abacus. It is in this type of the abacus that 
prayer beads have their origin. The third 
form is a ruled table, upon which counters are 
placed, somewhat like checkers on a backgam¬ 
mon board, a game derived from this type of 
abacus. This was the favorite form among the 
Romans, whose numerals were not at all adapted 
to calculation, and it maintained its position 


throughout the Middle Ages and until the latter 
part of the 16th century. The Hindu-Arabic 
numerals (see Numerals) having then sup¬ 
planted the Roman, such an aid to calculation 
was thought superfluous in western Europe. 
The counters used were called ^0oc by the 
Greeks, calculi (pebbles, whence calculare and 
our calculate ) by the Romans, and in Cicero’s 
time aera because brass discs were used. In 
mediaeval times they were called projectiles be¬ 
cause they were thrown upon the table, whence 
our expression to <( cast an account,» and Shake¬ 
speare’s <( counter casterA The early French 



translated this as gettons, gcctoirs, and jetons, 
whence our obsolete English jettons and the 
modern French jeton, meaning a medal, and 
also a counter for games. The Germans trans¬ 
lated the late Latin denarii supputarii (calcu¬ 
lating pennies) as Rechenpfennige, the early 
printed books distinguishing between reckoning 
on the line (that is, on the ruled table) and 
with the pen. The Court of the Exchequer 
(q.v.) derives its name from this form of the 
abacus, about which the judges of the fiscal 
court sat. (Hall, ( The Antiquities and Curios¬ 
ities of the Exchequer, 5 London 1891; Hender¬ 
son, ( Select Historical Documents of the Middle 
Ages,* London 1892, p. 20.) Another form of 
the abacus, possibly introduced by Gerbert be¬ 
fore he became Pope Sylvester II. (q.v.), was 
arranged in . columns and employed counters 
upon which the western Arab forms of the 
Hindu numerals (see Numerals) were written. 
The use of the term to designate an instrument 
of calculation led to its use for arithmetic itself, 
as in the ( Liber abaci* of Leonardo Fibonacci 
of Pisa (q.v.) and in the works of later writers. 

Consult: Knott, ( The Abacus, * in the 
^Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan, ) 
Vol. XIV.; Bayley, in the ( Journal of the Royal 
Asiatic Society ) (N. S.), Vol. XV.; Chasles, in 
the ( Comptes rendus,* t. 16, 1843, P- 1409; 
Woepcke, in the ( Journal asiatique,* 6 ser., t. 1. 
See Finger Notation. 

David Eugene Smith, 

Professor of Mathematics, Teachers College, 

Columbia University, New York. 

# 

Abad' (^abode**), a suffix meaning town 
or city, common in Hindu and Persian names : 
as Allahabad, city of God; Hyderabad, city of 
Plyder; Secunderabad, city of Alexander. 

Abad'don, in the Old Testament and the 
rabbinical literature, Sheol, the underworld, or 
the place of the lost in it: in Revelation (ix. 11) 
the King of the Abyss, Greek Apollyon. 

Ab'adir, according to Augustine the chief 
god of the Carthaginians; according to Priscian, 
a stone which Saturn swallowed by contrivance 
of his wife Ops, believing it to be his new-born 

























ABAKANSK 


ABASOLO 


son Jupiter, and hence worshipped with divine 
honors. 

Abakansk', a mountain range in Siberia, 
extending from the upper Yenisei to the Tom 
R., parallel to the Altai Mts. Also a town 
founded by Peter the Great in 1707, near the 
Abakan River; now renamed Minusinsk (q.v.). 

Ab'alo'ne (Sp., origin unknown). Any one 
of the several species of Haliotis (ear-shells or 
sea-ears) found along the California coast. 
The shell is a spiral so broadly flattened as to 
make an oval saucer, around the edge of which 
is a row of holes through which the tentacles 
pass when extended. The animal lives on rocks 
near the shore, feeding on seaweed; when fright¬ 
ened it withdraws entirely beneath its shell and 
clings with surprising force to the rock. The 
shell is lined with a bright mother-of-pearl much 
used in arts and crafts. The animal itself is 
used as food by the Chinese and Japanese; quan¬ 
tities of them are dried and exported from Cali¬ 
fornia to the Orient. The name <( abalone® is 
local, but marine gastropods of the same family 
are abundant in all seas not too cold, outside 
the western Atlantic. See Haliotid.e ; Sea-ear. 

Abanah, a-ba'na, or Amanah (Gr. Chry- 
sorrhoas, now Barada, <( The cold®), one of the 
two famous <( rivers of Damascus® mentioned 
in the Scripture: rising in the heart of the Anti- 
Lebanon, it flows through a narrow gorge and 
spreads fan-wise through the Damascus oasis, 
irrigating the land and supplying the city, by the 
canals or (( rivers,® with its clear sparkling 
water, so greatly superior to the Jordan in 
beauty that Naaman’s question is quite intel¬ 
ligible. 

Abancay, a-ban-k‘i', Peru, capital of dept. 
Apurimas, 65 m. W. of Cuzco, on the Abancay, 
an affluent of the upper Apurimac; in an East- 
Andean valley, the best sugar district in Peru, 
with large refineries and silver mines. Pop. 
(1889) 3,000. 

Abandonment, the act of abandoning, giv¬ 
ing up, or relinquishing. 

In commerce it is the relinquishment of an 
interest or claim. Thus, in certain circum¬ 
stances, a person who has insured property on 
board a ship may relinquish to the insurers a 
remnant of it saved from a wreck, as a prelim¬ 
inary to calling upon them to pay the full 
amount of the insurance effected. 

The principle is also applicable in fire insur¬ 
ance, and often under stipulations in life poli¬ 
cies in favor of creditors. The chief object of 
abandonment being to recover the whole value 
of the subject of the insurance, it is necessary 
only where the subject itself, or portions of it, 
or claims on account of it, survive the peril 
which caused the loss. At once upon receiving 
information of a loss the assured must elect 
whether to abandon, and not delay for the pur¬ 
pose of speculating on the state of the markets. 

The English law is more restricted than the 
American, by not making the loss over half the 
value conclusive of the right to abandon, and 
by judging the right to abandon by the circum¬ 
stances at the time of action brought, and not 
by the facts existing at the time of the abandon¬ 
ment. By commencing full repairs the right of 
abandonment is waived. An abandonment may 
be oral or in writing. When acted upon by 
another party, the effect of abandonment is to 
devest all the owner’s rights. 


Abano, Pietro di, a'ba-no, pea'tro de, 

known also as Petrus de Apono, one of the 
most celebrated physicians of the 13th century: 
b. in the Italian village from which he takes 
his name, in 1246 or 1250; d. 1316. He visited 
the East in order to acquire a thorough knowl¬ 
edge of Greek, and then completed his studies 
at the University of Paris. Returning to Italy 
he settled at Padua, where his reputation as a 
physician became so great that his rivals, envious 
of his fame, gave out that he was aided in his 
cures by evil spirits. It was known, too, that he 
practised astrology, and he was twice summoned 
before the Inquisition. On the first occasion he 
was acquitted, and he died before his second 
trial came to an end. Besides the work, Con¬ 
ciliator Differentiarum Philosophorum et Prae- 
cipue MedicoruirP (Mantua, 1472), he wrote 
( De Venenis eorumque Remediis ) (1472), ( Geo- 
mantia,* ( Qusestiones de Febribus,-* and other 
works. 

Abano, Italy (Lat. (< Fontes Aponi®), lies 
at the foot of the Vicentine Hills, in Lombardy. 
Its noted springs, much visited by invalids, were 
well known to the ancients, and are referred to 
by Martial and Claudian. 

Aban'tes, an ancient Greek people originally 
from Thrace, who settled in Phocis, and built 
a town called Ab?e. Their name implies an 
ancestor or leader Abas. 

Abar'banel. See Abrabanel. 

Ab'arim (Hhe beyonds,® sc. Jordan), the 
edge of the Moabite plateau overlooking the 
entire Jordan valley: a range of highlands form¬ 
ing its whole horizon, broken only by the valley 
mouths of the Yarmuk, the Zerka, and the 
Jabbok. Its highest elevation is Mount Nebo, 
whence Moses had his (< Pisgah view® of Pales¬ 
tine (see Pisgah), and whence Jericho is plainly 
visible. Ancient altars, perhaps Amorite, were 
discovered here in 1881. 

Ab'aris, the Hyperborean (fabled as from 
the Caucasus or thereabout), a legendary sage 
first mentioned by Pindar and Herodotus, 5th 
century b.c., but quite uncertain of date or ex¬ 
istence. Pie had the prophetic gift, and a magic 
arrow of Apollo on which he rode through the 
air; cured by incantations, rid the world of a 
great plague, etc. The Neo-Platonists made him 
Pythagoras’ companion. 

Abascal, Jose Fernando, a-bas-cal', hd-sa' 
fer-nan do, Spanish soldier and statesman: b. 
Oviedo, 1743 i d. Madrid, 1821. Entering ser¬ 
vice in 1762, he rose to brigadier-general in the 
French Revolutionary wars; in 1796 became 
viceroy of Cuba and defended Havana against 
the English fleet; then was commander in New 
Galicia, and later viceroy of Peru, where he 
showed great ability and kindliness, and in 
recognition of his efforts to reconcile natives and 
Spanish was created Marques de la Concordia. 
He defended Buenos Ayres from the English, 
and suppressed revolts in Lima and Cuzco; but 
having a turn of ill success was recalled in 1816. 

Abasolo, Mariano, a-ba-so'lo, ma-re-a'-no. 
Mexican patriot: b. in Guanajuato about 1780; 
d. Cadiz, 1819. Joining Hidalgo’s (q.v.) Mexi¬ 
can revolution in 1810, he rose to major-general, 
and was noted for humanity to prisoners. After 
the final rout at the Calderon bridge, 17 Jan. 
1811, he fled with his chief; with him was cap¬ 
tured by the counter-revolutionists, tried, and 


ABATEMENT — ABBADIE 


sentenced to life imprisonment in Spain, where 
he died. 

Abatement. Inlaw: (i) A removal or 
putting down, as of a nuisance. (2) A quash¬ 
ing; a judicial defeat; the rendering abortive by 
law, as when a writ is overthrown by some fatal 
exception taken to it in court. A plea designed 
to effect this result is called a plea in abatement. 
All dilatory pleas are considered pleas in abate¬ 
ment, in contradistinction to pleas in bar, which 
consider the merits of the claim. (3) Forcible 
entry of a stranger into an inheritance when the 
person seized of it dies, and before the heir or 
devisee can take possession. (4) The termina¬ 
tion of an action in a court of law, or the sus¬ 
pension of proceedings in a suit in equity, in 
consequence of the occurrence of some event, as 
for example the death of one of the litigants. 
In contracts, a reduction made by the creditor in 
consideration of the prompt payment of a debt 
due by the debtor. In mercantile law, a deduc¬ 
tion from duties imposed at the custom-house, 
on account of damages received by goods during 
importation or while in the custom-house. 

A misnomer of plaintiff or defendant can be 
taken advantage of only by plea in abatement. 

In heraldry, an abatement was formerly an 
addition to a coat-of-arms, indicative of disgrace 
or inferiority; now it is confined to the bend 
sinister, marking illegitimate descent. 

Ab'atis, or Abattis, in military affairs, a 
defense made of felled trees. In sudden emer¬ 
gencies, the trees are merely laid lengthwise be¬ 
side each other, with the branches pointed out¬ 
ward to prevent the approach of the enemy. 
When employed for the defense of a pass or en¬ 
trance, the boughs of the trees are stripped of 
their leaves and pointed, the trunks are planted 
in the ground, and the branches interwoven 
with each other; and the abatis is laid in a de¬ 
pression in front of a trench, for protection from 
artillery fire. 

Ab'atos, Egypt, an island in Lake Moeris, 
famous as the sepulchre of Osiris, and for pro¬ 
ducing the papyrus of which the ancients made 
their paper. 

Abattoir (Fr.), ab-at-war, a slaughter-house ; 
sometimes extended to include a great market 
of which the abattoir proper is only a part. The 
nuisance of blood, offal, etc., in crowded settle¬ 
ments, early forced ancient civilized governments 
to put the slaughter of the animals under restric¬ 
tions. Our first definite information on this 
point is the system under the Roman empire: 
the slaughter-houses instead of being scattered 
about the streets were collected in one quarter, 
forming the public market, which in Nero’s time 
was one of the most imposing structures in 
Rome. The system was introduced into Gaul, 
but the meat supply of Paris was in the hands 
of a clique of aristocratic families who balked 
all attempts at reform; and though as far back 
as 1567 Charles IX. had issued a decree on the 
subject, no improvement was made till Napo¬ 
leon’s time, when the nuisance was shocking,— 
slaughter-houses abutted on the principal tho¬ 
roughfares, herds of footsore and lamenting 
beasts impeded traffic, the gutters ran with 
blood, offal poisoned the air, and the Seine was 
a sewer for it. A commission was appointed to 
rectify these conditions in 1810, and the five 
great abattoirs which still exist were formally 
opened 15 Sept. 1818. They have been the 


models of the world, and for many years had 
no rivals; indeed, for symmetry of arrangement 
they have never been surpassed. But of late 
the vast American establishments near Chi¬ 
cago, at Brighton, Mass., and other places, have 
carried speed, economy, and cleanliness to an 
ideal point, and American inventiveness has 
built up an incredible number of subsidiary in¬ 
dustries and products, so that literally not a hair 
of an animal’s body nor a drop of its blood is 
wasted: foods, medicines, chemicals, manures, 
building-materials, etc., produced from the 
refuse of the slaughter-houses are past num¬ 
bering. 

Abauzit, Firmin, ab-6-ze, fer-mafi, French 
scholar of Arabian blood and Protestant par¬ 
ents: b. Uzes, 1679; d. Geneva, 1767. He lost 
his father when only two; in 1685, on the Revo¬ 
cation, the authorities tried to tutor him for a 
Catholic, but his mother contrived his flight with 
an elder brother to the Cevennes, where after 
two years as fugitives they gained Geneva, and 
the mother escaped from imprisonment and 
joined them. He early acquired great proficiency 
in languages, physics, and theology; traveled to 
Holland and made acquaintance with Bayle and 
others, and to England, where Newton ad¬ 
mired him greatly, corrected through him 
an error in his <( Principia,® and wrote to 
him, <( You are well worthy to judge be¬ 
tween Leibnitz and me.® William III. 
wished him to settle in England, but he 
preferred to return to Geneva: assisted a so¬ 
ciety there in translating the New Testament 
into French, was offered but refused a chair in 
the University, but accepted a sinecure librarian- 
ship, and died very aged. He was of wonderful 
versatility and universality, seeming to have 
made everything a speciality; Rousseau, jealous 
of every one, yet eulogized him warmly; and 
Voltaire asked a flattering stranger who said 
he had come to see a genius, whether he had 
seen Abauzit. His heirs, through theological 
differences, destroyed his papers,so that little re¬ 
mains of his work; he wrote articles, however, 
for Rousseau’s dictionary of Music ) and other 
works, and edited with valuable additions Spon’s 
( History of Geneva.* (Collected works, Geneva, 
1770; London, 1773. Translations by Dr. Har¬ 
wood, 1770, 1774. For personal information, 
see Senebier’s ( Histoire Litteraire de Geneve* ; 
Harwood’s ( Miscellanies ) ; Orme’s ( Bibliotheca 
Biblical 1834.) 

Abba, Giuseppe Cesare, joo-sep'a cha-za'- 
ra, Italian poet: b. 1838 at Cairo Montenotte. 
He took part in the expedition of Garibaldi into 
Sicily in i860, which he celebrated in his poem 
( Arrigo.* Among his other works are a tragedy, 
( Spartaco,* a historical novel, and lyric poems. 

Abba (same as papa, etc.), Aramaic form 
of Flebrew for Mather.® In Ahe New Testa¬ 
ment, used as an address to God; in the Tal¬ 
mud, a scholar’s title of honor; also used as part 
of proper names; and at present the title of 
Syriac, Coptic, and Ethiopic bishops. See Papa; 
Pope. 

Abbadie, Antoine Thomson and Arnaud 
Michel d’, dab-ad-e, an-twan ton-son (and 
ar-no me-shel, brothers and explorers: b. in 
Dublin, Ireland, 3 Jan. 1810 and 24 July 1815 
respectively. In i 837 _ 48 they explored Abys¬ 
sinia and Upper Egypt, traveled up the White 
Nile, visited Darfur (regarded by the English 


ABBADIE — ABBASSIDES 


in these places as French emissaries), and 
made a remarkably large collection of Ethiopic 
and Amharic manuscripts. Among other works 
Antoine published ( Geodesy of Part of Upper 
Ethiopia* (1860-73) and dictionary of the 
Amarin Language > (1881); and Arnaud, 
( Twelve Years in Upper Ethiopia > (1868). 

Abbadie, Jacques, ab-ad-e, zhak, or James, 
eminent French-English divine: b. Nay, Bern, 
c. 1654-7; d. London, 1727. A poor boy, edu¬ 
cated by friends, he took a degree of doctor in 
theology at Sedan at 17, was minister of a 
French Protestant church in Berlin some years, 
then in 1688 accompanied Marshal Schomberg 
to London for the second English Revolution, 
and became minister of the French church in the 
Savoy. He was strongly attached to William’s 
cause, wrote an elaborate defense of it, and a 
history of the conspiracy of 1696 from materials 
furnished by the government; and William made 
him dean of Killaloe, Ireland. A very able man 
and eloquent preacher, Abbadie is best known 
by his religious treatises in French, several of 
them translated into other languages: the most 
important are that ( On the Truth of the Chris¬ 
tian Religion,* with its sequel ( On the Divinity 
of Jesus Christ,* and ( The Art of Self-Knowl¬ 
edge. 

Abbas (Ibn Abd il Muttalib, 'bn abd il 
moo-ta'lib), uncle of Mohammed; at first hos¬ 
tile to him, but ultimately — after the defeat at 
Bed’r (see Mohammed) —the chief promoter of 
bis religion. He was the founder of the Ab- 
basside (q.v.) caliphate at Bagdad. 

Abbas I., of Persia, (( the Great,® 7th shah 
of the Sufi dynasty: b. 1567, acceded 1585: d. 
27 Jan. 1628. Sent to Khorasan as nominal gov¬ 
ernor in childhood, at 18 he was proclaimed 
shah by its nobles, smarting under the oppres¬ 
sion of his father Mohammed Khodabendeh’s 
officers; the father was soon driven from the 
throne. At this time the Turks had invaded the 
western Persian provinces, and the Uzbek Tar¬ 
tars occupied and ravaged Khorasan. Abbas first 
transferred his residence from Kasbin to 
Ispahan; he then by treaty confirmed to the 
Turks all their conquests, to gain time for chas¬ 
tising the Uzbeks, whom in 1597 he surprised 
and routed near Herat, and followed this by the 
conquest of Ghilan, Mazanderan, much of Tar¬ 
tary, and nearly all Afghanistan. He then de¬ 
clared war against the Turks; and in 1605, with 
60,000 men, annihilated their army of nearly 
double the number at Basra, Bussorah), recover¬ 
ing all the lost provinces, and not only securing 
complete immunity from Turkish aggression for 
the rest of his life, but extending his empire be¬ 
yond the Euphrates. In 1611 he dictated to Ach- 
met I. a treaty which gave Persia Shirwan and 
Kurdistan. In 1618 he routed the united Turkish 
and Tartar armies near Sultanieh, securing more 
territory; and on the Turks renewing the war 
in 1623 he captured Bagdad after a year’s siege. 
The same year he took Ormuz from the Portu¬ 
guese ; and when he died his dominions reached 
from the Tigris to the Indus. His internal ad¬ 
ministration was no less firm and beneficial. He 
encouraged commerce, built highways, repressed 
violence, and left the country flourishing as it 
never has since. He was favorable to foreign¬ 
ers, and two Englishmen, Sir Anthony and Sir 
Robert Shirley, had much influence over him. 
He was like Herod in every respect: a jealous 


and cruel tyrant to his family, he slew his eld¬ 
est son and blinded his other children, his- 
country alone felt his good side. 

Abbas-Mirza, a Persian prince and war¬ 
rior, favorite son of the shah Feth-Ali: b. 1783 J 
d. 1833. He was early convinced of the advan¬ 
tages of Western civilization, and with the help 
of European officers he first of all applied him¬ 
self to the reform of the army. He led the Per¬ 
sian armies with great bravery, but with little 
success, in the war with Russia ended by the 
peace of Gulistan, when Persia lost her remain¬ 
ing Caucasus districts and ceded to Russia the 
sovereignty of the Caspian ; and in that of 1826-8, 
ended by the peace of Turkmanchai, when she 
lost most of Persian Armenia. In 1829 he visited 
St. Petersburg, to ward off punishment for the 
murder of the Russian ambassador in a riot at 
Teheran; and was sent back to Persia loaded 
with presents. His eldest son acceded to the 
throne in 1834. 

Abbas Pasha I., viceroy of Egypt, grand¬ 
son of the famous Mehemet Ali: b. 1813; d. 13 
July 1854. Early initiated into public life, in 
1841 he took an active part in his grandfather’s 
Syrian war; in 1848 the death of his uncle Ibra¬ 
him Pasha called him to the viceregal throne at 
Cairo. During his brief reign he did much to 
undo the progress made under Mehemet Ali: 
he dismissed all Europeans and fought Western 
ideas energetically. At the outbreak of the Cri¬ 
mean war he placed 15,000 men and his fleet at 
the Sultan’s disposal; but was shortly after 
found dead, not without suspicion of foul play. 

Abbas Pasha II., Hilmi, hel'me, khedive of 

Egypt,eldest son of the khedive Tewfik: b. 1874: 
studied at Vienna : on his father’s death in 1892 
became khedive. He won popularity by reduc¬ 
ing the taxes, and tried to throw off the English 
influence. In 1893 he dismissed four of his 
ministers, but Lord Cromer interfered and he 
agreed to follow England’s recommendations in 
all important matters. See also Nubar Pasha. 

Abbassides, abas'sidz, The, 750-1517, caliphs 
at Bagdad and later in Egypt; nominal sover¬ 
eigns of all Islam, but losing Spain at the outset, 
and never practically obeyed in Africa outside 
Egypt; the most famous dynasty of Saracen 
sovereigns. They took their name from Abbas 
(q.v.), the uncle of Mohafnmed. This descent 
had given the family great influence by a cen¬ 
tury after the Prophet’s death; and Ibrahim, 
fourth in descent from Abbas, had gained sev¬ 
eral victories over the Ommiads (q.v.), sup¬ 
ported by the province of Khorasan, when the 
Ommiad caliph Merwan defeated and put him 
to death in 747. His brother Abu ’ 1 -Abbas, 
whom he had named his heir, assumed the title 
of caliph, crushed the Ommiad dynasty in a de¬ 
cisive battle near the Zab (750) and acceded to 
their position. Its members and relatives were 
nearly all tolled into one spot and exterminated, 
earning for Abu ’ 1 -Abbas the nickname of As- 
Saffah, <( the butcher®; but one of them, Abd- 
er-Rahman (q.v.), escaped, and after pictur¬ 
esque adventures set up an independent 
emirate in Spain, which toward two centuries 
later took the title of caliphate. On Abu 
’ 1 -Abbas’ death, his successor Al-Mansur re¬ 
moved the seat of royalty to Bagdad, and won 
successes against Turkomans and Greeks in Asia 
Minor; but by this time the warlike impulse had 



ABBATE — ABBESS 


begun to decay, and the love of luxury and its 
literary and artistic attendants to come to the 
front. Means were found of evading the strict¬ 
ness of Mohammedan rules; and no courts of 
any age or country were gayer or more splendid 
than those of the great Harun al-Rashid, Charle¬ 
magne’s contemporary (786-809), and Al- 
Mamun (813-833). The splendor of their 
palaces, their decorations, their equipages, and 
the seemingly exhaustless treasures they pos¬ 
sessed, gave them a world-wide celebrity — es¬ 
pecially in contrast with the poverty-stricken 
barrenness and barbarism of most Christian 
sovereigns at that period — which is vivid even 
yet in literature and popular memory: Harun is 
the chief princely figure of the ( Arabian Nights, > 
and Bagdad the center of all picturesque and 
varied enjoyment. Al-Mamun is still more 
honorably remembered as the patron of arts and 
literature. What lay underneath this external 
gorgeousness — the corruption, the furies of 
jealousy and bloodshed, and the barbarous op¬ 
pression of the many — is outside a notice like 
this. But external decay soon began to witness 
internal rottenness. The Ashlabites, Edrisites, 
etc., carved out independent sovereignties in 
Africa; the Taherites in 820 set up a separate 
power in Khorasan, even under the great Al- 
Mamun. The Greeks, under the new life of the 
Byzantine empire brought in by Leo the Isaurian 
(q.v.), pushed them back in Asia Minor; and 
Al-Mamun’s last years were contemporary with 
the philosopher, soldier, and statesman, the all- 
accomplished Emperor Theophilus. But the 
final stroke came from barbarians. The caliph 
Motassem (833-842), who had fought both 
Theophilus and the hordes of Turkestan suc¬ 
cessfully, distrusting his subjects, formed body¬ 
guards out of his Turkish prisoners. They soon 
became what the Roman praetorians were — 
masters of the empire. Motassem’s son Mota- 
wakkel was assassinated by them in his palace 
(861) and the succeeding caliphs were their 
puppets; and in 936 the caliph Radhi (934-41) 
was forced to give up the command of the army 
and other powers to his general and mayor of 
the palace, Mohammed ben Rayek. The prov¬ 
inces one after another threw off allegiance; 
the caliph held only Bagdad and its neighbor¬ 
hood ; and at last Hulagu, prince of the Mon¬ 
gols, fired Bagdad and slew the reigning caliph 
Motassem in 1258. The Abbassides retained a 
nominal caliphate in Egypt under the iegis of 
the Mamelukes, and never gave up the claim or 
the hope of their old position and seat; but in 
1517 the Turkish Sultan Selim I., the conqueror 
of Egypt, bore the last of them, Motawakkel 
III., a prisoner to Constantinople, finally allow¬ 
ing him to return to Egypt, where he died a 
Turkish pensioner in 1538. (Muir’s < Caliphate ) 
for the best English account; the monumental 
treasure-house of information for scholars is 
Weil’s great ( Geschichte der Chalifen,* 1846-62.) 

Abbate, ab-a'te, or Abati, a-ba'te, Nicolo, 
ne'ko-lo, Italian painter, follower of Raphael 
and Corregio: b. 1512 at Modena, where his 
earlier works are exhibited; d. 1 57 1 at Fontaine¬ 
bleau— his frescoes in which palace are his 
best-known productions. His finest piece, how¬ 
ever, is regarded as ( The Adoration of the Shep¬ 
herds, ) at Bologna, where his later work 
mostly exists. He has another in the Dresden 
gallery. 


Abbe, Cleveland, American meteorologist: 
b. New York city, 3 Dec. 1838. Graduated 1857 
at the Free Academy (now College of the City 
of New York) ; studied astronomy at Ann Arbor 
with Briinnow and at Cambridge with Gould 
(1858-64); resided at Pulkova observatory,. 
Russia, 1864-6; director Cincinnati Observatory 
1868-73, where he began the system of co-ordi¬ 
nated daily weather forecasts which led to the 
United States establishing the same system and 
in 1870 calling Prof. Abbe to Washington to 
direct it, making him professor of meteorology 
in the Weather Bureau. May 1879 he initiated 
the movement toward standard time (q.v.) and 
hour meridians. January 1873 he started the 
( Monthly Weather Review,> of which he has re¬ 
mained editor. He is professor of meteorology 
in Columbia University, Washington, lecturer 
on the same at Johns Hopkins, etc. Among his 
publications are a work on ( Meteorological Ap¬ 
paratus and Methods > (1887) ; ( Studies for 

Methods in Storm and Weather Predictions 
(1889) ; ( Mechanics of the Earth’s Atmosphere ) 
(1891), ( Solar Spots and Terrestrial Tempera¬ 
ture^ and ( Atmospheric Radiation. ) 

Ab'be, Ernst, German physicist: b. Eise¬ 
nach, 1840; d. Jena, 1905. Studied at Jena and 
Gottingen; became assistant at the latter’s ob¬ 
servatory, and lecturer before the Frankfort-on- 
the-Main Physical Society; 1863-70 lecturer at 
Jena, and 1870 professor there; 1878 director ot 
its observatories; in 1891 he resigned professor¬ 
ship. He became distinguished for his work in 
perfecting optical instruments, especially photo¬ 
graph and microscope lenses, having for a long 
time been connected with the highly reputed firm 
of Carl Zeiss in Jena. He invented the Abbe 
refractometer. He wrote a work in German on 
the ( Refracting and Dispersing Power of Solid 
and Fluid Bodies . ) 

Abbe, ab-a, originally the French name for 
an abbot, but later used in the general sense of 
a priest or clergyman. By a concordat between 
Pope Leo X. and Francis I. in 1516, the French 
king had the right to nominate upward of 200 
abbcs commendataires, who drew a third of the 
revenues of the monasteries without having any 
duty to perform. They were not necessarily 
clergy, but were expected to take orders unless 
exempted by a dispensation. The hope of ob¬ 
taining one of those sinecures led multitudes of 
young men, many of them of noble birth, to 
enter the clerical career, which however seldom 
went further than taking the inferior orders; 
and it became customary to call such aspirant 
abbes, jocularly, Abbes of St. Plope. They 
formed a considerable and influential class in 
society; and an abbe, distinguished by a short 
violet-colored robe, was often found as chap¬ 
lain or tutor in noble households, or engaged in 
literary work. This class of nominal clergy dis¬ 
appeared at the Revolution. In Italy they are 
called abbate. 

Abbess, the female superior of some con¬ 
vents of nuns, corresponding to the abbot over 
monks. She was elected from the monastery by 
secret votes, inducted by a bishop’s consecra¬ 
tion, and held office three years or even for life 
unless deprived for misconduct. The Council 
of Trent fixed the required age at 40, with 8 
years of professed membership in the monastery. 
She could discipline and even expel the nuns, 
subject to the bishop; but, being a female, could 


ABBEVILLE — ABBOT 


exercise only certain functions, such as giving 
religious counsel and administering the rule, but 
no spiritual jurisdiction, as ordaining, conferring 
the veil, or excommunicating. 

Abbeville, France, ab-vel (^abbey-town,” 
of St. Riquier’s), capital of Abbeville arrondisse- 
ment, dept. Somme ; on both banks of the Somme 
and an island in it, 12 m. from its mouth and 
head of navigation (at high tide vessels of 150 to 
200 tons can reach it) connected by canals with 
Amiens (25 m. distant), Lille, Paris, and Bel¬ 
gium; on the Northern Ry. It is an old, nar- 
row-streeted, picturesque town, with strong 
fortifications on Vauban’s system; has a won¬ 
derfully fine church of the flamboyant order, St. 
Woifran’s, begun under Louis XII. (1462-1515), 
a very interesting city hall built in 1209, and a 
library of 1690 now containing 45,000 volumes. 
It manufactures jewelry, soaps, glassware, and 
various fabrics, as velvets, cottons, linens, etc. 
But its chief interest to the foreign world is for 
the relics and implements of primitive man (the 
cave-dweller) and the fossils of extinct animals 
found there. Pop. (1896) 17,781. 

Abbeville, S. C., county seat of Abbeville 
co.; on the Southern and Seaboard A. L. R.R.’s; 
106 m. W. of Columbia. It is in a rich cotton¬ 
growing region; is noted for its fine climate, 
which makes it a popular resort for Northern 
invalids, and has a national bank, excellent pub¬ 
lic schools, several large manufactories con¬ 
nected with the cotton industry, flour and feed 
mills, brick-yards, etc. Property valuation over 
$500,000; bonded debt less than $55,000. There 
are several periodicals. Pop. (1890) 1,696; 

(1900) 3,766. 

Abbeville Treaties. (1) A treaty in 1259 
between Louis IX. of France ( (( St. Louis”) 
and Henry III. of England, to settle definitely 
the territorial rights of the two crowns, Louis 
fearing that his title to some possessions was 
liable to dispute, and having sought a settlement 
for many years. It was negotiated at Paris 
with Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester, and 
signed by the two kings at Abbeville during 
Henry’s visit to France, 1259-60, but dated back 
to 20 May 1259. Henry resigned all title to 
Normandy, Maine, Anjou, Touraine, and North 
Saintonge; Louis turned over Perigord, Limou¬ 
sin, South Saintonge, and some districts south of 
the Loire, to be held by Henry in fief,— a sur¬ 
render which so enraged the inhabitants that 
they refused to celebrate Louis’ birthday. 
Henry resigned the titles of Duke of Normandy 
and Count of Anjou, and agreed to do homage 
at Paris for those of Duke of Guienne and 
peer of France. (2) Between Henry VIII. and 
Francis I. in 1527, Wolsey representing England. 

Abbey, Edwin Austin, American artist: b. 
Philadelphia, 3 April 1852; studied at the Penn¬ 
sylvania Academy of Fine Arts; lived in New 
York and drew illustrations of a high order for 
periodicals, also painting water-colors, till 1883, 
when he removed to England. His two most 
individual qualities have been his love for Eng¬ 
lish country life and scenery and for the old 
English poets and dramatists, both of which 
have resulted in notable illustrations (as of 
Shakespeare. Goldsmith, etc.) and paintings; 
and his ability as a colorist, though much of 
his work has been done without color. He has 
also deep intellectual and spiritual qualities; and 


all these faculties and tastes together combine 
in the famous panels of the ( Search for the 
Holy Grail’ on the upper walls of the delivery 
room at the Boston Public Library. He was 
elected member of the Royal Academy July 
1898; was one of the American jurors on paint¬ 
ings in the Paris Exposition of 1900; and was 
commissioned by Edward VII. to paint the coro¬ 
nation scene in Westminster Abbey. (See Rad- 
cliffe’s ( Schools and Masters of Painting,’ 
1898; Miither’s Llistory of Modern Paint¬ 
ing^ 1896.) 

Abbey, Henry, poet and journalist: b. 
Rondout, N. Y„ n July 1842. He has pub¬ 
lished several collections of pleasing verse: 
(May Dreams’ (1862); ( Ralph, and Other 
Poems ) (1866); ( Ballads of Good Deeds’ 
(1872) ; Collected Works’ (1885; 3d ed. 1895) ; 
Phaeton’ (1901). 

Abbey, Henry Eugene, American operatic 
manager: b. Akron, O., 27 June 1846; d. 1896. 
He was engaged for several years in theatrical, 
and from 1883 in operatic management, produc¬ 
ing Italian and German operas with the most 
distinguished singers of the day. 

Abbey, a monastery or religious commu¬ 
nity of the highest class, governed by an abbot, 
assisted generally by a prior, sub-prior, and 
other subordinate functionaries; or, in the case 
of a female community, superintended by an ab¬ 
bess. A priory differed from an abbey only in 
being on a smaller scale, and governed by a 
superior named a prior. Abbeys or monasteries 
first rose in the East. Among the most famous 
abbeys on the European continent were those of 
Clugny, Clairvaux, and Citeaux in France; of 
St. Galle in Switzerland, and of Fulda in Ger¬ 
many; in England, those of Westminster, St. 
Mary’s of York, Fountains, Kirkstall, Tintern, 
Rievaulx, Netley, Paisley, and Arbroath. The 
English abbeys were wholly abolished by Henry 
VIII. at the Reformation. Abbeys were usually 
strongly built, with walls which served as a 
defense against enemies and within which were 
large buildings in which the occupants carried 
on the work to which they had been assigned. 
See Abbot; Monastery. 

Abbitib'bi, a river, a lake, and a former 
important trading-post of the Hudson Bay Com¬ 
pany in the Northwest Territories of Canada. 
The river is the outlet of the lake, about 49 0 
N. lat., and flows into James Bay; the post is 
on the shore of the lake. 

Abbo of Fleury, fle-re, French theologian; 
b. near Orleans about 945; d. 1004. He studied 
at Rheims and Paris; acquiring great repute as 
a scholar and scientist (of the time), Oswald, 
Archbishop of York, induced him to teach for 
two years in the abbey of Ramsey and aid in 
restoring the monastic system; on his return to 
France he became abbot of Fleury and built up 
a thriving school there; was sent by Robert II. 
(son of Hugh Capet) on two missions to Rome, 
986 and 996, and each time succeeded in warding 
off a papal interdict. Later, while trying to re¬ 
form the discipline of the priory of La Reole, 
Gascony, he was killed. He wrote lives of the 
early popes down to Gregory I. (Life by his 
pupil Aimoin, in Latin, ( Vita Abbonis abbatis 
Floriacensis.’) 

Abbot, Ezra, American Biblical scholar: b. 
Jackson, Me., 28 April 1819; d. 21 March 1884. 


ABBOT 


He studied at Phillips Exeter Academy, gradu¬ 
ated at Bowdoin 1840, and after teaching in 
Maine and Cambridge, Mass., became in 1856 
assistant librarian of Harvard. In 1872 he re¬ 
ceived a D.D. from Harvard, though a layman, 
and thence till death was professor of New 
Testament criticism and interpretation in the 
Cambridge Divinity School. His wide reading 
and wonderful verbal memory made him one of 
the foremost of textual critics and bibliog¬ 
raphers; his mastery of the Greek New Testa¬ 
ment text placed him beside the leading scholars 
of the world; and on the American New Testa¬ 
ment Revision Committee, 1871-81, he was a 
chief agent in putting its work on an even level 
of authority with the English, in minute accu¬ 
racy of scholarship as well as broad, acute judg¬ 
ment. Indifferent to fame, he gave his best 
work to collaborations or private assistance 
mostly unacknowledged and unrealized except 
by scholars. His most important individual 
book was on the ( Authorship of the Fourth 
Gospel 5 (1880), in which he announced the im¬ 
portant discovery of Tatian’s ( Diatessaron. 5 
Of his other critical work, besides the great 
Revision, his half of the prolegomena to Tisch- 
endorf’s Greek New Testament (1884-94), his 
additions to Mitchell’s ( Critical Handbook of 
the New Testament (1880), and his revision 
of Schaff's ( Companion to the New Testament 
(1883), should be mentioned. As a bibliog¬ 
rapher, his greatest fame was for the curious 
and exhaustive catalogue of relevant books he 
furnished for Alger’s ( Critical History of a 
Future Life ) (1864), and his notes to Smith’s 
( Bible Dictionary 5 (Am. ed. 1867-70). He also 
wrote many papers for periodicals. 

Abbot, Francis Ellingwood, American re¬ 
ligious radical: b. Boston, 1836; graduated at 
Harvard 1859, and Meadville (Pa.) Theological 
School 1863. A Unitarian minister 1863-8, he 
.started in 1870 The Index , an ultra-radical 
weekly devoted to religious and philosophical 
topics; and wrote Scientific Theism 5 (1886), 
and the Way Out of Agnosticism 5 (1890), 
besides notable magazine articles. 

Abbot, George, Archbishop of Canterbury: 
b. Guildford, Surrey, 19 Oct. 1562; d. 5 Aug. 
1633. A cloth-worker’s son, he studied at Bal- 
liol, Oxford, was chosen Master of University 
College 1597, and three times was vice-chancellor 
of Oxford. Dr. Abbot’s name was second on 
the list of eight divines ordered in 1604 to pre¬ 
pare the present (King James) version of the 
Bible. In 1608 he went to Scotland with the 
Earl of Dunbar to arrange for a union of the 
English and Scotch churches. James took a 
great fancy to him, and, though Abbot had never 
held a parish, made him bishop of Lichfield and 
Coventry in 1609, transferred him to the see of 
London a month later, and less than a year 
afterward appointed him Archbishop of Canter¬ 
bury. Flattery of the king is accredited as the 
cause of this astonishing rapidity of prefer¬ 
ment ; but once in his seat, at least, Abbot felt 
no need of such tactics. He opposed the scan¬ 
dalous divorce suit of Lady Frances Howard 
against the Earl of Essex, though the court 
favored and carried it. In 1618 he forbade the 
reading, in the Croydon church where he was, 
of the king’s declaration permitting games and 


sports on Sunday, which the Puritans (to whom 
Abbot belonged) regarded as a permit to break 
the Sabbath, and the order to read it as a com¬ 
mand to commit blasphemy. He promoted the 
marriage between the Princess Elizabeth and the 
Protestant Elector Palatine, and opposed the 
disastrous Spanish-marriage project of Prince 
Charles, and thereby won Charles’, Laud’s, and 
Buckingham’s hatred. The king, however, re¬ 
mained his friend. In 1622 he accidentally killed 
a keeper while deer-hunting, and his enemies 
tried to have him disqualified for the involun¬ 
tary manslaughter. The king made light of the 
matter, but had to refer it to a commission, 
which decided in his favor, and he was formally 
absolved and reappointed. He attended James 
in his last sickness, and crowned Charles. The 
latter, on Abbot’s refusing to license a fanatical 
divine-right sermon, deprived him of his func¬ 
tions and put them in commission; but, having 
to summon a parliament shortly after, was 
afraid of the effect and restored him. From 
that time he lived in retirement, leaving Laud in 
complete ascendancy. He wrote many works 
now forgotten, though one on the prophet Jonah 
was reprinted in 1845. A geography passed 
through numerous editions. 

Abbot, Henry Larcom, American military 
engineer: b. Beverly, Mass., 13 Aug. 1831; grad¬ 
uated at West Point 1854; entered the engineer 
corps. He took part in the survey for a Pacific 
railroad and of the Mississippi River delta. He 
served through the Civil War as engineer and 
artillerist, was wounded at Bull Run, and com¬ 
manded the siege artillery before Richmond, an 
account of which he published in 1867. He 
became colonel and chief of engineers, and was 
brevetted brigadier-general U. S. Vols., and 
major-general U. S. Army. He long commanded 
the engineers’ garrison at Willett’s Point, N. Y., 
established an engineers’ school, worked out 
and laid down the submarine defenses of New 
York harbor, and accomplished much in the im¬ 
provement of mortar batteries and engineering 
equipment, etc.; was a member of the Gun 
Foundry Board and the Board of Fortifications 
and Defense, of that for the protection of the 
Mississippi basin, of that on the proposed canal 
from Pittsburg to Lake Erie, and of the techni- 
cay Committee of the new Panama Canal Co. 
He drew the plans for the harbor at Manitowoc, 
Wis. He was retired in 1895. He is a member of 
many scientific societies, including the National 
Academy of Sciences; and has written, besides 
many reports of boards and committees and the 
work above cited, a volume on submarine mines 
for harbor defense (1881), and, in collaboration, 
( Physics and Hydraulics of the Mississippi. 5 

Abbot, Joseph Hale, American educator: 
b. Wilton, N. H., 26 Sept. 1802; xl. 7 April 1873. 
Graduated at Bowdoin 1822, tutor there 1825-7; 
professor of mathematics Phillips Exeter Acad¬ 
emy 1827-33; then taught a ladies’ school in 
Boston; subsequently was principal of the Bev¬ 
erly, Mass., high school. He was for some 
years recording secretary of the American Acad¬ 
emy of Arts and Sciences, and published valu¬ 
able scientific papers in its transactions, 5 
besides writing on pneumatic and hydraulic 
problems, in which he made ingenious investi¬ 
gations. He was associate editor of Worces¬ 
ter’s Dictionary. 


ABBOT — ABBOTSFORD 


Abbot, Samuel, American philanthropist: 
b. Andover, Mass., 25 Feb. 1732; d. 12 April 
1812. He became a wealthy Boston merchant 
and gave $20,000 in 1807 toward founding An¬ 
dover Seminary, with $100,000 more by will. 

Abbot ( <( father**), originally the head 
and ruler of a community of monks; in the 
Greek Church hegumenos, «leader,)) or archi¬ 
mandrite, « ruler of the fold,)) though the latter 
is oftener an abbot-general with hegumenoi un¬ 
der him. Among the Dominicans the head of 
a convent was called prcepositus, a «provost,)) 
or prior; among the Franciscans custos, « guar¬ 
dian »; among the Camaldules major. The 
term «abbot » originated in the East, and was 
first applied to any monk noted for piety, but 
at length restricted to the superior. The first 
abbots were laymen like the rest of the monks 
in general; the lowest clergy took precedence of 
them, and for sacraments they had to attend 
the nearest church: but the extreme incon¬ 
venience or even impossibility of this when the 
monastery was in a desert or far from a town 
forced the ordination of the abbots. Abbots 
could attend councils, and the second Coun¬ 
cil of Nice, 787, allowed them to ordain 
monks to the inferior orders; and ultimately 
nearly all monks were ordained to some grade 
of the ministry. To this elevation was added 
that of allowing pluralities of abbacies, origi¬ 
nally forbidden, and even in the 6th century 
allowed only in special cases; but it increased 
till early in the 10th century one German prel¬ 
ate had twelve abbeys under him, correspond¬ 
ing to the archimandrites of the East. Thus, 
and by the increase of numbers and corporate 
wealth in the great abbeys, the abbots them¬ 
selves became prelates of vast power. Still 
another cause developed this,— the exemption of 
abbeys from control of the bishops. They were 
originally all subject to episcopal jurisdiction, 
and in the West generally continued so till the 
nth century; this is expressly ordered in Jus¬ 
tinian’s code. The exactions of the bishops, 
however, rendered the exemption increasingly 
frequent; beginning in 456 the practice 
grew, and was much helped forward by 
Gregory the Great, who relieved many 
abbots from episcopal control and made them 
responsible directly to the Pope. By the 12th 
century this had become an evil of the first 
order in ecclesiastical government, the bishop 
usually having no authority whatever over the 
chief centres of religious and often secular 
power in his diocese; and one abbot, of Fulda 
in Germany, claimed precedence over the Arch¬ 
bishop of Cologne. Next came an encroachment 
on the functions of the bishops: from confer¬ 
ring the tonsure and the office of reader they 
came to be equally associated with the bishops 
in consecrations; and while originally the bishop 
chose the abbot from the monks of the house, 
and then the right of election was transferred 
to the monks, the abbots came sometimes to 
choose their own successors. This, however, was 
stopped in some countries by a counter-process; 
the popes in Italy and the kings in France 
assuming to themselves the right of appointment. 

Otherwhere the choice was by secret election 
of and from the monks of the house, unless it 
furnished no fit candidate, when choice might 
be made from another monastery of one well 


instructed himself and competent to instruct 
others, of legitimate birth and at least 25 years 
old. His election was for life. His power was 
absolute except as restricted by the canons of 
the Church. His exaction of deference in the 
routine of life was royal: all rose and bowed 
when he entered the church or chapter, his let¬ 
ters and orders were received kneeling, and no 
monk could sit in his presence or leave it with¬ 
out permission. They had immense political 
power, and were on equal terms of intimacy 
with the greatest in the realm. Many of the 
abbots were an honor to their countries, and their 
schools were seminaries of learning and virtue. 

In time the title was improperly conferred on 
others who had no connection with monastic 
life, or sometimes even with the Church,— on the 
principal of a body of parochial clergy or the 
king’s chaplain, and the chief magistrate of 
Genoa was called « Abbot of the People.)) Lay 
abbots, so called, originated in temporarily 
handing over the revenues of an abbey to some 
noble, or even the king, for a great public 
exigency, the noble being titular abbot, but 
enough of the revenues being reserved from se¬ 
questration to support the house. Once in lay 
hands they usually remained there, and most of 
the Frankish and Burgundian sovereigns and 
chief nobles in the 9th and 10th centuries were 
titular abbots of great monasteries, whose 
revenues they applied to their own uses. This 
often happened from the monastery’s volun¬ 
tarily placing itself under the « commendation )> 
of some noble for protection; and there were 
sometimes two lines of abbots,— one lay, taking 
the major part of the income without service, 
the other clerical, doing the work. This was 
mostly reformed during the latter part of the 
10th century. 

In convent cathedrals, where the bishop filled 
the place of the abbot, the superior’s duties were 
performed by a prior. In other convents the 
prior was the vice-abbot. The superiors of 
cells, or small monastic establishments depend¬ 
ent on the larger ones, were also called priors; 
they were appointed by the abbot and held 
office at his pleasure. (H. J. Feazey’s ( Monasti- 
cism* ; Montalembert’s ( Monks of the West,* 
ed. 1896, Vol. I.; Bingham’s Engines* ; Mar- 
tene’s ( Rites of the Ancient Monasteries.*) 

Abbot, The, by Sir Walter Scott. A sequel 
to ( The Monastery,* but dealing with more 
stirring situations. The time of the action is 
1567-68. While the action goes on partly at 
Avenel Castle, and Halbert Glendinning of 
( The Monastery,* as well as his brother Ed¬ 
ward (now an abbot) figure prominently in the 
story, the reader finds that he has exchanged the 
humble events of the little border vale by Mel¬ 
rose for thrilling and romantic adventures at 
Lochleven Castle on its island in the lake, north 
of Edinburgh, where Mary Queen of Scots is 
imprisoned. The chief interest centres around 
the unfortunate queen. The framework of the 
tale it is claimed is historically true. 

Abbotsford, a fording-place of the Tweed 
near its confluence with the Yarrow; the name 
given by Sir Walter Scott to his property there 
bought in 1811, in memory of its use by the 
monks of Melrose Abbey, it being at the time 
known as the Clarty [Filthy] Hole. The site is 


ABBOTT 


a low hillside on the southern bank, overlooked 
by the Selkirks. At first only a villa, now the 
west wing of the pile, he was seized with the idea 
of founding a great feudal family of the old 
Scotch pattern, with this for a baronial seat; and 
gradually added other sections, copying old 
Scotch mansions or ruins, or special features of 
them, making an irregular, rambling, picturesque 
abode, « a romance in stone and lime.» It now 
belongs to the Hope-Scotts, descendants of 
Scott’s daughter and Lockhart. 

Abbott, Alexander Crever, American hy¬ 
gienist: b. Baltimore. Md., 26 Feb. i860. He 
was educated at Johns Hopkins University and 
at the universities of Maryland, Munich, and 
Berlin. He is a fellow of the College of 
Physicians in Philadelphia, and a member 
of numerous scientific societies; in 1900 was pro¬ 
fessor of hygiene and director of the laboratory 
of hygiene in the University of Pennsylvania. 
His publications include ( The Principles of 
Bacteriology,) and numerous papers on bacteriol¬ 
ogy and hygiene. 

Abbott, Austin, LL.D., American law-writ¬ 
er, son of Jacob: b. Boston, 18 Dec. 1831; d. 
1896. He was graduated at the University of the 
City of New York in 1851, and entered the prac¬ 
tice of law; collaborated with his brother Benja¬ 
min in valuable legal compilations, digests, text¬ 
books, etc.; was an able law lecturer, and dean 
of his alma mater’s law school 1891-6. He was 
counsel for Theodore Tilton in the Beecher trial. 
With his brothers Benjamin and Lyman he 
wrote two novels, * Cone Cut Corners) (1855) 
and < Matthew Caraby >' (1858). 

Abbott, Benjamin, revivalist: b. Long 
Island 1732; d. Salem, N. J., 14 Aug. 1796. A 
hatter’s and then a farmer’s apprentice, some¬ 
what dissipated but a kind husband and father 
and a church-goer (whence his accounts of the 
pit from which he was rescued are probably 
dialectic), he was roused to intense conviction of 
sin at 33 by an itinerant Methodist preacher, 
joined that Church with his children and his 
Presbyterian wife, and became one of the most 
remarkable revivalists of the time, producing 
wonderful conversions of the most hardened, 
and often sending hearers into convulsions. In 
the Revolution the Methodists were suspected 
of disloyalty, and more than once he was near 
being mobbed; but he always preached down his 
assailants, once turning from their purpose a 
gang of a hundred soldiers. Serving for 16 
years as a local preacher, from 1789 he went on 
various circuits, and in 1793 was made an elder 
and sent to Maryland. He carried on his duties 
till death despite much enfeeblement; and his 
career has been one of the most stirring themes 
for exhortation in the Church. 

Abbott, Benjamin Vaughan, American law¬ 
yer, eldest son of Jacob: b. 4 June 1830; d. 
1890. He was graduated at the University of the 
City of New York in 1850, and practised law 
with his brothers Austin and Lyman. He com¬ 
piled nearly 100 volumes of legal digests and 
reports. He drew up in 1865, as secretary of 
the New York Code Commission, the penal code 
which is the basis of the present one. In 1870 
President Grant appointed him one of three 
commissioners to revise the United States stat¬ 
utes, which occupied three years, and compressed 
16 volumes into one large octavo; thence till 1879 


he was occupied on a great revision of the 
<■ United States Digest.) Among his lesser 
works are (Judge and Jury) (1880), collected 
contributions to periodicals; a Chautauqua book, 
<The Traveling Law School); and •( Famous 
Trials) (1880). 

Abbott, Charles Conrad, author and nat¬ 
uralist: b. Trenton, N. J., 4 June 1843. He 
received an academical education, and took the 
degree of M.D. at the University of Pennsyl¬ 
vania in 1865. His life is devoted wholly to 
scientific and literary pursuits. He is correspond¬ 
ing member Boston Society of Natural His¬ 
tory ; member American Philosophical Society of 
Philadelphia; Fellow Royal Society of An¬ 
tiquaries of North, Copenhagen; Assistant, 
Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and 
Ethnology, Cambridge, Mass., 1876-89. Author: 
(Primitive Industry) (1881) ; (Naturalist Ram¬ 
bles about Home) (1884); (Upland and Mea¬ 
dow) (1886); (Waste-land Wanderings) 
(1887); (Days Out of Doors) (1889); (Out¬ 
ings at Odd Times) (1890) ; (Recent Rambles) 
(1892) ; ( Travels in a Tree-top > (1894) ; ( The 
Birds About Us > (1894) i ( Notes of the Night } 
(1895); (A Colonial Wooing) (novel, 1895); 
(Birdland Echoes ) (1896); < When the Century 
was New) (novel, 1897) ; (The Hermit of Nob 
tingham) (novel, 1897); (The Freedom of the 
Fields) (1898); (Clear Skies and Cloudy) 
(1899); (In Nature’s Realm) (1900); Report', 
on Indian Stone Implements, in ■( American 
Naturalist) (1872), revised and enlarged as 
(Stone Age in New Jersey,) in Smithsonian 
Annual Report of 1876. In 1876 he announced 
the discovery, since confirmed by other archaeol¬ 
ogists, of traces of man in the Delaware River 
valley, dating from at least the close of the 
glacial period. 

Abbott, Edward, D.D., American clergy¬ 
man, son of Jacob: b. Farmington, Me., 15 July 
1841. He was graduated at the University of the 
City of New York i860, and at Andover Theo¬ 
logical Seminary 1862; in 1863 was with the 
United States Sanitary Commission at Wash¬ 
ington and in the field. The same year he 
was ordained Congregational clergyman, and 
1865-9 was pastor of the Pilgrim Church, 
Cambridge, Mass.; in 1879 he was ordained 
Episcopal priest and ever since has been rector 
of St. James’, Cambridge; in 1889 he was elected 
missionary bishop of Japan, but declined. He 
was associate editor of the ( Congregationalist > 
1869-78, and editor of the (Literary World > 
1878-88, and again from 1895. Among his 
works are (Conversations of Jesus) (1875); 
( Paragraph History of the United States > 
(1875); (Paragraph History of the American 
Revolution) (1876); (Long Look Series,) juve¬ 
nile (1877-80) ; memorial of his father (1882) ; 
and (Phillips Brooks) (1900). 

Abbott, Edwin Abbott, English theologian 
and Shakespearean scholar: b. London, 20 Dec. 
1838; graduated at St. John’s College, Cam¬ 
bridge; senior classic and Chancellor’s medalist 
(1861). He was master at King Edward’s 
School, Birmingham, 1862-4, and at Clifton Col¬ 
lege ; and head-master of the City of London 
School, 1865-89, raising it to a foremost rank in 
England. In the latter year he retired. He has 
been select preacher at Cambridge and Oxford. 
His works include the well-known < Shake- 


ABBOTT 


sperian Grammar ) (1869, enlarged 1870), still 
a classic; ( Bacon and Essex* (1877); ( Philo- 
christus ) (1878), and < Onesimus ) (1882), two an¬ 
onymous romances of the first age of the Church ; 
( Francis Bacon ) (1885) ; ( Anglican Career of 
Cardinal Newman) (1892) ; ( St. Thomas of 
Canterbury ) (1898) ; ( From Letter to Spirit } 
(1903) ; ( Johannine Vocabulary ) (1905), etc. 

Abbott, Emma (Wetherell), one of the 
foremost of American dramatic sopranos: b. 
Chicago, Ill., December, 1849 5 d. Salt Lake City, 
5 Jan. 1891. Beginning in Plymouth Church 
choir, Brooklyn, N. Y., she studied abroad with 
Sangiovanni at Milan and with Defied Sedie, 
Wartel, and James at Paris; then joined Maple- 
son's troupe, made her debut at Covent Garden, 
London, tured three years in Great Britain, and 
returning to the United States joined the Emma 
Abbott English Opera Company. 

Abbott, Frank Frost, American Latinist: b. 
Redding, Conn., 27 March i860; graduated at 
Yale 1882; Latin tutor at Yale 1885-91; associate 
professor 1892; 1894 professor of Latin in the 
University of Chicago. From 1901-2 he was pro¬ 
fessor of Latin in the American School of Classi¬ 
cal Studies at Rome. He has written ( Renetition 
in Latin* (1900) ; a ( History of Roman Political 
Institutions* (1901) ; ( The Toledo Manuscript 
of the Germania of Tacitus* (1903), etc. 

Abbott, Gorham Dummer, American edu¬ 
cator, brother of Jacob and J. S. C.: b. Hal¬ 
lowed, Me., 3 Sept. 1807; d. 31 July 1874. He 
graduated at Bowdoin 1826, at Andover 1831. 
Ordained a Congregational clergyman, he be¬ 
came a teacher in New York; in 1845 with his 
brothers he established the Abbott Institute for 
females in New York city and in 1847 the 
Spingler Institute,— pioneers in women’s higher 
education; the latter held a foremost rank in the 
United States for thirty years, and he left it in 
1869 a rich man. He wrote didactic works, as 
(The Family at Home,) (Nathan W. Dicker- 
man,) (Pleasure and Profit); also (Mexico and 
the United States.) 

Abbott, Jacob, a famous American juvenile 
writer and educator: b. Hallowed, Me., 14 Nov. 
1803; d. 31 Oct. 1879. He graduated at Bow¬ 
doin 1820, studied at Andover, and was ordained 
a Congregational minister; professor of mathe¬ 
matics and natural philosophy at Amherst 
1825-9; then established the Mt. Vernon girls’ 
school in Boston, and in 1834 organized and 
was pastor of the Eliot Church in Roxbury. 
In 1839 he removed permanently to Farming- 
ton, Me., and devoted himself to literary work 
there and in New York, assisting also in fe¬ 
male education (see the preceding title), writ¬ 
ing extensively for the early ( Harper's Month¬ 
ly^ of which he was one of the chief bulwarks, 
traveling widely abroad, and writing the classic 
juveniles of which the ( Rollo Books) are 
the best known type,— neither their usefulness, 
their popularity, nor their charm, has yet 
vanished. He had an excellent dramatic sense, 
a healthy balance, a sound business practi¬ 
cality and a true understanding of and sin¬ 
cere sympathy with children, which makes his 
didactics charming to rightly constituted chil¬ 
dren ; no boys and girls were ever less priggish 
than those in (Rollo,) the conventional bur¬ 
lesques of which merely prove that the authors 
have not read the books, and even so are a testi¬ 
mony to their vitality. The chief of his more 


than 200 volumes are the < Rollo Books,) (28 
vols.), the (Lucy Books) (6 vols.), the (Jonas 
Books) (6 vols.), the (Franconia Stories) (10 
vols.), the (Marco Paul Series) (6 vols.), the 
<Gay Family) series (12 vols.), the (Juno 
Books) (6 vols.), the (Rainbow Series) (5 
vols.), and several other series of science and 
travel for the young; more than 20 of the series 
of illustrated histories to which his brother J. S. 
C. contributed, and 8 vols. of American history. 
He also edited historical text-bcoks and com¬ 
piled school readers. 

Abbott, Sir John Joseph Caldwell, Cana¬ 
dian statesman: b. St. Andrews, Quebec, 12 
March 1821; d. 1893. Graduated at McGill Col¬ 
lege, Montreal, he became a lawyer, and was re¬ 
garded among the best Canadian authorities on 
commercial law, being dean of the McGill Col¬ 
lege Law Faculty for ten years. In 1859 he was 
elected to the Lower House of Quebec, repre¬ 
senting Argenteuil till the union of the Provinces 
in 1867, when he was returned to the Canadian 
House of Commons. In 1862 he was solicitor- 
general in the Sandfield Macdonald-Sicotte Cabi¬ 
net. In 1887 he joined Sir Jol\n A. Macdonald’s 
Cabinet as minister without portfolio, and on 
Macdonald’s death in June 1891 was made pre¬ 
mier of the Dominion; but resigned from ill 
health November 1892, accepting a seat without 
portfolio in the Cabinet of his successor, Sir 
John Thomson. 

Abbott, John Stephens Cabot, American 

author: b. Brunswick, Me., 18 Sept. 1805; d. 
Fairhaven, Conn., 17 June 1877. He graduated at 
Bowdoin 1825, and Andover ; was ordained Con¬ 
gregational minister 1830, and held pastorates at 
Worcester, Roxbury, and Nantucket, Mass. He 
resigned the ministry in 1844 and devoted him¬ 
self to popular literature. A fertile writer like 
his brother Jacob, and with an interest in his 
own matter that gave a certain charm to his 
style and excited equal interest in uncritical 
readers, but with too little acumen and too much 
rhetoric for the solid historical subjects he had 
a passion for, he issued very many works use¬ 
ful in stimulating public curiosity in history, but 
of too little weight to endure. The most famous 
was the < Life of Napoleon) contributed as a 
serial to ( Harper’s Magazine,) and a great popu¬ 
lar success; others were (The French Revolu¬ 
tion,) < Napoleon at St. Helena,) < The Civil War 
in America) (1863-6), (Napoleon III.) (1868), 
(Romance of Spanish History) (1879), (Fred¬ 
erick the Great) (1871), and many volumes of 
small histories and biographies. 

Abbott, Lyman, American clergyman and 
editor, third son of Jacob: b. Roxbury, Mass., 
18 Dec. 1835. He graduated at the University 
of the City of New York in 1853; studied 
law, and went into partnership with his 
brothers Austin and Benjamin in 1856; 
but feeling more bent for the ministry studied 
theology with his uncle John S. C., and was or¬ 
dained i860. Till 1865 he was pastor at Terre 
Haute, Ind.; 1865-8 secretary of the Freedmen’s 
Commission, residing in New York, also becom¬ 
ing pastor of the New England Church there; 
in 1869 resigned his pastorate for journalism and 
literature. He was in succession editor of the 
((Literary Record» department of (Harper’s 
Magazine,) and at the same time chief editor of 
the (Illustrated Christian Weekly) ; then associ- 


ABBOTT — ABBREVIATIONS 


ate editor with Henry Ward Beecher of the 
«Christian Union,) now the (Outlook,) of which 
he became chief editor on Mr. Beecher’s death in 
1887, succeeding him also in the Plymouth 
Church pulpit, which he resigned in 1899 to de¬ 
vote himself wholly to literary work. His ear¬ 
liest books were two novels in collaboration 
with his brothers (see Abbott, Austin). He 
has written a (Life of Jesus) (1869), (Old 
Testament Shadows of New Testament Truths * 
(1870), (A Dictionary of Bible Knowledge) and 
(A Layman’s Story) (1872), (Commentary on 
the New Testament) (4 vols., 1875 sq.), (Life 
of Henry Ward Beecher) (1883), (Evolution of 
Christianity) (1892), (Christianity and Social 
Problems) (1896), (The Theology of an Evolu¬ 
tionist) (1897), ( Life and Letters of Paul) 
(1898), (Life and Literature of the Ancient He- 
brews ) (1901), ( The Rights of Man* (1901), 
Personality of God ) (1905); ( The Great Com¬ 
panion* (1905); ( Christian Ministry ) (1905); 

( Industrial Problems) (1905), etc. 

Abbott, Russell Bigelow, D.D., American 
educator : b. Brookville, Ind., 8 Aug. 1823 ; grad¬ 
uated at the University of Indiana 1847. After 
several years as principal of public schools in 
Muncie and New Castle, Ind., and of White- 
water Presbyterian Academy, he was ordained 
in the Presbyterian Church, 1857; held pas¬ 
torates in Indiana and Minnesota 24 years, 15 in 
Albert Lea, Minn.; and founding Albert Lea 
College there became its president in 1884. He 
has written ( Bible History ) (2 vols.); <History 
of Winona Presbytery ) ; etc. 

Abbreviations or «shortenings» are used 
in writing to save time and space, or it may be 
to ensure secrecy. The ancient copiers of MSS. 
invented many contractions to facilitate their 
labor. Greek MSS. abound in such, and hence 
often cannot be read without a previous regular 
study of Greek palaeography. From MSS. these 
contractions were transferred to the printed edi¬ 
tions of Greek authors, and have only been whol¬ 
ly disused within the past century; hence regular 
lists of them were given in the earlier Greek 
grammars, because the knowledge of them was 
absolutely essential to the student. Some of the 
commoner are still given in some grammars, as 
many Greek works are accessible only in editions 
full of them. Among the Romans the marks of 
abbreviation, called notes or compendia scribendi } 
were so numerous that, in a classification by L. 
Annseus Seneca, they amount to 5,000. With 
the Latin language the ancient Roman abbrevia¬ 
tions passed to the Middle Ages,, appearing first 
on inscriptions and coins, then in manuscripts, 
and, more especially after the nth century, in 
charters and other legal documents. The use 
of them in legal documents was forbidden by 
an act of Parliament passed in the reign of 
George II. In the following list most of the 
abbreviations that are likely to be met with by 
modern readers are alphabetically arranged, save 
chemical elements, for which see table of Atomic 
Weights. The standard abbreviations used in 
library catalogues are also given. (For Latin 
abbreviations see Campelli’s < Dizionario di Ab¬ 
breviature): Milan, 1899). 

A.— Acre; Acting; Accept. 

A: (Lib. cat.).— Augustus. 

A . (Lib. cat.).— Anna. 

A. or Ans.— Answer. 


A. A.— Associate of Arts. 

A. A. A. G.— Acting Assistant Adjutant-Gen* 
eral. 

A. A. A. S.— American Association for the Ad¬ 
vancement of Science. 

A. A. G.— Assistant Adjutant-General. 

A. A. P. S.— American Association for the Pro¬ 
motion of Science. 

A. A. S.— Academics Americance Socius, Fellow 
of the American Academy (of Arts and Sci¬ 
ences). 

A. A. S. S.— Americance Antiqnariancs Societatis 
Socius, Member of the American Antiquarian 
Society. 

A. B.— Able-bodied seaman; Artium Bacca- 
laureus, Bachelor of Arts. 

A. B. C. F. M.— American Board of Commis¬ 
sioners for Foreign Missions. 

Abl.— Ablative. 

Abp.— Archbishop. 

Abr.— Abridgment, or Abridged. 

A. B. S.— American Bible Society. 

a/c — Account. 

A. C.— Ante Christum, before the birth of 
Christ; Arch-chancellor. 

Acad.— Academy. 

Acad. Nat. Sci.— Academy of Natural Sciences. 

Acc.— Accusative. 

Acct.— Account. 

A. C. S.— American Colonization Society. 

Act.— Active ; Acting. 

Ad.— Advertisement. 

A. D.— Anno Domini, in the year of the Lord. 

A. D. C.— Aide-de-camp. 

Adj.— Adjective. 

A dj t.— Adj utant. 

Adj t.-Gen.— Adj utant-General. 

Ad lib.— Ad libitum, at pleasure. 

Adm.—Admiral; Admiralty. 

Adm. Co.— Admiralty Court. 

Admr.— Administrator. 

Admx.— Administratrix. 

Ads.— Ad sectam, at the suit [of]. 

Ad v.— Ad valorem, at (or on) the value. 

Advt.— Advertisement. 

A. E. I. O. U. (The Austrian device) — Austrics 
est imperare orbi universo, or Alles Erdreich 
1 st Oesterreich Unterthan, «It is given to 
Austria to rule the whole earth.” 

7 E t.— SEtatis, of age; aged. 

A. F. B. S.— American and Foreign Bible So¬ 
ciety. 

Afr.— African. 

A. G.— Adjutant-General. 

Agl. Dept.— Agricultural Department (Depart¬ 
ment of Agriculture). 

Agr.—Agriculture. 

A. G. S. S.— American Geographical and Statis¬ 
tical Society. 

Agt.— Agent. _ ' 

A. H.— Anno Hegircs, in the year of the Hegira 
(Mohammedan era). 

A. H. M. S.— American Home Missionary So¬ 
ciety. 

Ala.— Alabama. 

Alas.— Alaska. 

Alb.— Albany. 

Alban.— Albanian. 

Aid.— Alderman. 

Alex.— Alexander. 

Alf.— Alfred. 

Alg.— Algebra. 

Alt.— Altitude. 


ABBREVIATIONS 


Am.— American ; Amos. 

A. M.— Ante meridiem, before noon; morning; 
Anno mundi, in the year of the world; Ar- 
tium Magister, Master of Arts. 

Am. Ass. Adv. Sci.— American Association for 
the Advancement of Science. 

Amb.— Ambassador. 

Amer.— American. 

Amer. Acad.— American Academy. 

A. M. E. Z.— African Methodist Episcopal Zion. 
Amm.— Amalgama, amalgamation. 

Amt.— Amount. 

An.— Anno, in the year. 

A. N. A.— Associate of the National Academy. 
An. A. C.— Anno ante Christum, in the year 
before Christ. 

Anal.— Analysis. 

Anat.— Anatomy. 

Anc.— Ancient; anciently. 

And.— Andrew. 

Ang.-Sax.— Anglo-Saxon. 

Ann.— Annales, annals. 

Anon.— Anonymous. 

Ans.— Answer. 

Ant., or Antiq.— Antiquities. 

Anth.— Anthony. 

Aor.— Aorist. 

A. O. S. S.— Americana Orientalis Societatis 
Socius, Member of the American Oriental 
Society. 

Ap.— Apostle; Appius; Apud, in writings of; 

as quoted by. 

Apo.— Apogee. 

Apoc.— Apocalypse. 

Apocr.— Apocrypha. 

App.— Appendix. 

Apr.— April. 

Aq.— Aqua, water. 

A. Q. M.— Assistant Quartermaster. 

A. Q. M. G.— Assistant Quartermaster-General. 
A. R.— Anna Regina, Queen Anne; Anno regni, 
in the year of the reign. 

Ara.— Arabic. 

A. R. A.— Associate of the Royal Academy. 
Arch.— Archibald; Architect; Architecture. 
Archd.— Archdeacon. 

Arg.— Arguendo, in arguing, or in the course 
of argument; argumento, by an argument 
drawn from such a law. 

Ari.— Arizona. 

Arith.— Arithmetic. 

Ark.— Arkansas. 

Arm.— Armenian. 

Armor.— Armoric. 

Arr.—Arrive; Arrival. 

A. R. R.— Anno regni regis, in the year of the 
reign of the king. 

A. R. S. A.— Associate of the Royal Scottish 
Academy. 

A. R. S. S.— Antiquariorum Regia Societatis 
Socius, Fellow of the Royal Society of An¬ 
tiquaries. 

A rt.— Article. 

Artil.—Artillery. 

A.-S.— Anglo-Saxon. 

A. S., or Assist. Sec.— Assistant-Secretary. 

A. S. A.—American Statistical Association. 

Ass., Assn.— Association. 

A. S. S. U.— American Sunday-School Union. 
Astrol.—Astrology. 

A.stron.—Astronomy. 

Ats.—At suit of. 

A. T. S.— American Tract Society. 


Atty.— Attorney. 

Atty.-Gen.— Attorney-General. 

At. Wt.— Atomic weight. 

A. U. A.— American Unitarian Association. 

A. U. C.— Anno urbis condita, or ab urbe con - 
dita, in the year from the building of the city 
(Rome). 

Aug.— August. 

Aus.— Austria ; Austrian. 

Auth. Ver., or A. V.— Authorized Version (of 
the Bible). 

Av.— Avenue; Average; Avoirdupois. 

Ave.— Avenue. 

Avdp. or Avoir.— Avoirdupois. 

A. Y. M.— Ancient York Masons. 

B. — Born. 

B: (Lib. cat.).— Benjamin. 

B.. (Lib. cat.).— Beatrice. 

B. A.— Bachelor of Arts. 

Bal.— Balance. 

Balt.— Baltimore. 

B. & F.— Beaumont and Fletcher. 

Bapt.— Baptist. 

Bar.— Barometer; Baruch. 

Bart.— Baronet. 

Bbl.— Barrel. 

B. C.— Before Christ; British Columbia. 

B. C. L.— Bachelor of Civil Law. 

B. D.— Baccalaureus Divinitatis, Bachelor 
Divinity. 

Bdls.— Bundles. 

Bds.— Boards ; Bonds. 

Beau. & FI.— Beaumont and Fletcher. 

Beds.— Bedfordshire. 

Belg.— Belgic; Belgian; Belgium. 

Benj.— Benjamin. 

Berks.— Berkshire. 

B. I.— British India. 

Bib.—Bible; Biblical. 

Bibliog.— Bibliographical; Bibliography. 

Biog.—Biography ; Biographical. 

Bisc.— Biscayan. 

B. Jon.— Ben Jonson. 

Bk.— Bark; Book. 

B. LL.— Baccalaureus Legum, Bachelor of Laws. 
Bis.— Bales. 

B. M — Baccalaureus Medicina, Bachelor of 
Medicine. 

Bohem.— Bohemian 
Bost.— Boston. 

Bot.— Botany. 

Bp.— Bishop. 

Br.— Brig; British; Brother. 

B. R .—Banco Regis, or Regina, the King’s or 
Queen’s Bench. 

Braz.— Brazil; Brazilian. 

Brig.— Brigade; Brigadier. 

Brig.-Gen.— Brigadier-General. 

Brit. Mus.— British Museum. 

Bro.— Brother. 

B. S.— Bachelor in the Sciences. 

Bt.— Baronet. 

Bu.— Bushel; Bushels. 

Bucks.— Buckinghamshire. 

Burl.— Burlesque. 

B. V.— Beata Virgo, Blessed Virgin; Bene vale, 
farewell. 

Bx., Bxs.—Box; Boxes. 

C. — Caput or capitulum, chapter; Celsius; Cent; 
Centigrade; Cents; Centum, a hundred; Cen 
tury; Circa or circiter, about; Consul. 

C: (Lib. cat.).— Charles. 


ABBREVIATIONS 


C.. (Lib. cat.).— Charlotte. 

Ca. (circa) —About. 

C. A.— Chief Accountant; Commissioner of 
Accounts. 

Cset. par.— Cceteris paribus, other things being 
equal. 

Cal.—California ; Calends. 

Cam., Camb.— Cambridge. 

Can.— Canon. 

Cant.— Canticles. 

Cantab.— Cantabrigice, Cantabrigicnsis, of Cam¬ 
bridge. 

Cantuar.— Cantuarice, Cantuariensis, of Canter¬ 
bury. 

Cap.— Caput , capitulum, chapter. 

Caps.— Capitals. 

Capt.— Captain. 

Capt.-Gen.— Captain-General. 

Car.— Carat. 

Card.— Cardinal. 

Ca. resp.— Capias ad respondendum, that you 
take to answer,— a legal writ. 

Cas.— Cases. 

Ca. sa.— Capias ad satisfaciendum, that you take 
to satisfaction,— a legal writ. 

Cash.—Cashier. 

Cat.— Catalogue. 

Cath.— Catherine, Catholic, Cathedral. 

C. B.— Cape Breton; Communis Bancus, Com¬ 
mon Bench; Companion of the Bath. 

C. C.— Caius College; Compte courante, ac¬ 
count current; Circuit Court: County Com¬ 
missioner ; County Court; Cubic centimeter. 
C. C. C.— Corpus Christi College. 

C. C. P.— Court of Common Pleas. 

C. E.— Civil Engineer. 

Cel., or Celt.— Celtic. 

Cels.— Celsius. 

Cent.— Centigrade, a scale of ioo° from freez¬ 
ing to boiling; Central; Centum, a hundred; 
Century. 

Cert.— Certify. 

Certif.—Certificate. 

Cf.— Confer, compare. 

C. f. & i.— Cost, freight, and insurance. 

C. G.— Commissary-General; Consul-General. 

C. G. H.— Cape of Good Hope. 

Ch.— Chapter ; Charles; Chief; China; Chinese; 
Church. 

C. H.— Court house. 

Chal. or Chald.— Chaldaic; Chaldea; Chaldean; 
Chaldron. 

Chanc.— Chancellor. 

Chap.— Chapter. 

Chas.— Charles. 

Chem.— Chemistry. 

Ches.— Chesapeake. 

Chic.— Chicago. 

Ch. J.— Chief Justice. 

Chr.— Christ; Christian; Christopher; Chron¬ 
icles. 

Chron.— Chronicles. 

Cic.— Cicero. 

Cin.— Cincinnati. 

Circ.— Circa, or circiter, about; Circuit. 

Cit.— Citation; Cited; Citizen. 

Civ.— Civil. 

C. J.— Chief Justice. 

Cld.— Cleared. 

Clk.— Clerk. 

C. M.— Common Meter. 

C. M. G.— Companion of the Order of St. Mich¬ 
ael and St. George. 

Vol. I—X 


Co.— Company; county. 

Coch., or Cochl. — Cochlear, a spoonful. C. 
amp. (amplum) , a tablespoonful. C. mag. 
(magnum), a large spoonful. C. med. (me¬ 
dium), a dessert-spoonful. C. parv. (par- 
vum), a small spoonful or teaspoonful. 

C. O. D.— Cash (or collect) on delivery. 

Col.— Colorado ; Colonel; Colossians. 

Coll.— Collector; Colloquial; College; Collec¬ 
tion. 

Colo.— Colorado. 

Com.— Commerce; Committee; Commissioner; 

Commodore. 

Comdg.— Commanding. 

Comm.— Commentary. 

Comp.— Compare; Comparative; Compound; 
Compounded. 

Com. Ver.—Common Version (of the Bible), 
Con.— Contra, against; in opposition. 

Conch.— Conchology. 

Con. Cr.— Contra rredit. 

Confed.— Confederate. 

Cong.— Congress. 

Congl.— Congregational; Conglomerate. 

Conj.— Conjunction. 

Conn., or Ct.— Connecticut. 

Con. Sec.— Conic sections. 

Const.— Constable; Constitution. 

Cont.— Continued ; contra. 

Cop., or Copt.— Coptic. 

Cor.— Corinthians. 

Cor. Mem.—Corresponding Member. 

Corn.— Cornwall; Cornish. 

Corol.— Corollary. 

Cor. Sec.— Corresponding Secretary. 

Cos.— Cosine. 

Coss.— Consules, Consuls. 

Cp.— Compare. 

C. P.— Common Pleas ; Court of Probate. 

C. P. S.— Custos Privati Sigilli, Keeper of the 
Privy Seal. 

Cr.— Credit; Creditor ; Criminal. 

C. R.— Carolus Rex, King Charles; Custos Ro- 
tulorum, Keeper of the Rolls. 

Crim. Con.— Criminal conversation (adultery). 
C. S.— Court of Sessions ; Custos Sigilli, Keeper 
of the Seal. 

C. S. A.—Confederate States of America; Con¬ 
federate States Army. 

Cslc.— Cask. 

C. S. N.— Confederate States Navy. 

C. Theod.— Codice Theodosiano, in the Theo- 
dosian Code. 

Ct.— Connecticut; Court. 

Ctl.— Cental. 

Cts.— Cents. 

Cu., or Cub.— Cubic. 

Cur.— Currency. 

Curt.— Current. 

C. W.—Canada West. 

Cwt.— Hundredweight. 

Cyc.— Cyclopedia. 

D. — Day; Days; Denarius, penny, pence; Died 
D: (Lib. cat.).— David. 

D.. (Lib. cat.).— Delia. 

D. A. G.— Deputy Adjutant-General. 

Dak.—Dakota. 

Dan.— Daniel; Danish. 

Dat.— Dative. 

D. B. or Domesd. B.—Domesday Book. 

D. C.— Da capo, again; District of Columbia. 

D. C. L.—Doctor of Civil Law. 


ABBREVIATIONS 


D. C. S.—-Deputy Clerk of Sessions. 

D. D.— Divinitatis Doctor, Doctor of Divinity. 

D. D. S.— Doctor of Dental Surgery. 

Dea.— Deacon. 

Dec.— December; Declination. 

Dec. of Ind.— Declaration of Independence. 

Def.— Definition. 

Def., Deft.—Defendant. 

Deg.—Degree; degrees. 

Del.— Delaware; Delegate; Delincavit, he (or 
she) drew it. 

Dem.— Democrat; Democratic. 

Dep.— Deputy. 

Dept.— Department. 

Deut.— Deuteronomy. 

D. F.— Defender of the Faith. 

D. G .— Dei gratia, by the grace of God; Deo 
gratias, thanks to God. 

D. H.—Dead-head. 

Diam.— Diameter. 

Diet.— Dictionary; Dictator. 

Dim.— Diminutive. 

Diosc.— Dioscorides. 

Disc.— Discount. 

Diss.— Dissertation. 

Dist.— District. 

Div.— Division. 

D. L. O.—Dead-Letter Office. 

D. M.—Doctor of -Music. 

Do.— Ditto, the same. 

Doc.— Document. 

Dols.—Dollars. 

D. O. M.— Deo optimo maximo, to God, the best, 
the greatest. 

Doz.— Dozen. 

D. P.— Doctor of Philosophy. 

Dpt.— Department. 

Dr.— Debtor; Doctor; Drachms. 

D. S.— Dal segno, from the sign. 

D. Sc.— Doctor of Science. 

D. T.— Delirium tremens; Doctor Theologies, 
Doctor of Theology. 

Dub.— Dublin. 

D. V.— Deo volente, God willing. 

Dwt.— Pennyweight. 

Dyn.— Dynamics. 

F.— East. 

E: (Lib. cat.).— Edward. 

E. . (Lib. cat.).— Elizabeth. 

Ea.— Each. 

E. & O. E.— Errors and omissions excepted. 

E. B.— English Bible. 

Eben.— Ebenezer. 

Ebor.— Eboracum, York. 

Eccl.— Ecclesiastes. 

Ecclus.— Ecclesiasticus. 

Ed.— Editor; Edition. 

E. D.— Eastern District. 

Edin.— Edinburgh. 

Edm.— Edmund. 

Edw.— Edward. 

E. E.—Errors excepted. 

E. E. T. S.— Early English Text Society. 

E. FI.— Ells Flemish. 

E. Fr.—Ells French. 

E. G.— Exempli gratia, for example; Ex grege, 
among the rest. 

E. I.— East Indies or East India. 

E. I. C. S.— East India Company’s Service. 
Eliz.— Elizabeth. 

E. Lon.— East longitude. 

E. M.— Mining Engineer. 


Emp.— Emperor; Empress. 

Encyc.— Encyclopedia. 

Encyc. Amer.— Encyclopedia Americana. 

E.N.E.— East-northeast. 

Eng.— Engineering; Engineers ; England ; Eng¬ 
lish. 

Ent., Entom.— Entomology. 

Env. Ext.— Envoy Extraordinary. 

Eod.— Every other day. 

Eow.— Every other week. 

Ep.— Epistle. 

Eph.— Ephesians; Ephraim 
Epis.— Episcopal. 

E. S.— Ells Scotch. 

Esd.— Esdras. 

E.S.E.— East-southeast. 

Esq.— Esquire. 

Esth.— Esther. 

E. T.— English Translation. 

Et al.— Et alii, and others. 

Etc., or &c.— Et cceteri, et cceteree, ei ccetera, 
and others; and so forth. 

Eth.— Ethiopic ; Ethiopian. 

Et seq.— Et sequentes, et sequentia, and what 
follows. 

Etym.— Etymological; Etymology. 

E. U.— Etats Unis, United States; Evangelical 
Union. 

Ex.— Example; Exodus. 

Exc.— Excellency; exception. 

Exch.— Exchequer; Exchange. 

Ex. Doc.—Executive Document. 

Exec.— Executive ; Executor. 

Execx.— Executrix. 

Ex. gr.— Exempli gratia, for example. 

Exon.— Exonia, Exeter; Exonice, Exoniensis y 
of Exeter. 

Ex p.— Ex parte, in behalf of. 

Exr.— Executor. 

Ez.— Ezra. 

Ezek.— Ezekiel. 

F. — Fahrenheit; Farthing; Fathom ; Fathoms ; 
Forte; Franc; France; Francs; French; Fri¬ 
day. 

F; (Lib. cat.).— Frederick. 

F.. (Lib. cat.).— Fanny. 

Fahr.— Fahrenheit. 

F. and A. M.—Free and Accepted Masons. 

F. A. S.— Fellow of the Antiquarian Society. 

F. B. S.— Fellow of the Botanical Society. 

F. C.— Free Church of Scotland.- 
Fcap. or fcp.— Foolscap. 

F. C. P. S.— Fellow of the Cambridge Philo¬ 
logical Society. 

F. C. S.— Fellow of the Chemical Society. 

F. D.— Fidei Defendor, Defender of the Faith. 

F. E.— Flemish ells. 

Feb.— February. 

Fee.— Fecit, he did or made it. 

Fed.— Federal. 

Fern.— Feminine. 

F. E. S.— Fellow of the Entomological Society;; 

Fellow of the Ethnographical Society. 

Ff.— Fecerunt, they did or made it; Folios; Fol¬ 
lowing; Fortissimo. 

F. F. V.— First Families of Virginia. 

F. G. S.— Fellow of the Geological Society. 

F. H. S.— Fellow of the Horticultural Society. 
Fid. Def.— Fidei Defendor, Defender of the 
Faith. 

Fi. fa.— Fieri facias, that you cause to be done 
or made,— a writ of execution. 


ABBREVIATIONS 


Fig.— Figure. 

Fin.— Finland. 

Finn.— Finnish. 

Fir.— Firkin. 

F. K. Q. C. P. I.— Fellow of King’s and Queen's 
College of Physicians, Ireland. 

FI.— Florin; Florins; Flourished. 

Fla.— Florida. 

FI. E.— Flemish ells. 

F. L. S.— Fellow of the Linnaean Society. 

Fm.; Fms.— Fathom ; Fathoms. 

F.-M.— Field-Marshal. 

Fo.— Folio. 

F.-O.— Field-Officer. 

F. o. b.— Free on board. 

Fob— Folio. 

For.— Foreign. 

F. P. S.— Fellow of the Philological Society. 

Fr.— Fragmentum, fragment; Franc; France; 
Francis; Francs; French; From. 

F. R. A. S.— Fellow of the Royal Asiatic So¬ 
ciety; Fellow of the Royal Astronomical So¬ 
ciety. 

F. R. C. P.— Fellow of the Royal College of 
Physicians. 

F. R. C. S. (E., I., or L.).— Fellow of the 
Royal College of Surgeons (Edinburgh, Ire¬ 
land, or London). 

Fr.»E.— French ells. 

Fred.— Frederick. 

F. R. G. S.— Fellow of the Royal Geographical 
Society. 

F. R. Hist. Soc.— Fellow of the Royal His¬ 
torical Society. 

Fri.— Friday. 

Frs.— Frisian. 

F. R. S.— Fellow of the Royal Society. 

F. R. S. E.— Fellow of the Royal Society, Edin¬ 
burgh. 

F. R. S. L.— Fellow of the Royal Society, Lon¬ 
don. 

F. R. S. S. A.— Fellow of the Royal Scottish 
Society of Arts. 

F. S. A.— Fellow of the Society of Arts, or of 
Antiquaries. 

F. S. A. E.— Fellow of the Society of Anti¬ 
quaries, Edinburgh. 

F. S. A. Scot.— Fellow of the Society of An¬ 
tiquaries of Scotland. 

F. S. S.— Fellow of the Statistical Society. 

Ft.— Foot; feet; Fort. 

Fth.— Fathom. 

Fur.— Furlong. 

F. Z. S.— Fellow of the Zoological Society. 

G. — Guineas. 

G: (Lib. cat.).— George. 

G.. (Lib. cat.).— Grace. 

Ga.— Georgia. 

G. A.— General Assembly. 

Galv.— Galvanism ; Galveston. 

G. A. R.— Grand Army of the Republic. 

G. B.— Great Britain. 

G. B. & I.— Great Britain and Ireland. 

G. C.— Grand Chapter; Grand Conductor; 
Grand Cross. 

G. C. B.— Grand Cross of the Bath. 

G. C. H.— Grand Cross of Hanover. 

G. C. K. P.— Grand Commander of the Knights 
of St. Patrick. 

G. C. L. H.—Grand Cross of the Legion of 
Honor. [St. George. 

G. C. M. G —Grand Cross of St. Michael and 


G. C. S. I.— Grand Commander of the Star o£ 
India. 

G. D.— Grand Duke; Grand Duchess. 

G. E.— Grand Encampment. 

Gen.— Genealogy; Genera; General; Genesis; 
Genus. 

Gent.— Gentleman. 

Geo.— George. 

Geog.— Geography. 

Geol.— Geology. 

Geom.— Geometry. 

Ger.— German; Germany. 

Gl., or Gloss.— Glossary. 

G. L.— Grand Lodge. 

G. M.— Grand Master. 

G. M. K. P.— Grand Master of the Knights of 
St. Patrick. 

G. M. S. I.— Grand Master of the Star of India. 
G. O.— General Order. 

Goth.— Gothic. 

Gov.— Governor. 

Gov.-Gen.— Governor-General. 

Govt.— Government. 

G. P.— Gloria Patri, « Glory be to the Father.® 
G. P. O.— General Post-Office. 

Gr.— Greek; Gross. 

G. R.— Georgius Rex, King George. 

Gr., Grs.— Grain; Grains. 

Grad.— Graduated. 

Gram.— Grammar. 

Grot.— Grotius. 

G. S.— Grand Secretary; Grand Sentinel; Grand 
Scribe. 

G. T.— Good Templars; Grand Tyler 
Gtt.— Gutla or guttce, drop; drops. 

FI.— Hour. 

H: (Lib. cat.).— Henry. 

H. . (Lib. cat.).— Helen. 

H. A.— Hoc anno, this year. 

Hab.— Habakkuk. 

Hab. corp.— Habeas corpus, that you have the 
body. 

Hab. fa. poss.— Habere facias possessionem, that 
you cause tO' have possession,— a legal writ. 
Hab. fa. seis.— Habere facias seisinam, that you 
cause to' have seisin,— a legal writ. 

Hag — Haggai. 

Hants.— Hampshire. 

H. B. C.— Hudson Bay Company. 

H. B. M.— His or Her Britannic Majesty. 

H. B. M. S.— His (or Her) Britannic Majesty’s 
Ship. 

H. C.— House of Commons; Heralds’ College. 

H. C. M.— His or Her Catholic Majesty. 

Hdkf.— Handkerchief. 

H. E.— His Excellency; Hoc est, that is, or this is. 
Heb.— Hebrew ; Hebrews. 

H. E. I. C. S.— Honorable East India Com¬ 
pany’s Service. 

Her.— Heraldry. 

Herp.— Herpetology. 

Hf.-bd.— Half-bound. 

H. G.— Horse Guards. 

H. H.— His or Her Highness; His Holiness 
(the Pope). 

Hhd.— Hogshead. 

H. I.— Hawaiian Islands. 

Hier.— Hierosolyma, Jerusalem. 

H. I. IF.— His or Her Imperial Highness. 
Hib—Hilary. 

Hind.— Hindu; Hindustan; Hindustanee. 

Hipp.— Hippocrates. 


ABBREVIATIONS 


Hist.— Historical; History. 

H. J. S.— Hie jacet sepultus, here lies buried. 

H. L.— House of Lords. 

H. M.— His or Her Majesty. 

H. M. P.— Hoc monumentum posuit, erected 
this monument. 

H. M. S.— His or Her Majesty’s Ship or 
Service. 

Holl.—Holland. 

Hon.— Honorable. 

Hort.— Horticulture. 

Hos.— Hosea. 

H.-P.— High-priest; Horse-power; Half-pay. 
Hr.— Hour. 

H. R.— House of Representatives 

H. R. E.— Holy Roman Empire. 

H. R. H.— His or Her Royal Highness. 

H. R. I. P.— Hie requiescit in pace, Here rests 
in peace. 

H. S.— Hie situs, Here lies. 

H. S. H.— His or Her Serene Highness. 

H. T.— Hoc titulum, this title; hoc titulo, in or 
under this title. 

Hund.— Hundred. 

Hung.— Hungarian. 

H. V.— Hoc verbum, this word; his verbis, in 
these words. 

Hyd.—Hydraulics ; Hydrostatics. 

Hypoth.— Hypothesis; Hypothetical. 

I. — Island. 

I: (Lib. cat.).— Isaac. 

I.. (Lib. cat.).— Isabella. 

l a. — Iowa. 

l b. , or ibid.— Ibidem, in the same place. 

Icel.— Iceland; Icelandic. 

Ich., or Ichth.— Ichthyology. 

Icon. Encyc.— Iconographic Encyclopedia. 

I. Ch. Th. U. S. — ’I {y](ro7is) X(/h<tt6s) 0(€o&) T(ios) 
S(wrr?p) (Iesous Christos, Tlieou Uios, Soter ), 
Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the Saviour; also 
written = a fish ; whence the symbol of a 
fish for the sacred name. 

Id.— Idem, the same; Idus, the Ides; Island. 
Ida.— Idaho. 

I. E.— Id est, that is. 

I. G.— Inside Guardian. 

I. H. S.— (Corrupted from Gr. IHS, abbrev. of 
IH 20 T 2 , Jesus). Now read lesus Hominum 
Salvator, Jesus the Saviour of Men. 

Ill.— Illinois. 

Imp.— Imperative; Imperator, emperor; Imper¬ 
fect ; Imperial. 

In.— Inch ; inches. 

l nc. or Incor.— Incorporated. 

Incog.— Incognito, unknown. 

l nd. T., or Ind. Ter.— Indian Territory. 

I. H. P.— Indicated horse-power. 

Ind.— Indiana; Index. 

I. N. D.— In nomine Dei, in the name of God. 
Indef.— Indefinite. 

Inf.— Infra, beneath, or below. 

In f.— In fine, at the end. 

Inhab.— Inhabitant; Inhabited. 

In lim.— In limine, at the outset. 

In loc.— In loco, in the place. 

In pr.— In principio, in the beginning. 

I. N. R. I.— Jesus Nasarenus, Rex Judceorum, 
Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews. 

Inst.—-Instant; Institute; Institutes; Institu¬ 
tion. 

Int.—'Interest. 

Int. Dept.— Department of the Interior. 


Inter j.—Inter j ection. 

In trans.— In transitu, in transit. 

Int. Rev.— Internal Revenue. 

Introd.— Introduction. 

Ion.— Ionic. 

I. O. O. F. — Independent Order of Odd Fel¬ 
lows. 

I. O. S. M.— Independent Order of the Sons of 
Malta. 

I. O. U.— I owe you. 

Ipecac.— Ipecacuanha. 

I. Q.— Idem quod, the same as. 

Ire.— Ireland. 

I. R. O.— Internal Revenue Office. 

l s. , Isl.— Island; Islands. 

Isa.— Isaiah. 

l t. — Italy. 

I. T.— Inner Temple. 

Ital.— Italic; Italian. 

I. W.— Isle of Wight. 

J. — Justice, or Judge. 

J: (Lib. cat.).— John. 

J.. (Lib. cat.).— Jane. 

J. A.— Judge-Advocate. 

Jac.— Jacob; Jacobus, James. 

J. A. G.— Judge Advocate-General. 

Jam.— Jamaica. 

Jan.— January. 

Jas.— James. 

Jc.— Junction. 

J. C.— Jurisconsultus, jurisconsult. 

J. C. D.— Juris Civilis Doctor, Doctor of Civil 
Law. 

J. D.— Junior Deacon. 

Jer.— Jeremiah. 

J. G. W.— Junior Grand Warden. 

JJ.— Justices. 

Jno.— John. 

Jona.— Jonathan. 

Jos.— Joseph. 

Josh.— Joshua. 

J. P.—Justice of the Peace. 

J. Prob.— Judge of Probate. 

Jr.— Junior. 

J. R.— Jacobus Rex, King James. 

Jud.— Judicial; Judith. 

J. U. D., or J. V. D.— Juris utriusque Doctor, 
Doctor of both laws (of the Canon and the 
Civil Law). 

Judg.— Judges. 

Judge-Adv.— Judge-Advocate. 

Jul. Per.— Julian Period. 

Jun.— Junior. 

June.— Junction. 

Jus. P.— Justice of the Peace. 

Just.— Justinian. 

J. W.— Junior Warden. 

K. — Karat; Karats ; King. 

K: (Lib. cat.).— Karl. 

K.. (Lib. cat.).— Katharine. 

K. A.— Knight of St. Andrew, in Russia. 

Kal.— Kalendce, the Kalends. 

Kan.— Kansas. 

K. A. N.— Knight of Alexander Nevskoi, in 
Russia. 

K. B.— King’s Bench ; Knight of the Bath. 

K. B. A.— Knight of St. Bento d’Avis, in Por¬ 
tugal. 

K. B. E.— Knight of the Black Eagle, in Russia. 

K. C.— King’s Counsel; Knight of the Crescent, 
in Turkey. 


ABBREVIATIONS 


K. C. B.— Xmght Commander of the Bath. 

K. C. H.— Knight Commander of Hanover. 

K. C. S.—Knight of Charles III. of Spain. 

K. E.— Knight of the Elephant, in Denmark. 

K. F.— Knight of Ferdinand, in Spain. 

K. F. M.— Knight of St. Ferdinand and Merit, 
in Sicily. 

Kg., Kgs.—Keg; Kegs. 

K. G.— Knight of the Garter. 

K. G. C.— Knight of the Golden Circle; Knight 
of the Grand Cross. 

K. G. C. B.— Knight of the Grand Cross of the 
Bath. 

K. G. F.— Knight of the Golden Fleece, in Spain. 
K. G. H.— Knight of the Guelphs of Hanover. 

K. G. V.— Knight of Gustavus Vasa, in Sweden. 
K. H.— Knight of Hanover. 

Ki.— Kings. 

Kilo., Kilog.— Kilogram. 

Kilo., Kilom.— Kilometer. 

Kingd.— Kingdom. 

K. J.— Knight of St. Joachim. 

K. L.— Knights of Labor. 

K. L., or K. L. A.— Knight of Leopold of Aus¬ 
tria. 

K. L. H.—Knight of the Legion of Honor. 

K. JH.— Knight of Malta. 

K. Mess.— King’s Messenger. 

K. M. H.— Knight of Merit of Holstein. 

K. M. J.— Knight of Maximilian Joseph, in Ba¬ 
varia. 

K. M. T.— Knight of Maria Theresa, in Austria. 
Knick.— Knickerbocker. 

K. N. S.— Knight of the North Star, in 
Sweden. 

Knt. or Kt.— Knight. 

K. P.— Knight of St. Patrick; Knight of 
Pythias. 

K. R. C.— Knight of the Red Cross. 

K. R. E.— Knight of the Red Eagle, in Prussia. 
K. S.— Knight of the Sword, in Sweden. 

K. S. A.— Knight of St. Anne, in Russia. 

K. S. E.— Knight of St. Esprit, in France. 

K. S. F.— Knight of St. Fernando, in Spain. 

K. S. F. M.— Knight of St. Ferdinand and Mer¬ 
it, in Naples. 

K. S. G.— Knight of St. George, in Russia. 

K. S. H.— Knight of St. Hubert, in Bavaria. 

K. S. J.— Knight of St. Januarius, in Naples. 

K. S. L.—Knight of the Sun and Lion, in Persia. 
K. S. M. & S. G.—Knight of St. Michael and St. 

George, in the Ionian Islands. 

K. s, p.— Knight of St. Stanislaus of Poland. 

K. S. S.—Knight of the Southern Star, in Bra¬ 
zil ; Knight of the Sword of Sweden. 

K. S. W.—Knight of St. Wladimir, in Russia. 
Kt.— Knight. 

K. T.—Knight of the Thistle; Knight Templar. 
K. 1 . 1 . (Gr: K.r.X).— Kcu ra Xelirofieva ( kai ta leipo- 
mena), or \onra (loipa), and so forth; and the 
rest; same as « etc.» 

K. T. S —Knight of the Tower and Sword, in 
Portugal. 

K. W.— Knight of William, in the Netherlands. 

K. W. E — Knight of the White Eagle, in Po¬ 
land. 

Ky.— Kentucky. 

L. —Lake; Liber, book; Libra, libra, pound, 
pounds. 

L: (Lib. cat.).— Louis. 

L.. (Lib. cat.).— Louise. 

La.— Louisiana. 


L. A. C.— Licentiate of the Apothecaries’ Com¬ 
pany. 

Lam.— Lamentations. 

Lang.— Language. 

Lapp.— Lappish. 

Lat.— Latitude; Latin. 

L. A. W.— League of American Wheelmen. 
Lb., or lbs.— Libra or libra, pound or pounds 
in weight. 

L. C.— Loco citato, in the place cited; Lord 
Chamberlain; Lord Chancellor; Lower Can¬ 
ada ; Lower case. 

L. C. B.— Lord Chief Baron. 

L. C. J.— Lord Chief Justice. 

L. C. M.— Least common multiple.- 
Ld.— Lord ; Limited. 

Ldp.— Lordship. 

Leg.— Legal; Legate. 

Legis.— Legislature. 

Leip.— Leipsic. 

Lett.— Lettish. 

Lev.— Leviticus. 

Lex.— Lexicon. 

L. G.— Life Guards. 

L. H. A.— Lord High Admiral. 

L. H. C.— Lord High Chancellor. 

L. H. D.— Litterarum Humaniorum Doctor, 
Doctor of the More Humane Letters. 

L. H. T.— Lord High Treasurer. 

L. I.— Long Island. 

Lib.— Liber, book. 

Lieut.— Lieutenant. 

Lieut.-Col.— Lieutenant-Colonel. 

Lieut.-Gen.— Lieutenant-General. 

Lieut.-Gov.— Lieutenant-Governor 
Lim.— Limited. 

Lin.— Lineal. 

Linn.— Linnaeus ; Linnaean. 

Liq.— Liquid ; Liquidation; Liquor. 

Lit.— Literally; Literature. 

Lith.— Lithuanian. 

L. L.— Loco laudato, in the place praised (quot¬ 
ed) ; Lord Lieutenant. 

L. Lat.— Low Latin ; Law Latin. 

LL. B.— Legum Baccalaureus, Bachelor of Laws. 
LL. D.— Legum Doctor, Doctor of Laws. 

LL. M.— Legum Magister, Master of Laws. 

L. M.— Long metre. 

L. M. D.— Long metre double. 

L. M. S.— London Missionary Society. 

Loc. cit.— Loco citato, in the place cited. 

Lon.— Longitude. 

Lond.— London. 

L. P.— Large Paper; Lord Provost. 

L. P. M.— Long particular metre. 

L. P. S.— Lord Privy Seal. 

L. R. C. P.— Licentiate of the Royal College of 
Physicians. 

L. R. C. S.— Licentiate of the Royal College of 
Surgeons. 

L. S.— Locus sigilli, place of the seal. 

L. S. D.— Pounds, shillings, and pence. 

Lt.— Lieutenant. 

Lt. Inf.— Light Infantry. 

L. U. E.— Left upper entrance. 

LXX.— The Septuagint (Version of the Old 
Testament). 

M. — Married; Meridies, noon; Mile; Mille, a 
thousand; Minute, minutes; Monsieur, mister. 

M: (Lib. cat.).— Matthew. 

M.. (Lib. cat.).— Mary. 

M. A.— Master of Arts; Military Academy. 


ABBREVIATIONS 


M. Am. Soc. C. E.— Member American Society 
Civil Engineers. 

Macc.— Maccabees. 

Maced.— Macedonian. 

Mag.— Magazine. 

Maj.— Major. 

Maj.-Gen.— Major-General. 

Mai.— Malachi. 

Man.— Manassas. 

Mar.— March. 

March.— Marchioness. 

Marg.— Margin; Marginal. 

Marq.— Marquis. 

Masc.— Masculine. 

Mass.— Massachusetts. 

Math.— Mathematics; Mathematician. 

Matt.— Matthew. 

Max.— Maxim. 

M. B.— Medicine Baccalaureus, Bachelor of 
Medicine; Musicce Baccalaureus, Bachelor of 
Music. 

M. B. F. et H.— Magna Britannia, Francia, et 
Hibernia, Great Britain, France, and Ireland. 
M. C.— Member of Congress; Master of Cere¬ 
monies ; Master Commandant. 

Mch.— March. 

M. C. S.— Madras Civil Service. 

Md.— Maryland. 

M. D.— Medicines Doctor, Doctor of Medicine. 
Mdlle.— Mademoiselle. 

Mdse.— Merchandise. 

Me.— Maine. 

M. E.— Methodist Episcopal; Military or Me¬ 
chanical Engineer. 

Mech.— Mechanic; Mechanical. 

Med.— Medicine. 

M. E. G. H. P.— Most Excellent Grand High 
Priest. 

Mem.— Memento, remember; Memorandum. 
Merc.— Mercury. 

M. E. S.— Methodist Episcopal, South. 

Mess. & Docs.— Messages and Documents. 
Messrs.— Messieurs, Gentlemen. 

Met.— Metaphysics. 

Metal.— Metallurgy. 

Meteor.— Meteorology. 

Meth.— Methodist. 

Mex.— Mexico, or Mexican. 

M. F. A.— Minister of Foreign Affairs. 

Mfd.— Manufactured. 

Mfg.— Manufacturing. 

M. F. H.— Master of Foxhounds. 

Mfrs.— Manufacturers. 

Mfs.—• Manufactures. 

M. Goth.— Mceso-Gothic. 

Mic.— Micah. 

M. I. C. E.— Member of the Institution of Civil 
Engineers. 

Mich.— Michael; Michaelmas; Michigan. 

Mil.— Military. 

Min.— Mineralogy; Mining; Minute, minutes. 
Minn.— Minnesota. 

Min. Plen.— Minister Plenipotentiary. 

Mir. for Mag.— Mirror for Magistrates. 

Miss.— Mississippi. 

M. L. A.— Mercantile Library Association. 

MM.— Messieurs, Gentlemen; (Their) Majes¬ 
ties. 

Mme.— Madame, Madam. 

M. M. S.— Moravian Missionary Society. 

M. M. S. S.— Massachusettensis Medicines So- 
cietatis Socius, Fellow of the Massachusetts 
Medical Society. 


M. N. A. S.— Member of the National Academy 
of Sciences. 

Mo.— Missouri; Month. 

Mod.— Modern. 

Mon.— Montana; Monday. 

Mons.— Monsieur, Sir. 

Mont.— Montana. 

Morn.— Morning. 

Mos.— Months. 

M. P.— Member of Parliament; Member of Po¬ 
lice; Methodist Protestant. 

M. P. P.— Member of Provincial Parliament. 

M. P. S.— Member of the Philological Society; 
Member of the Pharmaceutical Society. 

Mr.—Mister. 

M. R.— Master of the Rolls. 

M. R. A. S.— Member of the Royal Asiatic So¬ 
ciety; Member of the Royal Academy of Sci¬ 
ence. 

M. R. C. C.— Member of the Royal College of 
Chemistry. 

M. R. C. P.— Member of the Royal College of 
Preceptors. 

M. R. C. S.— Member of the Royal College of 
Surgeons. 

M. R. C. V. S.— Member of the Royal College 
of Veterinary Surgeons. 

M. R. G. S.— Member of the Royal Geographical 
Society. 

M. R. I.— Member of the Royal Institution. 

M. R. I. A.— Member of the Royal Irish 
Academy. 

Mrs.— Mistress. 

M. R. S. L.— Member of the Royal Society of 
Literature. 

MS.— Manuscriptum, manuscript. 

M. S.— Master of Science; Memories sacrum, 
sacred to the memory. 

M. S. A.— Master of Science in Agriculture. 

M. S. L.— Mean sea level. 

MSS.— Manuscripta, manuscripts. 

Mt.— Mount, or mountain. 

M. T. C.— Marcus Tullius Cicero. 

Mth; Mths.— Month; Months. 

Mus. B.— Musicce Baccalaureus, Bachelor of 
Music. 

Mus. D.— Musicce Doctor, Doctor of Music. 

M. W.— Most Worthy; Most Worshipful. 

M. W. G. C. P.— Most Worthy Grand Chief 
Patriarch. 

M. W. G. M.— Most Worthy Grand Master; 
Most Worshipful Grand Master. 

M. W. P.— Most Worthy Patriarch. 

Myth.— Mythology. 

N. — Neuter; North; Note; Noun; Number. 

N: (Lib. cat.).— Nicholas. 

N.. (Lib. cat.).— Nancy. 

Na.— Nail. < 

N. A. — National Academician; North America; 
North American. 

Nah.— Nahum. 

Nap.— Napoleon; Napoleonic. 

N. A. S.— National Academy of Sciences. 

Nat.— Natural. 

Nath.— Nathanael, or Nathaniel. 

Nat. Ord.— Natural Order. 

Naut.— Nautical. 

Naut. Aim.— Nautical Almanac. 

N. B.—New Brunswick; North’ Britain (i.e. 
Scotland) ; North British (i.e. Scotch) ; Nota 
bene, mark well; take notice. 

N. C.— North Carolina. 


ABBREVIATIONS 


N. D.— No date ; Not dated; North Dakota. 

N. E.—New England; Northeast. 

Neb.— Nebraska. 

Neh.— Nehemiah. 

N. e. i.— Non est inventus, he is not found. 
Nem. con., or nem. diss.— Nemine contradi- 
cente, or nemine dissentiente, no one opposing 
or dissenting; unanimously. 

Neth.— Netherlands. 

Neut.— Neuter (gender). 

Nev.— Nevada. 

N. F.— Newfoundland. 

N. G.— New Granada; Noble Grand; (slang) 
No good. 

N. H.— New r Hampshire. 

N. J.— New Jersey. 

N. 1 .— Non liquet, it does not appear. 

N. lat.— North latitude. 

N. M.— New measurement; New Mexico. 

N. N. E.— North-northeast. 

N. N. W.— North-northwest. 

No.— Numero, number. 

N. O.— New Orleans. 

Nol. Pros.— Nolle prosequi, unwilling to pro¬ 
ceed. 

Nom.— Nominative. 

Non-com.— Non-commissioned (officer). 

Non con.— Not content; dissenting (House of 
Lords). 

Non cul.— Non culpabilis, not guilty. 

Non obst.— Non obstante, notwithstanding. 

Non pros.— Non prosequitur, he does not prose¬ 
cute. 

Non seq.— Non sequitur, it does not follow 
N. o. p.— Not otherwise provided for. 

Nos.— Numbers. 

Notts.— Nottinghamshire. 

Nov.— November. 

N. P.— Nisi Prius; Notary Public. 

N. P. D.— North Polar Distance. 

N. S.— New Series; New Style (after 1752); 

Not specified; Nova Scotia. 

N. S. J. C.— Noster Salvator Jesus Christus, 
Our Saviour Jesus Christ. 

N. S. W.— New South Wales. 

N. T.— New Testament. 

N. u.— Name or names unknown. 

Num.— Numbers (Book of) ; Numeral. 

N. V.— New Version. 

N. V. M.— Nativity of the Virgin Mary. 

N. W.— Northwest. 

N. W. T.— Northwest Territory. 

N. Y.—New York. 

N. Z.— New Zealand. 

O. — Ohio. 

O: (Lib. cat.).— Otto. 

O.. (Lib. cat.).— Olivia.. 

Ob.— Obiit, he or she died. 

Obad.— Obadiah. 

Obs.—Obsolete; Observatory; Observation. 
Obt., or Obdt.— Obedient. 

Oct.— October. 

Oct., or 8vo.— Octavo. 

O. F.— Odd Fellow, or Odd Fellows. 

O. G.— Outside Guardian. 

O. H. M. S —On His or Her Majesty’s Service. 

O. K. (Jocular)—All right or correct. 

Okl.— Oklahoma. 

Olym.— Olympiad. 

O. M.— Old Measurement. 

Ont.— Ontario. 

Opt.— Optics. 


Or., Ore., Oreg.— Oregon. 

Orig.— Originally. 

Ornith.— Ornithology. 

O. S.— Old Series; Old Style; Outside Sentinel. 

O. T.— Old Testament. 

O. U. A.— Order of United Americans. 

Oxf.— Oxford. 

Oxon.— Oxonia, Oxford; Oxonice, Oxoniensis, 
of Oxford. 

Oz.— Onza, ounce. 

P. — Page; Part; Participle; Pondere, by weight. 
P: (Lib. cat.).— Peter. 

P.. (Lib. cat.).— Pauline. 

Pa., or Penn.— Pennsylvania. 

Pal.— Palaeontology. 

Par.— Paragraph. 

Pari.— Parliament. 

Par. Pas.— Parallel passage. 

Pathol.— Pathology. 

Pat. Of.— Patent Office. 

Paym.-Gen.— Paymaster-General. 

Payt.— Payment. 

P. B.— Philosophice Baccalaureus, Bachelor of 
Philosophy; Primitive Baptist. 

P. C.— Patres Conscripti, Conscript Fathers, 
Senators; Postal card; Privy Council; Privy 
Councilor. 

P. C. P.— Past Chief Patriarch. 

P. C. S.— Principal Clerk of Sessions. 

Pd.— Paid. 

P. D.— Philosophice Doctor, Doctor of Phi¬ 
losophy. 

P. E.— Protestant Episcopal. 

P. E. I.— Prince Edward Island. 

Penn.— Pennsylvania. 

Pent.— Pentecost. 

Per.— Persia; Persian. 

Per an.— Per annum, by the year. 

Per cent.— Per centum, by the hundred. 

Peri.— Perigee. 

Per proc.— Per procurationem, by procuration^ 
or by power of attorney. 

Peruv.— Peruvian. 

Pet.— Peter ; Petrine. 

P. G.— Past Grand. 

Phar.— Pharmacy. 

Ph. B.— Philosophice Baccalaureus, Bachelor of 
Philosophy. 

Ph. D.— Philosophice Doctor, Doctor of Phi¬ 
losophy. 

Phil.— Philadelphia; Philemon ; Philip ; Philip- 
pians ; Philosophical; Philosophy. 

Phila.— Philadelphia. 

Philem.— Philemon. 

Philom.— Philomathes, a lover of learning. 
Philomath'.— Philomathematicus, a lover of 
mathematics. 

Phren.— Phrenology. 

P. I.— Philippine Islands. 

Pinx., or pxt.— Pinxit, he (she) painted it. 

Pk.— Peck. 

Pkt.— Packet. 

PI., or Plur.— Plural. 

P. L.— Poet Laureate. 

Plff.— Plaintiff. 

Plupf.— Pluperfect. 

P. M.— Passed Midshipman; Post meridiem, 
afternoon, evening; Postmaster. 

P. M. G.— Postmaster-General. 

Po.— Pole. 

P. O.— Post-Office; Province of Ontario. 

P. of H.— Patrons of Husbandry. 


ABBREVIATIONS 


P.-O. O.— Post-Office order. 

Pop.— Population. 

Port.— Portugal, or Portuguese. 

Pp.— Pages. 

PP.— Patres, Fathers. 

P. P.— Parish priest; Per procurationem, by 
procuration, or by power of attorney. 

P. P. C.— Pour prendre conge, to take leave. 
Pph.— Pamphlet. 

P. Q.— Previous Question; Province of Quebec. 
Pr.— Per, by, or by the. 

P. R.— Populus Romanus, the Roman people; 

Porto Rico; Prize Ring. 

P. R. A.— President of the Royal Academy. 

P. R. C.— Post Romanum conditum, from the 
building of Rome. 

Preb.— Prebend. 

Pref.— Preface; Preferred. 

Prep.— Preparatory; Preposition. 

Pres.— President. 

Presb.— Presbyterian. 

Prin.— Principally. 

Priv.— Privative. 

Pro.— Procedure. 

Prob.— Probably; Problem. 

Proc.— Proceedings; Procedure. 

Prof.— Professor. 

Pron.— Pronoun; Pronounced; Pronunciation. 
Prop.— Proposition. 

Prot.— Protestant. 

Pro tern.— Pro tempore, for the time being. 
Prov.— Proverbs; Province; Provost. 

Prox.— Proximo, next (month). 

Prs.— Pairs. 

P. R. S.— President of the Royal Society. 

Prus.— Prussia; Prussian. 

Ps.— Psalm, or Psalms. 

P. S.— Paddle steamer; Post scriptum, post¬ 
script ; Privy Seal. 

Psych.— Psychic; Psychical; Psychology. 

Pt.— Part; Pint; Payment; Point; Port. 

P. T. O.— Please turn over. 

Pub.— Publisher; Publication; Published; Pub¬ 
lic. 

P. v.— Post-village. 

P. W. P.— Past Worthy Patriarch. 

Pwt.— Pennyweight; pennyweights. 

Pxt.— Pinxit, he (or she) painted it. 

Q. — Quadrigans, farthing; Quasi, as it were, 
almost; Queen ; Query, or question. 

Q. B.— Queen’s Bench. 

Q. C.— Queen’s College; Queen’s Counsel. 

Q. d.— Quasi dicat, as if he should say; quasi 
dictum, as if said; quasi dixisset, as if he had 
said. 

Q. e.— Quod est, which is. 

Q. e. d.— Quod erat demonstrandum, which was 
to be proved. 

Q. e. f.— Quod erat faciendum, which was to be 
done. 

Q. e. i.— Quod erat inveniendum, which was to 
be found out. 

Q. 1 .— Quantum libet, as much as you please. 
Qm.— Quomodo, how; by what means. 

Q. M.— Quartermaster. 

Q. Mess.— Queen’s Messenger. 

Q. M. G.— Quartermaster-General. 

Q. p., or q. pi.— Quantum placet, as much as you 
please. 

Qr.— Quarter. 

Q. S.— Quantum sufficit, as much as may suffice; 
Quarter Sessions. 


Qt.— Quart. 

Qu., or qy.— Qucere, inquire ; query. 

Quad.— Quadrant; Quadrate. 

Quar.— Quarterly. 

Que.— Quebec. 

Ques.— Question. 

Q. v.— Quod vide, which see; Quantum vis, as 
much as you will. 

R. — Railroad; Railway; Recipe, take; Regina, 
Queen; River; Rod; Rood. 

R: (Lib. cat.).— Richard. 

R.. (Lib. cat.).— Rebecca. 

R. A.— Royal Academician; Royal Academy; 

Royal Arch; Royal Artillery. 

RC.— Rescriptum, a counterpart. 

R. C.— Roman Catholic. 

R. C. S.— Royal College of Surgeons. 

R. C. P.— Royal College of Physicians. 

R. D.— Rural Dean. 

R. E.— Reformed Episcopal; Royal Engineers. 
Rec.— Recipe; Record; Recorder; Recording. 
Reed.— Received. 

Rect.— Rector; Receipt. 

Ref.— Reformed; Reformation; Reference. 

Reg.— Regiment; Register ; Registrar ; Regular. 
Reg. Prof.— Regius Professor, Royal Professor. 
Rel.— Religion. 

Rep.— Report; Reporter; Representative; Re¬ 
public ; Republican. 

Retd.— Returned. 

Rev.— Reverend; Revelation (Book of); Re¬ 
view ; Revenue; Revise. 

Rhet.— Rhetoric. 

R. H. S.— Royal Humane Society; Royal His¬ 
torical Society. 

R. I.— Rhode Island. 

R. I. P.— Requiescat in pace, Let him (her) 
rest in peace. 

R. M.— Royal Marines; Royal Mail. 

R. M. S.— Railway Mail Service; Royal Mail 
Service; Royal Mail Steamer. 

R. N.— Royal Navy. 

R. N. R.— Royal Naval Reserve. 

Ro.— Recto, right-hand page; rood. 

Robt.— Robert. 

Rom.— Roman ; Romans. 

R. P.— Reformed Presbyterian; Regius Profess 
sor, Royal Professor. 

R. R.— Railroad. 

Rs.— Rupees. 

R. S.— Recording Secretary. 

R. S. A.— Royal Society of Antiquaries; Royal 
Scottish Academy. 

R. S. V. P.— Repondez, s’il vous plait, answer, 
if you please. 

Rt. Hon.— Right Honorable. 

Rt. Rev.— Right Reverend. 

R. T. S.— Religious Tract Society. 

Rt. Wpful.— Right Worshipful. 

R. U. E.— Right upper entrance. 

Russ.— Russia; Russian. 

R. V.— Revised Version. 

R. W. D. G. M.— Right Worshipful Deputy 
Grand Master. 

R. W. G. R.— Right Worthy Grand Representa¬ 
tive. 

R. W. G. S.— Right Worthy Grand Secretary. 

R. W. G. T.— Right Worthy Grand Treasurer; 

Right Worshipful Grand Templar. 

R. W. G. W.— Right Worthy Grand Warden. 

R- W. J. G. W.— Right Worshipful Junior 
Grand Warden. 


ABBREVIATIONS 


R. W. S. G. W. — Right Worshipful Senior 
Grand Warden. 

Rx.— Rupees. 

Ry.— Railway. 

S. — Saint; Scribe; Second; Series; Solidus, a 
shilling; South; Sun; Sunday. 

S: (Lib. cat.).— Samuel. 

S.. (Lib. cat.).— Sarah. 

S. A.— Secundum artem, according to art; 
South America; South Australia. 

Sam.— Samuel. 

Sansc., or Sansk.— Sanscrit, or Sanskrit. 

Sard.— Sardinia. 

S. A. S.— Societatis Antiquariorum Socius, Fel¬ 
low of the Society of Antiquaries. 

Sat.— Saturday. 

Sax.— Saxon; Saxony. 

S. C.— Senatus Consultum, a decree of the Sen¬ 
ate ; Small capitals; South Carolina; Staff 
Corps; Supreme Court. 

Sc.— Scene; Scilicet, namely, to wit; Scruple; 
Sculpsit, he (or she) engraved it. 

Scan. Mag.— Scandalum magnatum, scandal of 
the great. 

Scapa (S. C. A. P. A.).— Society for Checking 
Abuses in Public Advertising. 

Sc. B.— Scienticc Baccalaureus, Bachelor of Sci¬ 
ence. 

Schol.— Scholium, a note. 

Schr.— Schooner. 

Sclav.— Sclavonic. 

Scot.— Scottish ; Scotland. 

Scr.— Scruple. 

Scrip.— Scripture. 

Sculp.— Sculpsit, he (or she) engraved it. 

S. D.— Salutem dicit, sends health; Senior Dea¬ 
con ; South Dakota. 

S. D. U. K.— Society for the Diffusion of Use¬ 
ful Knowledge. 

S. E.— Southeast. 

Sec.— Secretary; Second; Section. 

Sec. Leg.— Secretary of Legation; Secundum 
legem, according to law. 

Sec. Reg.— Secundum regulam, according to 
rule. 

Sect.— Section. 

Sem.— Semhle, it seems; Seminary. 

Sen.— Senate ; Senator; Senior. 

Sept.— September ; Septuagint. 

Seq.— Sequentia, following; Scquitur, it follows. 

Ser.— Series. 

Serg.— Sergeant. 

Serg.-Maj.— Sergeant-Major. 

Servt.— Servant. 

Sess.— Session. 

S.-G.— Solicitor-General. 

Shak.— Shakespeare. 

S. H. J 5 .— Societatis Historicu Socius, Fellow of 
the Historical Society. 

S. I. M — Society for Increase of the Ministry. 

Sing.— Singular. 

S. J.— Society of Jesus. 

S. J. C.— Supreme Judicial Court. 

S. M.—State Militia; Short Meter; Sergeant- 
Major; Sons of Malta. 

S. M. Lond. Soc.— Societatis Medicce Londo- 
nensis Socius, Member of the London Medical 
Society. 

Soc. Isl.— Society Islands. 

S. of Sol.— Song of Solomon. 

Sol.— Solomon ; Solution. 

Sol.-Gen.— Solicitor-General. 


Sp.— Spain; Spanish. 

S. P.— Sine prole, without issue. 

S. P. A. S.— Societatis Philosophies Americans 
Socius, Member of the American Philosophi¬ 
cal Society. 

S. P. C. A.— Society for the Prevention of 

Cruelty to Animals. 

S. P. C. C.— Society for the Prevention of 

Cruelty to Children. 

S. P. C. K.— Society for the Promotion of 

Christian Knowledge. 

S. P. G.— Society for the Propagation of the 
Gospel. 

Sp. gr.— Specific gravity. 

S. P. M.— Short particular metre. 

S. P. Q. R.— Senatus Populusque Romanus, the 
Senate and people of Rome. 

S. P. R. L.— Society for the Promotion of Re¬ 
ligion and Learning. 

Sq.— Sequcns, following; usually et seq., and 
following (pages) ; Square. 

Sqq.— Scquentibus, the following (pages or 
places). 

Sr.— Senior. 

S. R. I.— Sacrum Romanum Imperium, Holy 
Roman Empire. 

S. R. S.— Societatis Regis Socius, Fellow of the 
Royal Society. 

SS.— Saints; Scilicet, to wit; Semis, half; Ses¬ 
sions. 

S. S.— Screw steamer; Steamship; Sunday- 
school. 

S. S. E.— South-southeast. 

S. S. W.— South-southwest. 

St.— Saint; Statute; Stone; Strait; Street. 

Sta.— Station. 

Stat.— Statute. 

S. T. B.— Sacrs Theologis Baccalaureus, Bach¬ 
elor of Sacred Theology. 

S. T. D.— Sacrs Theologis Doctor, Doctor of 
Sacred Theology. 

Ster., or Stg.— Sterling. 

S. T. P.— Sacrs Theologis Professor, Pro¬ 
fessor of Sacred Theology. 

Str.— Steamer. 

Subj.— Subjunctive. 

Subst.— Substantive. 

Su.-Goth.— Suio-Gothic. 

Sun., or Sund.— Sunday. 

Sup.— Superfine; Supplement; Supra, above; 
Supreme. 

Supt.— Superintendent. 

Surg.— Surgeon ; Surgery. 

Surg.-Gen.— Surgeon-General. 

Surv.— Surveyor. 

S. V.— Sub voce, under the word or title. 

Sw.— Swiss. 

S. W.— Southwest. 

Swe.— Sweden; Swedish; Swedenborg; Swe- 
denborgian. 

Switz.— Switzerland. 

Syn.— Synonym; Synonymous. 

Syr.— Syriac. 

T. —Term; Territory; Tome, volume. 

T: (Lib. cat.).—Thomas. 

T. . (Lib. cat.).— Theresa. 

Tab.— Table ; Tabular. 

Tan.— Tangent. 

T. E.— Topographical Engineers. 

Tenn.— Tennessee. 

Ter.— Territory. 

Tex.— Texas. 


ABBREVIATIONS 


Text. Rec.— Textus Receptus, Received Text. 
Tf.—Till forbidden. 

Tfn.— Till further notice. 

Th.—Thursday. 

Theo.— Theodore. 

Theol.— Theology; Theological. 

Theoph.— Theophilus. 

Theor.—Theorem. 

Thess.— Thessalonians. 

Thos.— Thomas. 

Thurs.—Thursday. 

Tim.— Timothy. 

Tit.—Title; Titus. 

T. O.— Turn over. 

Tob.— Tobit. 

Tom.— Tome, volume. 

Topog.— Topography ; Topographical. 

Tp.— Township. 

Tr.— Transpose; Translator; Translation; 
Trustee. 

Trans.— Translator; Translation; Transactions; 

Transpose. 

T reas.—T reasurer. 

Trin.—Trinity. 

Tr. S.—Triple screw. 

T. S.—Twin screw. 

Tu., Tue., or Tues.—Tuesday. 

Tur.—Turkey. 

Typ.— Typical; Typographer; Typographical. 

U. — Union. 

U: (Lib. cat.).— Uriah. 

U. . (Lib. cat.).— Ursula. 

U. B.— United Brethren. 

U. C.— Upper Canada; Urbe condita, year of the 
founding of Rome. 

U. J. C.— Utriusque Juris Doctor, Doctor of 
both Laws (Canon and Civil). 

U. K.— United Kingdom. 

U. K. A.— Ulster King-at-Arms; United King¬ 
dom Alliance. 

Ult.— Ultimo, last; of the last month'. 

Unit.— Unitarian. 

Univ.— Universal; Universalist; University. 

U. P.— United Presbyterian. 

U. S.— United States; Ut supra, or uti supra, 
as above. 

U. S. A.— United States of America; United 
States Army. 

U. S. M.— United States Mail; United States 
Marines- 

U. S. M. A.— United States Military Academy. 
U. S. M. C.— United States Marine Corps. 

U. S. M. H. S.— United States Marine Hospital 
Service. 

U. S. N.— United States Navy. 

U. S. N. A.— United States Naval Academy. 

U. S. S.— United States Senate; United States 
Ship. 

U. s. w.— Und so weiter, and so further; same 
as « etc.» 

Ut.— Utah. 

V. — Versus, against; Versiculo, in such a verse; 
Vide, see; Village; Violin. 

V: (Lib. cat.).—Victor. 

V.. (Lib. cat.).— Victoria. 

Va.—Virginia. 

Val.— Valorem; Value. 

Vat.—Vatican. 

V. C.—Victoria Cross; Vice-Chairman; Vice- 
Chancellor. 

V. D. L.—Van Diemen’s Land. 


V. D. M.— Verbi Dei Minister, Minister of God’s 
word. 

Ven.—Venerable. 

Ver.—Verse. 

V. G.—Vicar-General. 

V. g. — Verbi gratia, as for example. 

Vid.— Vide, see. 

Vise.—Viscount. 

Viz., or vl.— Videlicet, to wit; namely; that is 
to say. 

Vo.— Verso, left-hand page. 

Vol.—Volume; Volunteer. 

Vols.—Volunteers. 

V. P.—Vice-President. 

V. R.— Victoria Regina, Queen Victoria. 

Vs.— Versus, against; Versiculo, in such a verse. 

V. S.— Veterinary Surgeon. 

Vt.—Vermont. 

Vul.—Vulgate. 

W. —Wednesday; West. 

W: (Lib. cat.).—William. 

W. . (Lib. cat.).— Wilhelmina. 

Wash.—Washington. 

W. B. M.—Woman’s Board of Missions. 

W. C. A.—Woman’s Christian Association. 

W. C. T. U.—Women’s Christian Temperance 
Union. 

Wed.—Wednesday. 

W. F.—Wrong font. 

W. F. M. S.—Woman’s Foreign Missionary So¬ 
ciety. 

W. H. M. A.—Woman’s Home Missionary As¬ 
sociation. 

W. I.— West Indies. 

Wis.— Wisconsin. 

Wisd.— Wisdom (Book of). 

Wk.— Week. 

Wm.— William. 

W. M.— Worshipful Master. 

W. M. S.— Wesleyan Missionary Society. 

W. N. C. T. U.— Woman’s National Christian 
Temperance Union. 

W. N. W.—West-northwest. 

W. S.— Writer to the Signet. 

W. S. W.—West-southwest. 

Wt.— Weight. 

W. Va.— West Virginia. 

Wyo.— Wyoming. 

X. , or Xt.— Christ. (X in this and the follow¬ 
ing abbreviations is the Greek chi.) 

X: (Lib. cat.).— Xavier. 

Xmas., or Xm.— Christmas. 

Xn., or Xtian.— Christian. 

Xnty., or Xty.— Christianity. 

Xper., or Xr.— Christopher. 

Yd.— Yard. 

Y. M. C. A.— Young Men’s Christian Associa¬ 
tion. 

Y. M. C. U.— Young Men’s Christian Union. 

Y. P. S. C. E.—Young People’s Society of 
Christian Endeavor. 

Yr.—Year; Your. 

Yrs.— Years ; Yours. 

Y. W. C. A.—Young Women’s Christian Asso- 
ciation. 

Zach.— Zachary. 

Zech.— Zechariah. 

Zeph.— Zephaniah. 

Zool.— Zoology. 


ABD-ER-RAHMAN — ABDICATION 


Abbreviators, <t body of 72 writers in the 
Papal Chancery who have charge of sketching 
and putting in shape papal bulls, briefs, and 
consistorial decrees, and signing them in the 
name of the Cardinal Vice-Chancellor. This 
body receives its name from the fact of their 
taking short-hand notes of the decisions to be 
later expanded. They have existed at least since 
1400. 

Abd-er-Rahman I., abd-er-ra'man, founder 
of the Moorish emirate (later caliphate) of 
Cordova (q.v.) : b. Damascus, 731; d. 788. 
He was a grandson of the Ommiad caliph 
Hisham, and having fled to Africa escaped 
the frightful massacre of his family (see Om- 
miads and Abbassides) by Abu ’ 1 -Abbas; a 
hunted fugitive in the desert, but faithfully 
protected by the tribesmen, who respected his 
blood and pitied his misfortunes. Meanwhile 
Spain was seething with anarchy; each new 
caliph sent a new emir there; the governor of 
Africa claimed the right to interfere on the 
ground that the African governors had cap¬ 
tured it; the native chiefs were unwilling to 
submit to a constant succession of interlopers 
with no interest but their own, and at last the 
situation became so intolerable that the Spanish 
Arabs determined to choose a ruler with his 
residence in Spain. They selected the wander¬ 
ing heir of the overthrown house, and seeking 
him out in Africa offered him the place. He 
landed in Spain 25 Sept. 755, and fixed his royal 
seat at Cordova. His reign was one of incessant 
warfare. Hosein ben-Yahva, the Abbasside 
emir, driven from Spain, fled to Charlemagne 
and implored his assistance; it was granted and 
Hosein was re-enthroned at Saragossa, but while 
the Frankish army was returning through the 
Pyrenees, the Basque mountaineers fell upon the 
rear-guard and annihilated it in the pass of 
Roncesvalles, with its commander Roland. Sar¬ 
agossa was taken after two years’ siege, Ho¬ 
sein put to death as a rebel, and Spain to the 
Pyrenees subdued. A formidable rising in 786 
was crushed, and Abd-er-Rahman had two years 
of life to devote to the arts of peace and the 
building of his famous mosque at Cordova (now 
used as a cathedral), with its rows of cupolas 
supported by 830 pillars of jasper. 

Abd-er-Rahman III., the greatest of the 
caliphs of Cordova, and the first under whom 
the emirate assumed the title of caliphate: b. 
891, acceded 912; d. 961. Measured by what 
he found and what he left, he must be counted 
among the ablest rulers of hiscory. The former 
was a throne to which most of the provincial 
governors had thrown off allegiance, and the 
rest rendered such obedience as suited them ; a 
country in a state of permanent anarchy and civil 
war, perishing of racial, religious, and factional 
quarrels between Arabs and Moors; the Fatimite 
dynasty establishing a great empire. in Africa, 
and looking for a speedy succession to the 
heritage of Spain; on the north, the new 
Christian states rapidly growing,—Alfonso III. 
had recently moved his capital across the moun¬ 
tains to Leon, and Sancho had founded the 
kingdom of Navarre,— so that what escaped the 
Africans would probably fall into the hands of 
the Christians. Abd-er-Rahman first put down 
the worst internal revolt, that of the family of 
the old brigand Omar ben Hafsun, whose 


stronghold in the mountains of Andalusia had 
become a centre for all the renegades, Chris¬ 
tians, and rebels of the south. He tied the 
hands of the Fatimites by subsidizing the native 
princes who held out against them. The north¬ 
ern danger was the worst. Ordono II. in 914 
raided the territory of Merida; and though 
Merida had thrown off allegiance to Cordova, 
Abd-er-Rahman wished the more to show them 
that he was their protector. Collecting and 
equipping a splendid army, in 918 he gained a 
great victory over the combined forces of Leon 
and Navarre, following it up with several cam¬ 
paigns in which he penetrated to Pamplona, the 
capital of Navarre. These victories were not 
final: his fortunes were checkered on the Chris¬ 
tian side, and he suffered some defeats. Bur 
his suzerainty over Navarre was recognized, and 
in 960 a deposed king was reseated on the throne 
of Leon by Abd-er-Rahman’s troops. Internal¬ 
ly his success and glory were unqualified. At 
his death he left a consolidated kingdom, a full 
treasury in place of an empty one, internal order 
kept by a vigilant police, flourishing agriculture 
based on scientific irrigation, prosperous indus¬ 
tries, commerce whose customs dues furnished 
the majority of the revenue, an income of whicn 
one-third paid the current expenses and another 
third was used for building, and the rest kept 
for a reserve, the best army in Europe, a superb 
navy which made him lord of the gates of the 
Mediterranean, and equality in diplomatic rank 
with the proudest sovereigns of the world. 

Abd-er-Rahman, Saracen chieftain who led 
an army of nearly 90,000 into Gaul, and was de¬ 
feated and slain near Poitiers (usually known 
as the battle of Tours) by Charles Martel 
(q.v.). 

Abd-er-Rahman. See Abd-ur-Rahman. 

Abdication, in strictness, the renunciation 
of any office by the holder before the expiration 
of its term; in actual use, applied only to sover¬ 
eign rulers, de jure or de facto, who resign the 
crown in their lifetimes. The motives for this 
are as various as human fate, character, policy, 
or necessity, or the events of history. It may be 
compulsory — in which case it is really not abdi¬ 
cation but deposition — or voluntary. Compulsion 
may come from foreign conquest; from foreign 
commands when the king is a puppet, as with 
the later Polish kings, or Napoleon’s shifting his 
brothers from throne to throne; from the com¬ 
mands of de facto controllers of the state within, 
as with the puppet Roman emperors under the 
barbarian commanders-in-chief of the army; or 
from popular or factional insurrections. If 
voluntary, it may be from desire to-let a con¬ 
stitutional machine have a fair chance to work 
alone, as with Sulla and Diocletian; from satiety 
with royal power and weariness of royal bur¬ 
dens, as with Murad II. of Turkey; from physi¬ 
cal ailments and discouragement, as with the 
Emperor Charles V.; from penitence and desire 
to live a religious life, as with more than one 
mediaeval prince who furnished real models for 
Shakespeare’s usurper in < As You Like It > ; 
from weariness of the restraints of royal eti¬ 
quette, as with Christina of Sweden,— perhaps 
also sincere conversion to Catholicism and un¬ 
willingness to enforce a Protestant establish¬ 
ment ; from unwillingness to obey an overlord to 
the harm of his kingdom, as with Louis Bona- 


ABDI-CHIBA 


ABDUCTION 


parte; from inability to face the results of crush¬ 
ing defeat, as with Charles Albert of Sardinia; 
from acceding to a higher throne, as with 
Charles of Naples; from shame at the results of 
a bad policy, as with William I. of the Nether¬ 
lands ; from unwillingness to retain a throne 
against the popular will, as with Louis Philippe 
— for his resignation was not enforced; or other 
reasons. In monarchies as a whole, the sover¬ 
eign can abdicate at will; in England, only by 
consent of Parliament — which however, as in 
the case of James II., can assume an implied 
abdication which the monarch had no intention 
of executing, the term being a euphemism for 
deposition. 

The following is a list of some of the chief 


historical abdications, with their dates: 

Sulla the Dictator. b.c. 79 

Diocletian the Emperor. a.d. 305 

Benedict IX, Pope.1048 

Stephen II of Hungary.,....1141 

Ladislas III, Duke of Poland.1167 

Albert the Bear of Brandenburg.1169 

John Balliol of Scotland.1296 

Joannes Cantacuzenos, Emperor of the East.1355 

John XXIII, Pope.1415 

Eric VII of Denmark and XIII of Sweden.*439 

Murad II, Ottoman Emperor.1444 and 1445 

Charles V, Emperor...25 Oct. 1555 

Christina of Sweden.1654 

John Casimir of Poland.1668 

James II of England.1688 

Frederick Augustus of Poland.1706 

Philip V of Spain.1724 

Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia.1730 

Ahmed III, Ottoman Emperor.1730 

Charles of Naples (on accession to throne of 

Spain) .1759 

Stanislaus II of Poland...1795 

Charles Emanuel IV of Sardinia.4 June 1802 

Charles IV of Spain.19 March 1808 

Joseph Bonaparte of Naples (transferred to Spain 

by Napoleon) .6 June 1808 

Gustavus IV of Sweden.29 March 1809 

Louis Bonaparte of Holland.....2 July 1810 

Napoleon I of France. . . .4 April 1814 and 22 June 1815 

Victor Emanuel of Sardinia.13 March 1821 

Charles X of France.2 Aug. 1830 

Pedro of Brazil.7 April 1831 

(Also abdicated the throne of Portugal in favor 
of his daughter, at once on his accession in 
1826.) 

Miguel of Portugal.26 May 1834 

William I of Holland.1 Oct. 1840 

Louis Philippe of France.24 Feb. 1848 

Louis Charles of Bavaria.21 March 1848 

Ferdinand of Austria.....2 Dec. 1848 

Charles Albert of Sardinia.22 March 1849 

Leopold II of Tuscany.....21 July 1859 

Isabella II of Spain.25 June 1870 

Amadeus I of Spain.11 Feb. 1873 

Abd-ul-Aziz, Sultan of Turkey.30 May 1876 

Pedro II of Brazil.15 Nov. 1888 

Milan of Servia.6 March, 1889 


Abdiel, ab'di-el ( <( servant of God®), the 
one loyal seraph in heaven, according to 
(Paradise Lost,) « among the faithless, faith¬ 
ful only he,» who withstands Satan when the 
latter is inciting revolt against God for pro¬ 
moting his Son over the heads of the angel 
peers. Milton took the name from the Jew¬ 
ish ''abalists. 

Abdomen, ab-do'men, in human anatomy, 
that portion of the body bounded above by the di¬ 
aphragm, below bv the pelvis, behind by the 
lumbar vertebrae, and in front by a thin layer of 
muscles, the abdominal muscles. This cavity con¬ 
tains the chief organs of digestion and the genito¬ 
urinary system. By reason of the movements of 
the diaphragm it is rhythmically changing its size, 
and the movements of the intestines somewhat 
modify its internal contour. For purposes of 
description and for localization the abdomen is 


divided by a tit-tat-toe figure into nine regions; 
the upper and lower horizontal lines passing at 
the lower level of the ribs and the upper borders 
of the pelvis. From above downward the mid¬ 
dle squares are termed the epigastric, the um¬ 
bilical, and hypogastric; to the sides of the 
epigastric regions are the right and left hypo¬ 
chondrium (under the ribs) ; the right and left 
lumbar flank the central umbilical region, and 
the right and left iliac regions lie down in the 
pelvis on either side of the hypogastric area. 
The general location of the abdominal viscera 
in the various areas is of interest. The liver 
lies up under the ribs in the right hypochon- 
drium, stretching over the upper part of the 
epigastrium into the left hypochondrium; the 
stomach lies mostly in the left hypochondrium 
and reaches into the epigastrium just below the 
sternum; the large intestine starts in the right 
iliac region, the appendix being there also, goes 
up the right lumbar into the lower portion of 
the right hypochondrium, crosses straight over, 
dipping slightly into the umbilical region, from 
the left hypochondrium it descends into the left 
iliac region and then turns back into the centre 
and ends at the rectum. The small intestine 
occupies most of the umbilical region, extending 
out into the others. The pancreas lies just be¬ 
hind the lower end of the stomach in the epigas¬ 
trium. The spleen lies higher up on the left 
side behind, resting on the 10th and nth ribs. 
The kidneys are behind high up, in the hypo¬ 
chondriac lumbar region, just coming below the 
free borders of the ribs; most pains in the small 
of the back thought to be kidney pains are pains 
from constipated bowels; kidney pains are high 
up under the ribs behind. The genital organs lie 
in the hypogastric and right and left iliac re¬ 
gions, the bladder low in front in the centre, the 
uterus slightly above in the centre, the ovaries to 
the right and left in the right and left iliac fossae. 

In entomology, the whole body of an in¬ 
sect behind the thorax. It usually consists of 
rings or short hollow cylinders, which are united 
by a joint or membrane, and in some cases, as 
in the grub of the chameleon fly, slide upon one 
another like the tubes of a telescope. Some¬ 
times it bears a sting or an ovipositor, though 
in the perfect insect no appendages are found. 

An abdominal ring is one of two oblong ten¬ 
dinous openings or « rings» existing in either 
groin, or in the right and left inguinal regions, 
i hrough these rings pass the spermatic cord in 
the one sex, and the circular ligament of the 
uterus in the other. It is through these rings 
that inguinal hernia, or rupture, occurs. 

Abduction, the act of abducing or abduct¬ 
ing; a taking or drawing away, and specifically 
an unlawful taking. In the United States 
the word abduction is ordinarily applied tc the 
illegal seizure and detention of a female for the 
purpose of concubinage, prostitution, or marriage. 
The punishment for abduction varies in the 
different States of the Union. The punishment 
in the United States is lighter than it is in Eng¬ 
land for this offense. For instance, in New 
York the crime is punishable by imprisonment 
for not more than five years, or by a fine of not 
more than $1,000, or by both. 

In common and English law this offense is 
of three kinds: (1) If any person shall ma¬ 
liciously, either by force or fraud, lead, or take 











































ABDUCTOR — ABD-UL-HAMID 


away, or detain, any child under the age of io 
years, with intent to deprive the parents or 
other persons having the lawful charge of such 
child, or with intent to steal any article on its 
person; or shall receive or harbor such child, 
knowing the same to have been so stolen or en¬ 
ticed,— every such offender shall be guilty of 
felony, and shall be liable to penal servitude for 
not more than seven or less than three years, or 
imprisoned, with or without hard labor, for any 
term not more than two years. (2) If the girl 
is under the age of 16 years, the offender shall 
be guilty of misdemeanor, and being convicted 
thereof shall be liable to suffer such punish¬ 
ment, by fine or imprisonment, or both, as the 
court shall award. (3) If any person shall, 
from motives of lucre, take away or detain 
against her will, any woman having any interest, 
present or future, in any real or personal estate, 
with intent to marry or defile her, or to cause 
her to be married or defiled by any other person, 
every such offender, and every person counsel¬ 
ing, aiding, or abetting such offender, shall be 
guilty of felony, and liable to penal servitude for 
life, or for any time not less than three years, or 
to be imprisoned, with or without hard labor, 
for any term not exceeding five years. If the 
woman first consent to be taken away, and after¬ 
ward refuse to continue with the offender, and 
he forcibly detain her; or if she be forcibly taken 
away and she afterward consent to her marriage 
or defilement; or if she be taken away with her 
own consent, obtained by fraud or imposition, 
the offense is the same. But if a man, without 
fraud, deceit, or violence, marries a woman 
under age, without the consent of her father or 
guardian, that act is not indictable at common 
law. 

In logic, abduction is a form of reasoning in 
which the greater extreme is contained in the 
medium; but the medium is not so evidently in 
the lesser extreme. Example : « Whatever God 

has revealed is certainly true; now God has re¬ 
vealed a future retribution; therefore a future 
retribution is certainly true.® In the use of this 
kind of reasoning the minor proposition must be 
proved to be contained in the major. 

Abductor, a muscle, the office of which is to 
draw a limb or portion of a limb to which it is 
attached away from the centre of that limb. 
Abductor of the thigh, for example, raises the 
thigh away from the centre of the body. 

In law, a person guilty of abduction. 

Abd - ul - Akhad - Khan, abd-ool-aioad'Kan, 
amir of Bokhara: b. 1852; succeeded his father 
Muzaffar 12 Nov. 1885, and without trying to 
throw off Russian suzerainty abolished slavery 
and underground prisons, reduced the army, 
regulated taxes, and proved himself an able and 
progressive ruler. 

Abd-ul-Aziz, abd-ool-a-zez', 32d Sultan of 
the Ottoman Turks: b. 9 Feb. 1830; succeeded 
his brother Abd-ul-Medjid (q.v.), 25 June 1861 ; 
d. 4 June 1876. At first he showed himself liberal- 
minded and open to Western ideas, and promised 
economy and reform. But ere long he began to 
spend vast sums on his army, the embellishment 
of his capital, hunting, and costly journeys. 
Despite this, reforms were long hoped for, espe¬ 
cially after his visit to western Europe in 1867. 
His government had great difficulties to contend 


with in the Cretan insurrection of 1866, the 
struggle of Rumania and Servia for full auton¬ 
omy, and finally the outbreak of Mohammedan 
fanaticism. In 1871 the Sultan strove to get the 
succession settled upon his son, instead of his 
nephew Murad according to Turkish custom. 
He next tried to set Russia against the other 
powers,. and plunged ever into deeper financial 
difficulties, while his stupid misgovernment 
alienated the provinces and led in 1875 to ris¬ 
ings in Bosnia, Herzegovina, and Bulgaria. At 
last a conspiracy forced him to dismiss his minis¬ 
ters, and next to abdicate the throne, 30 May 
1876. Four days later he was found dead. He 
was succeeded by his nephew Mehemet Murad, 
who was shortly deposed on the ground of al¬ 
leged insanity, in favor of the present Sultan, 
Abd-ul-Hamid, and murdered. 

Abd-ul-Hamid, I., abd-ool-ha-mid', Sultan 
of Turkey, son of Ahmed III.: b. 17255 suc¬ 
ceeded his brother Mustapha III., 17745 d. 1789. 
He was involved in two wars with Russia, and 
the treaty of Kutchuk-Kainardji in 1774 com¬ 
pelled him to relinquish the Crimea and other 
districts j and in 1788 Ochakov, in the Kherson 
district, was taken by the Russians. 

Abd-ul-Hamid II., 34th Sultan of the Otto¬ 
man Turks: b. 22 Sept. 1842, second son of Abd- 
ul-Medjid; acceded 1876 on the deposition of 
his brother Murad V. At this time the insur¬ 
rection of Bosnia and Herzegovina was in full 
blaze, and the intolerable misgovernment in 
Bulgaria by the local zaptiehs and others was 
preparing that province to follow suit — the de¬ 
sire of the people for security of life, property, 
and female honor being of course accredited to 
« Russian intrigues,® no other cause being ade¬ 
quate. Internally, the « Young Turkey® party, 
headed by Midhat Pasha — which wished to free 
Turkey from its European leading-strings, but 
by honest reforms and a parliamentary system —• 
were equally obnoxious to him as reformers and 
as revolutionists. The storm of Oriental butch¬ 
ery and outrage he turned loose on a Bulgarian 
district (see Batak) roused the Russians to a 
frenzy of rightful horror which forced the hand 
of the Czar, who did not wish war; and in the 
conflict of 1877-8 the Russian armies advanced 
almost to Constantinople. Christian Europe 
would perhaps have been nearly freed from the 
Turkish incubus, which has blighted every land 
it has rested on, but that the great powers flamed 
out in jealousy of Russia: the English Tories 
were barely restrained from making war on her 
and leaving Turkish power over the provinces 
just as it was, by the Liberal uprising headed by 
Mr. Gladstone. Even the Treaty of San Stefano 
(q.v.), which Russia exacted from Turkey, was 
not allowed to stand, the Berlin Congress (q.v.) 
cutting down the Turkish sacrifices; even so, 
however, Servia, Rumania, and Montenegro 
were freed altogether from Turkish suzerainty, 
Bosnia and Herzegovina were handed over to 
Austria, and Bulgaria was left in only nominal 
dependence, though by a futile contrivance di¬ 
vided into two provinces which shortly reunited; 
a small part of Armenia was also ceded to Rus¬ 
sia. The treaty obligated the Sultan to intro¬ 
duce reforms into the remaining Christian 
provinces, as if the history of the previous half- 
century had not shown what that meant even 
with a sincere Sultan; and Abd-ul-Hamid had 


ABDULLAHI — ABD-UR-RAHMAN 


no design of paying any attention to it. He was 
a bigoted Mussulman of the very party which 
had nullified all the efforts of Mahmud II., Abd- 
ul-Medjid, and Reshid Pasha, and believed that 
infidels should have no choice but slavery or the 
sword, according to the Prophet’s word. He 
set himself at once to recover the fullest autoc¬ 
racy at home and evade the demands of the 
Christian states abroad. Midhat was shortly ar¬ 
rested, nominally for the acts that had given the 
Sultan his throne, banished, and died soon and 
suddenly. All power was centred in the seraglio 
at Constantinople, wholesale murders and ter¬ 
rorism cowed all opposition, and for many years 
no whisper of constitutionalism has been heard 
in Turkey. The European powers were astutely 
set by the ears to prevent each other from gain¬ 
ing any advantage of it; the Christians were 
treated worse than ever; finally, in 1895-6 the 
signal was given to let loose on all Armenia the 
horrors which in one spot of Bulgaria had cost 
Turkey half her European possessions less than 
twenty years before. Abd-ul-Hamid had done 
his work well: no abler diabolic statesman has 
existed in our era. Not a power lifted a finger: 
even the English Liberal ministry, though Eng¬ 
land had forced Russia to leave Armenia to 
Turkey by guaranteeing good government for it, 
raised no hand to protect it. A considerable 
percentage of the Armenians were exterminated 
by hordes of savage Kurds and other irregulars, 
with indescribable details of outrage and tor¬ 
ture ; and the Sultan found himself raised to 
such consideration in Europe that he shortly at¬ 
tempted to evade payment of a small Austrian 
debt, when Count Goluchowski threatened to 
bombard Smyrna, an effective proceeding which 
secured a prompt settlement of the debt. In 
1897 Crete again rose, and Greece took her part, 
in the expectation of European help; but the 
time had gone by. In the ensuing war with 
Turkey she was not only beaten but disgraced; 
Europe, however, had the grace not to allow 
Turkey to resume sovereignty over any Chris¬ 
tian land. Shortly after, Abd-ul-Hamid was 
imprudent enough to let some Englishmen be 
murdered, and the Powers took Crete from him 
and gave it a separate government. The basis 
of his internal power has been his championship 
of orthodox Mussulmanism: he claims the lit¬ 
eral caliphate. 

Abdullahi. See Khalifa, The. 

Abd-ul-Latif, abd'ool-la-tef', eminent Arab 
writer: b. Bagdad, 1161; d. there 1231. By way 
of education he committed to memory the Koran, 
the chief poets, and not a few grammatical 
treatises. He studied medicine and practised 
till 1185, when to complete his culture he be¬ 
took himself to Damascus, where the famous 
Saladin had gathered round him the most 
learned men of the time. After the death of 
Saladin, who had liberally assisted him, he went 
to Cairo, delivered lectures on medicine and 
other sciences, and published an excellent de¬ 
scription of Egypt, still extant and keeping his 
fame alive: translated into Latin by White (Ox¬ 
ford 1800), and into French by De Sacy (1810). 
He died at Bagdad in 1231, on his way to Mecca. 

Abd-ul-Medjid, abd-ool-me-jkl', 31st Sultan 
of the Ottoman Turks, son of Mahmud II.: b. 
23 April or 6 May 1823; acceded 1 July 1839; 
d. 25 June 1861. He received the usual en¬ 


feebling harem education, his father failing in 
his efforts to rescue his children from the sys¬ 
tem. On his accession Turkish affairs w r ere 
critical. The great viceroy of Egypt, Mehemet 
Ali, had a second time revolted; ten days pre¬ 
viously the Turkish admiral had turned traitor 
and put the entire fleet in his hands; and three 
days afterward Mehemet’s son Ibrahim, the 
greatest Moslem soldier of the century, had 
routed the Turkish army at Nizib, and was 
marching straight on Constantinople, where the 
orthodox party, enraged at Mahmud’s reforms, 
had conspired to place Mehemet Ali on the 
throne. But the European powers interfered, 
and the treaties of 27 Nov. 1840 and July 1841 
confined Mehemet to Egypt again. Abd-ul- 
Medjid at once set about complying with his 
father’s express instructions and carrying out 
his reforms: 3 Nov. 1839 he promulgated the 
« Hatti-sherif of Gulhane,® placing all his sub¬ 
jects on full religious and civil equality, and 
providing for security of life and property to all, 
with just and equal taxation, administration of 
laws, and conscription; February 1856, after the 
Crimean war, it was supplemented by another to 
the same purport. But the Mussulman aris¬ 
tocracy and the educated classes (Ulema) re¬ 
garded it as an anti-Mussulman revolution to no 
profit but that of the infidels, and fought it so fu¬ 
riously that it remained practically inoperative, 
and rather sharpened the edge of their ill-treat¬ 
ment of the Christians ; and repeated conspiracies 
were formed against his life, whose members 
however the kindly Sultan would not put to death. 
His right hand in reform work was the able and 
humane Reshid Pasha, a Mussulman educated 
in France: through him the army was reorgan¬ 
ized 1843—4; a board of education instituted 
1846; a university founded, with military, med¬ 
ical, and agricultural colleges; a hateful capita¬ 
tion tax abolished, slave-trading repressed, and 
commerce advanced. Nothing can better prove 
the intrinsic and hopeless rottenness of the 
Mussulman system under modern conditions 
than the fact that these measures were written 
in water and died almost with their birth; their 
main fruit was bloody insurrections in various 
parts of the empire, of which the great Syrian 
massacres of i860 (see Syria) were the worst. 
In 1849 Abd-ul-Medjid honored himself by bold¬ 
ly refusing to surrender Kossuth and the other 
Hungarian refugees, after the failure of the 
Hungarian revolution, at the joint demand of 
Russia and Austria. For the Crimean war, and 
its antecedents and results, see that head. In 
later life he sunk into extravagance and sensual¬ 
ity; but he was essentially a good-hearted and 
honorable man, powerless against fate. He was 
succeeded not by one of his seven sons, but by 
his brother Abd-ul-Aziz, the oldest living mem¬ 
ber of the house of Othman. 

Abd-ur-Rahman, abd-oor-ra'man, sultan of 
Fez and Morocco: b. 1778; succeeded his uncle 
1823 ; d. 1859. His first four years of rule were 
occupied in quelling insurrections. Next, Aus¬ 
tria refused to pay the tribute for safety against 
pirates levied by Morocco on European ships in 
the Mediterranean: the Sultan wisely adjusted 
the dispute by relinquishing this blackmail. (See 
Morocco.) . The religious^ war under Abd-el- 
Kader against, the French in Algeria involv¬ 
ed Morocco in its movements: the defeat 


ABD-UR-RAHMAN-KHAN — ABELARD 


by the French in 1844 compelled the Sultan to 
order Abd-el-Kader to quit the country, which, 
however, he did not for three years longer. The 
piratical habits of the Moroccans brought him 
to the brink of war with more than one Euro¬ 
pean State. He was succeeded by his eldest son, 
Sidi-Mohammed (1859-73). 

Abd-ur-Rahman-Khan, abd-oor-ra'man-Han, 
amir of Afghanistan, son of Afzul (uf-'zool) 
Kahn, nephew of the amir Shere Ali, grandson 
of Dost Mohammed: b. Kabul, 1844; d. 3 Oct. 
1901. During the civil war of 1864 in Afghanis¬ 
tan (q.v.) between Dost Mohammed’s sons, he 
played a leading part on his father’s side against 
his uncle, won several battles,— the important 
victories of Shaikhabad and Khelat-i-Ghilzai 
were mainly due to his ability,— and for a time 
his father seemed secure of the amirate; Abd- 
ur-Rahman was made governor of Balkh, and 
won great popularity by his moderation and by 
marrying the daughter of the chief of Badakh- 
shan. In 1868, however, Shere Ali gained the 
mastery, and the English government helped to 
put down further resistance for order’s sake. 
Yakub-Khan drove out his cousin Abd-ur- 
Rahman, who after hunted wanderings reached 
Russian territory, and Gen. Kaufman allowed 
him to live at Samarcand with a pension of 
25,000 rubles a year. Here he remained till 1879, 
when Shere Ali’s death, and the weakness of 
Takub, whom the English had recognized as 
amir, gave him a chance to return to Balkh, 
where he was welcomed. The murder of the 
British Resident at Kabul and Yakub’s deposi¬ 
tion followed; Abd-ur-Rahman came forward 
once more, and was acknowledged amir by the 
principal chiefs and the English government, 
which gave him a subsidy of £160,000 a year, 
and large gifts of artillery, rifles, ammunition, 
etc. In 1893 the Indian government turned 
over to him Kafiristan, in the Hindu-Kusli 
mountains, and he brought its savage tribes 
under control in 1896. The English government 
showed him great honor, as he deserved; and 
■made him G.C.B. and G.C.S.I. He was succeed¬ 
ed by his eldest son, Habibullah-Khan, who had 
been associated with him in the government for 
some time. 

A Becket, Thomas. See Becket, Thomas a. 

Abeel, David, American missionary: b. 
New Brunswick, N. J., 12 June 1804: graduated 
at Rutgers, studied theology, and held a pastor¬ 
ate in Athens, N. Y., 1826-9; resigned from 
failing health, and went to China, October 1829, 
as chaplain for the Seamen’s Friend Society, and 
in 1830 for the A. B. C. F. M. He visited Java, 
Singapore, and Siam, studying Chinese; his 
health again failing he started for home 1833 by 
way of Europe, giving addresses on the claims 
of the heathen in Holland, France, and Switzer¬ 
land, in England forming a society to promote 
Eastern women’s education, and in America 
publishing works on similar subjects and his 
Chinese experiences. In 1839 he revisited Ma¬ 
lacca, Borneo, and parts of Asia, and in 1842 
established a mission at Amoy. In 1845 his 
health failed finally, and returning he died in 
Albany in 1846. He was one of the ablest, most 
practical, and most successful of early mission¬ 
aries. See < Life ) by G. R. Williamson (N. Y. 
1848). 


Abel, John J., American physiological 
chemist: b. Cleveland, Ohio, 19 May 1857. He 
was graduated at the University of Michigan in 
1883 1 studying abroad, he took M.D. at the Uni¬ 
versity of Strasburg in 1888. He has devoted 
himself to the chemistry of the human body, and 
is professor of pharmacology in Johns Hopkins, 
as well as in charge of the department of physio¬ 
logical chemistry. 

Abelard, ab-e-lar (Fr. Abelard, ab-a-lar), 
Pierre, pe-ar, a distinguished philosopher, 
and lover of Heloise. His real name was Pierre 
de Palais, the other being a nickname spelled in 
many other ways, but originally Bajolardus, 
^bacon-licker,® from a school joke, which he 
changed to Habelardus, ^bacon-haver,® as a 
retort: b. 1079 near Nantes, in the little village 
of Pallet, the property of his father Berenger; 
d. 1142. Full of intellectual enthusiasm, he gave 
up his patrimony to his younger brothers to de¬ 
vote himself to a life of study. Those studies, 
were very wide, though the usual inclusion of 
Greek and Hebrew is an error; but his chief 
passion was philosophy, and its great implement, 
the scholastic logic, in which he soon became 
the most eminent master of his age. Having 
learned all that Brittany could teach him, he 
went to Paris, the university of which attracted 
students from all parts of Europe. Guillaume 
de Champeaux, a follower of Anselm and an 
extreme Realist, was the most skilful disputant 
of his time, and Abelard, profiting by his in¬ 
structions, was often victorious over his master 
in contests of wit and logical acumen. The 
friendship of Champeaux was soon succeeded by 
enmity; and Abelard, who had not yet com¬ 
pleted his 22d year, removed to Melun, whither 
he was soon followed by a multitude of young 
men, attracted from Paris by his great reputa¬ 
tion. Hostility still pursued him, but he left 
Melun for Corbeil, nearer the capital, where he 
was still more admired and persecuted. Soon 
after he ceased teaching to recruit his strength, 
and after two years returned to Paris and found 
that his former teacher had removed to a 
monastery outside the city. 

He again joined issue with him and gained so 
complete a triumph that he opened in Paris a 
school of rhetoric, the fame of which soon de¬ 
prived all the others of their pupils. Shortly 
afterward he was appointed to his rival’s chair 
in the cathedral school of Notre Dame, where he 
educated many distinguished scholars, among 
whom were the future Pope Celestin II., Peter 
of Lombardy, bishop of Paris, Berenger, bishop 
of Poictiers, and St. Bernard. 

At this time there resided close to Notre 
Dame, a young lady, by name Heloise, niece to 
the canon Fulbert, then of the age of 17, and 
remarkable for her beauty, genius, and varied 
accomplishments. Abelard became inspired with 
such violent love for Heloise as to forget his 
duty, his lectures, and his fame. Heloise was 
no less susceptible. Under the pretext of fin¬ 
ishing her education he obtained Fulbert’s per¬ 
mission to visit her, and finally became a resident 
in his house. His conduct in abusing the confi¬ 
dence which had been placed in him opened the 
eyes of Fulbert. He separated the lovers, but 
too late. Abelard fled with her to Brittany, 
where she was delivered of a son, who died 
early. Abelard now resolved to marry her se¬ 
cretly. Fulbert gave his consent, the marriage 


ABERCROMBY —ABERDEEN 


was performed, and in order to keep it secret 
Helo’ise remained with her uncle, while Abelard 
retained his former lodgings and continued his 
lectures. Abelard, however, carried her off a 
second time and placed her in the convent of 
Argenteuil. 

Fulbert erroneously believed it was intended 
to force her to take the veil, and under the in¬ 
fluence of rage subjected Abelard to mutilation. 
He became, in consequence, a monk in the abbey 
of St. Denis, and Helo'ise took the veil at St. Ar¬ 
genteuil. After time had somewhat moderated 
his grief he resumed teaching. At the Council 
of Soissons (1121), no defense being permitted 
him, his ft Essay on the Trinity® was declared 
heretical, and he was condemned to burn it with 
his own hands. Continued persecutions obliged 
him at last to leave the abbey of St. Denis and 
to retire to a place near Nogent-sur-Seine, 
where he built a rude hut in which he deter¬ 
mined to live a hermit’s life. Even here, how¬ 
ever, students flocked to him, and they built him 
an oratory, which he dedicated to the Holy 
Ghost and hence called Paraclete. Being subse¬ 
quently appointed abbot of St. Gildas de Ruys, 
in Brittany, he invited Helo'ise and her religious 
sisterhood, on the dissolution of their monastery 
at Argenteuil, to reside at the above oratory, and 
received them there. He lived for some ten 
years at St. Gildas. Ultimately, however, he 
fled from it and lived for a time in other parts 
of Brittany. 

St. Bernard, of Clairvaux, the leading op¬ 
ponent of the rationalistic school of Abelard, 
laid his doctrines before the Council of Sens in 
1140, had them condemned by the Pope, and ob¬ 
tained an order for his imprisonment. Abelard 
appealed to the Pope, publishing his defense, and 
went to Rome. Passing through Cluny he vis¬ 
ited Peter the Venerable, who was abbot there. 
This humane and enlightened divine effected a 
reconciliation between him and his enemies, but 
Abelard resolved to end his days in retirement. 
The severe penances which he imposed upon 
himself, together with the grief which never left 
his heart, gradually consumed his strength, and 
he died, a pattern of monastic discipline, in 
1142, at the abbey of St. Marcel, near Chalons- 
sur-Saone. Helo'ise begged his body and had 
him buried in the Paraclete, of which she was 
at that time the abbess, with the view of repos¬ 
ing in death by his side. In 1800 the ashes of 
both were carried to the Museum of French 
Monuments at Paris, and in November 1817 
were deposited under a chapel within the pre¬ 
cincts of the church of Monamy. The small 
chapel, in the form of a beautiful marble monu¬ 
ment, in which the figures of the ill-fated pair 
are seen reposing side by side, is now one of the 
most interesting objects in the Parisian cemetery 
of Pere la Chaise. 

Abelard was distinguished as a grammarian, 
orator, logician, poet, musician, philosopher, 
theologian, and mathematician. As a philoso¬ 
pher he founded an eclectic system commonly 
but erroneously termed Conceptualism, which 
lay midway between the prevalent Realism, rep¬ 
resented in its most advanced form by William 
of Champeaux, and extreme Nominalism, rep¬ 
resented in the teaching of his other master, 
Roscellin, and largely approached the Aristote¬ 
lian philosophy. In ethics Abelard placed much 
emphasis on the subjective intention, which he 
held to determine the moral value as well as 


the moral character of man’s action. Along this 
line his work is notable, owing to the fact that 
his successors did little in connection with 
morals, for they did not regard the rules of 
human conduct as within the field of philosophic 
discussion. His love and his misfortunes have 
secured his name from oblivion; and the man 
whom his own century admired as a profound 
dialectician is now celebrated as the martyr of 
love. The letters of Abelard and Helo'ise have 
been often published in the original and in trans¬ 
lations. Pope’s poetical epistle, ( Eloisa to Abe¬ 
lard, } is founded on them. Abelard’s autobiog¬ 
raphy, entitled ( Historia Calamitatum,* is still 
extant. 

Abercromby, David, Scottish philosopher: 
d. about 1702. His chief work is entitled ( A 
Discourse of Wit J (1686). He also wrote many 
treatises and his work is said to antedate the 
so-called Scottish School of Philosophy. 

Aberdeen, 4TH Earl of (George Hamil¬ 
ton Gordon), British statesman and premier: 
b. Edinburgh, 28 Jan. 1784; succeeded to title 
in 1801; d. 14 Dec. i860. He was educated at 
Harrow and St. John’s College, Cambridge. 
Shortly after returning from a Continental and 
Grecian tour, full of classical enthusiasm, he 
established the Athenian Society; whence 
Byron’s sneer at <( the traveled thane, Athenian 
Aberdeen.® He severely criticised Gell in the 
( Edinburgh Review, ) and wrote an introduction 
to Wilkins’ translation of Vitruvius, published 
separately in 1822 as ( An Inquiry into the 
Principles of Beauty in Athenian Architecture . y 
In 1806 he entered Parliament as a Scotch rep¬ 
resentative peer, and was twice re-elected. In 
1813 he was sent to Austria to bring it into the 
coalition against Napoleon, and in 1814 was a 
signatory of the Treaty of Prague; he won 
credit in diplomacy, and the same year was 
made Viscount Gordon in the British peerage. 
During 1815-28 he devoted himself to his es¬ 
tates. In 1828 he became chancellor of the 
Duchy of Lancaster, and a few months later 
foreign secretary in Wellington’s Cabinet, and 
had the satisfaction of seeing Greek independ¬ 
ence recognized'. He warmly supported repeal 
of the test and corporation acts, and Catholic 
emancipation. Peel had him in both his Cabi¬ 
nets, 1834-5 as colonial secretary, 1841-6 as 
foreign secretary. In 1846, during the struggle 
which rent the Established Church of Scotland 
in twain, he brought in a compromise bill which 
was denounced by both halves; and after the 
Disruption in 1843 again attempted conciliatory 
measures without result. On Peel’s death in 
1850 he became the leader of the free-trade 
Conservatives. The Derby administration being 
unable to stand, Lord Aberdeen in 1853 formed 
a coalition ministry. For a time it was very 
popular; unluckily the Crimean war supervened. 
Aberdeen’s tardiness of action and reluctance 
to enter on hostilities, the result of a constitu¬ 
tional aversion to war, irritated the country, 
which was in one of its periodical anti-Russian 
frenzies, and bent on fighting. Moreover, the 
early portion of the war was shockingly mis¬ 
managed, as those of commercial countries al¬ 
ways are; and on the appointment of a commit¬ 
tee of inquiry, the ministry, which had uniformly 
resisted the motion, resigned, and Palmerston’s 
succeeded it. This closed Aberdeen’s public 


ABERDEEN — ABERNETHY 


life. . His dislike to ^spirited® foreign policies 
and interference with other countries, and his 
sympathy with the Holy Alliance, gave him the 
name of an enemy to liberty; but the above 
detail shows its injustice. 

Aberdeen, Miss., city and seat of Monroe 
county; on the Tombigbee River, and the Illi¬ 
nois Cent., the Kansas City, M. & B., and the 
Mobile & O. R.R.’s; 130 m. S.E. of Memphis, 
Tenn. Its chief trade and manufacture are cot¬ 
ton and cotton products, lumber coming next. 
Pop. (1900) 3,434. 

Aberdeen, S. D., seat of Brown County, on 
the Chicago & N. W., Chicago, M. & St. P., 
and Great Northern R.R.’s; settled 1880, inc. 
1882; 280 m. W. of Minneapolis, 125 m. N.E. of 
Pierre. It is the farming and lumber trade cen¬ 
tre of a large section; manufactures boots and 
shoes, flour and feed, soap, plows, machinery, 
etc., and has 10 grain elevators, granite and 
marble works and creameries. Its factories are 
supplied _ with abundant water power furnished 
by artesian wells. It has national banks, sev¬ 
eral daily, weekly, and monthly periodicals, a 
system of graded public schools, free library, 
and an assessed property valuation of about 
$1,500,000. The mayor and city council, co¬ 
operating in most appointments, are elected bi¬ 
ennially. Pop. (1900) 4,087; (1903) 5,572. 

Aberdeen, the chief city and seaport in 
N. Scotland, fourth largest in all Scotland; lies 
in Aberdeenshire, in miles N. of Edinburgh. 
William the Lion gave it a charter in 1179; the 
English burned it in 1336, but it was soon re¬ 
built ; within the same parliamentary boundary 
is a small town a mile N. near the Don mouthy 
the seat of St. Machar’s Cathedral (1357-1527), 
now represented by the granite nave, which, as 
restored since 1869, is used as a parish 
church. King’s College and University, 
founded by Bishop Elphinstone in Old 
Aberdeen in 1494, and Marischal College 
and University, founded by the Earl Marischal 
in New Aberdeen in 1593, were in i860 united 
into one institution, the University of Aberdeen. 
It has 23 professors and from 800 to 900 students 
in its four faculties of arts, divinity, law, and 
medicine. The students are divided into four 
<( nations,® Mar, Buchan, Moray, and Angus. 
There is a lord rector, chancellor, vice-chancel¬ 
lor, and two secretaries. With Glasgow Univer¬ 
sity, it sends one member to Parliament. Maris¬ 
chal College was rebuilt in 1841. King’s College 
is a stately fabric dating from 1500, its chapel 
adorned with exquisite wood-carvings. In the 
17th century Aberdeen had become an impor¬ 
tant place, but it suffered much from both par¬ 
ties in the civil wars. It has a flourishing trade 
and thriving manufactures; and having been 
largely rebuilt and extended since the formation 
of Union Street in 1800, the (( Granite City® now 
offers a handsome and regular aspect. Among 
the chief public edifices are the county build¬ 
ings, the post-office, the Market Hall, the Trades 
Hall, the Royal Infirmary, the lunatic asylum, 
the grammar school, the art gallery and art 
school, and Gordon’s College. The last has 
been much extended as a technical school, the 
foundationers being no longer resident; while 
the infirmary was reconstructed and modern¬ 
ized to celebrate the Queen’s Jubilee (1887). 
Of more than 60 places of worship the only one 
of much interest is the ancient church of St. 


Nicholas, now divided into the East and West 
churches, and having an imposing spire 190 feet 
high. A fine carillon of 37 bells was placed 
here in 1887. One may also notice the market- 
cross (1686), the Wallace, Gordon Pasha, and 
three other statues, and the Duthie public park 
of 47 acres. It has a large trade from the port, 
and good railway facilities. The chief exports 
are woolens, linens, cotton yarns, paper, combs, 
granite (hewn and polished), cattle, grain, pre¬ 
served provisions, and fish. Aberdeen has the 
largest comb and granite-polishing works in the 
kingdom. There are also several large paper 
works near by. Wooden ship-building was for¬ 
merly a prosperous industry, the Aberdeen clip¬ 
per-bow ships being celebrated as fast sailers, 
but since i860 they have been gradually super¬ 
seded by iron or steel steamships; and, owing 
to its remoteness from coal and iron, its ship¬ 
building now is greatly contracted. Pop. of 
parliamentary borough (1891) 121,623; (1901) 
153,108; 9,386 in Kincardineshire. 

Aberdeen University, See Aberdeen (Scot¬ 
land). 

Abernethy, John, Irish dissenting clergy¬ 
man and pioneer of toleration: b. Coleraine, 19 
Oct. 1680; d. 1740. The son of a Nonconformist 
minister, he graduated successively from Glas¬ 
gow and Edinburgh universities, was licensed to 
preach before coming of age, urged to take an 
important charge in Antrim at 21, and two years 
later was ordained there. The work he did there 
for many years was of the most remarkable kind, 
in drafts on body, bra ; n, soul, and will; and he 
was eminent in all. In 1717 he was invited at 
once to Dublin and Belfast; the Synod assigned 
him to Dublin; he refused to leave Antrim and 
was considered a Church mutineer; a furious 
quarrel followed, developing into the fight in 
the Irish Presbyterian Church between (( sub- 
scribers® and <( non-subscribers® (Abernethy’s 
party), the latter being formally barred out in 
1726. The real question at issue was of old 
orthodoxy versus the liberalizing opinions which 
he disclaimed holding, but which have of course 
long since left his position far behind. In 1730 
he was nevertheless called to Dublin. The next 
year came up the question of the Test Act, really 
involving the whole subject of religious tests in 
civil life; and Abernethy took a firm stand 
agair.st <( all laws that, upon account of mere 
differences of religious opinion and forms of 
worship, excluded men of integrity and ability 
from serving their country,® asserting near a 
century ahead of his time that a Roman Catholic 
could be such. His ( Tracts ) were later collected, 
and did good service in the Catholic Emancipa¬ 
tion fight of the next century. Abernethy was 
the bravest of the brave, not only in advocating 
unpopular truths to his own harm, but in resist¬ 
ing the highest dignitaries in the cause of right. 
See ‘Hiary, 5 6 vols.; Duchal’s < Life ) ; ( History 
of Irish Presbyterian ChurchP 

Abernethy, John, the great English sur¬ 
geon, grandson of the preceding: b. London, 3 
April 1764; d. 20 April 1831. Educated at Wol¬ 
verhampton grammar school, he was apprenticed 
at 15 to Sir Charles Blicke, a leading London 
surgeon, assistant surgeon at St. Bartholomew’s 
Hospital; he also attended the lectures of Pott, 
the chief surgeon there, of John Hunter, and the 
anatomical lectures at London Hospital of Sir 
William Blizzard, who early employed him as 


ABERRATION — ABILENE 


demonstrator. Pott, resigning, Blicke took his 
place, and made Abernethy assistant surgeon in 
1787. His lectures drew such crowds that a spe¬ 
cial building was erected, now the celebrated St. 
Bartholomew’s School. In 1813 he was appointed 
surgeon to Christ’s Hospital, in 1814 professor 
of anatomy and surgery to the College of Sur¬ 
geons, and in 1815 full surgeon to St. Bartholo- 
j mew’s, a post which he resigned in 1829. Of his 
numerous medical works the most important is 
' ( Surgical Observations on the Constitutional 
Origin and Treatment of Local Diseases, ) which, 
from his frequent references to it, became known 
as ( My BookJ He was one of the first to prove 
that topical symptoms should be treated by 
general remedies, especially for the stomach and 
bowels; and he was a persuasive and influential 
teacher, though over-dogmatic. He was the first 
to introduce the capital surgical improvement of 
tying the great arteries in operations for aneu¬ 
rism, etc. See ( Works,> 5 vols. 1820; Me¬ 
moirs 5 by Macilwain, 1853, not highly esteemed. 

Aberration. In physics, (1) that property 
of a lens or curved mirror in virtue of which it 
does not form a sharp, flat image devoid of false 
color fringes.' Spherical aberration is the geo¬ 
metrical distortion of the image due to the 
fact that the surface of the lens or mirror is 
spherical instead of having the theoretically best 
form. It is easy to grind a spherical surface, 
and more difficult to grind those of other forms; 
hence in the practical manufacture of a high- 
grade lens the curvatures are carefully calcu¬ 
lated, so that spherical surfaces may be used, 
while the spherical aberration is still kept within 
limits that are consistent with the use of the 
lens. (See Lens.) Chromatic aberration is 
the defect in virtue of which the focal length 
of the lens is not the same for all colors. A 
lens possessing chromatic aberration gives an 
image that is blurred with rainbow-like fringes; 
one that is devoid of chromatic aberration is 
said to be achromatic (see Light). Mirrors, 
whether concave or convex, have no chromatic 
aberration. 

(2) The slight displacement of the apparent 
position of a star or other celestial object, due 
to the fact that although the velocity of light is 
very great it is not infinite. In recent years 
much attention has been paid to aberration 
phenomena, because the observed amount of the 
displacement of a star indicates that the ether 
of space is stationary and that the earth passes 
through it like a fish through stagnant water; 
while direct experiments indicate, on the con¬ 
trary, that the ether is dragged along with the 
earth to a considerable extent. See Ether. 

Ab'ert, John James, American military en¬ 
gineer: b. Shepherdstown, Va., 17 Sept. 1788; 
d. 1863. He graduated at West Point in 1811, 
and at once went into the War Office; was ad¬ 
mitted to the bar; served in the War of 1812, 
becoming topographical engineer with the rank 
of major; was made chief and colonel of topo¬ 
graphical engineers in 1838, and assisted in de¬ 
veloping important canals and other works. 
His engineering reports are standard, and he 
was a founder of the National Institute of 
Science, since merged in the Smithsonian. 

Abeyance, meaning expectancy; probably 
derived from the French bayer, to gape after. 
When real or personal properties are in ex¬ 


pectation, or the intendment of the law, they 
are said to be in abeyance, or not actually pos¬ 
sessed. The word is often used in the Church 
of England, a living being known as (< in abey¬ 
ance® when it is left vacant owing to the un¬ 
willingness of the patron to declare himself in 
favor of any particular applicant for the office. 

Abich, Wilhelm Herman, German miner¬ 
alogist and naturalist: b. Berlin 11 Dec. 1806; 
d. Graz 2 July 1886. After completing a course 
of study in the natural sciences at the Univer¬ 
sity of Berlin, he traveled in Italy and Sicily. 
In 1842 he was appointed to the chair of min¬ 
eralogy in the university at Dorpat, and in 1853 
was elected a member of the Academy of Sci¬ 
ences in Saint Petersburg, for whom he wrote 
exhaustive reports of the explorations which 
he had made in the Caucasus, Russian Ar¬ 
menia and northern Persia. He also published 
several books descriptive of the minerals found 
in the different countries in which he had trav¬ 
eled, the most important of which are: ( Erlau- 
ternde Abbildungen von geologischen Erschei- 
nungen, beobachtet am Vesuv und Aetna 1833 
und i 834 ) (1837) ; ( Ueber die Natur und den 
Zusammenhang der vulkanischen BildungeiU 
(1841) ; ( Ueber die geologische Natur des ar- 
menischen HochlandeD (1843) ; ( Ueber die 
Natronseen auf der AraxesebenP (1846-9) ; 
Wergleichende geologische Grundzuge der 
kaukas-armenischen und nordpersischen Ge- 
birge ) (1858) ; ( Sur la Structure et la Geologie 
du Daghestan* (1862). 

Abildgaard, a/bil-gord, Nikolai Abraham, 

Danish painter: b. Copenhagen 4 Sept. 1744; d. 
Frederiksdal 4 June 1809. He studied for 
some time at the academy in Copenhagen, but 
in 1772 went to Rome to study under the mas¬ 
ters. After his return he was appointed to a 
professorship at the academy in 1786, and in 
1789 was elected a director. The greater num¬ 
ber of his paintings were of an historical nature 
and he had much to do with the founding of the 
Danish school of historical painting. A series 
of 10 pictures in the castle of Christiansborg, 
which burned in 1794, and scenes from Shake¬ 
speare and Ossian were his most important 
works. 

Abilene, Kan., city, seat of Dickinson 
County, 163 m. W. of Kansas City, on the 
Kansas River and three railroads: Union Pacific, 
Chicago, R. I. & P., and Atchison, T. & S. F. 
R.R.’s; settled 1856, incorporated 1869, the orig¬ 
inal charter being still in force. For many 
years it has been one of the great agricultural 
market centres of the State, the focus of a large 
farm loan business, and the sales-ground for 
the large droves of cattle that are annually 
brought from Texas. It has also large manu¬ 
facturing interests, including several flour-mills 
and creameries, as well as manufactures of iron 
bridges, carriages, etc. Mineral water from ad¬ 
jacent sand springs is bottled for export. The 
government consists of a mayor and council. 
Pop. (1900) 3,507. 

Abilene, Tex., city, seat of Taylor County, 
160 m. W. by S. of Fort Worth, on the Texas 
& P. R.R. The centre of a farming, cotton, and 
stock-raising district, its chief interests lie in 
its cotton-gins, flour- and feed-mills and grain 
elevators, although it also has flourishing man¬ 
ufactories of saddlery, harness, lumber, and ice. 
Its educational advantages are excellent, and 


ABINGDON — ABLUTION 


include a public high school and a prosperous 
Baptist college. Pop. (1900) 3,411. 

Abingdon, Ill., city, Knox County; 85 m. 
N.E. of Quincy; on the Chicago, B. & Q. and 
the Iowa C. R.R.’s. Settled 1828, incorporated 
1857, now acting under charter of 1859. Among 
its many industrial interests, which include 
wagon-works, saw-mills, and manufactories of 
gloves and organs, it has the largest animal-trap 
factory in the world. Besides its excellent 
school system, it is the seat of Pledding College 
(M. E.) and Abingdon (Christian) College, the 
latter having been founded in 1855. A mayor 
and council of five is annually elected. Pop. 
(1900) 2,022. 

Abingdon, Va., post village, seat of Wash¬ 
ington County; on the Norfolk & W. R.R., 315 
m. S.W. of Richmond and 140 m. W. by S. of 
Lynchburg. Settled 1730, incorporated 1788, it 
has long been noted for its large tobacco and 
live-stock interests, as well as for its valuable 
deposits of iron, gypsum, and salt, much of the 
salt used in the Southern States during the 
Civil War having been obtained in this vicinity. 
Its manufactures include wagon-works and 
planing-mills, besides cigar, tobacco, and pipe 
factories. It is also the seat of Martha Wash¬ 
ington College for girls, the Stonewall Jackson 
Female Institute, the Academy of the Visitation, 
and Abingdon Academy for boys. Pop. (1900) 
1,306. 

Abington, Mass., a post township in Ply¬ 
mouth County, 20 m. S.E. of Boston, on the 
Old Colony division of the New York, N. H. & 
H. R. R.R. Settled in 1680, incorporated 1712. 
Its southern portion is now known as Whit¬ 
man ; its northern portion as North Abington, 
and both are important manufacturing centres, 
the chief industries being the making of ma¬ 
chinery, shoes, and leather goods. The govern¬ 
ment is by town meeting. Pop. (1900) 4,489. 

Abiogenesis. See Biogenesis. 

Abjuration, the act of forswearing, abjur¬ 
ing, or renouncing upon oath; a denial upon 
oath; a renunciation upon oath. Chiefly a law 
term and used in the following senses: 

1. In the United States when an alien wishes 
to become a citizen he must declare among 
other things, that he doth absolutely and en¬ 
tirely renounce and abjure all allegiance and 
fidelity which he owes to any foreign sovereign, 
etc., and especially, by name the sovereign, 
etc., whereof he was before a citizen or subject. 

2. An abjuration of the realm. During the 
Middle Ages the right of sanctuary was con¬ 
ceded to criminals. A person fleeing to a church 
or churchyard might permanently escape trial 
if, after confessing himself guilty before the 
coroner, he took an oath abjuring the kingdom: 
promising to embark, at an assigned port, for 
a foreign land, and never to return unless by 
the king’s permission. By this, however, he 
forfeited his goods and chattels. 

3. Special. An abjuration or renunciation of 
all imagined allegiance to the Jacobite line of 
rulers, after the English nation had given its 
verdict in favor of William and Mary. 

The oath of abjuration was fixed by 13 Wm. 
III. c. 16. By the 21 & 22 Viet. c. 48, one form 
of oath was substituted for the oaths of alle¬ 
giance, supremacy, and abjuration. For this 


form another was substituted by the Act 30 & 
31 Viet. c. 73, § 5. This has in turn been super¬ 
seded by the Promissory Oaths Act, 31 & 32 
Viet. c. 72. 

4. An abjuration, renunciation, or retraction 
of real or imagined heresy or false doctrine. 
Thus the now abolished 25 Chas. II. c. 2, enacted 
that certain tenets of the Church of Rome were 
to be solemnly renounced. 

Ablution, or the ceremonial act of wash¬ 
ing to symbolize purification from uncleannesfe, 
is a rite which has been observed by many races 
of people from the early Mosaic days down to 
our own time. Under the Mosaical dispensa¬ 
tion the act of ablution had four purposes: (1) 
To cleanse from the taint of an inferior position 
before initiation into a higher state, as when 
Aaron and his sons, having been chosen for the 
priesthood, were washed with water before they 
were invested with their robes of office; (2) to 
cleanse in order to fit one for special acts of 
religious ceremony, as when the priests were 
required, under the penalty of death, to wash 
both their hands and feet before approaching 
the altar; (3) to cleanse from defilement con¬ 
tracted by some particular circumstance which 
prevented one from enjoying the privileges of 
ordinary life, of which there were no less than 
11 species of uncleanness recognized by the law; 
and (4) to cleanse or absolve oneself from the 
guilt of a particular act, as when, in expiation 
for an unknown murder, the elders of the village 
washed their hands over the slaughtered heifer, 
saying, <( Our hands have not shed this blood, 
neither have our eyes seen it® (Deut. xxi.). 
This practice was also common both among the 
Greeks and Romans, and it was undoubtedly in 
accordance with this practice that Pilate called 
for water and washed his hands to signify that 
he held himself innocent of the blood of Jesus 
Christ (Matt, xxvii. 24). 

Ablution by the priests before the perform¬ 
ance of sacred ceremonies was common even 
among the heathen, while the Egyptian priests 
carried the practice to such an extreme that 
they shaved their entire bodies every third day 
and then washed themselves in cold water twice 
every day and twice each night, that no particle 
of filth might even rest upon them. Such an 
act corresponds somewhat to the more simple 
wadu of the Mohammedans, a ceremonial wash¬ 
ing which they are compelled to observe five 
times daily, or immediately before their stated 
prayers, and these do not begin to represent 
the formal acts of cleansing required by the 
Moslem law. For example, the ablution for 
positive defilement required by Moses has its 
counterpart in the Mohammedan ghual, and yet 
again, under the Moslem law, the causes of such 
defilement are specified so minutely that they 
greatly exceed those of the ancient Jews. So 
strict was the law upon this point, however, 
that, when water could not be obtained, it was 
required that the purification should be made 
with something that might represent the water. 
In times of drought, therefore, or on occasions 
of sickness, the act of purification might be 
performed by rinsing, or rubbing the hands and 
face with dry sand. This form of cleansing 
was called tayemmum. 

The ceremony of ablution at communion was 
adopted by the early Christian Church, and has 
been retained both in the Eastern and Roman 


ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY 


Catholic Churches. In the Roman Catholic 
Church it has become a liturgical term, denoting 
the two acts of cleansing performed during the 
mass: (i) When wine is poured into the chal¬ 
ice to disengage any particles which may be left 
in the vessel; and (2) when both wine and 
water are poured over the priest’s fingers into 
the chalice. In the Greek Church the word 
(( abluticn® is applied to a ceremony performed 
seven days after baptism, when the unction of 
the chrism is formally washed off from those 
who have been baptized. 

Abnormal Psychology covers all consider¬ 
able deviations from the typical normal mind. 
Normal minds like normal bodies differ much 
among themselves; it is therefore impossible 
to lay down any arbitrary rule by which varia¬ 
tions from a type or <( norm®— at least, if the 
variation be but slight — may be identified. A 
pulse rate which, in a young child, indicates 
heajth, may, in an adult, be a symptom of dis¬ 
ease ; a pallid skin which is ^normal® to one 
individual may, in another, proceed from a de¬ 
ranged circulation. Similarly, emotional ex¬ 
citement which, for a person of sanguine tem¬ 
perament, is entirely <( natural,® may, if found in 
a phlegmatic individual, express a highly ab¬ 
normal mental state; and what is unhesitatingly 
pronounced insanity in one person may, in an¬ 
other, be laid to eccentricity. Abnormality 
must, therefore, be taken as a deviation, not 
from a general normal type, but from a par¬ 
ticular standard which a given class of indi¬ 
viduals represents. Abnormal psychology is a 
wider term than <( mental pathology® or (< mental 
disease.® It is wider because many abnormali¬ 
ties of mind occur in a perfectly healthy — non- 
pathological—condition. Deaf-mutism, for ex¬ 
ample, is no more pathological than the having 
of supernumerary toes and fingers. Abnormal 
psychology falls into three parts; the first deals 
with temporary derangements, the second with 
more or less permanent derangements (mental 
diseases, including insanity), and the third with 
defective and exceptional minds. 

1. Under temporary derangements are to be 
classed abnormal illusions, hallucinations, dreams, 
and hypnosis. All these derangements indicate 
a loss of efficient mental functioning without, 
however, necessarily entailing a permanent mor¬ 
bid condition. In order to understand the sig¬ 
nificance of such deficiencies it will be necessary 
to keep in mind the more important functions 
which devolve upon consciousness. These are 
(1) perception, the correct apprehension of the 
external world of objects and events, (2) the 
appropriate reaction of the individual upon ob¬ 
jects (for example, instinctive, impulsive, and 
volitional actions), and (3) the establishment 
and maintenance of adequate social relations 
with other individuals and groups of individuals 
(states, corporations, etc.). It is, in general, 
an omission, a defect, or an exaggeration, con¬ 
nected with one or more of these great func¬ 
tions, that marks the passage from a normal to 
a deranged state of consciousness. 

Among abnormal illusions are to be found 
some of the slightest and least serious delin¬ 
quencies of mental function; delinquencies 
which are analogous to the lesser and more 
fleeting ills of the body. Instances are fur¬ 
nished by the mistaken perception of ghosts 


and goblins under stress of strong imagina¬ 
tion or high emotional tension, and the seeing of 
fantastic forms in fire, rock, and cloud. Illusions 
of this type may, however, rest upon other con¬ 
ditions ; upon a general temperamental bias, or 
upon prejudice, or superstition, or excessive 
fatigue, or hunger, or upon the use of drugs, 
or, finally, upon disease. Hallucinations are 
closely related to abnormal illusions. The tra¬ 
ditional distinction between the two has been 
handed down from the time of the French 
alienist, E. Esquirol (1838), who defined illu¬ 
sion as (( a false perception of an object,® hallu¬ 
cination as (( a perception without an object.® 
This distinction, though it has little psycholog¬ 
ical significance, possesses a certain value in 
diagnosis; for hallucinations, as thus conceived, 
indicate a more serious psychological derange¬ 
ment than illusions. A relatively small num¬ 
ber of hallucinations depend, as a matter of 
fact, upon the brain alone; in most cases, a 
peripheral disturbance, somewhere throughout 
the body, is their ultimate condition. Thus the 
hallucinatory belief that a part of the body is 
dead may come from a local paralysis or the con¬ 
viction that the bones are tubes of glass from de¬ 
ranged organic sensations. Hallucinations are far 
less frequent in the sane and healthy than are the 
illusions described above. (See Psychical 
Research.) They are, however, frequent ac¬ 
companiments of certain nervous disorders, for 
example, epilepsy and hysteria, and in ecstasy, 
in the dancing epidemics of the Middle Ages 
and in demoniacal possession, hallucinations 
have played a prominent part; while in those 
forms of insanity which are accompanied by 
cloudiness of perception and thought (delu¬ 
sional insanity, paranoia, and general paralysis) 
they are extremely frequent. Dreams. The 
dream consciousness is chiefly a perceiving con¬ 
sciousness ; will, sentiment, memory, and rea¬ 
soning are much less prominent than in waking 
life. But it is, nevertheless, a consciousness 
which does not fulfill the normal functions of 
perception. Dream perceptions are <( unreal,® 
and may, therefore, be considered as derange¬ 
ments ; although they are no more pathological 
in their nature than the sleeping state in which 
they occur. The dream state is further charac¬ 
terized by diffuse unconcentrated attention and 
by loose and scattered associations. Hypnosis. 
One degree further removed from the normal 
mind than the dreaming state is the state of 
hypnosis. The two states possess, however, 
certain significant points of resemblance and of 
difference. (1) In both, consciousness is more 
or less cut off from the influence of the outside 
world. In sleep, the avenues of sense are 
closed. We seek darkness and quiet, avoiding, 
in general, conditions which would make de¬ 
mands upon the organs of sense and of move¬ 
ment. Furthermore, the sleeping state itself 
tends to protect the nervous system from intru¬ 
sion; the sensory paths are blocked. In hyp¬ 
nosis, similar conditions obtain. There is a gen¬ 
eral insensitivity of the nervous system; so that 
appeals from the environment are, as a rule, 
unsuccessful. The subject is unaware of what 
is going on about him. (2) Again, both in 
dreams and in hypnosis, certain stimuli are ef¬ 
fective. The course of dreams is partly deter¬ 
mined by strong or persistent appeals from 


ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY 


without, for example, the chirp of insects, the 
rumble of traffic, the chill of the room, the 
cramp of an uncomfortable position. The 
course of the hypnotic consciousness is similarly 
determined by the words and gestures of the 
operator. (3) Ihe dream and the hypnotic con¬ 
sciousness share a common attitude of belief in 
whatever situation is presented. Capacity for 
discriminating the world of sense from the 
world of memory and of imagination is lacking 
to both. 1 he individual is completely cred¬ 
ulous. The past and the future are, for the 
time being, annihilated. The person lives only 
in the present. (4) Along with these similari¬ 
ties there stands a striking and a fundamental 
difference between dreams and hypnosis. The 
dream consciousness is broad and shallow. As¬ 
sociations . run riot. The selective function of 
the attention which, in the normal conscious¬ 
ness, rejects the trivial and the accidental and 
fixes upon the essential features of the percep¬ 
tion or the idea, is lacking. One thing appears 
as important and as valuable as another. There 
is no subordination. Consciousness is scatter¬ 
brained. Consequently, the dream is (as one 
discovers upon waking) absurd and fantastic. 
In hypnosis, on the contrary, consciousness is 
deep and narrow. Along with the general in¬ 
sensitiveness just noted (anaesthesia) there goes 
a special high sensitiveness (hypersesthesia). 
The slightest sound or gesture of the operator 
is caught up by the subject and acted upon. 
This special sensitiveness — not occult power 
in the operator — is the secret of rapport. The 
immediate and uncritical response of the hyp¬ 
notized subject is due to his own abnormal psy¬ 
chophysical condition and not to any “force® ex¬ 
erted from without. Although certain of the 
physiological phenomena of hypnotism are to 
be found in some of the lower animals, in the 
state of catalepsy, human hypnosis is, on its 
conscious side, essentially a social phenomenon. 
It rests upon the general fact that all persons 
are, even in normal life, suggestible; that is, 
that their beliefs are largely determined by the 
personal or social influence which the indi¬ 
vidual exerts over his fellows. This influence 
shows itself normally in a mood or intellectual 
attitude of acquiescence. When the mood grows 
strong and overpowering — as in the presence 
of a captivating rhetorician — it becomes the 
attitude of obedience, of submission to author¬ 
ity. Now, in the abnormal state of hypnosis, 
the mood of submission is heightened, by the 
narrowing and deepening of consciousness, to 
the exclusion of all contrarv and inhibitory as¬ 
sociations. The result is that the beliefs and, 
consequently, the actions of the subject are en¬ 
tirely at the mercy of the meagre perceptual 
processes supplied, by way of “suggestion,® from 
the operator. Hypnosis, is, then, an abnormal 
psychophysical state which nevertheless closely 
resembles, in certain prominent features, both 
the dreaming and the waking states of every¬ 
day life. 

2. Permanent mental derangements .— There 
is no general agreement among alienists regard¬ 
ing the precise limits of insanity. Some alien¬ 
ists regard practically all classes of mental dis¬ 
ease as falling under insanity; others restrict 
the term to those derangements of mind which 
show a distinct loss of equilibrium among men¬ 
tal functions. The meaning of the term is, how¬ 
ever, aDoroximately fixed by practical and legal 


considerations; an individual is often pronounced 
insane when his mental condition so paralyses or 
perverts his personal and social relations that 
detention and treatment in a hospital for the 
care of the insane appears advisable. 

O11 the border line of mental alienation stand 
such derangements as hysteria, neurasthenia, 
and hypochondria. It is clear that these affec¬ 
tions stand on a different plane of abnormality 
from dreams and hypnosis, on the one hand, 
and from more serious forms of insanity, on 
the other. They are all of interest to the 
psychologist (but especially hysteria) because 
they present typical abnormalities of develop¬ 
ment, of the state of attention, and of the func¬ 
tions of memory, volition and emotion. Con¬ 
sider hysteria. The hysterical is abnormally 
absent-minded. The range of her attention is 
exceedingly narrow, so that she may, for exam¬ 
ple, in observing an object before her eyes, 
become quite blind to all other objects in the 
range of vision. Her capacity for learning is 
inhibited. She suffers a partial or total loss of 
memory (amnesia). The will power is im¬ 
paired (abulia). The patient becomes a 
victim to habits of automatic action and to un¬ 
controllable emotions and moods. Hysteria fur¬ 
nishes, moreover, a rare field for the study of 
suggestion and for the analysis of personality. 
French psychologists, who work by preference 
from the abnormal to the normal mind, have 
recently made important contributions to our 
knowledge of this form of mental disease. 

When we come to insanities proper, we find 
a bewildering number of symptoms and of dis¬ 
eases. Out of these we can, however, extract 
a few general and typical forms. These in¬ 
clude mania, melancholia, circular insanity 
(all distinguished by abnormal emotions and 
moods), delusional insanity (distinguished by 
fixed, irrational beliefs of grandeur, unseen 
agency, persecution, etc.), volitional derange¬ 
ments whose various forms (destructive, homo- 
cidal, dipsomaniac, kleptomaniac, etc.), are 
characterized by the lack of voluntary control, 
and, finally, a class of mental diseases which 
present the most complete and general loss of 
function — the highest degrees of mental abnor¬ 
mality. This class includes general paralysis, 
amentia, and dementia. 

3. Defective and exceptional minds .— Our 
third class of abnormality covers (1) minds 
that are lacking in certain simple processes 
common to all normal individuals (the mind 
of the congenitally blind and congenitally deaf, 
the color-blind, and persons suffering from va¬ 
rious impairments of the function of speech), 
(2) minds in which some set of processes 
or some function is abnormally developed 
(phenomenal chess-players, “lightning calcula¬ 
tors,® and trance “mediums®), (3) the genius, 
(4) the habitual criminal, the sexual pervert, 
and other “degenerates.® 

The deficient minds of (1) are of interest 
to the psychologist inasmuch as they show, by 
their very deficiency, the part played, in con¬ 
sciousness at large, by the lacking elements. 
The comparison, that is, of a normal mind with 
a mind wanting in visual or auditory sensation 
or verbal imagery is important for the psy¬ 
chology of vision or of audition or of language. 
The comparison is useful also in a study of 
mental substitution; for the functions of. mem¬ 
ory, imagination, and social communication 


ABOLITIONISTS — ABORTION 


ordinarily borne by visual, auditory and motor 
imagery must, in the affections named, be borne 
by other mental processes. Finally, the mental 
aberrations to be found in the habitual criminal 
and the pervert bring the psychologist back to 
the domain of mental pathology and, at the 
same time, they offer material for investigating 
the influence upon mental constitution of hered¬ 
itary tendency. 

Consult: Parish, hallucinations and Illu¬ 
sions-* (1897) ; Nordau, Regeneration* (trans. 
1895) y Galton, hereditary Genius* (1887) ; 
Mercier, ( Sanity and Insanity* (1890) ; 
( Psychology, Normal and Morbid* (1901) ; 
Janet, ( The Mental State of Hystericals* 
(trans. 1901). 

I. M. Bentley, 

Asst. Prof, of Psychology, Cornell University. 

Abolitionists, the extreme section of the 
anti-slavery party in the United States, who ad¬ 
vocated immediate sweeping away by the national 
government of Southern slavery, without regard 
to constitutional guarantees, vested interests, or 
political facts; this section and its nickname 
date from about 1835. Gradual abolition had 
been the desire of many of the best men even 
of the South; and till after the War of 1812 
there was no prejudice against the freest ex¬ 
pression of opinion on the subject. But the 
effects of Whitney’s cotton-gin were now begin¬ 
ning to be felt in making the slave system for 
the time enormously profitable; and the Mis¬ 
souri Compromise, with the insistence of the 
South thereafter that States should be admitted 
only in pairs, one slave and one free, showed 
that the time of apathy had gone by. The new 
zeal of the South in upholding, increasing, and 
justifying the system was met by a new intensity 
of the North in opposing it, though for a long 
time confined to a small band of agitators. In 
1833 the National Anti-Slavery Society was 
formed in Philadelphia; in 1831 William Lloyd 
Garrison had founded the Liberator, a weekly 
continued till 1866, filled from the first with the 
fiercest denunciation not only of the system but 
of all connected with it; and a brilliant band of 
orators, philanthropists, and growing political 
forces,— Wendell Phillips, Charles Sumner, 
Gerrit Smith, and women like Lucretia Mott,— 
kept the public mind on the alert and furnished 
a monotonous moral to the course of political 
events which the people might not otherwise 
have drawn so readily. There were grades even 
among these; and the extremists denied the duty 
of obeying the United States Constitution, since 
it contained the clause warranting the fugitive 
slave law, which was denounced as (( a covenant 
with death and an agreement with hell.** In 
practice they violated it systematically by assist¬ 
ing in the escape of runaway slaves, through the 
machinery known as the ^Underground Rail¬ 
road,** concealing them from pursuit and for¬ 
warding them from stage to stage till they 
reached Canada. But in 1840 the abolitionists 
divided on the question of the formation of a 
political anti-slavery party, and the two wings 
remained active on separate lines to the end. 
It was largely due to the abolitionists that the 
Civil War, when it came, was regarded by the 
North chiefly as an anti-slavery conflict, and 
they looked upon the Emancipation Proclama¬ 
tion as a vindication of this view. See Anti- 


Slavery Society; Liberty Party; Slavery; 
United States — Causes of the Civil War. 

Aborigines (Lat. <( from the origin**; the 
Greek name was autochthonoi ), the earliest in¬ 
habitants of a country discoverable by civilized 
investigation. Their relation to the animal 
world as a whole comes under the head of 
Anthropology; to other races, under Ethnol¬ 
ogy; their culture and conditions, under Arche¬ 
ology; of special countries, under their names, 
or those of particular tribes. Specifically, in 
Roman writers, a race traditionally said to have 
been driven by the Sabines from their first 
homes in the mountains around Reate (Rieti), 
invaded Latium, subjugated the native Siculi 
and occupied the land, along with a tribe of 
Pelasgi, the two thenceforth taking the name of 
Latini. If true, these Aborigines would be 
of Oscan stock and form the non-Pelasgian ele¬ 
ment in the Romans. 

Abortion, the expulsion of a foetus from its 
natural resting-place before it is capable of 
carrying on its own life. A variety of different 
terms have been applied to indicate variations 
in the character of this process; thus: acciden¬ 
tal, when brought about by purely accidental 
means; artificial or induced, when caused for 
medical therapeutic reasons; criminal, when in¬ 
duced for social rather than medical exigencies; 
tubal, when rupture of the Fallopian tube oc¬ 
curs, discharging the foetus into the abdominal 
cavity, the pregnancy being extra-uterine. 

The causes for this accident, apart from in¬ 
duced abortion, may be due to paternal, ma¬ 
ternal, or foetal defects. The proportion of 
abortions to full-time pregnancies is about 1 to 
7 or 10. Of the paternal causes, alcoholism, 
syphilis, old age, or physical weakness may be 
cited. The most frequent causes, however, are 
of foetal and maternal causes. Death of the 
foetus is the most frequent foetal cause. The 
maternal causes may be local or constitutional. 
Inflammation of the membranes of the uterus, 
tumors or new growths of the uterus, disease 
of the ovary, and inflammatory adhesions of the 
closely associated organs, act as local causes. 
Alcoholism, starvation, as in times of famine, 
syphilis, lead poisoning, coal-gas poisoning, acute 
diseases, as typhoid, pneumonia, and sudden 
severe shock, are the most common agents act¬ 
ing on the mother that bring about the death of 
the foetus and its subsequent expulsion. 

The symptoms are hemorrhage, discharge of 
the amniotic fluid, and pain. The treatment is 
always medical. The dangers are mostly those 
of hemorrhage and blood-poisoning. 

In law, when abortion is produced with a 
malicious design, it becomes a misdemeanor, and 
the party causing it may be indicted and pun¬ 
ished. When, in consequence of the means used 
to produce abortion, the death of the woman 
ensues, the crime is murder. In all cases of 
abortion the. body of the offence must first be 
proven. The fact of the pregnancy, the use of the 
instruments, and the administering of the drugs 
must be established beyond a doubt. The evidence 
of the woman upon whom the abortion was com¬ 
mitted is admissible but her dying declarations 
are not admissible unless homicide is charged A 
person who sells a drug or instrument, knowing 
that it is to be used for the purpose of causing a 
miscarriage, is also guflty of a misdemeanor. 


ABRA —ABRAM 


Abra, a'-bra, a province and a river in the 
N. of Luzon, Philippine Islands. The province 
contains numerous deposits of placer gold, and 
the river gravel is auriferous. Other minerals, 
such as coal, copper, lead, iron, and sulphur, 
are believed to exist in paying quantities, as 
Luzon is known to be rich in these and other 
economic minerals. For its head-hunting tribes, 
see Igorrote ; Philippines. 

Abraham or Abram, the progenitor of the 
Hebrews and the Arab Bedouin. After deriving 
his genealogy through Shem to his father Terah 
and his brothers Nahor and Haran, the narra¬ 
tive in Gen. xi.-xxv. proceeds as follows,— 
each step in the pilgrimage being by express 
direction of Yahwe, to his purpose of founding 
the Hebrew nation :— 

After Haran’s death Terah removes with his 
family from his native Ur of the Chaldees 
(? Mugheir in southern Babylonia), north to 
Haran, where he dies. Abram then (at 75) 
takes his wife Sarai and his nephew Lot, Haran’s 
son, and makes his way north by way of Da¬ 
mascus (stopping to build altars to Yahwe at 
Shechem and Bethel) to Canaan, where he 
receives the promise that he shall become the 
founder of a great nation, and all the families 
of the earth shall be blessed in him. Being a 
pastoral nomad, a drouth in Canaan forces him 
to seek forage in fertile Egypt; where he passes 
off Sarai as his sister, in fear that her beauty 
will lead to his murder to possess her, and she 
is taken by Pharaoh, who, on discovering the 
deception, restores her, but orders Abram out 
of Egypt. Accompanied by Lot, he returns to a 
former encampment between Bethel and Ai. 
The clans of the two kinsmen quarrel over the 
limited pasturage, as usual with nomad tribes, 
and Abram proposes that each follow his own 
fortune. Lot, wishing to quit nomad life, 
chooses the fertile Jordan plain; Abram pitches 
his tent among the oak groves of Mamre, close 
to Hebron, and the previous promise of his 
posthumous glory is repeated and solemnly cove¬ 
nanted. Lot is captured in a raid of the Baby¬ 
lonian king, with his Syrian and other allies, 
against his revolted vassals of the Dead Sea 
and Jordan valleys, including the kings of So¬ 
dom and Gomorrah, who are overthrown; 
Abram sallies out to his rescue with a band of 
tribesmen, beats the confederacy and chases 
them near to Damascus, and not only recovers 
his nephew but restores the above kings to their 
thrones, refusing any reward. The property of 
the childless Abraham is to descend to his trusted 
servant Eliezer, and Sarai suggests that he avoid 
this by having a child from a concubine, a com¬ 
mon enough arrangement; accordingly he has 
Ishmael by Sarai’s. maid Hagar, at 86. Four 
years later it is revealed by Yahwe in person 
to Abram that he shall have a legitimate son by 
Sarai, whose name is thenceforth to be Sarah 
(princess) and his own to be Abraham (father 
of peoples) ; the promise is afterward repeated 
by Yahwe and two angels, who visit Abram’s 
tent in human form, the latter going on to de¬ 
stroy Sodom and Gomorrah for their wicked¬ 
ness, and the former staying behind to inform 
Abram of it. Abram’s plea wins a promise of 
mercy contingent on ten righteous men being 
found there, but they are not forthcoming, and 
only Lot and his family escape. Abram goes to 
Gerar (Negeb) in southern Palestine, repeats 


precisely the same performance with the nona¬ 
genarian Sarai as before, and the king Abime- 
lech repeats the part of Pharaoh, with the same 
apologies and reproaches. Isaac is born, Sarah 
being 90, and Hagar and her boy Ishmael are 
driven into the desert by Sarah’s jealous fears, 
where Ishmael becomes ancestor of the Bedouin. 
Isaac is circumcised at eight days old, as a token 
of Yahwe’s covenant with Abraham. Some 
time in Isaac’s boyhood Abraham is commanded 
by Yahwe to make a burnt-offering of him, and 
proceeds to obey, but is spared the sacrifice by 
Yahwe, who accepts a stray ram instead and 
blesses him for his faith. Sarah dies in Hebron 
and is buried in the cave of Machpelah, which 
Abraham buys of Ephron the Hittite. He later 
marries Keturah, has six sons by her, dies at 
175, and is buried beside Sarah. Isaac has 
previously married Rebekah, so that the suc¬ 
cession is assured. 

The Jewish stories of Abraham were by no 
means confined to this account in our canonical 
book; they had many others, associating him 
with Nimrod, etc., which are collected in the 
Talmud; and the Mohammedans invented or 
preserved many more. The critical view is that 
there was a real Abram or Abraham (the tradi¬ 
tions existing in both forms), with his home at 
Hebron, probably a considerable man from the 
number and persistence of the legends about 
him; but that this is all we know. The names 
of his brothers and ancestry are not persons but 
Arab clans, and their relations and movements 
represent what was handed down or believed 
concerning the North-Arab league that grew 
into the Hebrew nation, or its original elements. 
The path of the (< bne TeralU from the southern 
Euphrates valley into Palestine and elsewhere 
is certainly a correct type of the actual course, 
as revealed to us by archaeology, of the Semitic 
tribes who century after century poured out of 
the Arabian deserts, into and up through west¬ 
ern Mesopotamia, to plunder or share the rich 
Babylonian civilization and wealth, as the bar¬ 
barians did that of the Roman empire; accord¬ 
ing to the resistance they found they stayed in 
the Moabite district, turned west to overrun the 
Jordan valley, or moved north into Syria. For 
the archaeological results see the chapters on 
early times in various histories of the Hebrews, 
Kittel’s, Stade’s, Guthe’s, etc.; Sayce’s Patri¬ 
archal Palestine 1 * and Parly History of the 
Hebrews, } reverent in tone; Tompkin’s ( Studies 
on the Times of Abraham. ) Critical commen¬ 
taries on Genesis are also serviceable. For the 
rabbinical legends, the sources — in German — 
are Beer on the life of Abraham, and Griinbaum 
on the ( Semitic Sagas, ) which gives the Moham¬ 
medan legends likewise. 

Abrahamites, (1) A 9th-century sect of 
Syrian deists, denying the divinity of Christ. 
(2) In modern use, the Bohemian deists of the 
later 18th century, who called themselves fol¬ 
lowers of Huss, but accepted no religious doc¬ 
trine beyond the unity of God, and nothing of 
the Bible but the Lord’s Prayer. They avowed 
this creed in 1782 on Joseph II.’s promise of 
toleration; but as they would join neither Jewish 
nor Christian folds, he expelled them from Bo¬ 
hemia the next year and scattered them through 
Hungary, Transylvania, and Slavonia. Many 
were martyred, others turned Catholic. 

Abram. See Abraham. 


ABRASIVES 


Abrasives, or those substances used in 
grinding or polishing, include (a) mineral sub¬ 
stances, such as grindstones and whetstones, 
which are used by simply shaping up the ma¬ 
terial found in nature; ( b ) mineral substances 
which occur disseminated in the rocks or which 
must first be freed from impurities and are pre¬ 
pared for use by an initial pulverization; ( c ) 
artificial abradants. The history of abrasives 
shows that in ancient times the first class was 
most largely used, while the artificial abrasives 
now so extensively employed, were unknown 
until quite recently. 

(a) Oilstones and Whetstones (q.v.) are 
largely American products. For nearly a cen¬ 
tury New Hampshire has been the headquarters 
of the whetstone industry. Whetstone rock is 
also found in Vermont, Massachusetts and Indi¬ 
ana. The best oilstones from New Hampshire 
are inferior to those of Garland County, Arkan¬ 
sas, in which region there are extensive beds of 
a remarkably compact, white, Paleozoic quartz 
rock, called Novaculite. Griswold in 1890 an¬ 
nounced that this material is a sedimentary 
deposit of fine-grained quartz and not a chemi¬ 
cally precipitated deposit as had been previously 
supposed. The quarries were largely worked 
for implements in prehistoric times and since 
1840 they have yielded the finest oilstones known. 
These are sold under the names of <( Washita® 
and ^Arkansas® oilstones. The production of 
oilstones and whetstones in the United States 
during 1902 amounted to $221,762. The imports, 
chiefly of razor hones from Belgium and Ger¬ 
many, and of (( Turkey® oilstones from Italy and 
France amounted to $56,456. Grindstones are 
manufactured from a tough, gritty sandstone, 
found chiefly in Ohio, though Michigan, Mon¬ 
tana, Wyoming, and West Virginia add to the 
output, and England, Scotland, and Bavaria are 
also producers. The production of grindstones 
in the United States in 1902 amounted to 
$667,431. Millstones and buhrstones are far less 
used now than before the introduction of the 
roller process of making flour, for while the 
American production in 1880 amounted to $200,- 
000, it fell in 1894 to $13,887. Since 1894 it 
has steadily increased till in 1902 it was $59,808. 
This is owing to the increased demand for buhr¬ 
stones for grinding the coarser cereals, fertiliz¬ 
ers, cement rock, and various minerals. Mill¬ 
stones are finer grained and more compact than 
grindstones. They are usually made from sand¬ 
stone or a quartz conglomerate. The buhrstone 
(q.v.) from France is the best, but the stones 
from New York, Pennsylvania, and Virginia 
meet most of the requirements of the trade. 

( b) Pumice (q.v.), a spongy lava, or a vol¬ 
canic ash, is used in scouring powders and soaps. 
It comes chiefly from the Lipari Islands, but is 
also produced in Utah and Nebraska. Infuso¬ 
rial or diatomaceous earth occurs in beds often 
miles in extent. It is formed of the siliceous 
shells of infusoria and diatoms, and is used in 
scouring soaps and powders. The chief Ameri¬ 
can localities are in Maryland, Virginia, New 
Hampshire, and California. Tripoli is a similar 
variety of opal, but formed from a siliceous 
limestone by the leaching out of the calcium 
carbonate. Its use as an abrasive is as a polish¬ 
ing powder for metals, etc., but it is also exten¬ 
sively manufactured into filters, for which it is 
admirably adapted. Extensive deposits are 
worked at Seneca, Missouri, but the chief sup¬ 


ply is imported from Tripoli. Crystalline 
quartz, of which over 15,000 tons were mined in 
Connecticut and Pennsylvania in 1902, is used as 
a wood finisher, in the manufacture of sand¬ 
paper, in the sawing of marble, for cleaning cast¬ 
ings, etc. Garnet (q.v.) occurs in many of the 
crystalline rocks, especially in pegmatite and 
mica schist. Many varieties are recognized by 
the mineralogist; but the value of garnet as an 
abrasive, aside from its great hardness, is de¬ 
pendent not on its composition, but on its struc¬ 
ture. If this is distinctly lamellar the material 
will continually present the sharp edges which 
are so essential to a good abrasive. Garnet 
which lacks this lamellar structure is of com¬ 
paratively little efficiency for grinding and 
smoothing. Garnet-paper is much superior to 
sandpaper and is extensively used in woodwork¬ 
ing and finishing the soles and heels of shoes. 
The most important localities are in New York, 
Connecticut, Pennsylvania, and North Caro¬ 
lina. Corundum (q.v.), being the hardest min¬ 
eral known, except the diamond, ranks next to it 
among the natural abrasives. It occurs in enor¬ 
mous quantities in Ontario, which since 1901 
has been the leading producer. It is also ex¬ 
tensively mined in Montana, while North Caro¬ 
lina and Georgia have until very recently fur¬ 
nished nearly all of the domestic supply. Small 
quantities of corundum are produced in India 
which go chiefly to the English market. Emery 
(q.v.) is a natural mixture of corundum with 
magnetite or hematite. It has been largely 
mined at Chester, Mass., and Peekskill, New 
York. The chief supply, however, comes from 
the Island of Naxos, Greece, and from Asia 
Minor. The material is brought to this country 
as ballast and owing to the low prices at which 
it is marketed, the sale for the American min¬ 
eral is much reduced. Diamond, owing to its 
far greater hardness, brings many times the 
price per carat which any other abrasive brings 
per pound. The black amorphous (( carbonado® 
found in Brazil is much harder than the crystal¬ 
lized diamond, but it is almost exclusively used 
for diamond drills, while the dust of the South 
African <( bort® is the material commonly em¬ 
ployed as an abrasive in the cutting of diamonds 
and other precious stones. 

( c ) Among artificial abrasives, carborundum 
(q.v.) holds first rank. Discovered in 1890, its 
production has steadily increased from 1,000 
pounds valued at $15 per pound in 1893, to 
3,741,500 pounds valued at 8 to 10 cents per 
pound in 1902. It is generally acknowledged 
that it is exceeded in hardness only by the dia¬ 
mond, thus ranking above pure corundum. The 
chief objection to it is its brittleness. Car¬ 
borundum wheels and stones, as well as car¬ 
borundum cloth and paper, are now active 
competitors of the similar manufactures of 
emery and corundum. Crushed steel is exten¬ 
sively # used in sawing, grinding, rubbing, and 
polishing marble, granite, and other stones, 
while the finer grades of crushed steel, 
known as <( steel emery® and <( rouge® are used in 
grinding glass. Artificial corundum is now 
being manufactured at Niagara Falls by heating 
the mineral bauxite in the electrical furnace. 

For further particulars about abrasives see 
Mineral Resources of the United States,* pub¬ 
lished annually by the United States Geological 
Survey. George Letchworth English, 
Mineralogist, New York City. 


ABSALOM — ABSINTHE 


Absalom, third son of King David (2 Sam. 
xiii. - xv., xviii.; 1 Chron. iii. 2). He revenged 
his brother Amnon’s outrage of his sister Tamar 
by killing him, and was banished from his fa¬ 
ther s court for five years. The grudging re¬ 
admittance probably left him feeling insecure: 
he cleverly ingratiated himself with the people, 
and by aid of the shrewd Ahithophel organized 
a rebellion against his father, which took David 
unaware and forced him to fly east of the Jor¬ 
dan with a small following, while Absalom 
gained possession of Jerusalem and the court. 
With this enormous de facto advantage he might 
easily have maintained his seat; but according 
to the story, one Hushai, pretending to desert 
David, ingratiated himself with Absalom, and 
by cunning and flattery persuaded him to a pol¬ 
icy of delay, while Ahithophel urged him to 
strike quick and hard, the obviously sensible 
course. David with this breathing-space collect¬ 
ed an army; his veteran captain Joab, gray in 
victories and blood, routed Absalom’s forces in 
«the wood of Ephraim»; and on report that 
Absalom had been caught by his long hair in 
the branches he was riding under, and refusal 
of the messenger to lay hands on the king’s son, 
Joab himself dispatched him with his spear 
(about 980 b.c.). David could not have suf¬ 
fered the rebel to live; but the statement that he 
held a grudge against Joab for killing him, and 
ordered public mourning for his son, has noth¬ 
ing intrinsically improbable in it. Absalom is 
represented as a very handsome and charming 
prince, and the chronicler plainly has much sym¬ 
pathy with him. 

Absalom and Achitophel, a satire of Dry- 
den’s, published 1681, with a second part next 
year mainly by Nahum Tate. It was aimed at 
the efforts of the Whig party to put forward the 
Duke of Monmouth, Charles II.’s illegitimate 
son, for the succession against the Duke of 
York, afterward James II. It is classic liter¬ 
ature for the force and fire of its poetry, its 
intellectual keenness, and its brilliant character¬ 
izations of politicians of the «Popish Plot» 
time under the guise of Scriptural characters: 
the Earl of Shaftesbury as Achitophel (Ahith¬ 
ophel), Buckingham as Zimri, Slingsby Bethel 
as Shimei, Halifax as Jotham, etc.; also his 
poetical contemporaries Shadwell and Settle as 
Og and Doeg. 

Abscess, a local collection of pus in a cavity 
formed by the breaking down of tissue. See 
Suppuration. 

Abschatz, Hans Assmann, ap'-shats, Frei¬ 
herr von, poet: b. Wiirbitz, 4 Feb. 1646; d. 
Liegnitz, 22 April 1699. A lyric poet of his day, 
whose poems were in great part called forth by 
his indignation at the predatory wars of the 
French. They are simple and without bombast, 
and show sincere feeling, pure sentiment, and a 
sturdy, patriotic mind entirely free from class 
prejudices. His < Poems and Translations> 
(1704) include a German translation of Gua- 
rini’s < Pastor Fido.> Selections from them were 
edited by W. Muller in 1824. 

Absecon, or Absecum, a bay and an inlet 
on the coast of New Jersey, northeast of At¬ 
lantic City. 


Absconding, the going clandestinely or se¬ 
cretly out of the jurisdiction of the courts, or 
lying concealed, in order to avoid their process. 
A person who has been in a State only tran¬ 
siently or has come into it without any intention 
of settling therein cannot be treated as an ab¬ 
sconding debtor (15 Johns. N. Y. 196), nor can 
one who openly changes his residence (3 Yerg. 
Tenn. 414). It is not necessary that the debtor 
should actually leave the State. 

Absenteeism, a term applied to the owners 
of estates in a country who habitually absent 
themselves from that country and spend the in¬ 
come of their estates in it in another; in current 
use, referring almost wholly to the Irish nobil¬ 
ity whose fixed residence is outside of Ireland. 
Much of the poverty and many of the disturb¬ 
ances in Ireland have been charged directly to 
it, and the Irish people have protested against it 
since 1380. While an Irish Parliament existed, 
there seemed hope for its gradual dwindling, 
careers being open for ambitious men in Ire¬ 
land; but with its abolition the evil is almost 
incurable. Hungary suffered heavily from the 
same cause — its aristocracy looking on their 
native country’s language and life as badges of 
barbarism, priding themselves on being Germans 
and living in Vienna — till the great national 
movement set going by Szechenyi and his 
companions early in the 19th century. Despite 
the defense of the system by some economists, 
and the good theoretical arguments that may be 
made for it, in practice its economic, social, per¬ 
sonal, and political mischiefs are obvious. Not 
only is the absent landowner and property- 
owner, collecting his rents by agents, inaccessible 
to complaints, representations, appeals for help in 
upbuilding local institutions, etc., and unwilling 
to acknowledge rackrenting he does not per¬ 
sonally see to be such (even a generous and 
kindly agent dares not be as lenient as he would, 
in fear of his master) ; but he should be the 
leader of his section, the fountain of careers, 
furnishing it employment, having his own suc¬ 
cess depend on its prosperity, and the active de¬ 
fender of its interests, and rights, and suscepti¬ 
bilities. The estate of an absentee owner, in 
fact, is essentially like a colony in the old con¬ 
ception,— a mine to exploit for outsiders who 
cared nothing for it; but the colonists of a 
distant province have a collective power much 
greater than that of the tenants of an absent 
landlord. Furthermore, it makes social co-opera¬ 
tion for general needs almost impossible. The 
literature on this subject is nearly coincident 
with that of the Irish question as a whole; and 
the debates in Hansard’s < Parliamentary Re¬ 
ports > abound in its discussion. 

Ab'sima'rus, a soldier of fortune who raised, 
against the Byzantine emperor Leontius, an 
army which proclaimed him emperor, a.d. 698. 
He slit Leontius’ ears and nose and threw him 
into a convent. He was taken in 705 by Jus¬ 
tinian II., who, after having used him as a foot¬ 
stool at the hippodrome, ordered him to be 
beheaded. 

Absinthe, a drink prepared from alcohol, 
the active principle of Artemisia absinthium, 
and other aromatics, notably the volatile oil of 
anise. Its frequent and prolonged use leads to 
a diseased condition known as absinthism that 
is a product of chronic alcoholism to which the 


ABSOLUTE — ABSOLUTION 


effects of the volatile oil of Absinthium are 
added. Other volatile oils probably contribute 
somewhat to the general result. Absinthism, in 
the main, is characterized by a greater amount 
of affection of the brain than is simple alcohol¬ 
ism. The action of the volatile oils is to height¬ 
en cerebral excitement, and absinthe-mania is a 
frequent result of this form of intoxication. 
See Wormwood. 

Absolute, opposed to relative; means that 
the thing is considered in itself and without ref¬ 
erence to other things. 

In Logic. — (i) Absolute or non-connotative, 
according to Whately, is opposed to attributive 
or connotative. The former does not take note 
of an attribute connected with the object, which 
the latter does. Thus « Rome » and « sky » are 
absolute terms; but «Rome, the capital of 
Italy,» and « our sky » are attributive or con¬ 
notative. (See Whately’s (Logic,) bk. ii., ch. 
v., §§ i, 2-5.) (2) According to J. S. Mill, it is 

incorrect to regard non-connotative and abso¬ 
lute as synonymous terms. He considers abso¬ 
lute to mean non-relative, and to be opposed to 
relative. It implies that the object is to be con¬ 
sidered as a whole, without reference to any¬ 
thing of which it is a part, or to any other object 
distinguished from it. Thus « man » is an abso¬ 
lute term, but « father » is not, for father implies 
the existence of sons and is therefore relative. 
(J. S. Mill’s (Logic,) bk. i., ch. ii.) 

In Grammar, a case absolute is one consist¬ 
ing essentially of a substantive and a participle, 
which form a clause not agreeing with or gov¬ 
erned by any word in the remainder of the sen¬ 
tence. In Greek, the absolute case is the geni¬ 
tive ; in Latin, the ablative; in English, it is 
considered to be the nominative. In Latin, the 
words sole stante in the expression sole stante 
terra vertitur (the earth turns round, the sun 
standing still—that is, while the sun is stand¬ 
ing still) are in the ablative absolute. In Eng¬ 
lish, thou leading, in the following familiar 
quotation — 

« I shall not lag behind, nor err 
The way, thou leading—» (Milton) 
is in the nominative absolute. So also is I rapt 
in the line — 

« And, I all rapt in this, (Come out,) he said.» 

— Tennyson’s (Princess,) Prol. 50. 

In Law. — (1) Personal rights are divided into 
absolute and relative — absolute, which pertain 
to men as individuals; and relative, which are 
incident to them as members of society, standing 
in various relations to each other. The three 
chief rights of an absolute kind are the right of 
personal security, the right of personal liberty, 
and the right of private property. (Black- 
stone’s (Commentaries,) bk. i., ch. i.) Simi¬ 
larly there are absolute and relative duties. 
Public sobriety is a relative duty, while sobriety, 
even when no human eye is looking on, is an 
absolute duty. (Ibid.) Property in a man’s 
possession is described under two categories, ab¬ 
solute and qualified property. His chairs, tables, 
spoons, horses, cows, etc., are his absolute prop¬ 
erty ; while the term « qualified property » is ap¬ 
plied to the wild animals on his estate. (2) An 
absolute decision is one which can at once be 
enforced. It is opposed to a rule nisi, which 
cannot be acted on until cause be shown, unless, 
indeed, the opposite party fail to appear. (3) 


Absolute law: The true and proper law of na¬ 
ture. (4) Absolute warrandice (Scotch convey¬ 
ancing) : A warranting or assuring against all 
mankind. 

In Physics, absolute is opposed to relative. 
As this relativity may be of many kinds, various 
shades of meaning arise; thus : — 

(1) Absolute or real expansion of a liquid, as 
opposed to its apparent expansion, the expan¬ 
sion which would arise when the liquid is heat¬ 
ed if the vessel containing it did not itself 
expand. 

(2) Absolute gravity is the gravity of a body 
viewed apart from all modifying influences, as, 
for instance, of the atmosphere. To ascertain 
its amount, therefore, the body must be weighed 
in vacuo. 

(3) Absolute motion is the change of place 
on a body produced by the motion so desig¬ 
nated, viewed apart from the modifying influ¬ 
ence arising from disturbing elements of another 
kind. 

(4) Absolute force of a centre: strength of 
a center. 

In Astronomy, the absolute equation is the 
aggregate of the optic and eccentric equations. 

In Algebra, absolute numbers are those which 
stand in an equation without having any letters 
combined with them. Thus, in the equation 
2x + 9= 17, 9 and 17 are absolute numbers, but 
2 is not so. 

In Theology, God is often spoken of as abso¬ 
lute, because any relations he has to other beings 
are unessential to his nature. 

In Morals, absolute ethics are those based on 
a fixed standard, independent of time or society. 

In Metaphysics, the absolute is an existence 
apart from all attributes by which it is known 
as a phenomenon; but as it cannot be known 
except by the relation between such attributes 
and those already known to the mind, know¬ 
ledge of the absolute, or of ultimate reality, is 
contradiction in essence, as the means of know¬ 
ing it necessarily reduce it to a phenomenon. 
In other words, the absolute must exist apart 
from all relations, and knowledge itself is rela¬ 
tion. It would be possible only to a being 
whose consciousness and the objects cognized 
were one and the same — that is, an existence 
which in itself is the universe both of objects 
and of mind at once, and those objects phases of 
its own mind — the Spinozan conception. Ab¬ 
solute space is considered apart from the mate¬ 
rial bodies in it. Absolute time is time viewed 
apart from events or any other subjects of men¬ 
tal conception with which it may be associated. 

Absolute Zero. — The temperature at which 
bodies are entirely destitute of heat. For dis¬ 
cussion of the principles upon which the deter¬ 
mination of the absolute zero is based, see Ther¬ 
modynamics; Zero. 

Absolute, Sir Anthony, a character in < The 
Rivals,) a comedy by R. B. Sheridan. He is a 
hot-headed, fiery-tempered, generous old man, 
always in a towering passion, even while he 
commends his own mildness of manner. His 
son, Captain Absolute, is the hero of the play. 

Absolution, in ecclesiastical usage, the free¬ 
ing from sin or its penalties. In the Catholic 
Church absolution has two important and dis¬ 
tinctive bearings: (1) Absolution from sin; (2) 
Absolution from censures. The first is defined 
as the remission of sin, and can only be given 


ABSORPTION — ABYDOS 


by a duly ordained priest in the Sacrament of 
Penance, which requires, on the part of the 
penitent, a sincere confession of all his sins, 
contrition and a firm purpose of amendment. 
The basis of the doctrine is the authority of the 
Church and the commission in John xx. 23. 
In circumstances, where the conditions of the 
Sacrament of Penance cannot be fulfilled, as in 
severe illness when the penitent is too weak to 
speak, or in instant danger of death, conditional 
absolution may be given on the ground of 
the moral conviction of the penitent’s virtual 
desire to comply with all the necessary condi¬ 
tions. The Councils of Florence and of Trent 
defined the form of words to be used: (( I absolve 
thee from thy sins, etc.** In the Greek or East¬ 
ern Church the deprecatory form is used: (( May 
Christ absolve thee, etc.® Absolution from cen¬ 
sures merely removes penalties imposed by the 
Church. It may be given either in the Sacra¬ 
ment of Penance, or in the external form, that is, 
in the courts of the Church. It is not necessary 
for the person to be absolved from censures, to 
be present or even living. Absolution for the 
dead is a short prayer imploring eternal rest 
and the remission of the temporal penalties of 
sin over a dead body. In the Protestant 
Churches in general absolution is simply a 
declarative power of the minister imploring the 
divine forgiveness. Consult: ( Decrees of Coun¬ 
cil of Trent ) ; Denys de St. Marthe, ( Traite de 
la Confession ; Morinus. 

Absorption. In chemistry, absorption is 
the taking up of a gas by a liquid or by a porous 
solid; and in natural philosophy it is the taking 
up of rays of light and heat by certain bodies 
through which they are passing. Absorption of 
light is the retention of some rays and the re¬ 
flection of others when they pass into an imper¬ 
fectly transparent body. If all were absorbed, 
the body would be black; if none, it would be 
white; but when some rays are absorbed, and 
others reflected, the body is then of one of the 
bright and lively colors. 

In chemistry the co-efficient of absorption of 
a gas is the volume of the gas reduced to o° 
Cent, and 760 m. m. pressure, which is absorbed 
by the unit of volume of any liquid. 

Absorption of heat is the retention and con¬ 
sequent disappearance of rays of heat in passing 
into or through a body colder than themselves. 

Absorption of the earth is a term used by 
Kircher and others for the subsidence of tracts 
of land produced by earthquakes. 

In physiology it is the taking in by the spe¬ 
cialized cells of the products of digestion. See 
Gases, General Properties of; Light; Occlu¬ 
sion ; Spectrum. 

Abstract of Title, a synopsis, or brief state¬ 
ment, of the evidences of ownership of real 
estate. An abstract should set forth briefly but 
clearly every deed, will, or other instrument, to¬ 
gether with every fact relating in any way to 
The title, in order to enable the party in interest 
to form an opinion as to the exact state of the 
title. The vendor of land, in England, usually 
furnishes the purchaser with an abstract of 
title. The vendor is not compelled to fur¬ 
nish an abstract of title in the United States. 
He usually undertakes to give only a mar¬ 
ketable title. Plans and sketches of the 
premises are generally inserted in abstracts of 

title. 


Abstraction. In psychology, that process 
of the mind by which the attention is concen¬ 
trated upon one element of a complex idea to 
the exclusion of the other elements. In thought 
one object may be taken out — abstracted from 
— a group of objects, or one element separated 
from the group of elements that go to make up 
the object presented to our senses. Another 
form of abstraction is that process of the mind 
by which general notions or concepts are 
formed. The process of abstraction for the child 
begins in his noticing differences in familiar 
objects. Within certain groups some differences 
are found to be unimportant. These qualities 
which are found to be of less importance are 
then abstracted or removed from the complex 
idea for which the word denoting this group of 
objects stands. As this process develops it be¬ 
comes deliberate, and the attention may be 
directed upon resemblances instead of differ¬ 
ences. At this stage the grouping of objects 
according to likenesses results in classification. 
Consult: G. T. Ladd, Psychology, Descriptive 
and Explanatory,* New York, 1894; W. James, 
Principles of Psychology,* New York 1890; or 
any work on general psychology. 

Absyrtus. See Argonauts. 

Abt, Franz, apt, a German song-writer and 
conductor: b. Wiesbaden, 22 Dec. 1819; d. 31 
March 1885. He studied theology at Leipsic, 
but abandoned it for music at Mendelssohn’s 
instance. In 1841 he became kapellmeister at 
the court theatre at Bernburg; shortly afterward 
relinquishing the post for a similar one in Zu¬ 
rich, where he remained till 1852. He was then 
called to Brunswick as chief conductor of the 
orchestra in the royal theatre, and made court 
kapellmeister in 1855. In 1872 he came to the 
United States at the invitation of a number of 
choral societies, and was very favorably re¬ 
ceived ; he conducted at the famous Peace 
Jubilee in Boston in that year. In 1881 he 
retired to Wiesbaden on a pension. Many of 
his songs (for example, ( When the Swallows 
Homeward Fly,* ( Good Night, Thou Child of 
My Heart,* ( 0 Ye Tears,* etc.), have endeared 
themselves to the heart of the people all over 
the world. 

Abydos, Greece, town and castle of Asia 
Minor, on the Hellespont or Straits of Galli¬ 
poli, nearly opposite Sestus. It is famous as 
being the point from which Xerxes made his 
celebrated crossing of the Hellespont on the 
bridge of boats; and, also, as being the scene 
of the loves of Hero (q.v.) and Leander (see 
Mus^eus). Byron adopts the name in his 
Pride of Abydos* (1813), characterizing it as 
a clime where <( A 11 , save the spirit of man is 
divine.** It is thought originally to have 
been a Thracian town, but it subsequently be¬ 
came a Milesian colony. In 411 b.c. Abydos 
revolted from Athens and went over to Dercylli- 
das the Spartan. Subsequently the city was 
captured by Philip II. of Macedonia, but in 196 
b.c. it was declared free by the Romans. An¬ 
other Abydos was situated in Egypt on the 
upper Nile, and in the Thebaid was second in 
importance only to Thebes. It has become 
famous in modern times because of important 
ruins found there, the Palace of Memnon and 
the tomb of Osiris being among them. Here 
also was found the Tablet of Abydos. 


ABYSSINIA 


Abyssinia, or Habesh, ha'-besh, an ancient 
kingdom of E. Africa, now under a monarch 
who claims the title of emperor. Pop. some 
3,500,000. Abyssinia may be said to extend be¬ 
tween lat. 8° and 16 0 N., and Ion. 35 0 and 
41 0 E., having Nubia N. and W., the Sudan W., 
the Red Sea littoral (Erythrsea, Danakil coun¬ 
try, etc.) E., and to the S. the Galla country. 
The area within these limits is about 160,000 
square miles, but the present ruler claims a 
much more extensive territory; and latterly 
Abyssinia has come to be surrounded by re¬ 
gions belonging to or influenced more or less 
by Italy, France, and Great Britain. The prin¬ 
cipal divisions of Abyssinia are the provinces or 
kingdoms of Shoa in the south (including Efat), 
the strongest and best organized state in Abys¬ 
sinia,— capital, Ankobar, of some 7,000 people, 
8,000 feet above sea-level, with a salubrious cli¬ 
mate; Amhara in the centre (including Gojam), 
capital, Gondar, situated on the Gondar plateau, 
7,500 feet above the sea; and Tigre in the north, 
chief places, Antalo, and Adua or Adowa, with 
Axum near the latter, none of them much over 
2,000 population. Adis Abeba in Shoa is the 
present residence of the ruler, transferred from 
Adowa after the Italian war, and has grown 
within two or three years from a small village 
to a city of some 80,000 inhabitants. 

Topography .— The more marked physical 
features of the country may be described gen¬ 
erally as consisting of a vast series of table¬ 
lands of various and often of great elevations, 
and of numerous ranges of high and rugged 
mountains, some of them of very singular forms, 
dispersed over the surface in apparently the 
wildest confusion. From these mountains flow 
inexhaustible supplies of water, which, pour¬ 
ing down by the deep and tremendous ravines 
that everywhere intersect them, impart an ex¬ 
traordinary fertility to the plains and valleys 
below. 

The loftiest and most remarkable mountain 
summits occur in the centre of the northern part 
of the kingdom, immediately west of the Ta¬ 
cazze River. Among the highest of these (so 
far as known) is Ras Dashan, calculated at 
15,167 feet and capped with perpetual snow. 
Abba Yared and Buahit are estimated even 
higher. Along the eastern side of the country 
extends a mountain range or escarpment form¬ 
ing a natural rampart, with a mean elevation of 
7,000 or 8,000 feet for some 600 miles. No 
volcanoes are known to exist at present, but 
almost everywhere are numerous evidences of 
past volcanic action. Perhaps the principal river 
of Abyssinia is the Tacazze, rising in the moun¬ 
tains of Lasta, about lat. 12° N.; Ion. 39 0 20' E. 
It runs north and then west, and after leaving 
the bounds of Abyssinia takes the name of 
Atbara, and finally joins the Nile. The chief 
of the other rivers — if not indeed the chief of 
all — is the Abay or Abai in the southwest, 
which after flowing through Lake Dembea, runs 
south and then northwest, and later becomes the 
Bahr-el-Azrek or Blue Nile, of which it is in 
fact the upper portion. 

Fauna .— The domestic animals consist of 
horses, cattle, sheep, goats, camels, mules, and 
asses. Mules, camels, and asses are the usual 
beasts of burden, the horses being generally 
reserved for war and the chase. Vast herds of 
oxen are met with throughout the country. The 
wild animals are the lion (rare), elephant, 


hippopotamus, rhinoceros, crocodile, buffalo, 
hyena, leopard, boar, antelope, zebra, quagga, 
giraffe, gazelle, and civet. The hippopotamus 
abounds in Lake Tsana, and great numbers are 
killed annually for their flesh and hides. The 
rhinoceros, like the elephant, inhabits the low, 
moist grounds, and is numerous in certain dis¬ 
tricts. Crocodiles are found in various rivers, 
but the largest and most dreaded are those that 
inhabit the Tacazze. The buffalo, a compara¬ 
tively harmless animal in other countries, is 
here extremely ferocious. Serpents are numer¬ 
ous, among them being the boa, which often 
attains a length of 20 feet. Bees are numerous, 
honey being a general article of food; lo¬ 
custs often lay the land waste, and the tsetse 
fly is destructive to cattle during the rainy 
season. 

Productions .— The chief mineral products of 
Abyssinia are iron, sulphur, coal, and salt. Coal¬ 
beds extend along the whole of the eastern 
frontier of Shoa, but as a combustible coal is 
scarcely known in the country. Salt is obtained 
in various places, especially from a plain on the 
southeastern border of Tigre. Gold is obtained 
from alluvial deposits, but not in great quan¬ 
tity. In some parts of the country iron is 
abundant and is manufactured into implements. 
A few hot mineral springs are known and 
used. 

Climate .— The climate of Abyssinia is as va¬ 
rious as its surface. In the valleys it is delight¬ 
ful, but on the mountains often cold. The rains 
begin in June and continue till September (over 
a considerable portion of the country at least), 
during which period they are often so violent as 
to put a stop to agricultural labor and all other 
outdoor operations. The finest months of the 
year are December and January. 

Commerce .— The foreign trade is chiefly car¬ 
ried on through Massowa, Berbera, Zeila, Jibutil, 
Obok, and other non-Abyssinian ports on the 
Red Sea and Gulf of Aden; but the external 
traffic has never been of great importance, as the 
nature of the country is adverse to an extensive 
trade, and there are relatively few commodities 
suited for export; moreover, till recently the 
natives dared not trust their treasures out of 
their secret hoards, and the royal court was the 
chief buyer. Menelek’s firm administration, 
however, with its better security for life and 
property, has recently been extending Abyssinian 
trade considerably, the United States and Great 
Britain being the chief beneficiaries, France and 
Germany ranking next. The imports of 1899- 
1900 into Adis Abeba, the capital, and Harrar, 
near British Somaliland, the chief trade centres, 
were about $3,500,000. The chief exports are 
coffee to Arabia, gold to India, wool, skins, 
ivory and rhinoceros horns, honey, wax, gums, 
civet, and ostrich feathers; the chief imports, 
cotton goods, in which American fabrics take 
the lead, silks, firearms and needles, bottles, to¬ 
bacco, pepper, and antimony for cosmetics. Trade 
is greatly hampered by the primitive methods 
of communication, which is carried on by mules 
and pack-horses; the distance traversed being 
not above six to eight miles a day at best. 
Now, however, French capital is building — 
for politics, but none the less to the profit 
of trade — a railroad 184 m. long from 
Jibutil on the Gulf of Aden to Harrar, 
south-southwest, to be eventually extended to 
Adis Abeba; and the Italians are building one. 


ABYSSINIAN CHURCH 


Arabs had invaded the country and obtained a 
footing in Adel, though they were unable to ex¬ 
tend their conquests farther. For several cen¬ 
turies afterward the kingdom continued in a 
distracted state, now torn by internal commo¬ 
tions, and now invaded by external enemies 
(Mohammedans and Gallas). To protect him¬ 
self from the last the emperor of Abyssinia, 
about the middle of the 16th century, applied for 
assistance to the king of Portugal, promising at 
the same time implicit submission to the Pope. 
The solicited aid was sent, and the empire saved. 
The Roman Catholic priests, having now ingra¬ 
tiated themselves with the emperor and his 
family, endeavored to induce them to renounce 
the tenets and rites of the Coptic Church and 
adopt those of Rome. This attempt, however, 
was resisted by the ecclesiastics and the peo¬ 
ple, and finally ended, after a long struggle, in 
the expulsion of the Roman Catholic priests 
about 1630. The kingdom gradually fell into 
a state of anarchy, which about the middle of 
the 18th century was complete. The Negus re¬ 
ceived no obedience from the provincial govern¬ 
ors, who besides were at feud with one an¬ 
other and severally assumed the royal title. 

Abyssinia thus became divided into a number 
of petty independent states. A remarkable, but, 
as it proved, quite futile attempt to resuscitate 
the unity and power of the ancient kingdom was 
begun about the middle of the 19th century by 
King Theodore, who aimed at the restoration 
of the ancient kingdom of Ethiopia, with him¬ 
self for its sovereign. He introduced European 
artisans, and went to work wisely in many 
ways, but his cruelty and tyranny counteracted 
his politic measures. In consequence of a 
slight, real or fancied, which he had received at 
the hands of the British government, he threw 
Consul Cameron and a number of other British 
subjects into prison in 1863, and refused to give 
them up. To effect their release an army of 
nearly 12,000 men under Sir Robert Napier was 
dispatched from Bombay in 1867; it landed at 
Zulla on the Gulf of Aden in November, and 
marching up the country came within sight of 
Magdala, Theodore’s capital, in the beginning 
of April 1868. Defeated in a battle, Theodore 
delivered up the captives and shut himself up in 
Magdala, which was taken by storm 13 April. 
Theodore was found among the slain, the gen¬ 
eral opinion being that he had fallen by his own 
hand. 

After the withdrawal of the English, fighting 
immediately began among the chiefs of the dif¬ 
ferent provinces; the three most powerful, Kasa, 
Gobasie, and Menelek, struggling for the su¬ 
premacy. This state of matters continued_ for 
some time; but at last the country was divided 
between Kasa, who secured the northern and 
larger portion and assumed the name of Jo¬ 
hannes, and Menelek, who gained possession of 
Shoa. Latterly Johannes made himself supreme 
ruler, with the title of emperor, or king of 
kings (Negus Negusti). Taking advantage of 
the troubles in Abyssinia the Egyptians annexed 
Massowa and adjoining territory on the Red 
Sea, and hostilities were repeatedly carried on 
between them and Johannes. In 1885 the Egyp¬ 
tian forces were withdrawn, and Italy, with 
the consent of Great Britain, declared a pro¬ 
tectorate over Massowa and the strip of terri¬ 
tory along the coast of the Red Sea. In the fol¬ 


lowing year the Italians pushed inward to 
Saati, a few miles west of Massowa, an action 
which led to war with Johannes. An Abyssinian 
force was sent in 1887 to recover Saati; but 
though a small Italian force was cut to pieces 
at Dogali the Italians maintained their posi¬ 
tion. 

On the death of Johannes in 1889, while 
fighting against the Mahdists, Menelek, who had 
concluded an alliance with Italy, raised himself 
to the imperial throne. The result of this was 
the strengthening of the Italian hold on the 
country. The Italians regarded their treaty 
with Menelek as giving them a protectorate over 
Abyssinia, and by 1892 the whole of Ethiopia 
was generally recognized as within the Italian 
sphere. Proceeding to extend and strengthen 
their position, the Italians in 1889 occupied 
Keren, capital of the Bogos country, situated 
60 miles west of Massowa, and also fortified 
Asmara, southwest of Massowa. Adow r a, the 
capital of Tigre, and the centre of opposition to 
Menelek, was occupied in the following year. 
The Mahdists were also defeated, and Kassala 
in the Sudan was occupied by the Italians. 
Menelek, however, later repudiated the Italian 
protectorate, broke with his former allies, and 
in 1896 his troops inflicted on them such a de¬ 
feat as gave a death-blow to their claim of a 
protectorate over all Abyssinia. The treaty con¬ 
cluded in that year between Menelek and the 
Italians practically abrogated the treaty of seven 
years before, but left Italy in possession of a 
strip along the Red Sea coast from the French 
colony of Obok on the south to Ras Kasar on the 
north, known officially as Eritrea (Erythrsea). A 
British mission in 1897 was favorably received 
by the emperor, and the boundaries between 
Abyssinia and the British Somali protectorate 
were arranged. In 1903, Robert P. Skinner 01 
the United States Department of State nego¬ 
tiated a commercial treaty with Emperor Mene- 
lik. The American commissioner was impressed 
by the commercial possibilities of Abyssinia. 
He found the country admirably suited to cot¬ 
ton growing. Minerals are abundant, and the 
deposits are practically untouched. 

Abyssinian Church, The. Founded by 
Frumentius, the first bishop of Ethiopia, about 
330 a.d. About 470 a great company of monks 
established itself in the country, completely 
changing the doctrines and affairs of the 
Church, but was a few years later expelled. 
From 1528 to 1540, the country was overrun 
by Mohammedans, followed at the end of 
the 15th century by the Portuguese missions, 
which remained till 1633, when the Abyssinians 
resumed allegiance to the Church at Alexandria. 
The metropolitan or head of the Church is ap¬ 
pointed by the patriarch of Alexandria, and is 
always a foreigner. The Abyssinians are mon- 
ophysites, generally agreeing with the Copts 
in ritual and practice. The fasts are long and 
rigid; confession and absolution are strictly en¬ 
forced and the Sabbath and the Levirate law 
are generally observed. Idolatry, purgatory, 
extreme unction, crucifixes, etc., are prohibited. 
The priests must marry, but only once. The 
liturgy is celebrated on the ark in the king’s 
palace at Christmas, Epiphany, Easter, and the 
Feast of the Cross. The Scriptures are read 
in Geez, the literary language, which is used 
for all services. 


ACACIA — ACADEMY 


Acacia (Gr. ake, spine, from their spiny 
stalks), a genus of plants, order Leguminosce, 
sub-order Mimosece. They are trees or shrubs 
with compound pinnate leaves and small leaf¬ 
lets,— in some species wholly or partially unde¬ 
veloped, when the petiole or leaf-stalk expands 
into a blade resembling a leaf, hence called 
phyllodium. It yields gum arabic, gum Senegal, 
and other gums; some have astringent barks 
and pods, used in tanning. The Australian spe¬ 
cies contains considerable tannin, and hence is 
exported to a large extent. The Indian tree 
yields an astringent called catechu. 

Acacius, a-ka'-shius, bishop of Caesarea 340- 
365 a.d. He founded a curious Christian sect 
called Acacians, and that may be termed homo- 
to thelites, as they held that the Son was like 
the Father in will, but not of the same or simi¬ 
lar substance; thus differing from the Arians. 
He induced a synod at Constantinople in 359 to 
accept the doctrine, whereon St. Jerome said 
that «the world groaned and wondered to find 
itself Arian.» It was finally condemned, how¬ 
ever, and he was banished. 

Acacius, St., bishop of Amida in Mesopo¬ 
tamia, early in the 5th century. He sold the 
church plate to redeem 7,000 starving Persian 
slaves. Vararanes (Bahram), the king, is said 
to have been so affected by this noble action 
that he sought an interview with the bishop, 
which resulted in a peace between that prince 
and Theodosius II., a.d. 422, and a hundred 
years’_ peace was sworn between Rome and Per¬ 
sia. 

Academics, a name given to a series of 
philosophers who taught in the Athenian Acad¬ 
emy, the scene of Plato’s discourses. They are 
commonly divided into three sects: (1) The 
Old Academy, of which Plato was the imme¬ 
diate founder, was represented successively by 
Speusippus, Xenocrates, and Polemon. (2) To 
them succeeded Arcesilaus, the founder of the 
Middle Academy. Under his hands the Pla¬ 
tonic method assumed an almost exclusively 
polemical character. His main object was to 
refute the Stoics, who maintained a doctrine of 
perception identical with that promulgated by 
Dr. Reid in the 18th century. Socrates is said 
to have professed that all he knew was that 
he knew nothing. Arcesilaus denied that he 
knew even this. Wisdom he made to consist in 
absolute suspension of assent; virtue, in the 
probable estimate of consequences. He was 
succeeded by Lacydes, Telecles, Evander, and 
Hegesinus. (3) The New Academy claims 
Carneades as its founder. His system is a 
species of mitigated scepticism. He was suc¬ 
ceeded by his disciple, Clitomachus. Charmi- 
des, the third and last of the new academicians, 
appears to have been little more than a teacher 
of rhetoric. 

Academie des Beaux Arts, ak-ad-a-me da 
bo zar. See Academy of Fine Arts. 

Academy, the gymnasium in the suburbs of 
Athens in which Plato taught, and so called after 
a mythical hero Academus, to whom it was said 
to have originally belonged. Anciently there were 
two public academies: one at Rome, founded by 
Adrian, in which all the sciences were taught, 
but especially jurisprudence; the other at Bery- 
tus, in Phoenicia, in which jurists were princi¬ 


pally educated. Academy is the name also of a 
society or an association of artists, linked to¬ 
gether for the promotion of art, or of scientific 
men similarly united for the advancement of 
science, or of persons united for any more or 
less analogous object. Thus the French pos¬ 
sess the celebrated Academy or Institute. (See 
Academy, French.) The use of the word 
“ academy,” different from the ancient one, is 
believed to have arisen first in Italy at the re¬ 
vival of letters in the 15th century. The near¬ 
est approach to these institutions in America is 
the Smithsonian Institution in Washington. 

Academy, French, an institution founded 
in 1635 by Cardinal Richelieu for the purpose 
of refining the French language and style. It 
became in time the most influential of all liter¬ 
ary societies in Europe. Together with the 
Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres, the 
Academy of Moral and Political Sciences, and 
the Academy of Sciences, it composes the Na¬ 
tional Institute of France. It published in 1694 
the first edition of a dictionary. It has exer¬ 
cised a conservative influence on French litera¬ 
ture and favors taste rather than originality. 
It consists of 40 members, besides a director, a 
chancellor, and a secretary. In 1793 it was sup¬ 
pressed by the Convention, but was re-estab¬ 
lished in 1816. The French Academy originated 
in a simple meeting of friends who met at the 
house of Conrart, one of their number. These 
reunions were held informally for many years. 
At last they attracted the attention of Richelieu, 
who in 1634 proposed to form an Academy, and 
from the 13th of March in that year a record 
was kept of their transactions and a director or 
chancellor and a perpetual secretary were ap¬ 
pointed. The Academy was definitely formed 
by letters patent of Louis XIII. in January 1635; 
they were registered by Parliament 10 July 1637. 
At first the number was 30. The perpetual 
secretaries since the foundation have numbered 
19, and the incumbent receives a salary of 
6,000 francs and lodgings at the Institute. Or¬ 
dinary members receive 1,500 francs a year. 
In 1880 the discussion of the qualifications of 
candidates which had been in vogue for more 
than 10 years was abolished, but restored in 
1896. In 1671 the sessions of the Academy be¬ 
came public. The library of the Institute was 
founded by Louis XIV., who. presented to it 
660 volumes. The members of the Academy, 
often spoken of as «the forty immortals,® were, 
in 1901, with the dates of their election: Er¬ 
nest W. G. B. Legouve, 1855; Due de Broglie, 
1862; Emile Ollivier, 1870; Alfred J. F. Me- 
zieres, 1874; Gaston Boissier, 1876; Victorien 
Sardou, 1877; Due d’ Audiffret-Pasquier, 1878; 
Aime J. E. Rousse, 1880; Rene F. A. Sully- 
Prudhomme, 1881 ; Adolph L. A. Perraud, 1882; 
Edouard J. H. Pailleron, 1882; Frangois E. j! 
Coppee, 1884; Joseph L. F. Bertrand, 1884; 
Ludovic Halevy, 1884; Vallery C. O. Greard, 
1886; Comte d’ Haussonville, 1886; Jules A. A. 
Claretie, 1888; Vicomte de Vogue, 1888; Charles 
L de Freycinet, 1890; Julien Viaud, 1891; Er¬ 
nest Lavisse, 1892; Vicomte de Bornier, 18931 
Paul L. Thureau-Dangin, 1893; Ferdinand Bru- 
netiere, 1893; Albert Sorel, 1894; Jose M. de 
Heredia, 1894; Paul Bourget, 1894; Henri 
Houssaye, 1894; Jules Lemaitre, 1895; Anatole 
France, 1896; Marquis de Beauregard, 1896; 


ACADEMY 


Gaston Paris, 1896; Andre Theuriet, 1896; 
Comte Vandal, 1896; Comte de Mun, 1897; Ga¬ 
briel Hanotaux, 1897; Claude J. B. Guillaume, 
1898; Henri L. E. Lavedan, 1899; Paul 
Deschanel, 1899; Marquis de Vogue and Ed¬ 
mond Rostand, 1901. 

Academy, The Royal Spanish, an institution 
established at Madrid in 1714 for the same pur¬ 
poses as the French Academy. The number of 
members is limited to 24. 

Academy of Arts, The Royal, a British 
institution for the encouragement of painting, 
sculpture, and designing; founded in 1768 by 
George III., with Sir Joshua Reynolds as presi¬ 
dent. It is composed of a president (P.R.A.), 
40 academicians (R.A.), and 20 associates 
(A.R.A.), which include professors of painting, 
architecture, anatomy, and perspective. It 
holds an annual exhibition, open to all artists, 
at Burlington House, London, of paintings, 
sculpture, and designs which reach a certain 
standard of merit. 

Academy of Design, National, an American 
institution in New York city, founded in 1826, 
conducting schools in various branches of the 
fine arts, and holding semi-annual exhibitions at 
which prizes are awarded. The membership 
consists of academicians, who are the corporate 
body and use the title N.A. (National Acade¬ 
mician), and the associates, who use the title 
A.N.A. (Associate of the National Academy), 
all, of necessity, artists. Laymen may become 
fellows of the academy on payment of graded 
fees. 

Academy of Fine Arts, The, a French insti¬ 
tution, originally founded in 1648 at Paris un¬ 
der the name of the Academy of Painting and 
Sculpture. In 1795 it was joined to the Acad¬ 
emy of Architecture, and has borne its present 
name since 1819. It publishes memoirs, pro¬ 
ceedings, and a dictionary of the fine arts. It 
has 41 members, besides corresponding mem¬ 
bers, etc. 

Academy of France at Rome, an institution 
for the advanced study of the fine arts in Rome, 
Italy, founded by Colbert in 1666, during the 
reign of Louis XIV. It was at first established 
in the ruined villa Mancini on the Corso, and in 
1803 at the villa Medicis. The young artists, 
painters, sculptors, architects, engravers, and 
musicians who secure the annual prizes of the 
Academy of Fine Arts in Paris spend four 
years there, with an annual pension of 3,500 
francs and traveling expenses. 

Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres, 

an institution founded at Paris by Colbert in 
1663, under the name of Petite Academie. It 
was composed originally of four members, 
chosen by the ministry to belong to the 
Academie Franqaise. The first members, Chap- 
elain, Charpentier, the Abbe de Bourzers. and 
the Abbe Cassagne, met in a salon of the 
Louvre or in Colbert’s library, and devoted 
themselves to composing the inscriptions for the 
monuments erected by Louis XIV.. and the 
medals struck in his honor; hence their popular 
name. They undertook a medallic history of 
the reign of the king. In 1701 the Academy as¬ 
sumed its definitive form; 40 academicians were 
named. In 1803 the Academy was reconsti¬ 
tuted and became the third class of the Insti¬ 


tute. Comparative philology, Oriental, Greek, 
and Roman antiquities and epigraphy, have re¬ 
ceived the attention of the Academy, which has 
published a series of invaluable records and 
works. 

Academy of Medicine, a French institution, 
founded in Paris in 1820 for the purpose of 
keeping the government informed on all sub¬ 
jects appertaining to the public health. It has 
sections of medicine, surgery, and pharmacy, 
and its publications are highly prized by sani¬ 
tarians. 

Academy of Moral and Political Science, 

founded at Paris in 1795, became the second 
class of the Institute. It was suppressed by Na¬ 
poleon in 1803, but was re-established by Louis 
Philippe in 1832, and forms the fifth class of 
the Institute. It is composed of 30 members, 
divided into 5 sections, with 5 free academicians, 
5 foreign associates, and 30 corresponding mem¬ 
bers. 

Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadel¬ 
phia, an institution founded in 1812. It has 
one of the best natural-history collections in this 
country — especially rich in stuffed birds — and 
a valuable scientific library. It has published 
< Journals ) since 1817, and < Proceedings ) since 
1841. 

Academy of Political and Social Science, 
American, an institution organized at Phila¬ 
delphia in 1889 and incorporated in 1891. It 
has a large number of members and publishes 
bi-monthly < AnnalsP 

Academy of Sciences, an institution founded 
at Paris in 1666 by Colbert, and approved by 
Louis XIV. in 1699. It published about 130 vol¬ 
umes of memoirs from 1666 to 1793, when it 
was suppressed. It was re-established in 1816. 
It has now 66 members in 11 sections, with two 
perpetual secretaries and 100 corresponding 
members. 

Academy of Sciences, The Imperial, a Rus¬ 
sian institution, founded in St. Petersburg by 
Catherine I. in 1725, and largely endowed by 
Catherine II. It has 15 professors, a president 
and director, a fine library containing 300.000 
volumes and many manuscripts, and a museum 
very rich in curiosities and objects of natural 
history. It has published < Transactions > since 
1728, and at present publishes two volumes an¬ 
nually, called < Acta AcademiseP including 
many memoirs on the higher mathematics and 
the astronomical observations at Pulkowa. 

Academy of Sciences, The National, an 

American institution, founded in 1863, consist¬ 
ing of 100 members, elected from among the 
most distinguished scientific men of the United 
States; analogous to the Royal Society of Lon¬ 
don. 

Academy of Sciences, The Royal, a Danish 
institution in Copenhagen, established by the 
king of Denmark in 1743. It has published 
transactions ( < Skrifter > ) since its foundation, 
and memoirs ( < Afhandlinger > ) since 1823. 

Academy of Sciences, The Royal, a German 
institution in Berlin, founded by Frederick I. 
in 1700; had Leibnitz as its first director, and 
held its first meetings in 1711. It is divided 
into four sections, devoted to mathematics, 
physics, philosophy, and history. It publishes 
memoirs and monthly reports. 


ACADEMY OF SCIENCES — ACCENT 


Academy o£ Sciences, The Royal, a Swed¬ 
ish institution, known also as the Royal Swed¬ 
ish Academy, founded in Stockholm as a pri¬ 
vate society in 1739; incorporated under its 
second name in 1741; issues annual volumes of 
( Transactions,* which were at first published 
quarterly. 

Academy of Sciences and Arts, American, 

an academy established in Boston in 1780 by the 
Council and House of Representatives of Mas¬ 
sachusetts ; the successor of an institution 
founded by Franklin. It has published monthly 
( Proceedings ) since 1846, and annual < Memoirs ) 
since 1785. 

Acadia (Micmac, Aplenty®). See Nova 
Scotia. 

Acadialite, a name given to chabazite (q.v.) 
from Nova Scotia (Acadia). Its color is usually 
salmon to flesh-red. 

Acajutla, ak-a-hoot'la, Salvador, Central 
America ; its second port in importance,— next 
to La Libertad, the port of San Salvador,— 10 
m. south of Sonsonati, and the seat of a con¬ 
sular agent. 

Acanthite, a mineral found chiefly in the 
silver mines of Bohemia and Saxony. It is a 
silver sulphide, Ag2S, identical with argentite 
(q.v.) in composition, chemical and physical 
properties, but differs in form, its crystals being 
orthorhombic, their habit being prismatic and 
usually elongated. Krenner argues, however, 
and with considerable force, that acanthite is 
but a distorted form of argentite. 

Acan'thus, the typical genus of the order 
Acanthacece, or acanthads, a natural order of 
monopetalous exogens, consisting, of herbaceous 
plants or shrubs, found chiefly in the tropics, 
where they often form a large part of the weedy 
herbage. Acanthus is a native of many parts of 
southern Europe. The family is represented in 
America by a few wild-growing species; but 
they are best known as tender garden plants. 
The best-known species of the genuine acanths 
(or brancursines, as they were formerly called 
by a euphemism for the still older <( bear’s- 
breech®), are A. mollis and A. spinosus. The 
former has a stem about two feet high, sur¬ 
rounded in its lower half with large, soft, shin¬ 
ing, hairy, and deeply indented leaves, and cov¬ 
ered from the middle to the top with large 
white flowers tinged with yellow. 

In Architecture. — The leaves of either A. 
mollis or A. spinosus, conventionalized and used 
for decoration. The latter only were used by 
the Greeks in the Corinthian capital, of which 
they were the characteristic, or in acroteria (see 
Acroterion), and the leaves were three-lobed, 
stra : ght, and pointed. The Etruscan and early 
Roman forms were of split curling leaves; the 
later Roman of the Greek trilobate form but 
using the A. mollis with its ampler foliage, and 
combining it with other leafage — olive, laurel, 
parsley, etc.— to make a luxuriant decoration of 
architectural features. The acanthus was also 
used in decorating furniture, table-ware, vases, 
embroideries, etc., and in frescoes. It was in¬ 
herited by the Byzantine and Romanesque art¬ 
ists, and persisted till the Renaissance, when in 
some parts the Gothic displaced it. 

Acaroid Resin, or Gum, a resin which ex¬ 
udes so abundantly from the grass-trees (Xau¬ 
thor rha a) of Australia as to cover the base of 


the leaves and the underground portions of the 
plants, and is also obtained by crushing and 
sifting or washing, as much as 5° or 6? pounds 
being obtained from one plant. Two kinds, red 
and yellow, are generally distinguished, and are 
used in varnishes as well as for several other 
purposes. 

Acarus, a genus of insects of the tribe 
Acaridce, order Araclmida. They are oviparous, 
have eight legs, two eyes, and two jointed ten- 
tacula, and are very prolific. All the species are 
extremely minute, or even microscopic, as the 
cheese-mite ( Acarus domesticus) , and many of 
them parasitic; of the latter, the itch-insect 
(Sarcoptes scabici ) is a remarkable example. 
It is a microscopic animal found under the 
human skin in the pustules of a well-known 
cutaneous disease. Many others infect the skin 
of different animals, such as dogs, hogs, and 
cattle, and sometimes in considerable numbers. 
In some instances they damage cow-hides. (See 
Mites.) Acarus folliculorum is a microscopic 
parasite of the hair follicles of the skin. It is 
the lowest form of mite, and is known also as 
Dcmodex folliculorum. See Blackhead. 

Acceleration, the rate of change of the 
velocity of a body. If the velocity of the body 
is constant, its acceleration is said to be zero. 
If the velocity increases uniformly, so that at 
the end of every second it is greater than it was 
at the end of a preceding second by a constant 
amount, the. acceleration is said to be uniform, 
and the motion is said to be uniformly acceler¬ 
ated. If the velocity is decreasing, the accelera¬ 
tion is said to be. negative. A body falling 
freely under the influence of gravity affords 
the most familiar example of uniform (or 
constant) acceleration. When the body falls in 
air or any other medium, the phenomena are 
complicated, by the resistance of the medium; 
but when it falls in a vacuum its velocity in¬ 
creases every second by the same constant 
amount. Thus if. the body starts from rest, it 
will have a velocity of 32.2 feet per second at 
the end of the first second, 64.4 feet per second 
at the end of the second second, 96.6 feet per 
second at the end of the third second, and so 
on. The acceleration produced by gravity is 
therefore said to be 32.2 feet per second per sec¬ 
ond ; but this varies somewhat with the latitude 
and the height above the sea; (See Force of 
Gravity.) The acceleration experienced under 
given circumstances is proportional to the force 
acting upon the body in the direction in which 
its motion is accelerated. Thus if the foregoing 
experiment with a falling body were tried upon 
some other planet, and we found that the veloc¬ 
ity of the falling body was increased by 322.0 
feet per second every second (instead of 32.2 
feet), we should know that the force of gravi¬ 
tation at the surface of that planet is precisely 
ten times as great as it is upon the surface of 
the earth. In physics and theoretical mechanics 
a force is always measured by the acceleration 
it produces when exerted upon a unit mass. 
For a further account of the relation between 
force, mass, and acceleration, also see Force. 

Accent, the stress or emphasis given by the 
voice' to a certain syllable or syllables of a 
word, or to certain notes in a bar of music; 
also, the peculiar intonation of one spoken lan¬ 
guage when, compared with another; further, 
marks used in printing or writing to show the 


ACCENTOR — ACCESSION 


position of the stress. In a dissyllable there is 
but one accent, as a-back', but in a polysyllable 
there may be more than one. One of these, 
however, is always greater than the rest and is 
called the primary accent; the others are called 
secondary. 

Two wholly distinct classes of accent are 
found in Aryan languages, the musical and the 
expiratory; the former, which is that of some 
Semitic tongues also, being that of Greek and 
Sanskrit, the latter that of Latin and Teutonic. 
Some languages, as French, have no accent, the 
stress on all syllables being the same, but even 
here the stopping of the voice gives the final 
syllable a slight tilt upwards, with the effect of 
an accent on that syllable. Accent may be free, 
as in Greek or old Teutonic,— that is, its posi¬ 
tion in a word may shift in accordance with the 
nature of the syllables or of the words which 
follow,— or fixed, as in later Teutonic and 
English: perhaps the only remnant of the free 
accent in English is the word « cannot,» which, 
though often spelled as two words, is really a 
compound word with an accent shifting accord¬ 
ing to emotion. By a change of stress we often 
indicate the change of an adjective or a noun 
into a verb, as fre'quent (adj.), frequent' 
(verb) ; pro'ject (noun), project' (verb). 

In compound words the accent is commonly 
on the first; but when the first element is a 
prefix, separable or inseparable, it is accented 
only when the root-word is noun or adjective, 
the root receiving the accent if it is a verb,— 
this of course not applying to words borrowed 
from other languages, for which there is no 
settled rule, the chance of first usage commonly 
determining it. The inflections have almost al¬ 
ways been left unaccented, and this has aided 
greatly in the sloughing off of the whole in¬ 
flectional system in modern languages: even 
where retained to the eye they are often not 
pronounced at all, as in French. 

There is a certain analogy between accent 
and emphasis, emphasis doing for whole words 
or clauses of sentences what accent does for 
single syllables. One result .of this has been 
to develop duplicate words with different mean¬ 
ings, as of and off, to and too, through and 
thorough (originally pronounced tho-roo'). All 
modern verse depends on stress-accent (see 
Metre) ; while that of classical Greek and 
Latin, as of some Semitic tongues still, rested on 
quantity or length of syllables, a system not 
easy for those reared on stress to comprehend, 
much less imitate. 

Marks of Accent.—In ancient Greek, accents 
marked the rise and fall in pitch of the voice, 
and were three in number, the acute (a), the 
grave (a.), and the circumflex (a or a). The 
same marks are now used in French, and the 
first two in Italian, though they are largely of 
historical or etymological interest only, and 
do not always indicate a difference in pronunci¬ 
ation. A mark similar to the acute accent is 
sometimes used to signify stress in English 
words, chiefly in poetry; and one like the grave 
is used to mark as a separate syllable letteis 
otherwise not pronounced so, for example, learn¬ 
ed, abhorred. Marks sometimes called accents are 
used in mathematics; for example, a + b (read 
a prime plus b prime). In geometry and trigo¬ 
nometry, a circle at the right of a figuie indi¬ 
cates degrees, one mark minutes, two marks 

Vol. i—4 


seconds of a degree, as 13 0 4' 5". In mensura¬ 
tion and engineering, the mark denotes feet, 
inches, and lines, as 4' 6" 10'". 

In Music .—The greater emphasis or inten¬ 
sity given to certain notes or passages, as 
distinguished from their length in time and their 
quality or timbre. It is divided into three 
classes,— grammatical, rhythmical, and rhetori¬ 
cal or aesthetic. The grammatical accent is al¬ 
most always on the first part of a bar; long 
measures have usually secondary ones, as have 
polysyllables in words. Rhythmical accent is 
the more pronounced character given to certain 
parts of larger compositions,— phrases, themes, 
motifs,— to mark off entrances, finales, or cli¬ 
maxes. Rhetorical accent corresponds strictly 
to the same emphasis in oratory, in accordance 
with emotion or a desired effect, and is at the 
will of the performer. 

Accentor (« singer-together »), a literary 
name for the American water-thrushes (genus 
Siurus ) and the European warblers, of which 
the British hedge-sparrow (incorrectly named) 
is best known. 

Acceptance, a bill of exchange drawn on 
one who agrees absolutely or conditionally to 
pay it, according to the tenor of the document 
itself. To render it so valid that, if the drawee 
fails to liquidate it, the drawer may be charged 
with costs, the promise of the drawer should 
be in writing under or upon the back of the 
bill. An acceptance may be made before the 
bill is drawn, in which case it must be in writ¬ 
ing (15 Johns. N. Y. 6). It may be made after 
it is drawn and before it becomes due, which 
is the usual course, or after it becomes due 
(1 H. Blackst. 313), or even after a previous 
refusal to accept. The proper form for the 
acceptance of a bill is to write the word « Ac¬ 
cepted » across the bill and sign the acceptor’s 
name, but the drawee’s name alone is sufficient, 
or any words of equivalent force to ^accepted.^ 
Byles on Bills, 147; 21 Pick. Mass. 307. See 
Bill. 

Access, Right of. The owner of land ad¬ 
joining a road or public highway is entitled 
to access to such highway at any point where it 
comes up to his land. He may also have an 
action for the removal, by injunction, of any 
obstruction to such access, as well as an action 
for damages. 

It has been expressly held also that an abut¬ 
ting owner has a property right in the use of the 
street in front of his land as a means of egress 
and ingress, and for light and air. 47 N. J. Eq. 
421; 106 N. Y. 157. 

If a man buys a lot of land from which there 
is no access to a public highway, upon applica¬ 
tion to the proper authorities he may obtain 
an order for the construction of a road, or 
highway leading from his land to a public high¬ 
way. See also Right of Way. 

Accession is the right to all which a 
man’s own property produces, and the right to 
that which is united to it by accession either 
naturally or artificially (2 Kent, Comm. 360). 
If a man builds a house upon his own grounds 
with the materials of another, or, on the con¬ 
trary, if a man shall have built a house with 
his own materials upon the ground of another, 
in either case the house becomes the property of 
him to whom the land belongs, for every build- 


ACCESSORY —ACCIDENT INSURANCE 


ing is an accession to tlie ground upon which it 
stands, and the owner of the land, if liable at 
all, is only liable to the owner of the materials 
for the value of them (2 Kent, Comm. 362). 
The same rule holds where vines, trees, fruits, 
and vegetables are planted or sown in the 
ground of another. 

Accessory, in law, one who is not the chief 
actor in an offense or present at its commission, 
but still is connected with it in some other way. 
Accessories may become so before the fact or 
after the fact. Sir Matthe'v Hale defines an 
accessory before the fact as one who, being 
absent at the time of the crime committed, does 
yet procure, counsel, or command another to 
commit a crime. If the procurer be present 
when the evil deed is being done, he is not an 
accessory, but a principal. An accessory after 
the fact i_s one who, knowing a felony to have 
been committed, receives, relieves, comforts, and 
assists the felon. In high treason of a pro¬ 
nounced character there are no accessories — 
all are principals. In petit treason, murder, and 
felcnies, there may be accessories; except only 
in those offenses which, by judgment of law, 
an. sudden and unpremeditated, as manslaugh¬ 
ter and the like, which, therefore, cannot have 
any accessories before the fact. So, too, in petit 
larceny and in all crimes under the degree of 
felony, there are no accessories either before or 
after the fact; but all persons concerned therein, 
if guilty at all, are principals. (Blackst. Comm., 
bk. iv., ch. iii.) Presence and actual participa¬ 
tion are necessary to constitute a person an 
accessory. The mere fact of presence or failure 
to interfere to prevent the commission of a 
crime is not, alone, an indictable offense. The 
person must act in concert with the active party. 
He must by word or act contribute to the 
felonious purpose. Presence need not be actual, 
it may be constructive. A man may commit 
a crime through the agency of an innocent per¬ 
son, but the agent cannot be convicted. Where 
an offense is committed within a State by means 
of an innocent agent, the employer is guilty as 
a principal, although he did no act in the State 
where the crime was committed, and at the time 
of the commission of the offense was in another 
State. 1 N. Y. 173 (s. c. 45 Am. Dec. 468) ; 123 
Mass. 430. 

Accho. See Acre. 

Acciaioli, Renatus, atch-yl-6'le, a Floren¬ 
tine who conquered Athens, Corinth, and part 
of Bceotia: lived in the beginning of the 15th 
century. He bequeathed Athens to the Vene¬ 
tians ; Corinth to Theodosius Palseologus, who 
married his eldest daughter; and Boeotia with 
Thebes to his natural son Anthony, who also 
got Athens, but this was retaken in 1455 by 
Mohammed II. 

Accident, an unforeseen occurrence, par¬ 
ticularly if it be of a calamitous character. 
This iss the most common use of the word. 

In logic: (a) Whatever does not really consti¬ 
tute an essential part of a person or thing; as 
the clothes one wears, the saddle on a horse, 
etc. ( b) The qualities or attributes of a person 
or thing, as opposed to the substance. Thus 
bitterness, hardness, et-c., are attributes, and 
not part of the substance in which they inhere, 
(c) That which may be absent from anything, 
leaving its essence still unimpaired. Thus a rose 


might be white without its ceasing to be a rose, 
because color in the flowers of that genus is not 
essential to their character. 

Accidents, in logic, are of two kinds, separable 
and inseparable. If walking be the accident of 
a particular man, it is a separable one, for he 
would not cease to be that man though he stood 
still; while, on the contrary, if Spaniard is the 
accident connected with him, it is an inseparable 
one, since he never can cease to be, ethnologi- 
cally considered, what he was born. (Whately s 
< Logic,> bk. ii., ch. v., sec. 4.) 

In grammar, a property attached to a word 
which nevertheless does not enter into its essen¬ 
tial definition. Each species of word has its 
accidents: thus those of the noun substantive 
are gender, declension, and number. Compari¬ 
son in an adjective is also an accident. 

In law, an event which under the circum¬ 
stances is unusual and unexpected by the person 
to whom it happens. It is the happening of an 
event without the concurrence of the will of 
the person by whose agency it was caused, or 
the happening of an event without any human 
agency. If a house should be burned in conse¬ 
quence of a fire made for the purpose of cook¬ 
ing, or warming the house, this would be an 
accident of the first kind. If the house should 
be set on fire by lightning, this would be an 
accident of the second kind. 1 Fonblanque, Eq. 
374, 375 n. The best test of liability for th* 
consequence of an accident turns upon the fad 
whether the person causing the accident was 
guilty of negligence or not. If he was guilty oi 
negligence he would be liable unless the person 
injured was guilty of contributory negligence. 

In heraldry, an additional note or mark on a 
coat of armor, which may be omitted or retained 
without altering its essential character. 

Accident Insurance, a system which indem¬ 
nifies the insured person for loss of business 
time resulting from disabling bodily injuries 
inflicted by external and accidental violence, or 
in case of death therefrom within a certain 
time pays the legal heirs a sum stated in the 
contract. The former is done by a weekly in¬ 
demnity (graduated according to premium and 
hazard of occupation) paid in a lump sum on 
recovery or at the end of a fixed expiration 
term; or by a stated sum at once in case of 
irremediable mutilations. It. is a system of 
limited health and life insurance, paying the 
benefits only in case of death or disablement 
from a specified class of contingencies instead of 
from any contingency; therefore bounded on the 
one hand by life insurance and on the other by 
the benefit societies, but less costly than the one 
and to larger amounts than the other. These 
boundaries of limitation are stated in the con¬ 
tracts : varying in detail, they are and must be 
in essence the same in all, as they reduce to the 
two classes which accident insurance exists by 
excluding, those which are not accidental and 
those which are not violent. These, however, 
form five individual groups: (1) Disease or 
bodily infirmity, direct or as indirect cause; (2) 
effects of one’s own will, vice, or recklessness, as 
suicide, drunkenness, fighting or breaking the 
law, voluntary exposure to unnecessary danger, 
etc.; (3) legal sentences; (4) poison; (5) 
weather, except violent manifestations like 
stroke of lightning. These, howeVer, are much 


ACCIDENT INSURANCE 


less simple in practical application than in 
theory, and in some cases are virtually dead 
letters by popular prejudice or even legal en¬ 
actment. The suicide clause has beer scarcely 
enforceable for many years through the refusal 
of juries to find it as a question of fact; and 
of late years several States have passed laws 
invalidating it in any insurance contract. 
Drunkenness, though not barred by law, is so 
nearly impossible to make a jury accept that it 
is practically never entered in plea. The others 
are of course contestable and perpetually con¬ 
tested. Furthermore, different companies and 
forms of policy vary in the extent or severity 
of their exclusions, some waiving important 
factors in this list; and all of them now, under 
stress of competition, have added some portions 
of health and life insurance to the accident con¬ 
tract proper,— giving indemnities and payment 
of principal sum for loss of time or for death 
through certain contagious diseases. 

The modern system of accident insurance 
dates only from 1848; but its purposes were 
fragmentarily embodied in earlier arrangements. 
The Hanseatic League, the originator of so 
many good business ideas, seems to have devised 
this; at least the Sea Laws of Wisby in 1541 
mention the insurance of shipmasters by owners 
against the perils of the sea,— the insurance of 
their families of course. A mercantile treatise 
probably of the same century, compiled for the 
traders of Rouen, in France, states that « other 
nations » insure men’s lives on voyage, « paying 
certain sums to their heirs or creditors » ; pos¬ 
sibly it refers to the same Hanse practice. In 
1665 England applied a rough form of it to the 
casualties of warfare: a regular schedule of 
indemnities to be paid to soldiers in the Nether¬ 
lands war was compiled, ranging from £62 ioj. 
for both eyes or both arms, £50 for both hands, 
£29 4^. for both legs, and £18 15^. for both feet, 
down to £8 Js. for one foot, and with graduated 
amounts between. Later, a year’s pay (not 
much then) for the loss of a limb was the cus¬ 
tomary gauge. But this was a mere pension 
system; and none of these had the essential 
feature of modern insurance, a business con¬ 
tract as matter of bargain and sale, with the 
insurance proportioned to the payment. 

Modern accident insurance originated in Eng¬ 
land. Its germ, oddly enough, was primarily 
not personal but property insurance; not against 
bodily injury so much as loss of goods in rail¬ 
way accidents. The first charter applied for was 
for the British and Foreign Life and Property 
Insurance Co., which never organized; and the 
insurance of human beings was added apparent¬ 
ly rather to make up a « blanket charter » than 
with much idea of profiting by it. But the swift 
clarification of business ideas on this point, due 
to the public horror of great railway accidents, 
— the concentrated volume of destruction in 
which makes them much more impressive to the 
imagination than the really far more formidable 
mass of scattered daily accidents,— is shown by 
the fact that of ten other similar charters grant¬ 
ed in the next three years none of them mention 
goods in their titles, and most, of them show 
that their business was personal insurance alone. 
All, however, had «Railway» in their names, 
and the «ticket» business was long supposed to 
be the only one feasible. Only 2 of these II 
ever organized, and the pioneer company, the 


Railway Passengers’ Assurance Co.,— opened 
business 22 March 1849,— for a long time in¬ 
sured only passengers actually in the coaches, 
and by the terms of the policy (though not en¬ 
forced) only covered them while moving, ex¬ 
cluding even collisions at stations. Its first rival 
to be chartered (though not to begin business) 
covered also accidents on platforms, etc. But 
the real birthday of the modern general accident 
business is 3 June 1850, when another company 
adopted the plan of its actuary, Edward Riley, 
and extended its insurance to cover all violent 
bodily injuries. 

The next field to be opened was among work¬ 
men in the manufacturing districts, their great 
hazards and consequent need of it making it 
seem that they would welcome it; but their 
poverty and ignorance overbalanced their re¬ 
quirements, and the experiment was a failure 
In 1852 Cornelius Walford suggested that the 
true field lay among the business and profes¬ 
sional classes; and although this at first was 
scouted as fantastic, their individual hazards 
appearing too slight to found a great business 
on, it was followed by a brilliant success and 
the creation of the modern system substantially 
as it stands. Attempts were occasionally made 
to frame narrower schemes, as for carriage 
accidents alone, etc.; but no success has attend¬ 
ed these experiments. A basis as broad as 
consistent with the essential nature of the busi¬ 
ness has been found the only one practicable. 

The business in the United States was found¬ 
ed in 1863 by James G. Batterson, a Hartford 
builder, on a suggestion afforded by the Railway 
Passengers’ Assurance Co.’s tickets, and after 
consultation with the officers of that company, 
who generously put all their experience at his 
disposal; it proved, however, to be very mis¬ 
leading for American conditions. On his re¬ 
turn to Hartford he associated several other 
Hartford gentlemen with him, and a charter 
was procured for the Travelers Insurance 
Co.; but owing to entire popular disbelief 
in the system no business was done till April 
1864, its first premium being one of two cents, 
paid in jest by a business man to insure himself 
in going from his house to his office. A storm 
of railway accidents about that time, however, 
shocked the public so that the enterprise soon 
became a brilliant success, though it was nearly 
ruined by the new companies which swarmed 
into the field. Five western States in the winter 
of 1864 chartered nearly 100 insurance com¬ 
panies of all kinds, over a dozen of them acci¬ 
dent companies; and in April 1865, 25 of the 
latter were organizing in the United States. 
To save multiplication of ticket equipments at 
railway stations, where several companies some¬ 
times had them on sale at once, the Railway 
Passengers’ Assurance Co. was organized in 
May 1865, to consolidate all the ticket business 
under one head, with office in Hartford. In 
1878 all the companies but the Travelers having 
been long dead, that company reunited the busi¬ 
ness to its own. There are now several strong 
companies in the United States, which heads 
the world in the volume of its accident business. 
None of them transact this branch of business 
alone: all combine it with employers’ liability 
(q.v.) (indirect accident insurance, by a subro¬ 
gated blanket liability to an employer instead 
of to his employees individually), and most of 


ACCIPITRES — ACCLIMATIZATION 


them variously either with life, steam-boiler, 
elevator, plate-glass, surety, or other forms of 
personal guaranty. Owing to certain peculiar¬ 
ities of the business, its statistics are not easy 
to give; but it certainly protects a million of 
men and their families, and pays $20,000,000 a 
year for death and indemnity claims. About 
one-tenth of the insured are paid claims of some 
sort. The most hazardous of the large general 
occupations — excluding special hazards like the 
manufacture of gunpowder and dynamite — is 
that of freight brakemen; due not entirely to the 
inevitable perils of the employment, though they 
are large, but partly to the reckless bravado 
bred of familiarity. Next to these in hazard 
are the employees of rolling-mills. Among the 
business and professional classes, much the 
greatest volume of loss is from horse and car¬ 
riage accidents, which are many times more de¬ 
structive than railway accidents. 

The development of the accident-insurance 
field should be noted. It may be compared with 
•the origin of banking from note circulation, 
which afterward became a feature so insignifi¬ 
cant as to be neglectible. Similarly, accident 
insurance arose from a desire to give protection 
against the results of railway accidents: but the 
losses from these do not constitute more than 
five or six per cent of the total losses among 
recent companies. Another significant fact is 
the change in the class mainly covered by it. 
Theoretically, it should find its chief patronage 
and profit among those hazardously employed: 
in fact, the larger companies found long ago 
that a great business can only be done among 
these under conditions that render it unprofit¬ 
able, and after carrying it on for many years 
on the installment plan, have mostly been obliged 
to abandon it altogether and confine their efforts 
to the business and professional classes, or to 
such of the working class as have means to pay 
yearly premiums in advance. See Insurance. 

Accipitres (Lat. plural of Accipiter, the com¬ 
mon hawk), or Raptores. An order of 
birds, comprising the birds of prey,— eagles, 
hawks, owls, and vultures. See Birds of Prey. 

Acclamation (« calling to »): properly, ex¬ 
pressing any judgment of an assembly or a 
large part of it by shouting: but in usage re¬ 
stricted entirely to a favorable one. The choice 
of rulers among most early Aryan tribes or na¬ 
tions was by acclamation: the candidate was 
presented by a previous understanding — among 
the Vikings raised on a shield in the presence 
of the chiefs — and acclaimed by the voices of 
the assembled multitude. In some cases, as 
with the Poles even quite late in their history, 
the agreement was only made when the throng 
had gathered and there were more than one set 
of acclaimers, often ending in a pitched battle 
to decide which party preponderated. In the 
minor divisions of modern political life, voting 
by acclamation is usual; a ballot being called 
for only when the parties are so evenly balanced 
that the preponderance is dubious, or a small 
majority has great strength of lungs, or the 
minority wish to make the majority put their 
position on record, or simply to have the satis¬ 
faction of a proved vote. In ecclesiastical coun¬ 
cils the vote by acclamation comes first also, 
the question being put as « placet » or « non 
placet.^ In private matters, acclamation has 


been used from early times as an expression of 
good feeling or enthusiasm, as in the customary 
«hurrahs,® «huzzas,® and «tigers,® and the 
«hear, hear» of political assemblies, and the 
responsive shouts and groans of religious re¬ 
vivals or prayer-meetings. The applause in 
theatres, etc., being non-vocal does not etymo¬ 
logically belong to the group, but is usually in¬ 
cluded as having the same intent. It began with 
genuine applause, an actor closing the play by 
some word asking for approval of the company 
— in the Roman theatre, « Plaudite» (« applaud 
ye»), or a poet or orator who recited in public 
expecting and receiving applause; but the 
claque, in modern French phrase, was very 
early organized by rich amateurs, who kept 
bands of paid applauders not only for their own 
use but to lend to friends. Nero had 5,000 of these, 
many of them equites or knights, to chant his 
praises at the direction of a professional music- 
master ; they were called Augustiniani. In the 
modern French theatre the claque is on a more 
modest footing and is paid by the management; 
the understood reason being (curiously) that it 
keeps up the spirits of the actors when the au¬ 
dience’s coldness might depress them beyond 
the power to play well, and more rationally 
that it guides and stimulates the audience itself 
to genuine applause when it might be simply 
sluggish and indifferent. In old times applause 
was shouted at marriages, as «Io Hymen,® 
« Hymenaee,® « Talassio » ; in festal or religious 
processions; to victorious commanders in tri¬ 
umphs or ovations, as « Io triumphe » : and even, 
contrary to modern feelings of decorum, in 
churches, the pulpit orator being cheered at 
good passages. 

Acclimatization, the gradual alteration 
which fits a plant or animal to a climate differing 
from that in which the habits of its species or 
race have been formed. Acclimatization and 
naturalization are often mistakenly used as syn¬ 
onymous, but naturalization properly means 
establishment in a new country, and, if the cli¬ 
mates of the two countries chance to be the 
same, acclimatization is not implied. In the 
consideration of marine animals and plants ac¬ 
climatization takes on a slightly different mean¬ 
ing, since aquatic life is more affected by the 
various conditions of the surrounding water 
than by climate. 

In Plants. — Many examples of acclimatization 
are furnished by cultivated plants, among which 
the most noteworthy are perhaps the cereals. 
The original species of most of these has not 
been discovered, but in most cases it is supposed 
to have lived in sub-tropical or warm temperate 
regions. Some of these cereals now thrive 
far better or are more productive in cold, 
northern climates than in warm regions. But in 
such cases an important influence may to a 
greater or less extent obliterate or emphasize 
the apparent period of growth, the productive¬ 
ness, etc. This is the daily duration of sunlight. 
During the growing period the sunlight lasts 
longer as the pole is approached, so that the 
shorter season is more than compensated for by 
the increased hours of sunlight. It has been 
found by experiment that certain varieties of 
corn brought from the southern States to the 
northern attained their customary height, but 
generally failed to ripen seed. The progeny of 


ACCO —ACCOLTI 


such plants as did mature seed gradually as¬ 
sumed the characteristics of northern varieties; 
they reduced their height and shortened the 
time necessary to attain maturity. In a few 
years they resembled other northern varieties in 
these two respects. The reverse of this case 
has also been proved; northern varieties taken 
to the South at first reached the height and at¬ 
tained maturity in the time natural to them in 
the North, but gradually assumed the character¬ 
istics of southern varieties — increased height 
and greater number of days to reach maturity. 
But even considering the frequent preponder¬ 
ance of this influence and remembering that the 
production of seed is usually in opposition to 
marked development of vegetative parts, there 
is no doubt that plants, in becoming acclimatized, 
are compelled to adjust themselves to many 
other less prominent influences, such as humid¬ 
ity, temperature, light, and wind. The peach 
is supposed to have come from China by way of 
Persia, and since early historical times has grad¬ 
ually been fitting itself to more and more 
northern conditions. It is now found to be a 
profitable crop in Michigan and New York, 
which are several degrees farther north than its 
supposed place of origin. The influence of cli¬ 
mate upon cultivated plants is recognized by 
progressive agriculturists and horticulturists, 
and each prefers seed grown in a more norther¬ 
ly locality than his own. The effects of the 
new environment, however, soon become evi¬ 
dent, and new importations must be made. 
Seeds grown at high altitudes exhibit the same 
characteristics as those produced in high lati¬ 
tudes ; that is, they are hardier and require a 
shorter period to reach maturity than those 
grown in low altitudes or low latitudes. 

Among naturally acclimatized plants are many 
remarkable phenomena. Deciduous plants taken 
from cool climates to tropical conditions hold 
their leaves for a much longer period than 
where they are indigenous, or may even become 
evergreen like their new associates. Plants im¬ 
ported from warm regions to cooler may lose 
the power to ripen seeds, but this defect may 
be compensated by the development of vegeta¬ 
tive reproductive powers. The reverse case is 
also true. Southern plants may fail to ripen 
wood completely, and winter killing may result. 
In cultivated plants, however, this phenomenon, 
which is often observed in the peach, may be due 
to improper methods of cultivation resulting in 
abnormal wood-development. 

In Animals .—The capacity for acclimatization 
is possessed in very different degrees by differ¬ 
ent animals, even by different individuals of the 
same species, and depends much upon general 
hardihood. Exactly what changes take place 
during acclimatization is not known ; sometimes 
the very specific gravity of the animal is altered, 
as when fresh-water fishes become adapted to 
the denser water of the ocean ; similarly, the 
normal temperature of the individual may grad¬ 
ually become altered, as in the case of fishes 
native to cool water, which chance to work 
up-stream into hot springs and live there at a 
temperature which would kill normal individ¬ 
uals of the same species. The animals which are 
most wide-spread over the earth are those 
which have the greatest adaptability to new 
climates and new conditions of environment, and 
the best examples of this adaptability are found 


among domestic animals (q.v.). About the 
middle of the 19th century there was much en¬ 
thusiasm for transplanting animals from one 
country to another; but the results have so 
often been harmful rather than beneficial to the 
recipients of the new forms that the effort to 
improve on nature in this way has been aban¬ 
doned. Conspicuous examples are afforded by 
the sending of the European rabbit to Australia 
and New Zealand, where it multiplied so ex¬ 
cessively in a favC'able climate, with abundant 
food, and through u.e almost complete lack of 
enemies, as to become a nuisance and a menace 
to the pastoral industry. (See Rabbit.) The in¬ 
troduction of the agua toads, and afterward of 
the mungoos (qq.v.) into Jamaica, to subdue the 
rats that were devouring the sugar-cane, had 
evil results. The spread of the European house- 
sparrow (q.v.) in the United States is another 
pertinent example. Many highly injurious in¬ 
sects have been accidentally introduced and ac¬ 
climatized in America from abroad; and the 
same is true of other countries. On the other 
hand a few instances like the acclimatization 
of the silkworm in Europe, of bumblebees in 
New Zealand, or of ladybirds in California, 
have been highly beneficial; while much good 
has come from stocking new streams with de¬ 
sirable fishes. Of the several societies founded 
to promote such transferences, that of Paris 
(Societe d’Acclimatation) is most important, 
but latterly has been inactive. 

In Human Beings. See Hygiene. 

Bibliography .— (Variations of Animals and 
Plants Under Domestication.) Darwin; < Island 
Life,> Wallace; (Tropical Colonization.) 

Acco, ak'o. See Acre. 

Accolade, ak-6-lad' (Fr. « embrace,)) literally, 
« on the neck »), in heraldry, the ceremony by 
which in mediaeval times one was dubbed a 
knight. On the question what this was, anti¬ 
quaries are not agreed. It has been made an 
embrace round the neck, a kiss, or a slight blow 
upon the cheek or shoulder. In some cases it 
was a literal box on the ear, for which later 
was substituted a gentle tap on the shoulder 
with the flat of a sword. In conferring knight¬ 
hood Queen Victoria struck the kneeling sub¬ 
ject lightly on the shoulder with a sword and 
used the words « I bid thee rise, Sir Knight.)) 

Accolti, Benedetto, ak-ol'te, ben-a-det'o, the 
Elder, distinguished Italian jurist: b. Arezzo, 
1415; d. Florence, 1466. Several other 
members of his family were noted for legal 
attainments. He became professor of jurispru¬ 
dence in the University of Florence, and on the 
death of the famous Poggio was made chancel¬ 
lor of that republic. With his brother Leonardo 
he wrote in Latin a three-volume history of the 
first crusade, not of great value, but interesting 
as having furnished Tasso the material *or 
(Jerusalem Delivered): pub. Venice 1452, Italian 
tr. 1543, French tr. 1620. He alsp wrote a vol¬ 
ume of biographies of his distinguished con¬ 
temporaries, pub. Parma 1689. 

Accolti, Bernardo, ak-ol-te, ber-nar'do, 
Italian poet: b. Florence, before 1466; d. after 
1534. He was greatly admired, especially as an 
improvisatore. Whenever he announced his in¬ 
tention of reciting his verses the shops were 


ACCOMMODATION —ACCORD AND SATISFACTION 


closed and the people flocked in crowds to hear 
him. He was surrounded by prelates of the 
first eminence; a body of Swiss troops accom¬ 
panied him; and the court was lighted by 
torches. Leo X. esteemed him highly and made 
him apostolic secretary, cardinal, and papal 
legate at Ancona. He it was who drew up the 
papal bull against Luther (1520). Though 
styled in his own day «The Only (one) of 
Arezzo® (L’ Unico Aretino), the fame of his 
works perished with him. Their style is hard, 
his images forced, and his taste marred by 
affectation. The best known is a comedy, 
(La Virginia.) His other productions include 
some lyric poetry, epigrams, octaves, and verses 
in terza rima. 

Accommodation, the process by which the 
mind is brought into adjustment with its sur¬ 
roundings ; adaptation. 

In physiology, the accommodation of the eye 
is the function by which objects, near or distant, 
may be seen distinctly. It is accomplished by 
the relaxing or contracting of the ciliary mus¬ 
cle. See Eye. 

In biology, the process by which an organism 
becomes adapted to its environment. 

In theology, properly, the presentation of a 
truth not absolutely, but with some modification 
to suit it either to some other truth or to the 
person addressed. It is distinguished as formal 
and material, the former relating to the method 
of teaching, and the latter to what is taught. 
The former includes teaching by parables or 
symbols, by progressive stages graduated to the 
capacity of the learner, etc.; more usually, now, 
the forcing of texts from their obvious mean¬ 
ing to conform them to theories derived from 
other sources. The latter, as now commonly 
used, means the theory that Christ and the 
writers of Scripture modified or perverted the 
truth to accommodate it to the limited intelli¬ 
gence or the prejudices of their times,— the 
cosmogonies of Genesis, or Jesus’ acceptance of 
demoniac possession as a truth, etc. 

In commerce it usually denotes temporary 
financial assistance rendered by one merchant 
or bank to another. Accommodation paper in¬ 
cludes notes or bills of exchange made, accepted, 
or indorsed, without any consideration. While 
in the hands of the party to whom it is made, 
or for whose benefit the accommodation is given, 
such paper is open to the defense of want of 
consideration, but when received by third parties 
in the usual course of business it is governed 
by the same rules as other paper. (2 Duer, N. 
Y. 33; 2 Kent, Comm. 86.) 

Accompaniment, in music, is that part 
which serves for the support of the principal 
melody (solo or obbligato part). This can be 
executed either by many instruments, by a few, 
or even by a single one; we have therefore pieces 
with an accompaniment for several, or only for 
a single instrument. The principles on which 
the effect of accompaniment rests are so little 
settled that its composition is perhaps more 
difficult than even that of the melody. Fre¬ 
quently the same musical thought produces a 
good or bad effect, according to the character of 
the accompaniment, without our being able to 
give a satisfactory reason for the difference. 
The accompaniment requires of the performer 
th p most scrupulous study, and of the composer 


the greatest skill and delicacy. As the object of 
every musical accompaniment is to give effect 
to the principal part, the accompanist should 
always aim really to support and by no means to 
overpower it. 

Accomplice is the term applied to one who 
is in some way connected with the commission 
of a crime, though not as a principal. 

In the absence of a statute it is not a rule 
of law, but a rule of practice only, that a jury 
should not convict on the uncorroborated testi¬ 
mony of an accomplice. Ordinarily the judge 
will advise the jury to acquit unless the testi¬ 
mony of the accomplice is corroborated as to the 
circumstances of the offense and the participa^- 
tion of the accused. It is provided by the N. 
Y. Code Crim. Proc., § 399, that a conviction 
cannot be had upon the testimony of an ac¬ 
complice unless he be corroborated by such 
other evidence as tends to connect the defendant 
with the commission of the crime. This statute 
has been adopted in many of the States of the 
Union. 

Accoramboni, Vittoria, ak-o-ram-bo'ne, vit- 
o're-a, an Italian lady famous for her beauty and 
her wild tragic history: date of birth unknown; 
d. 22 Dec. 1585. Her contemporaries thought 
her the most fascinating woman ever in Italy. 
Paolo Giordano Orsini, Duke of Bracciano, who 
was believed to have murdered his wife with his 
own hand, sought hers with her passionate ac¬ 
quiescence; but her father gave her to Fran¬ 
cesco Peretti, nephew of Cardinal Montalto and 
living in his house. Peretti was assassinated 
1581; and Vittoria fled to Bracciano; the scan¬ 
dal was great, and Gregory XIII. imprisoned 
her nearly a year in the castle of St. Angelo, 
but she married the duke as soon as released. 
Montalto becoming Pope as Sixtus V., the 
couple took refuge in Venetian territory. After 
a few months’ residence at Salo on Lake Garda, 
the duke died, leaving her almost the whole of 
his great fortune; but an incensed relative of 
his, Ludovico Orsini, had her murdered at Pa¬ 
dua, whither she had removed. This recital, 
valid on the evidence accessible up to now, and 
accepted by Gnoli in his « Life » of her (Flor¬ 
ence 1870), leaves Vittoria much on the level of 
other passionate Italian women of her age; but 
the Countess Martinengo-Cesaresco has recent¬ 
ly re-examined the evidence in her < Lombard 
Studies,) and thinks her innocent of complicity 
in crime. Much literary use has been made of 
her story, and Webster’s play (The White 
Devil) is based on it. 

Accord and Satisfaction signifies a satisfac¬ 
tion agreed upon between the party injured and 
the party injuring, which when performed is a 
bar to all actions upon this account. It must 
be legal. An agreement to stifle a criminal 
prosecution for a criminal offense such as an 
assault and imprisonment is void. (2 Wils. 
241; 5 East, 294.) 

Where a release is given to one of two joint 
tort-feasors which recites the receipt from him 
of a certain sum as full payment, it will operate 
as a bar to an action against the other tort¬ 
feasor. (136 Mass. 503.) 

Accord with satisfaction, when completed, 
has two effects: it is a payment of the debt; 
and it is a species of sale of the thing given by 
the debtor to the creditor in satisfaction; but it 


ACCORDION — ACCUMULATOR 


differs from it in this, that it is not valid until 
the delivery of the article, and there is no war¬ 
ranty of the thing thus sold, except perhaps the 
title; for in regard to this it cannot be doubted 
that if the debtor gave, on an accord and satis¬ 
faction, the goods of another, there would be 
no satisfaction. But the intention of the parties 
is of the utmost consequence. (30 Vt. 424.) 

Accordion, a musical instrument in the 
form of a small box, generally from 8 to 12 in. 
long by 4 wide, and containing a number of 
metallic reeds fixed at one extremity, but left 
to vibrate freely. A small bellows, formed by 
a folding apparatus v.hich unites the top and 
bottom of the box, supplies the wind, which, 
admitted by keys acting on valves, sets the reeds 
in vibration. In the harmonium (q.v.) and 
the American cabinet-organ the same prin¬ 
ciple is also employed. The accordion was 
introduced into America from Germany about 
1828, but the principle has long been known in 
China, and employed for instruments played by 
the breath. The concertina, flutina, and organ- 
accordion are improvements. 

Account, a register of pecuniary transac¬ 
tions, whether for personal use, to satisfy a 
contract, in obedience to law, or as a bill of 
items sent to a customer who buys on credit. 
A mutual account is one where debtor and 
creditor items are opposed between two parties. 
An open account, or account current, in com¬ 
merce is one in which the balance has not been 
struck; in banking, one that may be added to or 
drawn upon at any time, as opposed to a deposit 
account, where notice is required for withdraw¬ 
als. To keep an open account is to keep such 
a one running on, instead of closing it. A stated 
account is one which all parties have expressly 
or by implication (as by the debtor’s retaining 
it beyond a reasonable time without objection) 
admitted to be correct. To open an account is 
to begin pecuniary transactions with a banker or 
merchant. 

In law, an account is a detailed statement of 
the mutual demands in the nature of debt and 
credit between parties, arising out of contracts 
or some fiduciary relations. (32 Pa. St. 202; 
1 Mete. (Mass.) 216.) 

An open account is one in which some term 
of the contract is not settled by the parties, 
whether the account consists of one item or 
many. (1 Ala. N.s. 62.) 

In equity, jurisdiction concurrent with courts 
of law is taken over matters of account (9 
Johns. (N. Y.) 470; 1 Paige Ch. (N. Y.) 41) on 
three grounds: mutual accounts; dealings so 
complicated that they cannot be adjusted in a 
court of law; and the existence of a fiduciary 
relation between the parties. 

Accountant, properly any one who keeps 
accounts, and till lately applied in the United 
States to all bookkeepers without distinction; 
more generally now restricted to the head book¬ 
keepers of large houses or corporations, with 
difficult or complex accounts calling for expert 
ability. Especially an «expert accountant» or 
((public accountant® is understood as one not 
in the employ of any one house, but hiring his 
services out to such firms or companies, banks, 
or public institutions, as either find their ac¬ 
counts in disorder or wish a legal verification or 
a guaranteed statement Ur the public; or report 


on bankrupt estates under legal process. Few 
large financial institutions neglect to support 
public confidence by having their books period¬ 
ically investigated and reported upon by an ac¬ 
countant unconnected with the concern. This 
is gradually building up, through many scandals 
and frauds upon the public, a much higher 
standard of professional duty among these ex¬ 
perts : it is recognized that it is their duty not 
merely to certify to the correct balancing of the 
figures submitted to them, but to use reasonable 
intelligence and honorable purpose on the man¬ 
ner in which those figures were made, and 
whether they represent facts or gross fictions to 
deceive outsiders and lure in money to be mis¬ 
handled. The proper, and in the United States 
the only, business of an accountant is to exam¬ 
ine accounts and make out balance-sheets and 
statements. In England they assume a still 
further duty, that of managing estates and 
legacies. 

Accretion, the increase of real estate by 
the addition of portions of soil, by gradual 
deposition through the operation of natural 
causes, to that already in possession of the 
owner. If an island in a non-navigable stream 
results from accretion, it belongs to the owner 
of the bank on the same side of the Ulurn aquee. 
(2 Washburn, Real Prop. 452; 3 Kent, Comm. 
328; 6 Cow. (N. Y.) 537.) In some cases it has 
been held that it makes no difference whether 
the stream is navigable or not (24 How. (U. 
S.) 41; 10 Pet. 662) where the owner of land 
has received accretions thereto. The term « allu¬ 
vion » is applied to the deposit itself, while « ac¬ 
cretion » denotes the act. 

Accrington, a manufacturing town and mu¬ 
nicipal borough of England, in Lancashire, on 
the Hyndburn, 20 m. N. of Manchester and 5 
m. E. of Blackburn; on the Lancashire & Y. 
Ry.; inc. 1878. It is well laid out, and has va¬ 
rious handsome buildings, including the town- 
hall, a splendid market hall, technical school 
and school of art, clubs, etc. The manufacture 
and printing of cottons, chemical works for their 
use, and the manufacture of spinning and other 
machinery, are the chief industries. Coal is 
wrought extensively. Pop. (1841) under 9,000; 
(1881) 31,435; (1901) 43,095. Accrington gives 
name to a parliamentary division of the county; 
pop. 84,878. 

Ac'cum, Friedrich, fred'riH, German chem¬ 
ist : b. Biickeburg, 1769; d. Berlin, 1838. Re¬ 
moving to London at 24, eight years later he 
was made professor of chemistry and min¬ 
eralogy at the Surrey Institution. He published 
several text-books on these sciences, but is re¬ 
membered mainly for being (with an energetic 
print-seller, Ackermann) the introducer of gas¬ 
lighting into England. His < Practical Treat¬ 
ise on Gaslight) appeared in 1815. Another 
valuable service to society was his (Treatise on 
Adulterations of Food and Culinary Poisons) 
(1820). As the result of charges against his 
honesty he returned to Germany, and in 1822 was 
made professor in the Industrial Institute and 
Academy of Architecture in Berlin. 

Accumulator, a device for the storage of 
energy, more particularly when the energy is 
supplied from an intermittent source, or when it 
is to be withdrawn intermittently or irregularly. 
The fly-wheel on a steam-engine is a device <x 


ACCUSATIVE CASE —ACETAL 


this sort, but it is not commonly referred to as 
an accumulator. The word is practically re¬ 
stricted to the following two senses: (i) a 
storage-battery (q.v.) ; (2) a hydraulic appara¬ 
tus, commonly consisting of a plunger which is 
fitted to a vertical cylinder and heavily loaded 
with weights. Water is forced into the cylin¬ 
der by pumps, with the result that the plunger 
and its weights are raised, and a considerable 
quantity of water, is thus stored in the cylinder 
under a high pressure. By the use of such an 
accumulator it is possible to deliver water for 
a short time in far greater volume than the 
pumps feeding the accumulator could deliver it, 
and yet at the maximum pressure that the pumps 
are capable of producing. Hydraulic accumu¬ 
lators are used in connection with riveting- 
machines, cranes, and many other heavy tools. 

Accusative Case, in Latin,— and thence 
applied to the corresponding case in Greek and 
other declensions,— that case of the noun, pro¬ 
noun, etc., which designates the object to which 
the action of a verb is immediately directed. 
It corresponds with what, although the English 
noun is nearly without declension, is called in 
English the objective case. See Declension. 

Aceldama, a-sel'da-ma, a cemetery in Jeru¬ 
salem used to bury strangers in. The traditional 
site is on a small plateau half-way up the southern 
slope of the valley of Hinnom, near its junction 
with the valley of Jehoshaphat; and it was 
certainly used in the 6th century for the burial 
of Christian pilgrims, and continued in use till 
the 17th. According to Matt, xxvii. 7, 8 it was 
bought by the chief priests and elders for a 
burial-ground, with the 30 pieces of silver re¬ 
turned by Judas after the betrayal; according 
to Acts i. 19 it was bought by Judas himself 
with the money, which he did not return, and 
his bowels burst open in it; according to both, 
the name means «the field of blood,» and it was 
a patter’s. But as the Greek text gives a form 
« Aceldamach? which would mean «field of 
sleep,» a natural and beautiful term for a bury- 
ing-ground, and as according to Jer. xviii. 2 and 
xix. 2 there was a potter’s in the valley of 
Hinnom, it would seem that the use and name 
of the place were very old at the time of 
Christ, and that the meaning «field of blood» 
was a misunderstanding, or a play on the real 
meaning, and its connection with Judas arti¬ 
ficial. (History and description by Schick, 
1892, quarterly statement of the Palestine Ex¬ 
ploration Fund, pp. 283-9.) 

Aceph'ali ( (( headless ®), in civil history, 
certain levelers, in the reign of Henry I. of 
England, who acknowledged no head or em¬ 
peror; or, according to another explanation, 
who were too poor to own any property, and so 
have any legal superior. 

In Church history: (1) Bishops exempt from 
the jurisdiction and discipline of a patriarch. 
(2) Clergy belonging to no diocese. (3) Those 
who, on occasion of a dispute in the Council of 
Ephesus, a.d. 431, refused to follow either John 
of Antioch or Cyril of Alexandria. (4) Those 
who rejected the decision of the Council of 
Chalcedon, 451, on the nature of Christ. (5) 
In the 5th and 6th centuries, a large section 
of the followers of the Monophysite, Peter 
Mongus, who cast him off as their leader be¬ 
cause of his accepting a peaceful formula called 


the Henoticon (q.v.). They soon afterward 
split into three parties, the Anthropomorphites, 
the Barsanuphites, and the Essianists, who 
again gave origin to other sects. (6) The Fla¬ 
gellants (q.v.). 

Aceph'alocyst' ( <( headless cyst®), a growth 
found in the liver, kidneys, and other glandular 
organs of man and oftentimes those of the lower 
animals. See Taenia. 

Acer. See Maple; Whistlewood. 

Aceratherium, a-se-ra-the'ri-um, an ex¬ 
tinct rhinoceros which inhabited Europe during 
the Miocene epoch. It had no distinct horn, 
whence the name (Gr. a- without, ictyas horn, 
d'fjp animal), but a small boss on the top of 
the skull indicates a rudimentary horn or callos¬ 
ity. American fossil hornless rhinoceroses 
formerly referred to this genus are now dis¬ 
tinguished as Csenopus (q.v.). 

Acerbi, Giuseppe, a-cher'-be, ju-sep'-a, Ital¬ 
ian traveler and scientist: b. near Mantua, 3 
May 1773; d. there August 1846. He studied at 
Mantua, devoting himself to natural science; in 
1798 journeyed through Scandinavia, Finland, 
and Lapland, and in 1799 visited the North Cape, 
the first Italian ever there. On his return he 
stayed some time in England and published 
his «Travels» in English, later having them 
translated into French and German. He ren¬ 
dered great service to Italian literature by start¬ 
ing in 1816 the Biblioteca Italiana, which fought 
the Accademia della Crusca (q.v.). Made Aus¬ 
trian consul-general to Egypt in 1826, he con¬ 
tributed valuable articles on Egypt to the Bib¬ 
lioteca, and obtained many Oriental objects of 
interest to European museums. From 1836 till 
his death he lived at his native place. 

Acerra, a-cherr'a, Italy (the ancient Acer- 
r.e, admitted to Roman citizenship 332 b.c., 
plundered and burnt by Hannibal) : an episcopal 
city 9 m. N.E. of Naples, with which it is con¬ 
nected by railroad, and opposite Mt. Somma. 
It. has a cathedral. The inundations of the 
neighboring Agno formerly made it very un¬ 
healthy, but the marshes are now drained. 
Pop. (1891) 13,633; (1901) 16,443. 

AcesTes, or ^ges'tus, in Greek legend, son 
of Crinisus and ^Egesta, and king of the country 
near Drepanum, in Sicily. He assisted Priam in 
the Irojan war, entertained yEneas during his 
voyage, and helped him to bury his father on 
Mount Eryx. In commemoration of this yEneas 
built a city there and called it Acesta. 


Acetal. (1) A colorless, pleasant-smelling 
liquid, formed as a by-product in the prepara¬ 
tion of aldehyde from alcohol, and occurring 
naturally in crude alcohol. Its formula is 
CH3.CH (OC 2 H 5 )2. It boils at 219 0 F. under 
ordinary atmospheric pressure. Its specific grav¬ 
ity js about 0.831, and its critical temperature is 
490 F. Acetal mixes in all proportions with alco¬ 
hol and ether. It is soluble in eighteen volumes 
of water at 8o° F., and is more soluble at higher 
temperatures. 


V X u.oy uatu IU Sigimy any one OI 

a group of compounds formed by the combination 
of one molecule of an aldehyde with two mole¬ 
cules of an alcohol, and the elimination of one 
molecule of water. They are obtained as by- 
products in the preparation of aldehydes from 
alcohols, a certain portion of the aldehyde 
formed combining with the unmodified alcohoL 


ACETANILIDE — ACETONE 


Ac'etan'ilide (known in the drug trade 
as antifebrin), a crystalline compound obtained 
by the action of glacial acetic acid upon aniline 
(q.v.). Its formula is CeHUNHCOCHs. It 
melts at 237 0 F., and boils at 563° F. without 
decomposition. It is readily soluble in alcohol 
and ether, and dissolves in hot water, but is 
only sparingly soluble in cold water. It is 
given in medicine as a sedative and febrifuge. 
Its physiological action is similar to that of 
antipyrin, but its administration is considered 
to be safer. 

Ac'etates, compounds of acetic acid with 
metals or organic radicals. See Acetic Acid. 

Ace'tic Acid, an organic acid belonging in 
the fatty series, important on account both of 
its extensive use in the arts, and of its proper¬ 
ties as viewed from the standpoint of the 
theoretical chemist. Its formula is CH3COOH, 
or C2H3O.OH. It is a monobasic acid, the 
hydrogen in the radical CH 3 not being replace¬ 
able by a metal or another radical. In its 
dilute state it has been known for centuries as 
vinegar, and in strong vinegar the characteris¬ 
tic odor of the acid is quite marked. It may 
be formed by the oxidation, decomposition, and 
destructive distillation of many organic bodies. 
It is produced, as in the manufacture of cider 
vinegar, by the action of the microscopic plant 
Mycoderma aceti, better known as « mother-of- 
vinegar,» upon weak alcohol. In the manufac¬ 
ture of vinegar the alcohol required for the 
transformation is present in the cider as the 
result of a preliminary alcoholic fermentation. 
It has been shown that «mother-of-vinegar» 
has no effect upon pure alcohol, the reason for 
this being that a certain amount of albuminous 
and mineral matter must be present to serve as 
food for the plant. The greater part of the 
acetic acid of commerce is obtained by the de¬ 
structive distillation of wood, acetate of lime 
being a by-product in the manufacture of wood- 
alcohol. (See Wood-Alcohol, under Alcohol). 
The acetate of lime so obtained may be de¬ 
composed by the addition of sulphuric acid, 
when acetic acid is liberated, or it may be 
treated in any one of a number of other ways 
for the recovery of the acetic acid. One of 
the best methods consists in mixing the com¬ 
mercial acetate of lime with calcium chloride, 
and concentrating the solution until the 
compound known as calcium aceto-chloride 
(CaGHAACl.sFLO) crystallizes out. The 
crystals so formed are then dissolved in water, 
the solution is filtered through animal charcoal, 
more calcium chloride is added, and the opera¬ 
tion is repeated to obtain a new crop of purer 
crystals. These crystals are finally distilled 
with moderately strong sulphuric acid, when 
a very pure acetic acid is given off. 

By heating acetate of sodium with concen¬ 
trated sulphuric acid it is possible to obtain 
acetic acid in a state free from water. The 
acid so obtained is a colorless liquid boiling 
at 244 0 F., and solidifying, at about 63° F., 
into an ice-like mass; from this property the 
anhydrous acid has been called glacial acetic 

a eid. ... .. ., 

Acetic acid is uninflammable in its liquid 
state, but its vapor burns with a fine blue 
flame. It is used as a solvent for organic sub¬ 
stances, being a useful substitute for alcohol in 


certain cases on account of its relative cheap¬ 
ness. 

Lead acetate (or sugar of lead) and copper 
acetate (or verdigris) are the most important 
compounds of acetic acid with the heavy metals. 
Aluminum acetate and the iron acetates are 
much used in dyeing. The acetates of lead, 
potassium, and ammonia are also largely used 
in medicine. 

Acetic acid may be formed synthetically by 
exposing a mixture of one volume of acetylene 
(q.v.) and two volumes of air to daylight, in 
the presence of a weak solution of caustic 
potash. The acetylene is slowly oxidized, com¬ 
bining simultaneously with the caustic potash to 
form acetate of potash, according to the 
formula 


C 2 H 2 + o 
Acetylene 


+ KOH = CH3.COOK 

Caustic Acetate of 

potash potash 


From the acetate of potash so formed the acetic 
acid can readily be obtained. This mode of 
formation is of no practical value, but it has 
a theoretical interest. 

The relations of acetic acid with the organic 
radicals are too numerous and complicated to 
receive general treatment in the present article. 
The more important ones are noticed elsewhere, 
see Aldehyde; Alcohol; Ether; etc. 

Acetic Ether, or Ethyl Acetate, a color¬ 
less, inflammable liquid having the formula 
CH3.COO.C2H5, or C4H8O2, prepared by the ac¬ 
tion of sulphuric acid upon a mixture of alcohol 
and acetic acid. It has a specific gravity of 
about 0.91 and a specific heat of 0.48, and boils 
at 171 0 F., under the ordinary atmospheric pres¬ 
sure. It mixes readily with alcohol and with 
ether, and at ordinary temperatures is soluble 
in about 17 parts of water. See Esters; Ether. 

Ac'etin, a substance resembling fat in its 
constitution, obtained by acting upon glycerin 
with glacial acetic acid. Acetins are known as 
monoacetin, diacetin, and triacetin, according 
as the acetic acid has displaced one, two, or 
three of the hydroxyl molecules in the glycerin. 
The formula of monoacetin is C3H 5 (OH) 2 
(OC2H3O) ; of diacetin, C 3 H 5 (OH) (OC2H3 
0) 2 ; of triacetin, C3H5(0C 2 H 3 0)3. 

Ace'to-ace'tic Acid, a thick acid liquid, 
having the formula CH3.CO.CH2.COOH. At 
212 0 F. it splits up into carbon dioxide and 
acetone. 

Ac'etone. (1) A limpid, mobile liquid with 
a taste suggestive of peppermint. Formula, 
CH3.CO.CH3. It occurs in crude wood-alcohol, 
from which it can be separated by distilling 
over calcium chloride. It is also obtained by 
the destructive distillation of acetates, notably 
those of barium and lead. 

It occurs in the urine, blood, and brain-of 
calcium diabetic patients. Lieben’s test for ace¬ 
tone in the urine is as follows: Distilled urine 
is made alkaline by caustic potash, and a few 
drops of a solution of iodine and iodide of 
potassium are added. If acetone is present a 
yellow precipitate of iodoform is formed at 
once; if alcohol be present in the distillate, 
the same reaction takes place, but more slowly; 
but with acetone the reaction is immediate. 

Acetone is very inflammable, and burns with 
a white smokeless flame. It boils at 133 0 F. at 


ACETONITRILE — ACETYLENE 


ordinary atmospheric pressure; its specific grav¬ 
ity at ordinary temperatures is 0.800. 

(2) Any one of a certain class of carbon 
compounds in which two alcoholic radicals are 
united by the group CO. These compounds are 
now called ketones (q.v.), to distinguish them 
from the particular member of the group defined 
in (1), above. 

Ac'etoni'trile, a colorless liquid with a 
pleasant ethereal odor, and burning with a red- 
dish-bordered flame. It has the formula C2H3N, 
and is isomeric with methyl cyanide. It is 
best prepared by distilling a mixture of potas¬ 
sium cyanide and potassium-methyl-sulphate. It 
boils at 178° F. at ordinary atmospheric pres¬ 
sure, and has a specific gravity of 0.79. It mixes 
with alcohol and water. 

Ac'etyl, the radical of acetic acid, its 
formula being CH 3 .CO. Acetic acid may be 
regarded as the hydrate of this radical, its 
formula being CHs.COOH. Acetyl chloride, 
CH3.COCI, is obtained by the action of phos- 
phorustrichloride upon acetic acid. Acetyl 
chloride evolves hydrochloric acid when it is 
heated with any substance containing the rad¬ 
icals hydroxyl, amidogen, or imidogen, and 
hence it is of importance as a test for these 
substances. 

Acet'ylene, a hydrocarbon gas, C2H2, com¬ 
mercially prepared by adding water to calcium 
carbide, when both decompose and recombine 
into acetylene and slaked lime. It was discov¬ 
ered in 1836 by Edmund Davy, when experi¬ 
mentally trying water on the impure carbide 
produced by distilling calcined potassium tar¬ 
trate to obtain potassium; named by Berthelot, 
who in 1862 prepared it by red-heating ethylene, 
by electrically vaporizing carbon, and by incom¬ 
plete combustion of coal-gas; the same year 
Wohler produced the carbide by heating carbon 
with an alloy of calcium and zinc. Acetylene 
is also produced by the direct union of carbon 
and hydrogen when an electric arc is caused to 
pass between carbon terminals in an atmosphere 
of hydrogen. But both carbide and gas were 
laboratory curios till after 1892, when a new 
method of obtaining cheap carbide was acci¬ 
dentally discovered at the works of Thos. L. 
Willson, a Canadian, at Spray, N. C., and per¬ 
fected by the chemist Dr. G. de Chalmot and 
the electrician J. M. Morehead; and not long 
afterward Prof. Henri Moissan of Paris inde¬ 
pendently discovered the same in essence,— the 
electric arc acting on mixed lime and carbon. 
This at once made the gas of great industrial 
importance for lighting, and the carbide as an 
agricultural germicide. 

Acetylene is a colorless gas of an agreeable 
ether-like odor; but the impurities of commercial 
carbide give it often a garlicky smell. It is 
much less poisonous than coal-gas or water-gas, 
and practically harmless. It is .92 the weight 
of air, so that a io-foot cube weighs upwards 
of 75 lbs. It takes fire at 896° F., and in the 
open air burns very smokily, with clouds of 
soot; but when consumed in a suitable burner, 
with a sufficient supply of air, it gives the 
whitest and clearest light of any common illumi- 
nant, the final products of its combustion being 
carbon dioxide and water vapor, with no trace 
of the poisonous carbon monoxide. At 1200° 
it changes to isomeric hydrocarbons, yielding 


benzene (C e H c ) and tar; at 1400° it decom¬ 
poses into its elements. It gives off much 
greater heat in combustion, volume for vol¬ 
ume, than coal-gas; but light for light it gives 
off much less, owing to its vastly greater il¬ 
luminating power and consequently much 
smaller volume to equal light. Mixtures of air 
and acetylene containing from 2.8 to 65 -per cent 
of the gas are inflammable in the open, but in 
tubes the possibility of combustion striking 
through decreases with their diameter until it 
ceases at about one fifth of an inch. 

Pure acetylene is sometimes objected to be¬ 
cause the small dazzling point of light strains 
the eye unless hidden, and the black shadows 
diminish the real illuminating power. Various 
diluents have been tried; the only ones in prac¬ 
tical service are oil-gas, which is used on all the 
Prussian government railroad lines, mixed with 
20 per cent of acetylene under 10 atmospheres 
pressure; and air, which in the best burners 
(the Napheys, a Philadelphia invention of the 
Bunsen order) is thoroughly mixed with acety¬ 
lene to secure perfect combustion and the best 
illumination. Prof. Vivian B. Lewes of England 
thinks methane or marsh gas by far the best; 
it is too costly by itself, but can be generated 
along with water gas so as to give a cheap mix¬ 
ture which a little acetylene enriches into a pow¬ 
erful light. 

When added to coal-gas or water-gas in 
small proportions (5 per cent or so) acetylene 
does not increase the illuminating power of 
the mixture nearly as much as might be ex¬ 
pected. When added in considerable propor¬ 
tions it becomes a most valuable enricher of 
coal-gas; but so is coal, and even the low cost 
of that is grudged. 

Storage .— It has been desired to use the gas 
without the cost and trouble of installing and 
operating generators; and the two possible meth¬ 
ods are to liquefy it and make a solution of it. 
The former has been done by a pressure of 39.76 
atmospheres at 68°, making a liquid .33 the 
weight of water and 1-500 the volume of the 
gas; a jet allowed to escape evaporates so fast 
that the resultant cold of —130° F. freezes part 
of the liquid to a white solid. It is shipped in 
steel cylinders containing 9 lbs. liquid, or y 2 
cu. ft., giving 250 feet of gas, equal to 3,000 feet 
of good coal-gas or some 6,000 of such as many 
cities give. 

Frequent explosions of these, however, have 
caused insurance companies to put them under 
ban.. According to some authorities these ex¬ 
plosions have invariably been due to gross care¬ 
lessness ; but according to others, acetylene gas, 
when stored in the compressed state, is liable 
to explosive spontaneous decomposition. This 
last view may very possibly be correct, since 
acetylene, like nitro-glycerine, is an endothermic 
substance; that is, its formation directly from 
carbon and hydrogen is attended by the absorp¬ 
tion of heat. These objections do not apply to 
acetylene, except when it is stored in consider¬ 
able quantity or under a considerable pressure. 
Acetylene is usually produced as fast as it is 
consumed, so as to avoid storage so far as 
possible; but where this is impracticable it is 
much safer to keep the acetylene in solution than 
to store it in any quantity. At 68° F. water 
dissolves 1.1 its volume of acetylene, alcohol 6, 
acetone (q.v.) 15, or at 12 atmospheres 300; 


ACHZEA — ACHAIA 


besides, a rise of temperature makes much less 
increase of pressure within tho vessel than with 
the liquid acetylene, and hence lessens the danger 
of storage and transportation. The acetone so¬ 
lution, also, cannot be exploded, which is the 
great public bugbear against acetylene. 

Generators. — Prof. Lewes divides acetylene 
generators into four types: (i) where water 
drips on a mass of carbide (as in ordinary 
bicycle lamps) ; (2) where it rises against a 
basket of carbide in a bell, or (3) against layers 
of it in trays without a bell; (4) where carbide 
drops slowly into excess of water. The first 
two are liable to overheat, decomposing part of 
the acetylene, losing that much and spoiling the 
burners with tar; the third is better, the fourth 
best of all. 

For small lamps acetylene is nearly confined 
to bicycles, where water is dropped on a heap 
of carbide; they are too small to be in danger 
from overheating, but are costly to use because 
the carbide remaining after each lighting is too 
mixed with refuse to use again. Household 
lamps are sold, but are not yet in favor. 

The popular books on chemistry state that 
acetylene combines with copper, forming a com¬ 
pound which readily undergoes explosive de¬ 
composition ; but in order to obtain this com¬ 
pound it is necessary to pass the gas into an 
ammoniacal solution of cuprous chloride. A 
red precipitate of cuprous acetylide, having the 
formula C 2 H 2 Cu 2 0 , is then formed, and this 
precipitate explodes violently upon percussion. 
A similar compound of silver is known. Acety¬ 
lene will not directly attack any of the common 
metals or alloys, and hence the current fear of 
its being charged with explosive copper salts 
under the conditions of ordinary practice has 
no warrant. 

Its commercial future belongs to the domain 
of prophecy, not of statistical fact. In theory a 
manufactured product like carbide cannot com¬ 
pete with a cheap native product like soft coal; 
and improvements in burners and cheap water- 
gas should greatly increase light and reduce 
cost. 

On the other hand, the relatively enormous 
illuminating power of acetylene largely offsets 
the cost of the raw material. The use of acety¬ 
lene for practical illumination is certainly ex¬ 
tending, and the immense output of calcium 
carbide (q.v.) must find a market. 

Achaea. See Achaia. 

Achaei, ak-i'e, Achaians, ak-a-yans, or 
Achaeans, ak-e'ans, the descendants of the 
mythical Achseus, son of Xuthus and grandson, 
of Helen; a generic term employed by Homer to 
designate the whole Hellenic host before Troy, 
and in poetic use applied to all the Greeks in¬ 
discriminately. They appear to have been that 
branch of the Greeks which inhabited south¬ 
eastern Thessaly and northern Peloponnesus, and 
by the Dorian invasion were driven altogether 
beyond the Corinthian Gulf and cooped into a 
strip of Peloponnesus along its southern shore, 
where they were the nucleus of the later Achaian 
League. See Achaia. 

Achaemenidae, ak'e-men'i-de, the Greek 
narqe of the Persian dynasty ( 558 ~ 33 ° B - c -) 
founded by Cyrus the Great, including Cam- 
byses, Darius I. and II., Xerxes, Artaxerxes, etc., 
and ended by Alexander the Great. The family 


took its name from an ancestor of Cyrus, found 
in Persian inscriptions as Haxamanisya, which 
the Greeks softened to Achsemenes (a-ke'men- 
ez). 

Achaia, ak-a'ya, or Achaea, ak-e'a, in Ho¬ 
mer, southeastern Thessaly, where was Phthia, 
the home of Achilles. In later history, a strip of 
Peloponnesus along the southern shore of the 
Corinthian Gulf, rising from the coast to wooded 
hills abounding in beasts of the chase; the up¬ 
lands were fertile with grapes, olives, and other 
fruits. The nome called Achaia (including Elis) 
in the modern Greek kingdom, the northwestern 
part of Morea with capital at Patras, is still so, 
except along the west coast, on the Ionian Sea. 
When it first appears in authentic history (He¬ 
rodotus), it is a confederacy of twelve towns — 
Pellene, yEgeira, zEgae, Bura, Helice, ^Egium, 
Rhypes, Patrse, Pharse, Olenus, Dyme, and Tri- 
taea — headed by Helice, and keeping much to 
itself in Greek affairs. Helice was destroyed by 
an earthquake and swallowed by the waves 373 
b.c., and vEgium succeeded to the hegemony; and 
at some time unknown Olenus was deserted. 

The League took no share in the Pelopon¬ 
nesian war, but the Macedonian supremacy and 
the dynastic struggles after Alexander’s death 
broke it up altogether. Some of the remaining 
ten towns were held by Macedonian garrisons, 
some by local tyrants; a state of disunion equal¬ 
ly gratifying to Macedonia and intolerable to 
Greek patriots. In 280, when several kings 
were dead, Macedonia in confusion, and the 
great Pyrrhus absent in Italy, Patrae and Dyme, 
the two westernmost towns, formed an alliance; 
Tritsea and Pharae joined them: and the new 
Achaian League, famous in history, which gave 
southern central Greece more than a century of 
order and good government, was begun. The 
cities probably drove out their garrisons or 
rulers, as later ones certainly did. Five years 
afterward zEgium expelled its garrison and 
joined the League; Bura was freed and its 
tyrant slain by its people and their exiled 
brethren, and joined also; and Iseas, tyrant of 
Ceryneia, seeing how events were trending, 
voluntarily surrendered his position with a guar¬ 
anty of safety, and annexed the city to the 
League. Seven towns were now included; and 
the other three were recovered and annexed 
not long after. But all were small and poor; 
fortunately for the League, as it was thought 
too insignificant to molest, and grew up peace¬ 
fully and solidly for some 30 years. The chief 
name in its early history is Markos of Ceryneia, 
who helped liberate Bura even before his own 
city was freed, and seems to have been the 
Washington of the League. But its first en¬ 
trance into the role of a great Greek political 
force began with the expulsion in 249 of the 
tyrant of Sicyon by Aratus of that city,' who 
induced it to join the League; it not only gained 
thereby the first city outside the old Achaian 
confederacy, and became more or less Pan- 
Greek, but gained Aratus; its second founder, 
and a statesman and administrator of high order, 
though his jealousy of other leaders and his 
military incompetency injured it deeply. A 
still greater accession came in 242, when Corinth 
expelled its Macedonian garrison and joined; 
and in 234 Lydiadas, tyrant of Megalopolis, the 
powerful city founded by Epaminondas, volun- 


ACHAQUA — ACHARNiE 


tarily resigned his place like Iseas and brought 
in his city, being- made commander-in-chief of 
the League's army the next year. Before the 
century had begun its last quarter the League 
included all northern and central Peloponnesus, 
and many towns elsewhere. 

The League was a federal union of absolutely 
independent States, each having equal power in 
the Council, which met twice a year — at first 
and for a long time in a grove near TEgium, but 
later, at Philopoemen’s motion, in the League 
cities in rotation. The vote of each city was 
given as a unit, not by elected delegates, but 
by any of its citizens who were present, any 
one over 30 having a right to be so; attendance 
therefore naturally fell to the richer citizens 
with means and leisure, and the assembly was 
a rough representative body of the leading 
men. The union acted as a unit in foreign 
affairs v and there was a secretary to record the 
debates and resolutions. The head officer was 
the strategos, who was commander-in-chief and 
civil president at once; he had under him a 
hipparchos (cavalry commander) and nauarchos 
(admiral), and a board of ten demiourgoi as 
assistants in the Council. 

The League of course had its internal feuds 
and discordances of policy; and the zEtolian 
League north of the Gulf (only half Greek, and 
wholly barbarian in instability and lack of pro- 
Greek feeling), which alternately allied itself 
with it and ravaged its territory, was a mis¬ 
chievous rival and enemy. But the League 
would probably have fully held its own till the 
Romans came, but for Sparta. Cleomenes II. 
had revolutionized that State, which had shrunk 
into the narrowest of oligarchies and could not 
maintain its position; he had turned it into a 
socialistic one, and wished to force the League 
to join him in a great Peloponnesian union, of 
which Sparta would be master, imposing both 
its foreign policy and perhaps its internal or¬ 
ganization on the rest, and which would destroy 
the internal independence of the League and 
menace the possessions of every property-holder 
in it. The League was badly defeated by Cleo¬ 
menes in the field, and was between hammer and 
anvil; for the only power which could save it 
was Macedonia, its natural foe and old master, 
and Antigonus Doson refused to give aid unless 
the citadel of Corinth, the key of Peloponnesus, 
held by the League, were given up to him. Aratus 
felt, however, that the suzerainty of Macedonia, 
now that the League was strong enough to pre¬ 
vent active tyranny, was a less evil than the 
mastery of Cleomenes; and by cunning manage¬ 
ment he induced the League to pay the price 
asked for Antigonus’ help. Cleomenes was 
crushed at Sellasia, and his Spartan constitution 
came to an end, and the League became a de¬ 
pendency of Macedonia. Yet Aratus’ policy was 
justified by events so far as the League was 
concerned: it did not suffer from Macedonian 
tyranny, though the chance of forming a united 
Greece was at an end. But that was probably 
as little possible under Cleomenes as under 
Macedonia. 

In point of fact the destroying enemy was 
not Macedonia but Rome. Under the noble and 
able Philopcemen of Megalopolis, soldier and 
statesman of high rank, the League was prosper¬ 
ing and giving the citizens an enviable govern¬ 
ment. But a pro-Roman policy prevailed, and 


Philopcemen left the country. In 198 it allied 
itself with Rome against Macedonia, and this 
was always the beginning of the end with the 
other party to a Roman alliance. There were 
wars against Sparta, and a struggle between 
Roman and anti-Roman partisans in the assem¬ 
bly, with Roman envoys and intriguers to fan 
the flames. Finally, in 167, the Romans de¬ 
ported the flower of the Achaian citizens to 
Italy, many of them being imprisoned, others — 
as the future historian Polybius (q.v.), then a 
youth of 18 — kept as hostages but given Roman 
advantages. The last struggle took place in 
146, when Mummius defeated the League at 
Corinth, and the independence of Greece or any 
fraction of it was at an end. All southern and 
central Greece was made a Roman province 
called Achaia. 

(The first-hand authority for the League is 
Polybius, unfortunately extant only in frag¬ 
ments : in some parts he is pieced out by Livy, 
passages of whose work are often obvious trans¬ 
lations from Polybius. In English the one 
great work is E. A. Freeman’s unfinished ( His¬ 
tory of Federal Government,) nearly all devoted 
to the Achaian League; London, 1863; reissued 
with a fragment on Federalism in Italy.) 

Achaqua, a-cha'kwa, a South American In¬ 
dian tribe probably extinct, though a few hun¬ 
dreds, who lived in the upper Orinoco forests in 
northeastern Colombia, were still existent in 
1850. They were utter savages, practising in¬ 
fanticide beyond the second child, polyandry, and 
tattooing. 

Achard, Franz Karl, aH'art, frants karl, 
German chemist and physicist: b. Berlin 28 
April 1753; d. 1821. He published in 1780 the 
results of many and careful experiments on the 
adhesion of bodies. But later he devoted him¬ 
self to the development of the beet-sugar manu¬ 
facture, and after six years of laborious endeav¬ 
or discovered the true method of separating the 
sugar from the plant. His process was of 
enormous service to the countries whom the 
Napoleonic blockade shut off from the West 
India sugars. He was afterward director of the 
class of physics in the Academy of Science in 
Berlin. 

Achard, Louis Amedee Eugene, ash-ar, 

loo-e am-a-da e-zhan, French novelist: b. April 
1814; d. 25 March 1875. Originally a merchant, 
he became a contributor to several Paris jour¬ 
nals in 1838. After the revolution of 1848 he 
was active as a royalist political writer; 1848-72 
the Revue des Deux Mondes brought out al¬ 
most annually a new story from his pen. He 
depicts pre-eminently conflicts in family life and 
society. ( Parisian Letters,) published in 1838 
under the pseudonym of « Grimm,» made his 
reputation. Other works of his are: (Belle 
Rose) (1847), (The Royal Chase) (1849-50), 
(Castles in Spain) (1854), < The Shirt of Nes- 
sus) (1855), (Chains of Iron) (1867), (The 
Viper) (1874). 

Acharnae, a-kar'ne, a large town of Attica, 
where the Thirty Tyrants (q.v.) encamped 
when they marched against Thrasybulus; and 
where the Lacedaemonians, under their king 
Archidamus, pitched their tents when they 
made an irruption into Attica at the beginning 
of the Peloponnesian war. Aristophanes, in his 
comedy ( The Acharnians >— where a citizen of 


ACHATES — ACHILLES 


the place, sick of war, ravage, and the stoppage 
of trade, makes a treaty of peace with the 
Lacedaemonians on his own account — represents 
the inhabitants as charcoal-makers; and other 
comic writers stigmatize them as rough and 
boorish. 

Achates, in the Eneid, a friend of 
.(Eneas, whose fidelity is depicted as so exem¬ 
plary that iidus Achates (the faithful Achates) 
has become a proverb. 

Acheen. See Achin. 

Achelous, ak-e-lo'us (now Aspropotamo, 
«White River»), the largest river in Greece: 
130 m. long, and not navigable. It rises on the 
Pindus range, flows south in a boisterous torrent, 
forming the boundary between vEtolia and 
Acarnania, and empties into the Ionian Sea 
opposite Ithaca. In its lower course it is an 
alluvial stream, winding in great loops through 
very fertile and marshy plains; it comes from 
the mountains heavily laden with fine white 
mud, which it deposits along its banks and in 
the sea at its mouth, where it has formed a 
number of small islands. 

In Greek legend, the son of Oceanus and 
Terra, or Tethys, god of the river. As one of the 
numerous suitors of Dejanira, daughter of 
(Eneus, Achelous entered the lists against Her¬ 
cules, and, being inferior, changed himself into 
a serpent and afterward into an ox. Hercules 
broke off one of his horns, and Achelous, being 
defeated, retired into his bed of water. The 
broken horn was given to the goddess of plenty. 

Achen, Johann (« Hans ») von, a'Hen, yo'- 
klan fon, or Acken, a/ken, German painter: 
b. Cologne, 1512; d. 1615. He studied at home, 
and at Venice under Kaspar Rems, and took 
service with the Bavarian court 1590; later went 
to Prague at the invitation of Emperor Rudolph 
II. The Protestant church at Cologne con¬ 
tains his ( Crucifixion,) the cathedral at Bonn his 
< Entombment,) and among his other works are 
(Christ Raising the Widow’s Son,) and (Truth 
Victorious under Protection of Justice.) 

Achenbach, Andreas, a'Hen-baH, German 
landscape and marine painter: b. Cassel, 1815. 
He studied under the eminent Schadow at Dus- 
seldorf, and became one of the leading artists 
of that school. He painted in Holland, along 
the Rhine, and in Norway, producing landscapes 
of rich coloring and intense realism. He was 
made R.A. in Berlin, and knight of (he Legion 
of Honor in France; and took a first medal in 
Paris, 1855. Private galleries in the United 
States have many of his finest works. 

His younger brother Oswald, b. Diisseldorf 
1827 ; d. 1 Feb. 1905, was also a landscape artist, 
esteemed of more ideal quality than Andreas; 
and his pictures of Switzerland, Italy, etc., were 
largely bought in the United States. 

Achene, Achenium, Akene, a-ken', etc. 
(«.not gaping))), a dry, hard, one-seeded fruit 
in which the wrappings of the seed set closely 
to it, forming almost a coat. 1 he entire family 
of Compositce are of this sort: the « seeds » of 
borage, the sunflower, thistle, dandelion, etc. 
Sometimes they are grouped on a common re¬ 
ceptacle, called an etcerio; as in the strawberry, 
where it is fleshy, the achenes being the « pits,)) 
or in the centre of the buttercup, where they 
form the « fruit » ; sometimes they are inclosed 
in the fleshy tube of the calyx, as in the rose. 


Achensee, a'Hen-za, a lake in N. Tyrol, Aus¬ 
tria, 5 y 2 m. long by Jd m. wide, 20 m. N.E. of 
Innsbruck. Its shores are of great beauty, and 
it is a noted summer resort, having many hotels 
and private villas, while steamers carry passen¬ 
gers to points of interest. 

Achenwall, Gottfried, a'Hen-val, got'fred, 
German statistician: b. Elbing, 20 Oct. 1719; 
d. Gottingen, 1 May 1772. He studied at Jena, 
Halle, and Leipzig, and became professor of 
philosophy, and later of law, at Gottingen. In 
economics he belongs to the school of « moderate 
mercantilists }> ; but it is in statistics that he 
holds a really high place. The work by which 
he is best known is his < Constitution of the 
Present Leading European States) (1752). In 
this he gives a comprehensive view of the con¬ 
stitutions of the various countries, describes 
the condition of their agriculture, manufactures, 
and commerce, and frequently supplies statistics 
in relation to these subjects. German econo¬ 
mists claim for him the title of <( Father of Sta¬ 
tistics » ; but English writers dispute this, assert¬ 
ing that it ignores the prior claims of Petty, and 
other earlier writers on the subject. He gave 
currency to the term Staatswissenschaft (pol¬ 
itics), which he proposed should mean all the 
knowledge necessary to statecraft or statesman¬ 
ship. 

Acheron, ak'e-ron, the ancient name of sev¬ 
eral rivers in Greece and Italy, all connected by 
legend with the lower world. The principal 
was a river of Thesprotia in Epirus, which 
passes through Lake Acherusia, receives the 
Cocytus (Vuvo), and flows into the Ionian Sea 
south of the promontory of Chimerium, at Glycys 
Limen or Elsea, now Port Fanari. At one part 
its course lies between mountains rising pre¬ 
cipitously to the height of 3,000 feet. The name 
is also given to a river of Elis, a tributary of 
the Alpheus, and to a small river of Bruttium, 
in Italy, near Pandosia (location uncertain), 
near which Alexander of Epirus fell in battle 
against the Lucanians and Bruttians (326 b.c.). 
Their legendary celebrity appears to have been 
originally due to the Acheron in Thesprotia. 
This country being regarded by the Greeks as 
the end of the world in the West, they sup¬ 
posed the entrance to the lower world to be 
here. As this district became better known, the 
legendary river was placed elsewhere, and final¬ 
ly transferred to the lower regions. In Homer, 
Acheron is represented as a river of Hades. 
According to later traditions a son of Helios 
and Gaea or Demeter, who bore this name, was 
changed into an infernal river as a punishment 
for giving drink to the Titans during their war 
with Zeus. The Etruscans are said to have 
worshipped Acheron. The name of Acheron 
was ultimately used in a poetic or figurative 
way to designate the whole of the lower world. 

Acherontia Atropos. See Death's head 
Moth. 

A Cheval. See Tactics. 

Achillea. See Yarrow. 

Achilles, a-kil'ez, one of the heroes of 
Greek mythology, and in particular the hero of 
Homer’s Iliad. According to the latter he was 
the son of Peleus, king of the Myrmidons in 
Phthiotis, a district of Thessaly, and of the 
Nereid or sea-goddess Thetis, and the grandson 


ACHILLES — ACHIMENES 


Dt' ^Eacus; hence often called Peleides and 
Huacides. He was educated from childhood 
by Phoenix, a friend of his father, who accom¬ 
panied him to the Trojan war; and Cheiron the 
centaur instructed him in the art of healing. 
Achilles went to this war with the knowledge 
that he was to perish in it; his mother having 
foretold him that he should either live a long 
and inglorious life, or die young after a glori¬ 
ous career. Pie led his troops, the Myrmidons, 
against Troy in 50 ships. During the first nine 
years of the war we have no minute detail of his 
actions; in the tenth a quarrel broke out be¬ 
tween him and the general-in-chief, Agamem¬ 
non, which led him to withdraw entirely from 
the contest. In consequence the Trojans, who 
before scarcely ventured without their walls, 
now waged battle in the plain with various issue, 
till they reduced the Greeks to extreme distress. 
The Greek council of war sent its most influen¬ 
tial members to soothe Achilles’ anger, and 
induce him to return to arms, but without effect. 
Rage and grief caused by the death of his friend 
Patroclus, slain by Hector, induced Achilles to 
return to battle. Thetis procured from Hephae¬ 
stus (Vulcan) a fresh suit of armor for her 
son, who at the close of a day of slaughter 
killed Hector and dragged him at his chariot 
wheels to the camp, but afterward gave the body 
to Priam, who came in person for it. Achilles 
then performed the funeral rites of Patroclus, 
with which the Iliad closes. It contains, how¬ 
ever, several anticipative allusions to the death 
of Achilles, which is also mentioned in the 
Odyssey. He was killed in a battle at the 
Scjean Gate. 

Here ends the history of Achilles so far as 
it is derived from Homer. By later authors a 
variety of fable is mixed up with it; some per¬ 
haps old legend, much certainly outright in¬ 
vention. To make him immortal, his mother 
during his infancy concealed him by night in 
fire, to destroy the mortal parts inherited from 
his father, and anointed him by day with am¬ 
brosia (the story of Demeter and Demophoon). 
His father discovering him one night in the 
fire, Thetis fled; and his father entrusted him 
to the care of Cheiron, who fed him with the 
hearts of lions and the marrow of bears, and 
gave him the education proper to a hero. Ac¬ 
cording to another story Thetis made him in¬ 
vulnerable by dipping him in the Styx, but the 
heel by which she held him was untouched by 
the water; accordingly he received his fatal 
wound in the heel. The story of Siegfried is 
patterned on this. To prevent his going to 
Troy, where it was predicted he should perish, 
Thetis sent him, disguised as a girl, to the court 
of Lycomedes of Scyros. He was educated with 
Lycomedes’ daughters, one of whom, Deida- 
meia, became the mother of Pyrrhus or Neop- 
tolemus by him. Odysseus (Ulysses) went to 
the court of Lycomedes to discover him and 
induce him to join the war, in which Calchas 
had declared his aid indispensable. He suc¬ 
ceeded by a stratagem. Presenting himself as 
a merchant, he offered the daughters of Lyco¬ 
medes female ornaments and articles of attire 
for sale, among which he laid a shield and 
spear. He then raised an alarm of danger, on 
which the girls fled, and Achilles seized the 
weapons. He is said to have been killed either 
by Apollo in the likeness of Paris, or by an 


arrow of Paris directed by Apollo. According 
to another account he made love to Polyxena, 
a daughter of Priam; and, induced by the prom¬ 
ise of her hand on condition of his joining the 
Trojans, went unarmed to the temple of Apollo 
at Thymbra, and was there assassinated by 
Paris. Various stories are told of the relations 
of Achilles with Iphigenia (q.v.), who was 
brought to the camp at Aulis on pretext of being 
married to Achilles. In one account Achilles 
interferes to rescue her from being sacrificed, 
and sends her to Scythia; in another he marries 
her, and she becomes the mother of Pyrrhus. 
Others say he was united to her in the lower 
world, where he became a judge; others again 
say he married Medea in Elysium. Annual sac¬ 
rifices were offered to Achilles by the Thessa¬ 
lians at Troas by command of the oracle of 
Dodona; at Olympia and other places in Greece 
sacred honors were likewise paid to him. This 
has led to the unsafe inference that he was 
originally an Achaian god; but remembering the 
propensity of uncivilized races to deify superior 
geniuses among them, and such cases as that 
of Roland, it is much more likely that he was 
a chief before he was a god. It is probable that 
a real Thessalian warrior existed who has been 
thus idealized, though we do not know his name 
or real deeds. 

Achilles Tatius, a-kil'ez ta'shi-us, a Greek 
writer of romances: b. in Alexandria; flourished 
in the 5th century of our era. Suidas says he 
was a Christian bishop, but this is doubted. 
He wrote < The Loves of Clitophon and Leu- 
cippefl an erotic story in eight books, of pleas¬ 
ing but florid style, and without much regard to 
unity or consistency of plot; it was modeled 
on Heliodorus’ < Ethiopica.> That the story 
was very popular in its day is proved by the 
number of copies of it that are still in MSS., 
and by the plentiful imitations of it in the Mid¬ 
dle Ages. An English translation by Anthony 
Hodges was published in 1638. 

Achilles Tendon, a tendon, so called be¬ 
cause, as fable reports, Thetis, the mother of 
Achilles, held him by that part when she dipped 
him in the river Styx to make him invulnerable. 
It is the strong and powerful tendon of the 
heel, which is formed by the junction of divers 
muscles, and which extends from the calf to 
the heel. When this tendon is unfortunately 
cut or ruptured, as it may be in consequence of 
a violent exertion or spasm of the muscles of 
which it is a continuation, the use of the leg 
is immediately lost; and unless the part be 
afterward successfully united the patient will 
remain a cripple for life. The indications are 
to bring the ends of the divided parts together, 
and to keep them so until they have become 
firmly united. This tendon is frequently the 
seat of a synovitis, just above the heel, from 
excessive exercise. 

Achimenes, a-kim'e-nez (from the Greek 
name of an East Indian plant used in magic), 
a genus of tropical American plants of the order 
Gcsneracecp, greatly cultivated in greenhouses 
for the beauty, of their red, white, and blue 
flowers, which, if the rhizomes are potted by the 
first of April, bloom from the last of May till 
mto October or even November. It may also 
be propagated by cuttings. The species are nu¬ 
merous. 


ACHIN 


Achin, Acheen, or Atcheen, a-chen' (prop¬ 
erly Acheh, Portuguese corruption Achem, 
Dutch At]eh or Ajeh), a district at the N.W. ex¬ 
tremity of Sumatra, till 1873 an independent sul¬ 
tanate, now a province of the Dutch Indies: area, 
20,471 sq. m.; pop. (1897) stated at 531,705 (but 
a true census must be impossible). The surface 
is divided into an eastern and a western half 
by a mountain chain which traverses the whole 
island, rising in the peak of Abong-Abong 
to 11,000 feet. At the farthest north is the 
famous* Gold Mountain, at the base of which lies 
the capital. On both sides are numerous 
stretches of level or undulating soil, watered by 
small but deep streams, and admirably adapted 
for tree-culture, gardening, and rice. The flora 
and fauna agree with those of Sumatra: pepper- 
trees and areca-nuts grow there. The natives 
employ themselves in agriculture, cattle-rearing, 
trade, fisheries, weaving cloth, and working in 
gold, silver, and iron. The chief agricultural 
industry is the production of rice and pepper, 
the latter sent from many small western ports. 
From Pedir and other northern ports large 
quantities of betel-nut are exported to India, 
Burmah, and China. Achin ponies are also 
much reputed and exported. Minor exports are 
sulphur, iron, sapan-wood, gutta-percha, dam- 
mer, rattans, bamboos, benzoin, and camphor, 
the latter highly valued in China and bringing 
an enormous price. Silk, once plentiful, has 
nearly disappeared. Nor is there now much 
export of the gold that once drew so much 
trade thither and made it so rich as to astonish 
foreigners. No place in the East save Japan 
was so abundantly supplied with it, and it was 
from far antiquity part of the Golden Cher¬ 
sonese. It exported probably 15,000 to 20,000 
ounces a year. The imports are mainly rice 
(the native supply being insufficient), opium, 
salt, dried fish, cotton goods, iron and copper 
wares, firearms, pottery, etc. The people are 
distinct from the rest of the Sumatrans, who 
are Malays: they are taller, handsomer, and 
darker, more active and industrious, and good 
seamen; but they are treacherous, bloodthirsty, 
and revengeful, immoral, and inordinately ad¬ 
dicted to opium. Their ethnological place is 
not settled; they are believed to be Malay at 
root, though probably with some admixture 
from India, and not impossibly an Arab strain. 
Their speech is said by some to be Polynesian 
at root, though with much Malay loan element. 
Their literature is entirely Malay, and comprises 
poetry, theology, and chronicles. 

The capital of the province is Kota Radja or 
Achin, situated at the northwest extremity, on a 
stream navigable by boats, about 4V^ miles, from 
its port Oleh-leh, with which, since 1876, it has 
been connected by a railway. Formerly a large 
and flourishing city, it was almost entirely de¬ 
stroyed during the war, but is now beginning to 
revive. It contains a Dutch garrison of 2,000 
men. 

History .— Civilization was. first introduced 
into Sumatra by Hindu missionaries in the 7th 
century, and a considerable amount of immigra¬ 
tion from India followed. In the. 13th century 
it was converted to Mohammedanism by Arabs 
— the sultans of Achin claim descent from the 
first Mohammedan missionary — and the Arabic 
alphabet displaced the Japanese. Northern Su¬ 
matra was visited by several European travelers 


in the Middle Ages, as Marco Polo, Friar Odor- 
ico, and Nicolo Conti; and some of these, as 
well as Asiatic writers, mention Lambri, a State 
which must have corresponded nearly with 
Achin: but the first to name it as such is Alvaro 
Tellez, a captain of the Portuguese Tristan 
d’Acunha’s fleet, in 1506. It was then a de¬ 
pendency of Pedir adjoining; but within twenty 
years it had not only gained independence, but 
swallowed up all the other States of northern 
Sumatra. It attained the climax of power 
under Sultan Iskandar Muda, 1607-36, when it 
extended from Aru, opposite Malacca, round by 
the north to Padang on the western coast, a sea¬ 
board of 1,100 miles; and its supremacy was 
owned also by the large island of Nyas, and by 
the continental Malay States of Johor, Pahang, 
Quedah, and Perak. It is in fact the only Su¬ 
matran State which has at any time been power¬ 
ful since the Cape route to the East was dis¬ 
covered. Its wealth astonished the European 
visitors and traders; and its great commercial 
repute is shown by the fact that it was to Achin 
port that the first Dutch (1599) and English 
(1602) commercial ventures were directed. 
Lancaster, the English commodore, carried let¬ 
ters from Queen Elizabeth to «the king of 
Atcheen,® James I. exchanged letters with Iskan¬ 
dar Muda in 1613, and the Achinese sent envoys 
to the Dutch republic, who were received by 
Prince Maurice in camp (1602). But native 
jealousy of foreigners and the latter’s rivalry 
with and destruction of each other’s ventures 
prevented the establishment of permanent fac¬ 
tories there. Still, the trade, though spasmodical¬ 
ly interrupted, was very important; foreign 
merchants of many nations were settled in 
Achin city port, while other Chinese merchants 
came annually and held a great fair through 
June and July. For 58 years after Iskandar’s 
death the Malay oligarchy of chiefs placed fe¬ 
males on the throne; in 1699 the Arab party 
suppressed this system and set up an Arab 
ruler, and the State rapidly decayed from inter¬ 
nal factions. From 1666 on, the Dutch had held 
possessions around Padang on the western 
coast, and gradually gained much in old Achin; 
in 1811 the British seized this as well as the 
other Dutch East Indies. In 1816 Java was 
restored to the Dutch, but the English colonies 
insisted the more strenuously that English in¬ 
fluence should be maintained in Achin; and in 
1819 the Calcutta government made a treaty ex¬ 
cluding all other foreigners from permanent 
settlements there. In 1824 an exchange was 
made with the Dutch, of the Sumatran settle¬ 
ments for others in Asia; the above article was 
not mentioned, but it was privately understood 
that it should not be insisted on if the Dutch 
would make no war on Achin. In the conven¬ 
tion at The Hague, 2 Nov. 1871, the Dutch in¬ 
sisted on the latter stipulation being formally 
withdrawn, as the Achinese were pirates and 
chastisement was often needed; and in 1873 
Holland — with plenty of provocation, but grave 
doubts even at home of its necessity — embarked 
in the war, which has cost it 15.000 lives and 
over $100,000,000, and has not yet ended in the 
real subjugation of the interior country. Achin 
city was captured and civil government has 
been instituted in the coast territory; but the 
natives are fierce and have a good country for 
guerrilla warfare, and English blockade-runners 


ACHISH —ACIDS 


Keep them supplied with arms and ammunition. 
Many evidences of these wars may be seen in 
Holland. (The authoritative works are all in 
Dutch: the chief is Smouck’s ( Die Ajehers,* 2 
vols. Batavia 1893-5. There was also one of 
Veth, ^tchin,* Leyden 1873.) 

Achish, king of Gath in Philistia, with 
whom David takes refuge when out of favor 
with Saul; represented as a dull easy man, 
whom David dupes into believing that he is 
making war only on the Judahites and their al¬ 
lies, when in fact he is raiding the native tribes, 
and enriching his stronghold Ziklag with their 
plunder. His lords are not so blind, however, 
and make him dismiss David before going to 
battle at Mount Gilboa. David lived with him 
four months according to one account, a year 
and four months according to another. 

Achromatism. Because the several com¬ 
ponents of a beam of ordinary light are of 
different refrangibilities, it follows that they 
are not brought to a common focus by a simple 
convex lens. The violet rays meet at a point 
nearer the lens than that at which the red rays 
unite, and the optical image is confused and 
fringed with prismatic colors. 

This difficulty is greatest with lenses of short 
focus, whence the early practice of constructing 
telescopes of enormous length. Sir Isaac New¬ 
ton, misled by a really remarkable series of 
petty accidents, concluded that this difficulty 
could not be obviated, and that large refracting 
telescopes were therefore impracticable. He 
therefore gave his attention to the development 
of the reflector. 

In 1757, however, John Dollond, a Spitalfields 
weaver, discovered that different substances 
separate the colors of light, for a given mean 
refraction, to a different degree. He therefore 
constructed double lenses of two different kinds 
of glass,— crown glass and flint glass. A con¬ 
cave lens of flint glass brings the colors to¬ 
gether while not entirely destroying the refrac¬ 
tion caused by a convex lens of crown glass. 
The correction is far from perfect, however, 
and even the best telescope lenses produce a 
blue halo surrounding the stellar images. This 
outstanding color may be reduced by combina¬ 
tions of three or more lenses; but such devices 
greatly increase the mechanical difficulties of the 
optician. The present practice is to bring to¬ 
gether such portions of the light as most power¬ 
fully effect the eye or the photographic plate, 
leaving the other tints uncorrected. The intro¬ 
duction of new kinds of glass, especially the 
Jena glass, so called, has somewhat improved 
the chromatic correction of smaller objectives. 
See Dispersion ; Lens ; Microscope ; Telescope ; 
Light. 

Achsharumov, Nikolei Dmitriyevich, ach- 
sha-roo'mof, ne-kolAi dme-tre-yev'ich, Rus¬ 
sian novelist and critic: b. St. Petersburg, 15 
Dec. 1819; d. Moscow, 30 Aug. 1893. For a 
time he held a post in the ministry of war, but 
came later to devote himself to painting, and 
particularly to literature. He first attracted at¬ 
tention by a dramatic sketch, < The Masked 
Ball,1 and became more widely known through 
his novels, < The Double > ; < The Gambler > ; 

< The False Name > ; < An Unusual Case > ; 

< The Mandarin > ; and < At All Costs > ( < Was 
es auch Kosten mag>). His critical essays in¬ 


clude studies of Tolstoi, Turgeniev, Dostoievski, 
and Herbert Spencer. 

A Chula, ii-shoo'la (Port.), a dance resem¬ 
bling the fandango (q.v.). 

Achurch, Janet, English actress, stage 
name of Janet Achurch Sharp, now Mrs. Charles 
Charrington: b. Lancashire; debut at Olympic 
Theatre, January 1883. In 1887 she joined 
Beerbohm Tree’s company; 7 June 1889 cre¬ 
ated the part of Nora in Ibsen’s < Doll’s House,) 
the first presentation of Ibsen in English. She 
afterward starred in India and Australia, and 
in 1895 came to the United States, acting with 
Richard Mansfield and for herself. June 1897 
she played Cleopatra (Shakespeare’s) at the 
Olympic Theatre, London. 

Acic'ulite, a mineral better known as 

needle-ore (q.v.). 

Acidaspis (« spine-shield »), a small trilobite 
widely distributed through Silurian and De¬ 
vonian rocks, whose striking characteristic is 
the thick setting of the dorsal shield with such 
numerous and formidable spines that it must 
have been almost impossible for even much 
larger enemies to prey on it. The head-shield 
is entirely different from that of other trilo- 
bites, the trilobation being obscured by extra 
furrows and longitudinal false furrows. The 
thorax has 9 or 10 segments, each with long 
lateral spines and two shorter median ones; 
the small tail-shield in nearly all species also 
has them; in some a row of slender ones on the 
sides of the head-shield, and a long one project¬ 
ing from each posterior angle; and from the 
middle posterior edge two long ones, straight 
or curved, often project upward and backward. 
A few species have the eyes placed, like some 
crabs and lobsters, on the ends of lone, slender 
stalks, commanding a view in all directions. 

Ac'idim'etry. See Chemical Analysis. 

Acids. In popular usage, acids are sub¬ 
stances of a corrosive nature, with a sour taste 
when diluted sufficiently to lose their corrosive 
action on the tongue, capable of turning certain 
blue vegetable coloring matters, such as litmus, 
to a red, and forming neutral compounds with 
alkalies. In modern chemistry an acid is usual¬ 
ly regarded as a salt of hydrogen in which 
one or more of the hydrogen atoms are replace¬ 
able by metallic atoms or by organic radicals. 
An acid containing one such atom of replaceable 
hydrogen is called monobasic; if it has two such 
atoms of hydrogen it is called dibasic or bibasic; 
if three, tribasic; and so on. Hydrochloric 
acid, HC 1 , is a familiar example of a monobasic 
acid; it has only one atom of hydrogen that can 
be replaced by potassium (for example), with 
the formation of the single compound KC 1 . 
Sulphuric acid, H2SO1, is a familiar dibasic acid; 
with potassium it forms the two compounds 
HKSO4 (hydrogen potassium sulphate), and 
K2SO4 (normal or basic potassium sulphate). 
Phosphoric acid, H3PO4, is a tribasic acid in 
which one, two, or all three of the hydrogen 
atoms may be replaced by metals or radicals. 
In a polybasic acid the hydrogen atoms need 
not necessarily all be displaced by the same ele¬ 
ment or radicals; thus microcosmic salt is a 
phosphate of hydrogen, sodium, and ammonium- 
with the formula HNa(NH 4 ) PO4 -f- 4H0O. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENT — ACOMA 


When an acid contains oxygen it is com¬ 
monly named for the substance that is present 
with the oxygen and hydrogen in the acid. For 
example, nitric acid is named for nitrogen, and 
phosphoric acid for phosphorus. It often hap¬ 
pens that the same element forms more than one 
acid with oxygen and hydrogen. In these cases 
it is usual to give the termination -ic to the one 
which contains the larger amount of oxygen, 
and the termination -ous to the one containing 
the lesser amount of oxygen. For example, 
H2SO4 is called sulphuric acid, while H2SO3 is 
called sulphurous acid. The salts formed by 
acids ending in -ic have the ending -ate, such as 
the acid sulphate of potassium, produced by 
substituting the metal potassium for one of the 
hydrogen atoms of sulphuric acid, while those 
formed by acids ending in -ous have the ending 
-ite. A vast number of organic acids are known, 
of which acetic acid is a familiar illustration. 

Acknowledgment, the act of one who has 
executed a deed, in going before some competent 
officer or court and declaring it to be his act 
and deed. The function of an acknowledgment 
is twofold: to authorize the deed to be given in 
evidence without further proof of its execution, 
and to entitle it to be recorded. The same end 
may be attained by a subscribing witness going 
before the officer or court, and making oath to 
the fact of execution, which is certified in the 
same manner, but in some States this is permit¬ 
ted only in case of the death, absence, or re¬ 
fusal of the grantor. The certificate should be 
in substantially the following form: 

-, 19—• 

I,-, hereby certify that-, 

-whose name is signed to the foregoing conveyance, 
and who is known to me, acknowledged before me 
on this day that being informed of the contents of 
the conveyance, he executed the same voluntarily on 
the day the same bears date. 

Given under my hand this - day of -, 19—. 

In many of the States it is necessary that a 
married woman be examined separately and 
apart from her husband touching her voluntary 
execution of the deed, and the fact of such ex¬ 
amination must be included in the certificate. 

Acland, Lady Christian Henrietta Caroline 
Fox, commonly called <( Lady Harriet®; 
daughter of the first Earl of Ilchester: b. 3 Jan. 
1750; d. 21 July 1815. She married Maj. John 
Dyke Acland, September 1770, accompanied him 
to America, and shared Burgoyne’s campaign of 
1777 with him. He being wounded and carried 
prisoner into the American lines in the second 
battle of Saratoga, 7 October, she left the Brit¬ 
ish camp by night in a small rowboat and in a 
driving storm to rejoin him, with her chaplain 
and maid; was cordially received by Gates and 
nursed her husband back to health. Acland 
reciprocated the kindness when on parole in 
New York, by helping to relieve the sufferings 
of American prisoners. He died of a paralytic 
stroke 2 Dec. 1778; the gratifying story that he 
was killed in a duel for defending American 
courage against aspersion being pure invention. 
Equally untrue is it that she went insane and 
afterward married Chaplain Brudenell; she died 
Acland’s widow. She was a graceful and ele¬ 
gant woman and is remembered for her chari¬ 
ties. 

Acland, Sir Henry Wentworth Dyke, Eng¬ 
lish sanitarian: b. 1815; d. 16 Oct. 1900. He 
V'ol. 1—5 


was long an expert on cholera and the various 
forms of plague. He was professor of medicine 
at Oxford (1858-94), besides serving on various 
sanitary bodies. He was one of the founders 
of the Oxford University Museum, and with 
Ruskin published an account of its objects 
(1859). He accompanied the Prince of Wales 
to America in i860. He was author of 
( Memoirs of the Cholera,> etc. 

Aclinic Line, an imaginary line on the 
surface of the earth, at every point of which the 
magnetic dip is zero. It is irregular in shape, 
and its shape and position vary somewhat from 
year to year; but, roughly speaking, it lies close 
to the equator. See Magnetism, Terrestrial. 

Ac'mite, a mineral, in Dana’s pyroxene 
group, crystallizing in the monoclinic system, 
and having essentially the composition 
Na 2 O.Fe20 3 .4Si02. Hardness 6 to 6.5; sp. gr. 
3.5; lustre vitreous, inclining to resinous; usual 
color dark blackish-green or reddish-brown. Oc¬ 
curs in slender lustrous prisms in the elseolite- 
syenites of Norway, Greenland and Arkansas. 

Acne, a disease of the sebaceous glands of 
the skin and of the hair follicles about them, 
characterized by an infection, an inflammation, 
and a breaking down of the tissue about the 
gland. Three main varieties are described, sim¬ 
ple acne, deep or indurated acne, and acne rosa¬ 
cea, which is a complex affair. 

Acne simplex .— In this form the affection is 
superficial, is found usually about the time of 
puberty, and is more often found in young 
women. It is a result of the great activities of 
the skin at this period of development, and is 
normal if not excessively developed. The 
(( blackhead® or comedo is the first stage. This 
consists of the swollen sebaceous gland, slightly 
blackened at its outlet. This swelling continues, 
and a pustule forms, by reason of infection by 
one of the many pus-producing bacteria lying in 
and upon the skin. This results in an inflamed 
pimple, which may burst and discharge its con¬ 
tents, leaving a scar. In a badly inflamed area 
or pimply skin all stages of this development are 
usually present. 

Acne indurata is a more deep-seated form. 
Here the gland lies deep in the skin, and, as it 
inflames, gives rise to the feeling of shot beneath 
the skin. These deep glands rarely rupture 
through the skin unless irritated by squeezing, 
in which instance they frequently form small 
boil-like pimples. 

Acne rosacea is a combination of a disease of 
the skin, rosacea, plus an acne. This is the 
type of diseased nose so commonly termed a 
^rum-blossom.® 

Acoma, a-ko'ma, New Mexico (the old 
Spanish Acuna or Acuco), in Valencia co., 
60 m. S.W. of Albuquerque and 15 m. S.W. 
of Lagun. It is an Indian pueblo of 492 people 
(566 in 1890), famed especially for its original 
site, the <( Enchanted Mesa®; a rock table 430 
feet high, accessible now only by. scaling, and 
of old (traditionally) by spiral stairs cut in the 
stone, in a deep cleft of the upper portion and 
along a huge detached fragment leaning against 
it from the bottom, itself reached by a tall tree 
or a ladder, furnishing a secure fortress against 
enemies. The Indian tradition is that a long 
storm washed the loose earth away from the 
foot of the lower rock while all the tribe except 









ACONCAGUA — ACOSTA 


two women were away in the fields, and it fell 
over into the plain, leaving the upper portion 
inaccessible; the women perished, but the re¬ 
mainder of the tribe built a new place on the 
present site, which is the same as when the 
Spaniards found it. The essence of the tradi¬ 
tion is verified by the finding of an old trail, 
and of shards, etc., in the talus high around the 
base. Acoma was visited in 1540 by Alvarado, 
of Coronado’s command, and in 1582 by Es- 
pejo, who estimated the population at about 
5,000. The Indians under Zutucapan stubbornly 
resisted the Spaniards, and in 1599 defeated a 
band of them from Onate’s force; later in the 
same year Zaldivar captured Acoma and slew 
five sixths of the inhabitants. A Spanish mis¬ 
sion was afterward set up for the small rem¬ 
nant. (H. H. Bancroft’s < Arizona and New 
Mexico,) 1880; F. W. Hodge, (The Enchanted 
Mesa,) < National Geographic Magazine,) 
vol. 8.) 

Aconcagua, Chile, a-kon-ka'gwa (Sp.-Am. 
pron. ka'wa). (1) An extinct volcano in the 
S. Andes, on Chilean territory and dividing it 
from Argentina; one of the highest summits in 
the western hemisphere, estimated at about 
23,000 or sometimes nearly 24,000 feet. (2) A 
river about 200 miles long, rising on the south¬ 
ern slope of the above mountain, and emptying 
into the Pacific 12 miles north of Valparaiso. 
(3) A central province of Chile, bounded N. by 
Coquimbo, S. by Santiago, E. by Argentina, 
S.W. by Valparaiso. For route of Trans-Andine 
Railway, via Uspallata pass in this province, 
see South America. The valleys are very fer- 
i tile, vineyards and orchards are plentiful, and in 
' summer numerous flocks are pastured on the 
. mountain slopes; figs, nectarines, peaches, etc., 
1 are sent to Santiago and Valparaiso. Cop¬ 
per, silver, and gold are found. Area, 6,226 
square miles. Pop. about 135,000. Capital, San 
Felipe. 

Aconite (Aconitum ), a genus of hardy her¬ 
baceous plants, of the natural order Ranuncula- 
cece, long known for their poisonous properties. 
Many of them are of great beauty, and several 
are cultivated, especially the common wolfs¬ 
bane or monk’s-hood (A. napellus), so called 
from the form of its flowers, characteristic of 
the. genus, which are shaped like a helmet or 
hood. The United States has also several spe¬ 
cies growing wild. The wild monk’s-hood (A. 
uncinatum) is common in rich shady soils along 
the margins of streams as far west as Wiscon¬ 
sin, its blue flowers being one of the marked 
features of the summer’s bloom. Trailing 
wolf’s-bane (A. reclinatum ), a white-flowered 
variety, grows in the southern Alleghanies. The 
winter aconite ( Eranthis ), with yellow flowers, 
is common throughout the Rocky Mountain 
regions extending to the Pacific coast. It is 
perhaps more closely related to the hellebores. 
These flowers hang clustered round an upright 
stalk and make the aconite a very imposing 
plant. Some powerful medicines are prepared 
from the leaves and roots of monk’s-hood. Ap¬ 
plied externally they produce numbness of 
sensory nerves, and are used to relieve pain in 
certain forms of neuralgia, and in acute and 
chronic rheumatism. Given internally they 
diminish the force and frequency of the heart’s 
action, render breathing slower, and are em¬ 


ployed in acute fevers and inflammations. A 
poisonous dose causes cessation of breathing 
and of the heart’s action. All the plants of this 
genus are poisonous; common monk’s-hood is 
very virulent; but the most deadly seems to be 
the A. ferox, the bish, or bikh, of Nepal. 

Aconitic Acid, (also called equisetic or 
citridic acid), a tribasic acid having the formula 
C 3 H 3 (COOH)3, the calcium salt of which occurs 
in several plants of the genus Aconitum, and in 
the common Equisetum, or horsetail. The acid 
itself is most easily prepared by the dry distilla¬ 
tion of citric acid. 

Aconitine, a powerful vegetable alkaloid 
found in the tuberous root of Aconitum napel¬ 
lus and other species of Aconitum. In its chem¬ 
ical structure it is an acetyl-benzoyl-aconine, 

C 2 iH 27 ( 0 CH 3 ) 4 N 0 5 . I CQQJ43 or, expressed in 

simple form, GJUrNOn (Freund and Beck). 
It is one of the most deadly poisons and has 
been known for hundreds of years. Its action 
as a medicine was first carefully studied by 
Stoerck in 1762. When locally applied it pro¬ 
duces the constitutional symptoms. Its local 
use in the form of an ointment is of service in 
neuralgias. Internally its main action is on the 
heart muscle and on the blood-vessels. It slows 
the heart and dilates the blood-vessels, causing 
a marked decrease of blood pressure. It is be¬ 
cause of this action that it is so widely used in 
the acute stages of many affections that are ac¬ 
companied by a rapid heart and a tense, bound¬ 
ing pulse. Aconite has been called the « vege¬ 
table lancet» since it dilates the blood-vessels 
so, bleeding one into one’s own veins, as it were. 
In poisonous doses it causes nausea, vomiting, 
cold, clammy skin, very slow weak pulse and 
breathing, and finally paralysis of the heart and 
respiration, and death. Death has taken place 
in from one to five hours from the root. Doses 
above 3 milligrams (1-20 gr.) a day are dan¬ 
gerous; 1-200 gr. is a safe initial dose. Treat¬ 
ment is symptomatic, special attention being 
paid to the respiration by artificial means, and 
heart stimulants,— strychnine, etc. 

Acontius, in a Greek legend retold by Ovid 
in his (Heroides,) a youth of the island of 
Cea, who went to Delos to see the sacred rites 
performed by a crowd of virgins in the temple 
of Diana, : and fell in love with Cydippe, a beau¬ 
tiful virgin. Not daring to ask her in marriage 
on account of the meanness of his birth, he pre¬ 
sented her with an apple on which were in¬ 
scribed these words: «I swear by Diana, 

Acontius shall be my husband.)) Cydippe read 
the words, and, feeling herself compelled by 
the oath she had inadvertently taken, married 
Acontius. William Morris has used the story 
in the ( Earthly Paradise.) 

Acorn-shell, a barnacle of the family Balan- 
ldae. See Barnacle. 

Acorus. See Flag, Sweet. 

Acosta, Gabriel, a-kos-ta, Portuguese phi¬ 
losopher: b. Oporto 1591; d. April 1640. Of a 
converted Jewish family, educated a Roman 
Catholic, his studies led him back to Judaism., 
and he fled with his mother and brothers to 
Amsterdam. He again developed heretical opin¬ 
ions, was taken to task by the synagogue, 
and excommunicated; his writings were confis- 


ACOSTA 


ACOUSTICS 


cated and himself fined; and years of persecu¬ 
tion by the Jewish authorities and his family 
drove him to suicide. Gutzkow made him the 
hero of his novel ( Die Sadducaer von Amster¬ 
dam } (1834), an d of his tragedy ( Uriel Acos¬ 
ta* (1846). The work which caused Acosta’s 
excommunication was ( Examen Traditionum 
Pharisaeicarum Collatarum cum Lege Scripta ) 
(1623, in Latin). 

Acosta, Joaquin, a-kos'ta, hooa-ken', South 
American soldier and geographer: b. Guachias, 
Colombia, 29 Dec. 1799; d. there 1852. He was 
an officer of engineers in the Colombian army, 
member of the New Grenada Convention 1831, 
later representative in its Congress. In 1834 
he explored the Socorro valley to the Magda¬ 
lena with the botanist Cespedes, and in 1841 
traveled from Antioquia to Aserma to study the 
various Indian tribes. For a time he was min¬ 
ister from New Grenada to Ecuador; was 
charge d’affaires at Washington 20 July to 8 
Nov. 1842; and later secretary of state in New 
Grenada. Lie published at Paris in 1848 a his¬ 
tory of the discovery and settlement of New 
Grenada, with a valuable map of his own draw¬ 
ing, the first made since the independence of 
Colombia; and in 1849, at Paris, a ( Miscellany 
of New-Grenadan Sciences, Literature, Arts, 
and Industries,* with portraits and map. 

Acosta, Jose, a-kos'ta, ho-sa', Jesuit and his¬ 
torian : b. Spain, c. 1540; d. rector of Salamanca 
in 1600. In 1571 he went to Peru, where he 
spent 15 years, becoming provincial of his order. 
After two years in Mexico and the West Indies 
he returned to Spain laden with manuscripts 
and information, and became a royal favorite. 
His theological works evinced great learning, 
but it is by his < Natural and Moral History of 
the Indies ) that he is best known. The complete 
work was published at Seville in 1590 and 
proved the most popular and most satisfactory 
account of the New World up to that time. 
An English translation appeared at London in 
1604, a reprint of which was issued by the 
Hakluyt Society in 1880. 

Acouchi, or Acouc.hy. See Aguti. 

Acoumeter (^hearing-measurer**), an in¬ 
strument to determine the acuteness of hearing. 
It is a small steel bar of uniform pitch, to be 
struck with a hammer or falling weight with 
gradations of force. 

Acoustics (from aroiecv, to hear) is the 
science of the production, propagation, and 
audition of sound. The term sound is some¬ 
times by definition restricted to the sensation 
involved in hearing, but is never consistently 
so used. Both by derivation and by common 
and best usage it should be applied to those 
aerial or other vibrations which, were they to 
reach the ear, would produce audition. The 
term being thus used, sound consists of waves of 
longitudinal vibration, that is to say of waves 
of to and fro motion perpendicular to the wave 
front. Such motion, propagated through an 
elastic medium with a finite velocity, results in 
alternate rarefaction and condensation. 

A moment’s consideration of any source of 
sound will show it to be of such a nature as 
to give either a single impulsive blow or re¬ 
peated blows, usually systematically repeated, to 
the surrounding medium. In the great majority 
of cases, and tho«=e the mor^ Interesting both 


theoretically and practically, the source of 
sound consists of an elastic body distorted from 
its normal shape, and, released, vibrating more 
or less symmetrically about this normal shape 
or position. It results from this vibratory mo¬ 
tion that a series of impulses is given to the 
surrounding medium which are periodic, nearly 
similar in character, and nearly equally timed. 
These impulses, propagated through the sur¬ 
rounding medium all with the same velocity, 
follow each other in the form of a train of 
waves. The distance from a point in one im¬ 
pulse to the corresponding point in the next 
impulse is called the wave length of the sound. 
The frequency of these waves as they strike the 
ear determines the pitch of the sound; the 
character of the wave in respect to form de¬ 
termines the quality of the sound; while both 
of these together with the amplitude of vibra¬ 
tion and the density of the medium determine 
the loudness or strength of the sensation. 

In respect to pitch sounds audible to the 
human ear range in frequency from about 24 
vibrations per second to 40,000 vibrations. 
Sounds very much higher in pitch are audible 
to some animals, the cat for example, while 
for some animals it is probable that the upper 
limit is not so high, although in regard to the 
latter point no reliable data have been secured, 
the interest of the biologists apparently being 
to extend the range. In regard to the lower 
limit in other auditors than man no reliable ex¬ 
periments have been made, and if attempted 
would be extremely difficult because of the diffi¬ 
culty of distinguishing the reactions due to the 
mechanical disturbance from the reaction due to 
true audition,— a difficulty which indeed affects 
all such experiments, but which is enhanced in 
the case of the lower limit. , 

The quality of a sound is determined by the 
wave form. A pure musical tone is due to sim¬ 
ple harmonic motion, a type of periodic motion 
best described as the projection on a diameter 
of uniform circular motion, and most famil¬ 
iarly illustrated by the motion of the pendulum 
of a clock. Perfectly pure tones are rare, the 
nearest approach being that of a tuning fork re¬ 
enforced by a resonator. Most musical sounds 
are far from being pure tones. They may, how¬ 
ever, be regarded as a complex of a number of 
pure tones, each pure tone being then called a 
partial tone. Of these partial tones the lowest, 
which is generally though not always predom¬ 
inant, is called the first partial, and the other 
partial tones in order of their pitch are called 
the second, third, etc., partials. In many of 
the more interesting cases such as the tones of 
the organ pipe, or of a bowed, struck or plucked 
string, the upper partials are harmonics of the 
fundamental. The pitch and the relative in¬ 
tensities of the partial tones determine what is 
called the quality of the sound, the pitch of the 
whole being usually rated as that of the lowest 
partial. When a sound is incapable of analysis 
into pure tones it is called a noise. In many, 
indeed it is safe to say that in most sounds 
that are classed as noise there is some trace of 
a predominant note, and of a definite musical 
pitch which a trained ear can detect. 

The loudness of a sound is capable of be¬ 
ing variously defined. If by the loudness of a 
sound is meant physical energy and if the sound 
is a pure tone then its loudness depends on the. 
amplitude of vibration and the pitch, being pro- 


ACOUSTICS 


portional to the square of each, and on the 
density of the medium, to which it is directly 
proportional. The loudness of a sound is ordi¬ 
narily defined, however, by the intensity of the 
sensation which it is capable of producing. 
Thus defined loudness is a function not merely 
of the amplitude of vibration and the density 
of the medium, but of the pitch and the quality 
as well, and moreover it is a complicated func¬ 
tion of each.' It is an interesting fact that in 
man there is a definite sense of loudness which 
renders it possible to compare, in respect to the 
intensity of the sensations which they produce, 
sounds differing in pitch by the whole of the 
musical scale. Moreover, this sense of loud¬ 
ness is apparently physiological and not de¬ 
pendent on familiarity with the “balance® of any 
musical instrument, and is to a high degree of 
accuracy the same for different persons, inde¬ 
pendent of age, sex, or musical training. 

Production of Sound .— The best example of 
the single impulse as a source of sound is an 
explosion in unconfined and therefore non¬ 
resonant space. The result is an approximately 
single wave. When, however, the explosion oc¬ 
curs in a resonant cavity the result is a note 
of definite pitch determined by the cavity. Or 
a single explosion and impulsive wave may re¬ 
sult in a train of waves and therefore a sound 
of definite pitch, by being reflected from uni¬ 
formly spaced surfaces, such for example as the 
pickets of a fence. The next simplest source 
of sound is a siren, long a laboratory instru¬ 
ment, more recently made familiar by use in 
fog signals and steam whistles. The siren con¬ 
sists of two circular discs, the one fixed, the 
other pivoted to revolve nearly in contact with 
it. Both discs are pierced by a circle or by cir¬ 
cles of holes through which steam or com¬ 
pressed air escapes as the holes in the two 
discs come opposite each other. 

A straight bar of metal or wood may vibrate 
either transversely or longitudinally. If dis¬ 
torted transversely it vibrates to and fro 
through its normal straight form. The simplest 
form of this transverse vibration is that in 
which the bar at points one quarter the total 
length from either end remains at rest. These 
points of rest are called nodes and the inter¬ 
mediate part of free vibration is called an anti¬ 
node. When vibrating in this manner the bar 
emits its fundamental note, the lowest note of 
which it is capable if entirely free. The next 
simple mode of vibration is that in which there 
are three nodes, or points of rest, at points one 
sixth the total length from either end and in 
the middle. In this case the bar emits a note 
having twice the frequency of the fundamental 
and in pitch an octave above it. Continuing in 
this way a series of simple types of motion may 
be determined. The notes thus produced have 
twice, three times, four times, etc., the vibration 
frequency of the fundamental. Any transverse 
free vibration of the bar is a combination of 
these forms, and the sound which it emits is a 
combination of these notes. In this manner the 
quality of the sound is determined. If the bar 
is clamped at one end the lowest note which it 
emits is an octave lower than the lowest when 
entirely free; and the higher tones, instead of 
being two, three, etc., multiples of the funda¬ 
mental, skip every other one, being three, five, 
seven, etc., multiples of the fundamental. 
Touching the bar at any point tends to pro¬ 


duce a node at that point and to strengthen the 
corresponding partial tone, and to diminish the 
partial tones having antinodes at that point. 
The exact converse is true in regard to striking 
the rod. Finally, the frequency of the several 
notes is proportional inversely to the length, and 
to the square root of the density, and directly 
to the square root of the rigidity, other dimen¬ 
sions being the same in each case. 

When the rod is rubbed or stroked so as 
to vibrate longitudinally, either free or clamped 
at one end, its fundamental and overtones form 
the same systems as before, but all are of a 
different pitch, determined now by the length, 
density and modulus of elasticity. Thus the 
longitudinal vibrations of the free rod have as 
vibration frequencies of its overtones, all inte¬ 
gral multiples of the fundamental. If the 
same rod is rigidly clamped at one end, its 
fundamental is an octave lower than the funda¬ 
mental of the free rod, and the even integral 
overtones are absent. 

A stretched string or wire, so small in 
diameter in comparison with its length that 
its rigidity is insignificant in comparison with its 
tension, vibrates for its fundamental over its 
whole length with nodes at each end. The 
first overtone is an octave above this in pitch, 
the wire vibrating with a node at the centre. 
The second overtone (third partial) is three 
times the fundamental in pitch frequency, the 
wire vibrating with nodes a third of the whole 
length of the wire from either end. The third 
overtone (fourth partial) is four times the fun¬ 
damental in pitch frequency, with nodes at the 
quarter and middle points. A string set in vi¬ 
bration by any ordinary method vibrates in a 
more or less complex manner, emitting a sound 
containing the fundamental and overtones. The 
overtones present and their relative intensities 
are determined by whether the string is plucked, 
struck or bowed, and also by the point of appli¬ 
cation. The fundamental note emitted by a 
string is of a vibration frequency equal to the 
square root of the tension divided by the mass 
per centimeter of length, divided by twice the 
length. 

If the vibrating elastic solid is in the form 
of a plate the system of overtones bears a com¬ 
plicated relationship to the fundamental, no 
longer being integer multiples in vibration fre¬ 
quency. The manner in which the plate vi¬ 
brates may be shown by sprinkling sand on 
the plate, the latter being horizontal. When the 
plate vibrates the sand dances away from the 
parts of the plate in motion and settles in ridges 
along the nodes. When the plate is square and 
emitting its lowest tone the nodal lines traced 
by the sand form a cross reaching from the 
centres of the sides. By bowing the plate at 
different points the plate may be made to vi¬ 
brate in very complicated forms. The sand 
figures thus traced often making attractive de¬ 
signs. The production of these various pat¬ 
terns is much guided by touching the plate at 
various points on the edge with the fingers, thus 
determining the ends of nodal lines. This ex¬ 
periment was first performed by Chladni, and 
the sand figures are called after their inventor 
Chladni’s figures. Similar experiments can be 
carried out on stretched membranes, and one 
may investigate in this way the vibration of 
drum heads. The result of such an experi¬ 
ment shows that the quality of sound from a 


ACOUSTICS 


drum depends on the point at which it is struck, 
and that the upper partials are inharmonics of 
the fundamental. 

Next to the stretched string the most inter¬ 
esting case of a vibrating body is that of a col¬ 
umn of air. To a first approximation the prob¬ 
lem of the vibration of an air column is as 
simple as that of a stretched string, but in its 
practical forms and more accurate solution it is 
by no means, so simple. The vibration of a 
column of air, according to the theory ad¬ 
vanced by Bernoulli, is identical with the longi¬ 
tudinal vibration of a straight bar of metal. If 
the column of air is in a tube open at both ends, 
the simplest form of vibration and that in which 
it emits the lowest possible note is such that 
the air moves to and fro at both ends having 
a node at the middle. The first overtone, hav¬ 
ing a vibration frequency twice that of the fun¬ 
damental, is produced by the column of air 
vibrating freely at both ends, vibrating freely 
at the middle, and having nodes at points one 
quarter of the total length of the pipe from 
either end. The second overtone has three 
times, the third overtone four times, etc., the 
vibration frequency of the fundamental. If 
the column of air is closed at one end the low¬ 
est tone which it can emit is an octave below 
the lowest tone emitted by the same pipe open 
at both ends. The overtones in this case are 
three, five, seven, etc., times the fundamental 
in frequency. The analogy of this with the 
bar of .metal is obvious. It might be added that 
according to Bernoulli’s theory the note emit¬ 
ted by the column of air is such that the 
sound could travel from the open end to the 
first node during one quarter of a vibration. 
This, only approximately true in the case of 
the column of air, is very strictly true in the 
case of the metal rod. It follows from this 
that the pitch of the note emitted by a column 
of air can be varied either by varying the length 
of the column, the pitch being inversely pro¬ 
portional to the length, or by so exciting the 
air that it vibrates according to the higher 
forms with nodes nearer the ends. The appli¬ 
cation of this to musical instruments is very 
simple. Take, for example, organ pipes of what 
are called flue stops as distinguished from reed 
stops. All such organ pipes are, obviously, 
open at the end at which they are blown. Ac¬ 
cording as they are open or closed at the other 
end they are called open or closed pipes. Open 
pipes have nodes at their middle when sound¬ 
ing the fundamental note, while the closed 
pipes have their nodes at the closed end. A 
closed pipe is therefore an octave lower in 
pitch than an open pipe of the same length, ac¬ 
curately according to the theory of Bernoulli, 
but as a matter of fact only approximately so. 
In a pipe organ the variation in pitch is accom¬ 
plished not merely by using open and closed 
pipes, but principally by using pipes of different 
lengths. The pipes not uncommonly vary in 
length from thirty-two feet to half an inch. 
In the military trumpet we have an exceedingly 
simple instrument whose whole available scale 
consists in the overtones, the particular note 
being determined by lip tension and wind pres¬ 
sure. In the slide trombone the scale is pro¬ 
duced not merely as in the trumpet, but by 
varying the length by means of the slide. In 
the cornet the variation in length is accom¬ 
plished by means of keys turning valves which 


throw , into the length of the pipe or cut out 
from it short auxiliary convolutions. In the 
hrench horn the scale is played not merely by 
the means adopted in the cornet, but by means 
of the hand thrust, into the bell or flared end, 
thus partially closing it and so lowering the 
pitch. In the flute, clarionet, and wood wind- 
instruments generally the variation in pitch is 
accomplished by opening and closing ports on 
the side of the tube. 

A little more might be said in regard to 
stringed instruments. The strings are, in gen¬ 
eral, so narrow that when vibrating they cut 
through the air,, communicating, practically, no 
motion to the air and therefore emitting, prac¬ 
tically, no sound directly. The sound which 
we hear therefore comes not from the string, 
but from the sounding boards with which they 
are always placed in contact. It is thus be¬ 
cause the sound which we hear comes from the 
body of the violin and scarcely at all from the 
strings directly that its quality depends so much 
more on the instrument than on the strings 
with which it is stretched. 

Propagation of Sound .— When a sound is 
produced in free air at a distance from all ob¬ 
stacles it spreads in spherical waves, diminish¬ 
ing as it spreads over greater and greater sur¬ 
faces, the intensity of the sound diminishing as 
the wave increases. The area of a sphere be¬ 
ing proportional to the square of the radius we 
have the so-called law of the inverse square 
of the distance. The velocity of propagation of 
a sound through a medium is independent of 
the pitch of the sound or of its loudness and 
depends only on the nature of the medium — its 
elasticity and its density. In any medium the 
velocity of the sound is proportional directly 
to the square root of the elasticity and in¬ 
versely to the square root of the density of the 
medium. Since the waves follow each other 
with so great rapidity that the air does not have 
time to cool during compression, the elasticity 
here referred to is that of adiabatic compres¬ 
sion. A table is here given of the velocity of 
sound in various media. 


Carbonic acid gas 

Air . 

Hydrogen . 

Water . 

Pine wood . 

Copper . 

Iron . 


866 

1,092 

4,190 

4,730 

10,900 

12,200 

15,700 


In this table the velocities given are in feet 
per second and at o° C. A variation in tem¬ 
perature produces a variation in the velocity, 
particularly in the case of gases. A rise in 
temperature results in an increase of velocity, 
the increase being about .18 per cent for every 
degree Centigrade for all gases. This amounts 
to a little less than two feet per second in the 
case of air. 

When the source of sound is coming 
toward the observer, the observer being sta¬ 
tionary, the sound as heard is of a higher pitch 
than if the source were stationary, for the num¬ 
ber of waves reaching the observer 'per second 
is increased in the ratio of the velocity of 
sound plus the velocity of the source to the 
velocity of sound. Similarly when the source 
is receding from the observer the sound re¬ 
ceived is of lower pitch. The change is strik¬ 
ingly observed as a bicycle bell or a clanging 
street car gong passes close by an observer. In 









ACOUSTICS 


this case the fall in pitch is abrupt and marked. 
Similar phenomena are produced as the ob¬ 
server approaches or recedes from a stationary 
source. This is called Doppler’s principle. 

When the sound instead of being produced 
in uniform and stationary air is produced in air 
moving with various velocities the phenomena 
are much complicated. These phenomena were 
first studied with care in connection with fog 
signals by Henry, Tyndall, and Stokes. It was 
an old observation that fog signals plainly audi¬ 
ble at a very great distance could often not be 
heard at a little less distance, still nearer were 
audible again, still nearer inaudible,— that these 
regions of silence and audibility varied, not 
merely on different days, but rapidly in the 
most mysterious and disconcerting manner, so 
much so as to receive the name of (( sound 
ghosts.® The explanation, for a long time 
sought in vain, was ultimately given in a sug¬ 
gestion by Stokes that they were due to a varia¬ 
bility in the velocity of the wind in different 
strata of the atmosphere. The result of such 
an irregularity would be that the spreading 
sound waves instead of remaining spherical 
would be distorted very considerably. For ex¬ 
ample, the waves would be tipped back if the 
wind were greater at the higher altitude and 
against the sound. In such case the sound 
would rise from the water and there would be 
a region close to the surface over which the fog 
signal would be inaudible. If, on the other 
hand, the wind retarded the sound less above 
than below, or if the wind above favored the 
sound the wave would be tipped forward and 
the sound would descend upon the sea and 
there would be a resulting area of audibility. 
As the wind at different altitudes varies greatly 
and changes abruptly we have an entirely ade¬ 
quate explanation of the phenomena. 

If the medium through which the sound is 
being propagated is not homogeneous another 
very interesting series of phenomena will occur. 
Whether the variation in homogeneity results 
from the variation in composition or a variation 
in temperature, the effect is the same. A 
change in either temperature or composition re¬ 
sults in general in a change in the velocity of 
the sound. Whenever sound passes from one 
medium to another or from one region to an¬ 
other in which the velocity is different the 
direction of the sound is changed. It is said 
to be refracted. The law of refraction is a 
very simple one,— that the ratio of the sines of 
the angles made by the direction of propagation 
of the sound in the two media with a normal 
to the surface separating the media is equal to 
the ratio of the velocities in the two media. 
The sound is thus always bent toward the nor¬ 
mal in passing from a medium in which the 
velocity is greater to a medium in which it is 
less. According to this principle the so-called 
acoustical lenses have been made. This may 
be done by filling a large but thin walled spher¬ 
ical balloon with some heavy gas. Such a lens 
properly placed will focus the sound of the tick¬ 
ing of a watch so that it can be heard at a dis¬ 
tance considerably greater than that at which 
it can ordinarily be heard. When the lens is 
thus made with heavy gas it is a converging 
lens; when made with light gas it is a diverging 
lens A curious but unintentional example of 
the latter occurred in the House of Parliament 
when a shaft of warm air, rising through the 


large ventilator in the middle of the floor, so 
diverted the sound that a speaker on one side 
could not be heard clearly by a member imme¬ 
diately opposite him. 

Whenever a sound traveling through one 
medium comes to another medium in which its 
velocity is different a certain portion is re¬ 
flected, the amount reflected depending upon 
the change in velocity of the sound and upon 
the angle at which it s-trikes the surface of 
separation. This furnishes the explanation of 
the so-called aerial echoes observed by Tyndall, 
and a partial explanation of the rolling of thun¬ 
der. 

When the reflecting surface is a solid wall 
a very large per cent of the sound is reflected, 
how much, depends, of course, on the nature of 
the wall. Under these circumstances there are 
produced a large number of important phe¬ 
nomena which are most strikingly interesting in 
connection with architectural acoustics. Under 
special but usually accidental conditions very 
peculiar phenomena arise as is illustrated in the 
case of whispering galleries. Whispering gal¬ 
leries are of one or the other of two general 
types usually illustrated, following the lead of 
Herschel, by the dome in Saint Paul’s Cathe¬ 
dral, London, and by a much less familiar build¬ 
ing, the cathedral in Girgenti. In Saint Paul’s 
Cathedral if a person takes a position at one 
side of the dome and very close to the wall he 
can whisper with great ease and distinctness to 
a person at the opposite side of the dome. 
This is not the case of focusing sound in the 
ordinary sense. The sound starting from one 
point is carried by the curved surface along 
great circles on the interior of the almost spher¬ 
ical dome. The sounds traveling by all these 
paths meet again _ at the opposite end of the 
diameter. As distinguished from this the whis¬ 
pering gallery in the cathedral at Girgenti is 
produced by a single, isolated, but focused re¬ 
flection. A better and more familiar illustra¬ 
tion of this was until recently to be found in 
the Hall of Statues in the capitol at Washing¬ 
ton. It is a necessary condition for both types 
of whispering galleries that the wall surfaces 
should be smooth and free from great projec¬ 
tions. The whispering gallery in the Capitol 
at Washington has recently been destroyed by 
replacing the formerly smooth spherical ceiling' 
by a rather deeply coffered ceiling in plaster. 
The ideal whispering gallery, should one be 
planned, would be secured by constructing a 
room a considerable portion of whose wall sur¬ 
face would be part of an ellipsoid of revolu¬ 
tion with foci at the points between which the 
whispering is to occur. Another interesting and 
somewhat related phenomenon is that of multi¬ 
ple reflections. An interesting example of this 
recently occurred in a private athletic court at 
Rhinebeck-on-the-Hudson. In this case the 
ceiling was a smooth dome so nearly flat that its 
centre of curvature was at a distance below the 
floor equal to the height of the room. Here 
the echo was repeated very many times and 
the sound was reflected three times between 
each repetition of the echo. Such special forms 
of walls not infrequently occur in auditoriums, 
often in a subtly concealed manner, and are 
the occasion of much annoyance. It might be 
added that it would not be a safe generaliza¬ 
tion to say that all curved surfaces are bad or 
that all disturbing surfaces are curved. 


ACOUSTICS 


In the absence of specially disturbing sur¬ 
faces the multiple reflection of the sound re¬ 
sults in a general reverberation, which is from 
some points of view advantageous and from 
some harmful. The reverberation results in an 
increased loudness particularly of sustained 
tone. On the other hand by the prolongation of 
each sound it results in more or less confusion. 
\\ hen the room is to be used for musical pur¬ 
poses, the effect of this reverberation, unless it 
be carried to too great an extent, is to blend 
the tones and to give to the performer a sense 
of support from the auditorium. There is ap¬ 
parently a nice balance which for the best mu¬ 
sical effects must be accurately attained in or¬ 
der to fully satisfy expert musical taste. The 
reverberation in the room as well as the gen¬ 
eral loudness and even the loudness at the sev¬ 
eral points can be calculated when the dimen¬ 
sions of the room and the absorbing power of 
its various surfaces are known. 

Another feature of architectural acoustics is 
the phenomenon of interference. Taking first 
the simplest possible case when a sound from 
a distant source strikes normally on a plane 
wall, the reflected waves meeting the following 
on-coming waves produce by their superposi¬ 
tion a system of stationary waves parallel to the 
reflecting surface. The result would be great 
nodal and antinodal surfaces parallel to the re¬ 
flecting wall. An observer moving about in 
such a medium would hear the sound as very 
loud at the nodal surfaces. When the sound 
is produced in a confined space, such as a room, 
it is reflected from wall to wall many times 
and in many directions before it is ultimately 
absorbed. The result is an exceedingly com¬ 
plicated system of stationary waves. Under 
certain conditions the sound may be so intense 
at certain points of the room as to be unen¬ 
durable, while at other points but a few feet 
distant it is so faint as to be scarcely audible. 
The distribution of such a system of stationary 
waves depends on the shape of the room, the 
material of the walls, and the position of the 
source of sound. It also depends on the pitch 
of the sounds. 

When the conditions of the room are such 
that a system of stationary waves are so formed 
that a region of great intensity coincides with 
the source, the phenomenon of resonance oc¬ 
curs. That is to say the emission of that par¬ 
ticular note will be increased in comparison 
with other notes of such pitch that their great¬ 
est nodal intensity in their own interference sys¬ 
tems do not coincide with the source. This 
phenomenon is called resonance. Both interfer¬ 
ence and resonance result in the destruction of 
chordal balance. 

Audition .— The ear is ordinarily divided, in 
anatomical work, into three parts, the outer, the 
middle and the inner ear. The drum of the 
ear separates the outer from the middle ear, 
the middle ear being an air cavity connected by 
the eustachian tube with the nasal cavity. The 
sound is conducted across the middle ear by a 
system of three bones which connect the drum 
with another membrane separating the middle 
ear from the inner ear. dhe inner ear is a 
somewhat complicated cavity in the solid bone 
of the skull. It consists essentially of three 
semicircular canals, and a much longer and 
larger snailshell-like cavity called the cochlea. 


This inner ear is separated from the middle ear 
not merely by the membrane already referred to 
pressed against and vibrated by the bones, but 
also by another small membrane. Starting from 
between these two membranes a diaphragm runs 
the length of the cochlea. This diaphragm 
somewhat intricate in its complete structure, has 
as an essential part a system of numerous 
stretched fibres, varying in length and probably 
also in tension. When the sound is conducted 
from the outer ear to the inner ear by the 
three bones in the middle ear, the vibration is 
communicated to a liquid which fills the inner 
ear. This liquid in vibrating causes the small 
fibres of the diaphragm, called the fibres of 
Corti, to vibrate. As the fibres of Corti are of 
different lengths and of a different tension, dif¬ 
ferent regions of the diaphragm respond to dif¬ 
ferent notes. On this diaphragm, terminate 
the auditory nerves which are stimulated by the 
vibration of the fibres, and communicate the 
corresponding sensation to the brain. The vari¬ 
ation in pitch sensation is due to variation in 
the stimulated region of the diaphragm. When 
the sound is not a pure tone the various partial 
tones excite the corresponding parts of the 
diaphragm. When two notes are sounded, 
each with its system of overtones, there are 
regions of the diaphragm more or less excited 
simultaneously by the two systems. When the 
two partials which excite overlapping regions 
of the diaphragm are not of exactly the same 
pitch beats occur between them. These beats 
when slow are not wholly disagreeable, and 
having a tremulo effect in moderate use are not 
without musical value. When, however, the 
beats are more rapid, and this occurs when the 
overlapping partial tones differ more in pitch, 
the beats lose their distinct character as such 
and produce the effect known as discord. If the 
two partial tones differ still more in pitch the 
regions which they excite overlap less and less 
and the discord diminishes. Following out this 
line of argument Helmholtz was able to show 
that when the fundamentals having harmonic 
upper partials bear to each other simple ratios 
in their vibration frequency their discord is a 
minimum, deriving in this way a complete ex¬ 
planation of the musical scale as used in har¬ 
monic composition. The scale thus obtained is 
the true or natural scale. The intervals be¬ 
tween the successive notes are not equal, but 
fall into two groups of so-called whole and half 
tone intervals. The whole tone intervals are 
not equal among themselves and are not twice 
the half tone intervals. Therefore, even after 
inserting sharps and flats to sub-divide the 
whole tone intervals the resulting chromatic 
scale is not one of equal interval. While this 
is the scale which would be employed by instru¬ 
ments without fixed key-boards, and by the hu¬ 
man voice accurately trained, it cannot be em¬ 
ployed in instruments with fixed key-boards if 
such instruments are to be used in different 
keys. 

For this purpose Bach invented a. scale 
called the equally tempered scale in which all 
the half tone intervals are made equal. On 
this scale no key is accurate, but no key is so 
inaccurate as to result in serious discord. The 
following table gives the vibration frequency of 
the eight notes of the middle octave on the 
natural and on the tempered scale; 


ACQUAVIVA — ACRE 


Natural Scale. Tempered Scale. 


c 

258.7 

258.7 

D 

291.0 

290.3 

E 

323-4 

325-9 

F 

344-9 

345-3 

G 

388.0 

387.6 

A 

43l*i 

435-o 

B 

485-0 

488.2 

C 

517-3 

517-3 


As the invention of the musical scale long 
preceded its use in harmonic composition, and 
during the period preceding the nth century was 
used only in melodic composition — that is for 
notes sounded in sequence — the simultaneity 
necessary for harmonic effect was obtained by 
the prolongation of one note into the other. 
This probably resulted from reverberation due 
to architectural conditions. 

Wallace Clement Sabine, 

Professor of Physics, Harvard University. 

Acquaviva, Andrea Matteo, an'dra-a mat'- 
a-o ak'wa-ve’va, Duke of Atri and Prince of 
Teramo, in the kingdom of Naples: b. 1456; d. 
1528. He seems to have been the first who con¬ 
ceived the idea of an ( Encyclopaedia, } or Uni¬ 
versal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences.* He 
published a useful work under that title in two 
folio volumes. 

Acqui, ak'w'e, N. Italy. (1) A district in the 
province of Alessandria, on the N. side of the 
Ligurian Apennines. Area, 445 sq. m. Pro¬ 
ductions, corn and fruit. Chestnut-trees fur¬ 
nish the peasantry with an article of common 
food, and silkworms are reared. (2) Its capi¬ 
tal and episcopal city, on the Bormida, 18 m. 
S.S.W. of Alessandria, 37 m. N.W. of Genoa. 
It has commodious hot sulphur baths, and is 
celebrated for its great antiquity and for the re¬ 
mains of a Roman aqueduct. The hot sulphur 
baths were known to the Romans, who called 
the place Aquce Statiellce. There is an ex¬ 
tensive trade in wine, silk, lace, and rope. 
Acqui has a cathedral, a royal college, and 
is a bishop’s see. It was taken by the Span¬ 
iards in 1745; retaken by the Piedmontese; and 
afterward dismantled by the French. Pop. 
(1901) 13,786. 

Acquisition is the act by which a person 
procures property in a thing; also the thing the 
property in which is secured. Original acqui¬ 
sition is that by which a man secures a property 
in a thing which is not at the time he acquires 
it, and in its then existing condition, the prop¬ 
erty of any other individual. It may result from 
occupancy, accession, or intellectual labor. 

Acquittal, in law, the judicial setting free 
or releasing a person from a contract, debt, or 
other obligation; but the term is more commonly 
used in criminal law to signify the deliverance 
from a charge of an offense, either by a verdict 
of not guilty by a jury, or by simple operation 
of law, as in the case of an accessory where the 
principal is acquitted. In the United States ac¬ 
quittal may be the result of some technical de¬ 
fect in the proceedings or by the verdict in favor 
of the accused on the merits of the case. In 
the first case a second trial of the case may be 
instituted, but the second case is a bar to any 
further prosecution of the accused for the same 
offense. This is guaranteed by a Constitutional 
provision that <( no person shall be twice put in 
jeopardy for the same offense.® 


Acraeinae, a sub-family of butterflies of 
the family Nymphalidce, deriving its name from 
the leading genus Acrcea, There are about 85 
species, mostly African. They are of small or 
moderate size, and have semi-transparent wings, 
reddish-brown marked with black. 

Acra'nia, a primary division of Vertebrota, 
represented by Amphioxus (q.v.) in which, as 
the name indicates, there is no skull, while the 
notochord extends to the anterior end of the 
snout, in advance of the central nervous sys¬ 
tem. There is no true brain, the region corre¬ 
sponding to the brain of the genuine vertebrates 
being very imperfectly differentiated. There are 
only two pairs of cerebral nerves, and the dor¬ 
sal and ventral spinal nerves do not unite. 
There is also no trace of limbs. The pharynx 
is of comparatively immense size, perforated by 
very numerous gill-slits, and surrounded by an 
atrium. The liver is a hollow pouch of the in¬ 
testine. There is no heart, and the blood is 
colorless. The numerous nephridia remain dis¬ 
tinct and open into the atrium. There are no 
paired eyes, only a single median pigment-spot 
in the wall of the brain; there are no ears, 
though an olfactory pit is present. The repro¬ 
duction glands are segmentally arranged, but 
have no ducts. 

Acrasia (Gr. dKpaata, intemperance), a beauti¬ 
ful woman, the personification of all that is 
intemperate and immoderate, portrayed in Spen¬ 
ser’s ( Faerie Queened She lives in a (< Bower 
of Bliss,® on a floating island, in which there is 
everything to delight the senses. Her character 
was suggested by Circe, but probably more di¬ 
rectly by the Alcina of Ariosto. 

Acre, Syria (Biblical Accho , Greek Ptolemais, 
other forms Acco, Akka, Aeon, Accaron; mod¬ 
ern French St. Jean d’Acre), a port some miles 
north of Mt. Carmel, on the Bay of Acre, 
opposite Haifa on the opposite horn. The har¬ 
bor is one of the best on the coast; even so, it is 
much choked with sand. Its interest is chiefly 
in its varied and picturesque past: as the chief 
landing place for invasion of Syria, it has per¬ 
haps suffered more from political revolutions and 
war ravages than any other place in history. Its 
name first occurs in a letter of King Bu.rna- 
buriash of Babylon to Amenhofep IV. of Egypt, 
c. 1400 b.c. Sennacherib of Assyria captured 
it 701 b.c., and his son Esarhaddon about 675 
gave it to the king of Tyre. After the break-up 
of Alexander’s empire, Ptolemy Soter of Egypt 
took possession of it and renamed it Ptolemais ; 
it afterward became part of the Seleucid empire 
of Syria; and later the Romans acquired it and 
made a colony of it. Under the early empire it 
was a city of great importance, and remnants of 
its grandeur in the shape of fine granite and 
marble pillars still exist. In 635 a.d. the Saracens 
under Khaled and Obeida captured it and Da¬ 
mascus. They were expelled from it in mo by 
the Crusaders, who made it their principal port 
and retained it till 1187, when it was recovered 
by Saladin. Four years later it was retaken by 
Richard Coeur de Lion and Philip II. of France, 
at the cost of 100,000 lives. They made it a 
bishopric and gave it to the order of St. John 
(Fr. St. Jean, from which it took its French 
title). These held it for just a century, despite 
continual assaults from the Saracens; and it 


ACRE —ACRE RIVER 


was a large f rich, and powerful city, filled with 
churches, convents, and hospitals. In 1291, 
when it had become the last Christian strong¬ 
hold left in Syria, the Saracens retook it after 
a bloody siege which injured it greatly. From 
that time it sank rapidly. In 1517 it fell into 
the hands of the Turks under Selim I.; and at 
the beginning of the 18th century it was a vast 
scene of ruin, relieved only by a few cottages, 
a mosque, and the houses of French factors. 
Toward the end of that century the Turks, 
especially Djezzar, much strengthened and im¬ 
proved it, and it rose to some importance again. 
It is best known in modern times for its brave 
and successful defense in 1799, by means of a 
body of English soldiers and marines under 
command of Sir Sydney Smith, against Napo¬ 
leon, who, after spending 61 days before it, was 
obliged to retreat. It continued to prosper and 
be the seat of a considerable trade till 1832, with 
consuls from all the great states, though crippled 
by the imposts, monopolies, and misgovernment 
with which the Turks blight every place that en¬ 
dures them. On the revolt of Mehemet Ali, the 
great Viceroy of Egypt, his son Ibrahim besieged 
it for 5 months and 21 days in the winter of 1831- 
2, and before he captured it, its public and pri¬ 
vate buildings were mostly destroyed. The 
Egyptians repaired and improved its fortifica¬ 
tions; but on 3 Nov. 1840 a 3-hours bombard¬ 
ment by a combined English, Austrian, and 
Turkish fleet reduced it to a ruin. The Turks 
were again put in possession of it in 1841. 

Acre, originally « field,» « pasture, » 

« hunting-ground » ; but later a rough measure 
of size, somewhat similar in different countries, 
and supposed to represent what one man could 
plow in a day. The Italian term giornate (day’s 
work) is significant on this point. In England 
reckoned as the amount a yoke of oxen could 
plow in a day, till the laws of the 13th century 
and later settled a definitive measure. There 
and in the United States this is termed the 
statute acre, old customary acres being still used 
in Scotland, Ireland, and Wales, as well as in 
several English counties, all different and some 
of them less than half the statute, while others 
are more than double. The statute acre is 43,- 
560 square feet, or 4,840 square yards, or 160 
square rods or perches (from the yard and the 
rod or pole with which it was measured) ; also 
divided into 4 roods, though this and perch are 
mere book-words in the United States at least, 
as is the square «chain» of 22 yards or 484 
square yards, from the surveyor’s chain used in 
measuring it. The following table gives various 
measures in relation to the English and Ameri¬ 
can acre. The German empire having adopted 
the French metrical system, the German mor¬ 
gen are becoming of historical significance 
merely. 


English . .. 

it 


Westmoreland . . 

a 


Lincolnshire .... 

u 



a 



it 



tt 



a 


Welsh . 




stang . 


Austria . 



Baden . 



Belgium . 


.2.47 

Denmark . 

. . . .toende . 

. 5-50 


France . 

Hamburg ..., 

Hanover . 

Holland . 

Naples . 

Poland . 

Portugal . 

Prussia . 

Russia . 

Sardinia . 

Saxony . 

Spain . 

Sweden . 

Switzerland ... 
Geneva.... 

Tuscany . 

United States.. 
Wurtemberg . . 
Roman, ancient 
Greek, ancient.. 


hectare (100 ares) 
arpent (common) . 
morgen . 

it 


•moggia . 

.morgen .... 

geira . 

little morgen 
great morgen 
deciatina ... 
giornate . .. . 
morgen ... . 
fanegada ... 
tunneland .. 

faux . 

.arpent . 

saccata . 

acre . 

morgen . 

jugerum .. .. 
plethron .... 


2.47 

0.99 

2.38 

0.64 

2.10 

0.83 

0.83 

i -43 

0.63 

1.40 
2.70 
0-93 
1.36 
1.06 
X.I 3 
1.62 
1.27 
1.22 
1.00 

2.40 
0.66 
0.23 


NUMBER OF PLANTS FOR AN ACRE OF GROUND. 


Dist. apart. 
Inches. 

3 by 3. 

4 by 
6 by 
9 by 

Feet. 


4 < 

6 . 

9 - 


1 

by 1. . 


by i )4 

2 

by 1.. 

2 

by 2. . 

2/4 

by 2)4 

3 

by 1.. 

3 

by 2. . 

3 

by 3 - • 

3 A 

by 3/4 

4 

by 1. . 

4 

by 2. . 

4 

by 3 - ♦ 

4 

by 4 - • 

4/4 

by 4)4 

5 

by 1. . 

5 

by 2. . 

5 

by 3 • • 

5 

by 4 -. 

5 , 

by 5 - • 

5/4 

by 5 l A 

6 

by 6 . . 

6)4 

by 6)4 

7 

by 7 - • 

8 

by 8 . . 

9 

by 9.. 

10 

by 10. . 

11 

by 11.. 

12 

by 12.. 

13 

by 13•• 

14 

by 14., 

15 

by 15.. 

16 

by 16.. 

16A 

by 1 6)4 

17 

by 17.. 

18 

by 18. . 

19 

by 19., 

20 

by 20.. 

25 

by 25.. 

30 

by 30.. 

33 

by 33 -• 

40 

by 40.. 

50 

by 50.. 

60 

by 60.. 

66 

by 66.. 


Number of 
plants. 

, . . 696,960 
. .. 392,040 
... 174.240 
... 77.440 

... 43.560 

... 19,360 

... 21,780 

10,890 
,.. 6,960 

... 14,520 

7,260 
4,840 

3,555 

10,890 

5,445 

3,630 

2,722 

2,151 

8,712 

4,356 

2,904 

2,178 

1,742 

1,417 

1,210 

1,031 

881 

680 

537 

435 

. • 360 

•. 302 

257 

.. 222 

193 

.. 170 

.. 160 

150 
134 

.. 120 

.. 108 

69 
48 
40 
27 
17 

.. 12 

10 


Acre River, a'kra, South America (also 
called Aquiry, a'ke-re), a tributary of the 
Purus River. Its sources have not yet been 
precisely located, but are probably on the east¬ 
ern Andean slopes near lat. n° S. From the 
point at which it becomes navigable for small 
steamers its course is generally northeast to its 
confluence with the Purus; the latter flows 
nearly parallel to and north of the Madeira, 
emptying into the Amazon west of Manaos. 
Together these rivers give access to an exceed¬ 
ingly valuable rubber forest district, long in 
dispute between Bolivia, Peru, and Brazil. The 
name Acre is commonly applied to the entire 
region. Bolivia, claiming that her sovereignty 
had been recognized by Brazil in the treaty of 
1867 and by subsequent acts, granted a conces- 























































































































ACRES — ACROPOLIS 


sion for developing the rubber products to 
an Anglo-American syndicate in 1902; but she 
was not allowed to live up to this agreement, 
though she had troops and a military governor 
on the ground. The Brazilian inhabitants rose, 
imprisoned or drove out every Bolivian in the 
district, captured Port Acre 24 Jan. 1903, in¬ 
stalled a new governor, and proclaimed their 
allegiance to Brazil. The latter country there¬ 
upon sent an ultimatum to Bolivia, and on 8 
February the Bolivian government agreed to 
admit Brazilian occupation pending a settlement. 
The treaty between Bolivia and Brazil signed 17 
Nov. 1903 provides for the relinquishment by 
the former country of all that part of the vast 
Acre region lying north of the Abunan, in lat. 
io° 20' S., and a line following water courses in 
a southwesterly direction from that point to lat. 
ii° S., or approximately to the sources of Acre 
River. Brazil agrees to pay <( an indemnity of 
£2,000,000 sterling, which the Republic of Bolivia 
accepts with the intention of using the same l 
mainly in the construction of railways or other 
works tending to improve the communications 
and develop commerce between the two coun¬ 
tries^ (Art. 3). Moreover, Brazil (in Art. 7) 
<( binds herself to build on Brazilian territory, 
by herself or by a private company, a railway 
to extend from Santo Antonio on the Madeira 
River to Guajara-Mirim on the Mamore, with a 
branch road running through Villa-Murtinho, 
or another point near it in the State of Matto 
Grosso, to Villa Bella at the confluence of the 
Beni and Mamore/* the object being to furnish 
an outlet to the Madeira and Amazon for Boliv¬ 
ian products (see South America) ; and in 
Art. 8 Brazil (( declares that she will negotiate 
directly with the Republic of Peru the boundary 
dispute concerning the territory comprised be¬ 
tween the source of the Javary (or Yavari: 
about lat. 7° S.) and parallel n°, and will en¬ 
deavor to reach a friendly solution of the litiga¬ 
tion.® Bolivia and Peru agreed by treaty of 
21 Nov. 1901 to submit to arbitration all contro¬ 
versies pending between them; their long-stand¬ 
ing boundary disputes were actually referred to 
the President of the Argentine Republic as arbi¬ 
trator in 1904. There still remained to be de¬ 
termined the conflicting claims of Peru and 
Brazil to that portion of the great Amazon 
basin comprised between lat. 7 0 S. and lat. n° 
S.; extending from the eastern cordillera of the 
Andes to the heart of the continent; watered 
not only by the Acre but by the Jurua and 
Purus rivers as well; a country imperial in size 
and of incalculable undeveloped resources, yet 
so situated that it. is .wholly dependent upon 
Brazil. An examination of the maps (see 
South America) will show that the lands in 
question are valueless unless Brazil keeps open 
the only outlets for their produce, the water¬ 
ways through Brazilian territory to the Atlantic; 
that, therefore, Peru cannot reasonably hope to 
gain anything in this contention by force of 
arms if Brazil is unwilling to yield. Besides, a 
resort to arbitration was indicated as the proper 
course by the experience of Bolivia and Brazil. 
Nevertheless, w'hen Brazil demanded the evacu¬ 
ation of points in the disputed territory occupied 
by Peru, as a condition precedent to arbitration, 
Peru refused compliance, saying that she, for 
her part, proposed arbitration <( without demand¬ 
ing previous conditions which should be re¬ 
garded as unnecessary by governments really 


wishing to reach a prompt, just, and pacific set¬ 
tlement of their differences®. (May 1904). The 
delay proved fatal to Peruvian interests in this 
quarter. While diplomatic notes were being ex¬ 
changed, Brazilian troops from Manaos defeated 
the small army of occupation maintained by 
Peru. Thus the Acre-Purus-Jurua region 
passed under Brazilian control. 

Acres, Bob, an awkward young country 
booby of the gentleman class of England, who 
figures in Sheridan’s comedy of ( The Rivals. > 

Acrisius, in Greek mythology, king of 
Argos. Pie expelled his twin brother Prcetus 
(q.v.) from his inheritance and for a time ruled 
alone in Tiryns and Argos, but was later forced 
to surrender to his brother the former kingdom. 
He was the reputed founder of the Delphic 
amphictyomy. For the legend concerning the 
prediction of the oracle that he would die at 
the hands of his grandson, see Perseus. 

Acrobat. See Gymnastics. 

Acroceraunium, ak'ro-se-ra'ne-um, the 
N.W. promontory of Epirus, with mountains 
called Acroceraunia ( <( thunder-peaks®), which 
separated the Ionian and Adriatic Seas, and 
were noted for attracting storms, and hence 
dreaded by mariners. Its modern name is 
Chimara or Cape Glossa, or Cape Linguetta. 

Acrocorinthus, in ancient times the acrop¬ 
olis or citadel of Corinth: a steep rock nearly 
1,900 feet high, overhanging the city, and 
crowned with the remains of Venetian and Tur¬ 
kish fortifications, ruins of mosques and dwell¬ 
ing-houses, and also a barrack with a few 
soldiers. On its top stood of old a temple of 
Aphrodite. 

Acrop'clis, the high part of any ancient 
Greek city; usually an eminence overlooking the 
city, and frequently its citadel. Notable among 
such citadels were the Acropoleis of Argos, of 
Messene, of Thebes, and of Corinth; but pre¬ 
eminently the Acropolis of Athens, to which the 
name is now chiefly applied. This was the 
original city (as indeed most of the acropoleis, 
dating from the times of barbaric insecurity), 
later the upper city as distinguished from the 
lower, and was built upon a separate spur or 
butte of Hymettus. The hill rises out of the 
plain, a mass of rock about 260 feet high, with 
precipitous sides save for a narrow access at the 
western end where there was a zigzag road for 
chariots. The summit of this rock forms an 
uneven plain 500 by 1,150 feet at the maximum 
breadth and length. Within this area were 
reared, chiefly in the days of Pericles, remark¬ 
able specimens of architectural art. The build¬ 
ings were grouped around two principal 
temples, the Parthenon and the Erechtheum. Be¬ 
tween these temples stood the statue of Athene 
Promachos (« fighter in front»), by Phidias, the 
helmet and spear of which were the first objects 
visible from the sea. About these centre-pieces, 
covering the ^rocky height and extending down 
the steep sides, were lesser temples, statues, 
theatres, fanes, and odea (music halls). Among 
the famous buildings on the sides of the Acropo¬ 
lis were the Dionysiac theatre, the Odeum of 
Pericles, and the Odeum, built by Herodes Atti- 
cus in honor of his wife Regilla. The ravages 
of accident and war and Athenian marble- 


ACROSTIC —ACT 


mercnants, and in case of the Parthenon (q.v.) 
its deliberate dismantling by Lord Elgin early 
in the 19th century, have largely destroyed and 
despoiled these classic works. Archaeologists 
have secured many important remains of the 
Acropolis, which are preserved in the collections 
of various European capitals and in the new 
archaeological museum at Athens. 

Acros'tic, a poetical composition, disposed 
in such a manner that the initial letters of each 
line, taken in order, form a person’s name or 
other complete word or words. This kind of 
poetical trifling was very popular with the 
French poets from the time of Francis I. until 
Louis XIV. Among other English writers, Sir 
John Davies, who lived in the 16th century, 
amused himself in this way. He produced 26 
pieces called < Hymns to Astrea,> each of them 
forming an acrostic upon the words Elisabetha 
Regina. The following is an example: 

E ternal virgin, goddess true, 

L et me presume to sing to you. 

I ove, e’en great Jove, hath leisure 
S ometimes to hear the vulgar crew, 

A nd heed them oft with pleasure. 

B lessed Astrea! I in part 
E njoy the blessings you impart, 

T he peace, the milk and honey, 

H umanity and civil art, 

A richer dow’r than money. 

R ight glad am I that now I live, 

E ’en in these days whereto you give 
G reat happiness and glory; 

I f after you I should be born, 

N o doubt I should my birthday scorn, 

A dmiring your sweet story. 

In the Old Testament there are 12 psalms 
written according to this principle. Of these 
the 119th Psalm is the most remarkable; it con¬ 
sists of 22 stanzas, each of which commences 
with a Hebrew letter and is called by its name. 
Acrostic verse is no longer cultivated by serious 
poets, and has in fact been relegated mainly to 
country newspapers, except as a jest or social 
pastime. Edgar Allen Poe, however, wrote 
some striking acrostics, varying the form with 
great ingenuity. One example, beginning with 
the first letter of the first line, the second of the 
second, and so on, forms a lady’s name. 

Acroterion (« extremity »), in architecture, 
an ornament — statue, palmette, or leaf-deco¬ 
ration — placed on the apex of a pediment or 
one of its lower angles. 

Act. In the drama: one of the parts into 
which a play is divided, to mark change of 
time or place, to give a respite to the actors and 
audience from the strain and physical fatigue 
of sitting intent on a long play, and to enable 
actors to change costumes and managers to 
change scenery. In Greek plays, where there 
was no scenery and no change of costume, there 
were no separate acts,—the episodes separated 
by the lyrical portions being not such either in 
design or effect,— and the action was continuous 
from beginning to end. 3 ,nd the unities strictly 
observed. If the principal actors left the stage, 
the chorus took up the argument and con¬ 
tributed an integral part of the. play, chiefly in 
the form of comment on the action, but often by 
supplying necessary information impossible to 
give in the regular speeches. When it was de¬ 
sired to develop the story further than the sin¬ 
gle play could conveniently do, another drama, 
— etymologically the same as act, carried it on 
to another time or place, forming the common 


Greek trilogies, or groups of three, in which 
the same characters reappear. The Roman the¬ 
atre first adopted the division into acts, sus¬ 
pending all stage business in the intervals. They 
made the regular number five, and Horace sets 
this down as a fixed rule of art. On the revival 
of letters it was almost universally used by 
dramatists; and that it rests on something more 
than caprice is shown by the fact that Shake¬ 
speare, who cared nothing for fixed rules of 
art and utterly disregarded the unities, never 
varies this division. For a great drama there 
is a real reason, though in light comedy it is 
almost universally dropped at present. The 
natural division is into three,— introduction, 
climax, and conclusion; and the central act still 
fulfills the same function. But for a great ac¬ 
tion this is apt to hurry matters too fast for a 
proper development either of character or in¬ 
terest ; hence the first and the last act are 
doubled, the approach to the main point and the 
preparation for the catastrophe being both ren¬ 
dered more gradual. Some critics have laid 
down exact rules as to the part each act is to 
sustain in a play; but these cannot be justified 
and have never been regarded. It is obvious, 
however, that each act should form a certain 
unity, ending with a point of deep but suspended 
interest, yet should be an integral part of the 
whole. Moliere. began the three-act comedy; 
but even to an impatient generation this is too 
short for a play of power, and four is most 
preferred. See Drama. 

In Law. — (1) Anything officially done by 
the court, as the phrases «Acts of Court,» 
«Acts of Sederunt,» etc. (2) In bankruptcy, 
an act the commission of which by a debtor 
renders him liable to be adjudged a bankrupt. 
(3) In civil law, a writing which states in a 
legal form that a thing has been said, done, or 
agreed. (4) In evidence, the act of one con¬ 
spirator performed in pursuance of the common 
design may be given in evidence against his co¬ 
conspirators. (5) Acts done, distinguished into 
acts of God (q.v.), of the law, and of men. 

In mental philosophy, an operation of the 
mind supposed to require the putting forth of 
energy, as distinguished from a state of mind in 
which the faculties remain passive. In this 
sense such expressions as the following are 
used: the act of thinking, the act of j udging, 
the act of resolving, the act of reasoning or of 
reason; each of these being viewed as a single 
operation of the human mind. 

In parliamentary language, an ellipsis for a 
law enacted by a congress, legislature, parlia¬ 
ment, etc. A statute, law, or edict, consisting 
of a bill which has been successfully carried 
through both Houses of Congress or legislature, 
and received the approval of the executive. See 
specific titles infra, Act of God ; Act of Settle¬ 
ment; Act of Supremacy; Act of Toleration ; 
Act of Uniformity. 

In theology, the carrying out of an operation 
in a moment, as contradistinguished from the 
performance of a work requiring a considerable 
time for its accomplishment. 

In universities, of old, the commencement or 
taking of degrees; now disused save as a form 
at Cambridge, England. The student << keeps 
the act» by reading a Latin thesis which he 
must defend against three opponents named by 
the proctors. 


ACTA DIURNA —ACTINOMETER 


Acta Diurna (« Daily Acts »); also called 
Acta Populi, « Acts of the People »; Publica, 
« Public Acts» ; Urbana, « Municipal Acts.» 
Written daily newspapers in ancient Rome, 
posted up in public to be read or copied, then 
taken down and filed in the public archives. The 
news was collected by reporters ( actuarii ) em¬ 
ployed by the State, and consisted of much the 
same sort of matter as that contained in modern 
newspapers: a miscellany of everything that 
might interest the citizen, from the latest war 
news, abstracts of the best speeches in the 
Senate or Forum or the courts, the most 
important legal decisions or political events, 
probably even to interviews, down to the most 
trivial gossip of the town,— not only births, 
marriages, divorces, and deaths, murders, do¬ 
mestic infelicities, and accidents, but any unusual 
omens or prodigies, lusus natureu, etc. Petronius 
in ( Trimalchio’s Feast > gives an admirable bur¬ 
lesque of it The letters of Romans to out-of- 
town friends were regularly furnished with 
spicy news from the Acta Diurna, which seem 
to have taken the place of the older < Annales > 
or yearly chronicles, too slow for the active 
later republic and only reporting the more im¬ 
portant occurrences, some time after 131 b.c. 
The usual statement is that Julius Caesar intro¬ 
duced them; but it hardly seems probable that 
the Roman people, once used to even an imper¬ 
fect form of news-gathering, dispensed with it 
altogether for three-quarters of a century and 
did not think of it again until it was invented 
for them. It is certain, however, that it was 
in use in Caesar’s time, for he ordered Antony’s 
offer of a crown to him on the Lupercalia to be 
set down in the Acta Diurna. (Le Clerc, < Ro¬ 
man Newspapers,) in French, 1838, entertaining 
but not cautious in facts; Hiibner, < Acta of the 
Roman Republic,> in Latin, Leipsic, i860.) 

Actaea, a genus of the natural order 
Ranunculacecc, represented in the United States 
by the baneberries. A. alba or white cohosh, or 
baneberry, is found in rocky woods north from 
Georgia. A. spicata, red cohosh, or red bane- 
berry, grows farther west and near to the north 
than the white baneberry. 

Acta Eruditorum, the first literary journal 
of Germany. It was started in 1682 by Prof. 
Otto Mencke of Leipsic, and enjoyed a long 
existence and great popularity. It was owned 
by his family till 1754, after which it began to 
decline in value and in the number of its sub¬ 
scribers ; and the irregularity of its appearance 
became at length so great that the last volume, 
for 1776, was published in 1782, exactly a cen¬ 
tury from the time when the journal was com¬ 
menced. The whole consists of 117 quarto 
volumes, including the supplementary volumes 
and indices. In this journal Leibnitz first gave 
to the world his notions respecting the differen¬ 
cial calculus. 

Actaeon, ak-te'on, in Greek mythology, the 
son of Aristaeus and Autonoe (a daughter of 
Cadmus), a great hunter. He was turned into a 
stag by Artemis (Diana) for looking at her 
when she was bathing (or, as some say, for 
boasting that he was superior to her in hunting), 
and was torn to pieces by his own dogs. This 
incident is exhibited in various ancient works 
of art. 


Acta Sanctorum, or Martyrum, the col¬ 
lective title given to several, old writings re¬ 
specting saints and martyrs in the Greek and 
Roman Catholic Churches, but now applied es¬ 
pecially to one extensive collection begun by the 
Jesuit Rosweyd, and continued by J. Bolland. 
The work was carried on (1661) by a society of 
learned Jesuits, who were styled Bollandists, 
until 1794, when its. further progress was pre¬ 
vented through the invasion of Holland, by the 
French. In recent times the undertaking has 
been resumed. 

Actin'ia. See Sea-Anemone. 

Actinia'ria (Gk. aktis, ray), the sea-anem¬ 
ones. See Anttiozoa ; Sea-Anemone. 

Actin'ium. (1) A supposed metallic ele¬ 
ment, occurring in nature associated with zinc. 
Its existence was announced in 1881 by Dr. T. L. 
Phipson, who observed that certain salts of 
zinc gave a white precipitate of zinc sulphid 
which blackens upon exposure to light and re¬ 
turns again to its white state in the dark; the 
blackening effect not being observed when the 
substance is exposed to the light under a sheet 
of glass. Phipson attributed this action to the 
presence of a previously unrecognized element 
which he called actinium on account of the 
sensitiveness of its sulphid to light. The zinc 
sulphid with which he experimented appeared 
to yield about four per cent of actinium sul¬ 
phid, and he suggested that <( the presence of 
this new element in zinc will account, probably, 
for the discrepancies noticed in the equivalent 
of this metal as determined by various observ¬ 
ers.® The hydrate of actinium is described as 
a voluminous, white, gelatinous precipitate, with 
a slight tinge of salmon when seen in bulk. 
The anhydrous oxid is not volatile and has a 
pale fawn color. The sulphid is of a pale 
canary-yellow color, and when exposed to the 
direct rays of the sun, unshielded by glass, it 
becomes quite black in about 20 minutes. Dr. 
Phipson’s account of the preparation of the salts 
of actinium is given in the ( Journal of the 
Franklin Institute* for December 1881. The 
existence of the element is not now admitted 
by chemists. (2) A radioactive substance, 
presumably an element, discovered by A. De- 
bierne in 1900. It gives off the same kinds of 
rays as radium, but the (( ernanation® that it 
emits dies away with great rapidity. Actinium, 
like radium and polonium, is prepared from 
pitchblende, and belongs to the iron group. See 
Radioactivity. 

Actin'ograph, a name sometimes given to 
the actinometer (q.v.), especially when it is 
arranged so as to give an automatic record 
of the intensity of the light. 

Actin'olite, a mineral in Dana’s Amphibole 
group, having the composition Ca(Mg,Fe) 3 Sh 
O12. It occurs in various forms, and includes 
the varieties nephrite, asbestus, smaragdite, uro- 
lite, cummingtonite, dannemorite, and grunerite. 
Actinolite is greenish in color, and occurs usual¬ 
ly in the form of long slender crystals or in a 
fibrous and radiated state. 

Actinom'eter, an instrument for measur¬ 
ing the intensity of the chemical action of the 
sun’s rays. For use in photography for the 
judging of times of exposure, the essential part 
of the instrument is a strip of sensitive silver 


ACTINOMYCOSIS — ACTION 


paper, which is blackened by the sun’s rays, the 
time required to darken the paper to a definite 
shade being taken as the index to the intensity 
of the light. Any other chemical action that 
light rays are capable of performing may be 
made the basis of an actinometer; but the indi¬ 
cations of instruments in which the fundamental 
chemical changes are different will not neces¬ 
sarily agree with one another, because any given 
actinometer shows nothing but the intensity of 
the particular part of the spectrum which per¬ 
forms the chemical change upon which that in¬ 
strument is based. 

Actinomyco'sis, a disease due to a vegetable 

parasite, Actinomyces bovis, of the fungus class. 
This fungus lives its life in grasses and plants 
and thus infects cattle, in which animals it is 
comparatively frequent, causing the disease 
known as (< lumpy jaw.® These in turn affect 
man. See Parasites. 

In man the symptoms are often very obscure. 
Some infections of the lungs have appeared to 
be cases of pulmonary tuberculosis. Pathologic¬ 
ally the disease is one of new connective tissue 
formation with abscess production. It is a 
chronic disease and often is a slow, suppurative 
affair affecting the tissues about the pharynx 
and neck. The bones, lungs, and intestinal tract 
may be affected. The diagnosis may be readily 
made by the microscope. Consult: Salmon, in¬ 
vestigation Relating to the Treatment of Lumpy- 
Jaw, or Actinomycosis in Cattle, Department 
of Agriculture Bulletin No. 2 (1893). 

Actin'ophone, better known as the radiophone 
(q.v.) 

Actinozo'a, or An'thozoa, a class of ccelen- 
terates which exist only in the polyp state, not 
giving rise to a medusa form. They are repre¬ 
sented by the sea-anemone (q.v.) and coral 
polyps. Their bodies are vase-shaped, usually 
fixed at one end, though most of them are cap¬ 
able of slowly moving about. They are provided 
with a digestive sac partially free from the body- 
cavity opening into it below, and held in place 
by six or eight mesenteries radiating from the 
digestive cavity and dividing the perivisceral 
space into chambers. The mouth is surrounded 
with a circle of tentacles, which are hollow, com¬ 
municating directly with the perivisceral cham¬ 
bers. There is a slightly marked bilateral sym¬ 
metry. To the edges of the mesenteries (usually 
the free ones) are attached the reproductive 
glands, both male and female, or of one sex 
alone; also the « craspeda,» or mesenterial fila¬ 
ments, which contain a large number of thread- 
cells (q.v.). The body is either entirely fleshy 
or secretes a calcareous or horny coral-stock, 
and when the species is social it is connected 
by a coenenchyme. In some forms, as sea-pens 
(q.v.) the entire colony is capable of limited 
locomotion. There is no well-marked nervous 
system, but a plexus of fusiform ganglionic cells 
connected by nerve-fibres in the base of actin- 
ians. Reproduction takes place by self-division, 
gemmation, or by eggs, the sexes being separate 
or united in the same individual; the young un¬ 
dergoing a blastula and gastrula condition, and 
then becoming fixed. 

The Actinozoa are divided into two sub-classes, 
the Zoantharia , and the Alcyo 7 iaria (qq.v.). 

Action. In law , the formal demand of 
one’s right from another person, made and in¬ 


sisted in a court of justice which has jurisdiction 
of the person and the subject-matter of litiga¬ 
tion. In a quite common sense, action includes 
all the formal proceedings in a court of justice 
attendant upon the demand of a right made 
by one person, or party, of another in such 
court, including an adjudication upon the right, 
and its enforcement or denial by the court. 

The parties to an action are called plaintiff 
and defendant, and the former is said to sue or 
prosecute the latter, hence the word suit instead 
of action. In some few instances the redress 
sought by a civil action consists in the recovery 
of some specific article of property wrongfully 
and unlawfully taken by the defendant from 
the plaintiff, but most frequently the object of an 
action is to obtain compensation in money for an 
injury complained of, which compensation is 
technically called damages. 

The action is said to terminate properly a-t 
judgment. 

Civil actions are those actions which have 
for their object the recovery of private rights, 
or of damages for their infraction. 

Criminal actions are those actions prosecuted 
in a court of justice, in the name of the govern¬ 
ment, against one or more persons accused of a 
crime. 

Transitory actions are those civil actions the 
cause of which might have arisen in one place or 
county as well as another. 

Local actions are those civil actions the cause 
of which could have arisen in some particular 
place or county only. 

Personal actions are those civil actions which 
are brought for the recovery of personal prop¬ 
erty, for the enforcement of some contract, or 
to recover damages for the commission of an 
injury to the person or property. 

Real actions are those brought for the recov¬ 
ery of lands, tenements, and hereditaments. 
Mixed actions are those which partake of the 
nature of both real and personal actions. 

In higher theoretical mechanics the word 
« action » is used to signify the value of a cer¬ 
tain integral, whose form may vary according to 
the character of the problem in hand. In the 
case of a single particle the action is the space 
integral of the momentum of the particle, or it 
is double the time integral of its kinetic energy. 
In a system of such particles the total action is 
the sum of the actions of the constituent parti¬ 
cles. It is probable that the physical principle 
corresponding to the mathematical expression 
called « action » will some day be exhibited to 
us in a simple form; but up to the present 
time no mathematician or physicist has succeed¬ 
ed in doing this. The importance of « action » 
as a mathematical conception may be seen from 
the following theorem, which has long been 
known: « If the sum of the potential and kinet¬ 
ic energies of a system is the same in all its 
configurations, then, of all the sets of paths by 
which the parts of the system can be guided by 
frictionless constraint to pass from one given 
configuration to another, that one for which the 
action is least is the natural one, and requires no 
restraint.» The theorem just stated is known as 
Maupertuis’ « principle of least action.® There is 
also a principle of stationary action, and one 
of varying action; but it is impossible to eluci¬ 
date these without a prohibitive amount of 


ACTIUM —ACTON 


mathematics. The last two principles were for¬ 
mulated by Sir William Rowan Hamilton. 

In theoretical mechanics the word «action» 
is also used to signify a force acting upon a 
body, as in the expression « action and reaction.® 
See Force ; Motion, Laws of. 

In applied mechanics the mechanism by which 
some operation is effected in a machine is often 
called the action of the machine; thus we speak 
of the action of a gun, meaning the mechanism 
governing the loading and firing of the gun; 
or of the action of a piano, meaning the com¬ 
bination of keys, hammers, and other parts, by 
which the player causes the strings of the instru¬ 
ment to vibrate. 

In psychology. See Expression. 

Actium, ak'shium, Greece, now La Punta, 
la poon'ta: a promontory on the W. coast jutting 
out from the N-.W. extremity of Acarnania, on 
the Ionian Sea at the entrance of the Gulf of 
Arta (old Ambricia), opposite Prevesa and just 
N. of Santa Maura (old Leucadia). Forts 
Punta and Aktium defend it. It represents one 
of the greatest of historical landmarks: the 
naval battle of 2 Sept. 31 b.c., between Octavian- 
us (later the Emperor Augustus) and Antony, 
which decided the mastership of the then civ¬ 
ilized world. For the reasons of the engagement, 
see Antonius: it was fought by him, not for 
victory but for escape, which partly explains 
its half-heartedness and result on his side. Both 
armies were drawn up on the shore watching 
it. After waiting four days for a calm they 
engaged about noon on the fifth. Antony had 
some 500 large ships, Octavianus fewer and 
lighter ones. Antony on his right was opposed to 
Agrippa, Octavianus on his to Cselius; Cleopa¬ 
tra’s 60 were in the rear. Antony’s vessels were 
huge hulks, too clumsy for manoeuvring; but on 
the other hand so impenetrable with iron-bolted 
timbers and brass plates and spikes that Octa¬ 
vianus’ galleys dared not ram them for fear 
of shattering themselves, and skirmished rapidly 
around, hurling missiles and trying to board. It 
was more like the besieging of forts than a naval 
battle: one of Antony’s tall structures being 
often surrounded with three or four of its 
nimble foes pouring darts and fire-balls into it, 
to which it replied from catapults loaded with 
heavy missiles. At length Agrippa used his 
superior numbers to attempt a flanking move¬ 
ment ; Antony’s flag-captain drew his wing 
away from the centre to prevent it; Cleopatra 
took alarm, and to make sure of escape her 
squadron broke through the front rank, throw¬ 
ing it into disorder, and sailed away for Egypt. 
Antony jumped into a small galley and followed 
her, leaving his command to its fate: even so it 
fought on till about 4 p.m v when 300 ships had 
been taken and many burned, and 5,000 men 
killed; it then yielded. The land army surren¬ 
dered a week later. In commemoration of the 
triumph Octavianus enlarged the temple of 
Apollo at Actium, dedicated his trophies there, 
instituted quinquennial games, and built Nicop- 
olis (« city of victory ») on the site of his army’s 
camp, near the modern Prevesa. (Plutarch’s 
< Life of Antony >■ is the only first-hand account 
in an English translation; and Dion Cassius, in 
Greek, is much later and less judicious.) 

Active Constituents of Plants. See Plants. 


Act of God, an accident which arises from 
a cause which operates without interference or 
aid from man. The term is sometimes used as 
equivalent to inevitable accident, but incorrectly 
according to some authorities, although Sir 
Wm. Jones proposed the use of «inevitable 
accident» instead of «act of God.» 

Act of Settlement, an act of the Parliament 
of England in 1701, vesting the hereditary right 
to the English throne in Sophia, Electress of 
Hanover, and her Protestant descendants, con¬ 
stituting the source of the sovereignty of the 
House of Hanover or Brunswick, the present 
ruling line. The act prohibited the king (or 
queen) from going to war in defense of non- 
English powers without the assent of Parlia¬ 
ment. 

Act of Supremacy. (1) An act of the Par¬ 
liament of England, in 1534, by which the 
king was made the sole and supreme head of 
the Church of England. (2) A re-enactment of 
the above, with changes, in 1559. 

Act of Toleration, usually known as the 
Toleration Act, an act of the reign of William 
and Mary, granting freedom of religious wor¬ 
ship, under certain comparatively moderate con¬ 
ditions, to all dissenters from the established 
Church of England except Roman Catholics and 
persons denying the Trinity. This act, as con¬ 
firmed in the reign of Anne, was the basis of 
various subsequent measures of religious tolera¬ 
tion, culminating in the Catholic Relief Act of 
George IV. and the still more liberal legislation 
of Victoria. 

Act of Uniformity. (1) An act of the Par¬ 
liament of England (1559) adopting a revised 
liturgy for the Church of England, entitled « An 
Act for the Uniformity of Common Prayer and 
Service in the Church, and Administration of the 
Sacraments.® (2) An act of Parliament (1662) 
requiring that the revised Book of Common 
Prayer and Ordination of Ministers, and no 
other, should be used in all places of public 
worship and be assented to by clergymen. By 
this test more than 2,000 non-conforming clergy¬ 
men were ejected from their churches. It took 
effect on St. Bartholomew’s Day (24 Aug. 1662), 
and accordingly is known in English history as 
the « Bartholomew Act,® the day of its enforce' 
ment being known as « Black Bartholomew.® 

Acton, John Emerich Edward Dalberg, 

baron,_ historian: b. Naples, 10 Jan. 1834; d. 
Bavaria, 19 June 1902. He was educated under 
Dr. (afterward Cardinal) Wiseman at Oscott 
College, England, and at Munich under Ignatius 
von Dollinger, whose friend and adherent he re¬ 
mained throughout life. He was returned to 
Parliament for Carlow (1859) and for Bridg¬ 
north (1865), but was unseated on a scrutiny of 
the vote; created a peer (Baron Acton of Alden- 
ham) in 1869 by Gladstone, whose trusted friend 
and adviser he was. A strong Liberal in poli¬ 
tics and religion, he founded the < Home and 
Foreign Review) (1862-4) in the interest of the 
liberal _ Catholic party, and adopted the Home 
Rule idea before Gladstone himself. At the 
(Ecumenical Council in Rome (1870) he vigor¬ 
ously opposed the dogma of papal infallibility. 
From 1895 to 1902 he held the office of regius 
professor of modern history at Cambridge Uni- 


ACTON —ACTS OF THE APOSTLES 


versity. A scholar of wide and vast erudition, 
his passion for acquiring knowledge seemed to 
act as a check upon his productive powers. No 
modern man of such first-rate abilities has left 
so few literary productions by which posterity 
may judge of those abilities. Between 1868-90 
he gave to the press a few historical essays and 
anonymous letters; and in 1895 he published a 

< Lecture on the Study of History.)' In 1882 
he planned a comprehensive history of liberty, 
but never carried out the design. His univer¬ 
sity lectures were models of narrative, fulness 
of thought, and flawless exactitude of statement. 

< The Cambridge Modern History > (vol. 1, 1902) 
was planned and outlined by him. 

Acton, Sir John Francis Edward, English 
adventurer, son of an English physician and a 
French lady: b. Besangon, France, bapt. 3 June 
17371 d. Sicily, 12 Aug. 1811. Entering the 
Tuscan navy under his uncle’s auspices, he com¬ 
manded a frigate in the Algerian expedition of 
I775> performed daring exploits in covering its 
retreat, and attracted the notice of Caramanico, 
favorite of Queen Caroline of Naples; and the 
queen, ambitious of playing a large European 
part, persuaded her brother, the Grand Duke of 
Tuscany, to lend Acton to her to reorganize her 
navy. He soon became her prime favorite, com¬ 
mander-in-chief by both land and sea, and ulti¬ 
mately prime minister, shelving Caramanico on 
foreign missions. He improved the roads and 
ports, but excited great discontent by the con¬ 
sequent taxation and the positions given to for¬ 
eigners. In 1793 he formed the league between 
Naples, Austria, and England against France; 
in 1798 the French victories forced him to fly 
with the royal family to Sicily, and the Partheno- 
pean Republic was formed. Five months later 
they were back, and he, with a « Junta of State,)) 
instituted a reign of terror, sending many to the 
prison or the block. In 1804 he was removed at 
French demand, and in 1806, when the French 
entered Naples, he was obliged to take refuge in 
Sicily again, where he died with the ill will of 
all parties. 

Acton, Thomas Coxon, American financier 
and public official: b. New York city, 23 Feb. 
1823; d. there, 1898. He was a leading banker, 
and in early years was assistant to the county 
clerk, and deputy register; 1860-9 metropolitan 
police commissioner, 1862-^9 president of the 
board. During the draft riots of July 1863 he 
commanded the entire police force in person for 
a week, rendering highly valuable service. He 
was superintendent of the United States Assay 
Office 1870-82, and assistant treasurer of the 
United States at New York 1882-6. He was 
always an active agent in administrative and 
social reforms in the city; carried through 
against bitter opposition the creation of a paid 
fire department; and assisted in founding the So¬ 
ciety for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals 
and the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty 
to Children. He declined a nomination for 
mayor. 

Acts, Apocryphal. See Apocrypha. 

Acts of the Apostles, fifth of the New Tes¬ 
tament canon, and last of the canonical narra¬ 
tives of Christian origins; and, aside from the 
meagre notes in the Epistles, our one source of 
the history of Christianity for the first thirty or 
thirty-five years after the death of Christ. Im¬ 


memorial tradition has assigned it to the author 
of the Gospel of Luke, and from the close re¬ 
semblance of matter, tone, and evident purpose, 
modern criticism is inclined to validate this, 
though there are some discrepancies not easy to 
explain if so. In any case the author of each 
was a Gentile Christian, writing to explain to 
pagan Gentiles the origins of Christianity, and 
its spread by divinely directed methods from 
Jews to Gentiles; but the « Acts » is the later, 
showing some theologic development, very harsh 
toward the non-Christian Jews, and attributing 
all harassing of the aposttes and resisting of the 
extension of the gospel to them and not the 
Gentiles, who in fact are called into the fold 
because the Jews will not listen. Both are anx¬ 
ious also to show that the Roman government 
from the first had no hostility to the new move¬ 
ment, and rather favored it but for Jewish 
pressure: Pilate admires and wishes to save 
Jesus; Paul’s first converts are Roman officers,, 
and the Roman magistrates find no crime in him 
and go out of their way to screen him from con¬ 
spiracies. A further and strong object of the 
« Acts » is to show that the first Christians were 
of one heart and soul, without selfishness or 
jealousy and single in aim: they distribute their 
possessions and have all things in common; they 
accompany and take the tenderest farewells of 
each other; and there is no book with more 
beautiful and attractive characters,— Stephen, 
Cornelius, Lydia, the jailer at Philippi, etc. 
Hence too some of the divergences from the 
facts stated in other books, and presumably true 
as there was no motive for their invention, but 
the reverse: for instance, the bitter conflicts of 
Paul with the other heads, as told in Galatians 
and Corinthians. The apostles and Paul zutj 
the co-foundations of the Christian world, at 
God’s will. But the notion that the book is a 
Pauline apology is contradicted by its matter: 
not only are conditions laid down for an apostle 
which would exclude Paul (i. 21 sqq.), 

but the narrator takes pains to show that Paul 
only followed in the footsteps of the apostles and 
originated nothing. The suppression of his wan¬ 
derings in Arabia, Syria, and Cilicia makes it 
appear that Peter and not he gained the first 
Gentile convert; Peter’s miracles duplicate his 
in remarkable number and exactness; and in 
nearly all cases, when Paul goes into a strange 
town to preach, he cannot gain the right till he 
has first attempted to preach to the Jews and 
been rejected by them, thereby forcing him to 
appeal to the Gentiles. In one place (xxviii. 
17-28) the existence of a prior Christian Church 
is actually ignored to this end; and after Jesus’ 
appearance to Paul he still has to be inducted 
into his work by human hands (Ananias and 
Barnabas), though the church at Antioch — the 
first Gentile Christian church' and Paul’s first 
important congregation — has already been 
founded by Christians from Jerusalem. The 
real hero of the book is the united, co-equal, 
self-abnegating band of God-sent Christian mis¬ 
sionaries. 

The title is probably not the original and cer¬ 
tainly not the correct one: nine of the apostles 
are mentioned only by name, and James and 
John hardly more; while it is much fuller on 
several subordinate figures than on any others 
but Peter and Paul,— the deacons Stephen, 
Philip, Apollos, Cornelius, etc. It professes to 


ACTUALITY, LAW OF —ADAIR 


be the relation of an eye-witness, and in a por¬ 
tion of the narrative uses the personal (( we }) ; 
but this relation — which is entirely trustworthy 
— forms but a small part of the book, and rep¬ 
resents a document (probably a journal) by a 
companion of Paul, which the later actual writer 
used, in part bodily, in part as unavowed ma¬ 
terial, claiming its credit for his entire work. 
This is shown among other things by the ex¬ 
cessive minuteness of the itinerary and other 
unimportant items in some cases, contrasted 
with the vague generality of others, its igno¬ 
rance of the most important facts or traditions 
(the gift of tongues, for instance, and Paul’s 
■wanderings), or even categorical contradiction 
of others, as the contentions of Paul. Whether 
this is lack of knowledge or <( tendency® writ¬ 
ing, it equally shows the composite nature of the 
work; as do the discrepancies in relating the 
same facts: for example, in ix. 7, Paul’s com¬ 
panions hear a voice but see no one; in xxii. 9 
they see the light from heaven but hear nothing; 
in xxvi. 12-18 they fall down with Paul but 
nothing more is told. The other sources — oral 
traditions and lost works — doubtless enshrined 
much genuine history. The theory that it is a 
later recension of his own work by <( Luke,® 
from an earlier rough-draft represented by the 
(( we® narrative, is not sustained. 

The minimum date is approximately fixed by 
the fact that the author knows Josephus’ works, 
which began with the <( Jewish War,® 79 a.d., 
and ended with his autobiography, shortly after 
100; it cannot therefore be much earlier than 
105, or if <( Luke® knew Josephus also, about 
no. The maximum is reckoned about 130; but 
curiously, Marcion, c. 140, had the Third Gospel 
but not <( Acts,® or if he had it he rejected it. 
In any event it is of the first half of the 2d 
century, which agrees also with its tone toward 
the Roman power. The . <( Good Emperors® 
reigned 96^-180 a.d. The chief critical examina¬ 
tions are in German: H. Meyer (ed. Wende, 
Gottingen 1899) ; Ewald, ( The First Three 
Evangelists and the Acts of the Apostles 5 (Got¬ 
tingen 1872). 

Actuality, Law of, in philosophy, the state 
of being actual; reality. <( The actuality of these 
spiritual qualities is thus imprisoned, though 
their potentiality be not quite destroyed.”— 
Cheyne. 

Actuarial Society of America, a scientific 
organization, established in April 1889, having 
for its object the promotion of actuarial science 
by such methods as may be found desirable. 
The membership is composed of those con¬ 
nected with actuarial pursuits. The enrollment 
is divided into members and associates. Candi¬ 
dates for associate are required to pass such 
preliminary examination as may be prescribed; 
a second examination is demanded of candi¬ 
dates for member. An annual meeting is held 
on the first Thursday after 14 May in each year. 
Other meetings may be called by the council 
from time to time and by the president at any 
time on the written request of 10 members. The 
officers of the society are a president, a first and 
second vice-president, a secretary, and a treas¬ 
urer. President and vice-presidents are not eli¬ 
gible for the same office for more than two 
consecutive years.. The council is composed of 
the officers and six other members, two elected 
to serve for three years, two for two years, and 


two for one year. The society publishes ( Trans¬ 
actions , 5 containing the proceedings of the 
meetings, including original papers presented by 
members or associates, discussions on said 
papers, and other matter expressly authorized 
by the council. On 1 June 1903 the total num¬ 
ber of members was 123; that of associates,. 29. 
Enrollment is not restricted to the United 
States. Office of the secretary, 32 Nassau Street, 
New York. 

Actuary, in ancient Rome, a cierk of public 
bodies who recorded their acta; also.one of the 
public reporters who prepared the daily news of 
the city as a written newspaper. (See Acta 
Diurna.) In modern times, the mathematician 
of an insurance company, who makes the calcu¬ 
lations on which its policy plans and prices are 
based, and applies the doctrine of probabilities 
to fire, life, or accident insurance. Although the 
material on which he works is. theoretically fur¬ 
nished by the experience of his and other cog¬ 
nate companies, and the records of public and 
private bodies, with the common rules of inter¬ 
est, in fact it needs not only great mathematical 
capacity but great, practical sagacity to apply 
them to actual business; and no actuary of the 
highest class is a mere mathematician. In the 
early days, when experience was still mostly to 
make, the actuaries were usually the presidents 
of their companies; in recent times a safe body 
of experience has accumulated which enables 
business men to head them, and the actuary’s 
computations and advice relate to slighter varia¬ 
tions or special plans. In accident companies 
the actuary needs to be and usually is a man of 
large practical acquaintance with different em¬ 
ployments, their hazards, the meaning of given 
employment-names, and those under, which the 
more hazardous employments are disguised as 
less so; in fire insurance equally he must know 
the character of different risks. See Insur¬ 
ance. 

• 

Acuna, Manuel, a-koon'ya, man-oo-el', 
Mexican poet.: b. 1849; committed suicide 1873 
from disappointed love, which was the princi¬ 
pal theme of his poems. 

Acuna de Figueroa, Francisco, a-koon'ya 
da fe-ga-ro'a, fran-thes'ko, Uruguayan poet: 
b. Montevideo, 1791; d. there, 6 Oct. 1862. His 
works are a Spanish-American classic from their 
metrical perfection, though deficient in warmth. 
The collection ( Poetic Mosaic 5 comprises 
every variety of secular and religious poetry, 
from heroic poems to psalms. 

Adair', James, American 18th-century In¬ 
dian trader and author. He lived 1735-75 
among the Indians, mainly the Cherokees and 
Chi.ckasaws; and in the latter year published a 
History of the Indian Tribes, 5 especially the 
southeastern ones, containing an admirable first¬ 
hand account of their manners and customs, and 
a still more valuable though unsatisfactory set 
of Indian vocabularies. But the chief object of 
writing the book was to trace the origin of the 
Indians to the Lost Tribes of Israel; a curious 
phantasm (especially as the tribes are known 
not to have been lost, and the differentiation of 
stocks must far antedate the Christian era) 
which has bewitched many enthusiasts since, 
and was revived and expounded by Dr. Elias 
Boudinot .in his < Star of the West 5 (1816) 
Adairs views are summarized in H. H. Ban¬ 
croft s ( Native Races, 5 vol. 5, p. 01. 


ADAIR —ADAM 


Adair, John, American general and public 
officer: b. Chester co., S. C., 1759; d. Harris¬ 
burg, Ky., 18 May 1840. He served in the Revo¬ 
lution; removed to Kentucky 1787; in 1791 
was major under St. Clair and Wilkinson in the 
northwestern Indian expeditions, and was de¬ 
feated by the Miami chief « Little Turtle® near 
Fort St. Clair. He was a member of the consti¬ 
tutional convention which made Kentucky a 
State, 1 June 1792; was State Representative and 
Speaker, register of the United States Land 
Office, and 1805-6 United States Senator. He 
was volunteer aid to Gen. Shelby at the battle 
of the Thames, 5 Oct. 1813; made brigadier- 
general of State militia Nov. 1814, and as 
such commanded the State troops at New Or¬ 
leans under Jackson, 8 Jan. 1815. He was gov¬ 
ernor of Kentucky 1820-4, and United States 
Representative 1831-3, on the committee on mili¬ 
tary affairs. 

Adair, Robin. See Robin Adair. 

Ad'albert, or Al'debert, a native of 
France, who preached the gospel in 744 on the 
banks of the Main. He is remarkable as the first 
opponent to the introduction of the rites and or¬ 
dinances of the Western Church into Germany;. 
He rejected the culture of the Saints and Con¬ 
fession, but distributed his own hair as sacred 
relics to his followers; was accursed of heresy by 
Boniface the apostle of Germany, and condemned 
by two councils, at Soissons in 744 and at Rome 
in 745. Finally escaping from prison, he is said 
to have been murdered by some peasants on the 
banks of the Fulda. 

Adalbert, St., of Prague, the apostle of 
Prussia proper: b. 939; d. 23 April 997. He 
was the son of a Bohemian nobleman, and his 
real name was Voitech («host — comfort®); 
was educated in the cathedral of Magdeburg, 
and appointed the second bishop of Prague in 
983. He labored in vain to convert the Bohe¬ 
mians from paganism, and to introduce among 
them the ordinances of the Church of Rome. 
Discouraged by the fruitlessness of his pious 
zeal, he left Prague (988) and lived in convents 
at Montecasino and Rome until the Bohemians 
in 993 recalled him; but after two years he 
again left them, disgusted with their barbarous 
manners. He returned to Rome, and soon fol¬ 
lowed the Emperor Otho III. to Germany; ori 
which journey he baptized, at Gran, St. Stephen, 
afterward king of Hungary. He proceeded to 
Gnesen to meet Boleslas, Duke of Poland. Be¬ 
ing informed that the Bohemians did not wish 
to see him again, he resolved to convert the 
pagans of Prussia, but was murdered by a 
peasant near what is now Fischhausen. His 
body was bought by Boleslas for its weight in 
gold, and became famous for its miraculous 
power. Its influence was greater than that of 
the saint himself: the Bohemians, who had re¬ 
fused to receive the ordinances of the Church, 
now suffered them to be introduced into Prague, 
on the sole condition that these miraculous relics 
should be transferred to their city. They were 
rediscovered in a vault in 1880 and deposited in 
the cathedral. (Life by Heger, Konigsberg 1897; 
Voigt, Berlin 1898.) 

Adalbert, «The Great,® Archbishop of 
Bremen and Hamburg: b. about 1000; d. 17 
March 1072; descendant of a Saxon princely 
house. He received his office in 1043 from the 

Voi. 1—6 


Emperor Henry III., whose elation, friend, and 
follower he was. He accompanied Henry to 
Rome in 1046 and was a distinguished candidate 
for the papal chair. Pope Leo IX. made him 
his legate in the north of Europe (1050). He 
superintended the churches of Denmark, Nor¬ 
way, and Sweden, converted the Wends, and as¬ 
pired to a great northern patriarchate to vie with 
the Roman Curia. During the minority of 
Henry IV. he usurped, in concert with Hanno 
archbishop of Cologne, the guardianship of the 
young prince and the administration of the em¬ 
pire, and gained an ascendancy over his rival 
by indulging the passions of his pupil. After 
Henry had become of age Adalbert exercised 
the government without control in his name. 
His pride and arbitrary administration induced 
the German princes in 1066 to remove him by 
force from the court; but after a short contest 
with the Saxon nobles, who laid waste his terri¬ 
tory, he recovered his former power in 1069, and 
held it till his death in Goslar in 1072. His in¬ 
justice and tyranny were instrumental in pro¬ 
ducing the confusion and calamities in which the 
reign of Henry IV. was involved. 

Adalia, Turkey in Asia, a seaport on the 
S. coast, in the vilayet of Konieh, finely situated 
on the Gulf of Adalia, from which the houses 
rise in terraces like an amphitheatre, on a rocky 
hill and surrounded by fig, orange, and mul¬ 
berry gardens. It lies in a fertile but hot and 
unhealthy locality, producing grain, figs, oranges, 
wine, etc. It has a small but good port, and 
carries on a considerable trade; exporting grain, 
timber, cattle, valonia, etc. It was anciently called 
Attalia, later Satalia. Pop. about 30,000, 7,000 
Greeks. 

Adam («one made®) and Eve («living 
being,® feminine). As the Old Testament almost 
invariably uses the article before « adam » («the 
adam » = « the made one » or « the man » ), its 
use as a personal name is a mere misapprehen¬ 
sion, and the implications drawn from it are no 
part of the text; nor is there any reason to sup¬ 
pose it was so intended by the writers who used 
it, or so understood by the Jews. This, however, 
is a minor point, as the narratives of the creation 
and fall, etc., have the same bearing whether the 
first created beings had names or not: they re¬ 
main themselves no less. But those narratives 
were certainly not understood by their compilers 
themselves, who merely took them from Baby¬ 
lonian sources (see Creation), as implying lit¬ 
eral history,— which their discordance should 
render obvious,— and the difficulties involved in 
it result from being more Biblical than the Bible, 
as the Yahvistic portions of the later chapters 
disregard them, and the Yahvish adds to 
them at will. The accounts in Genesis are 
three: (1) The Elohistic (q.v.), in which 
«male and female» are created at the same 
time; that is, the whole race, just as the whole 
animal race is created at a stroke. The inter¬ 
pretation as « one couple » is thrown back from 
the second account. (2) The Yahvistic, in 
which «the adam » is made from the dust, and 
«the eve » from the adam; and which contains 
the theological part of the story,— the location in 
the Garden of Eden, the prohibition of God and 
its disregard, the expulsion, the birth of Cain 
and Abel, and the first murder. (3) The ge¬ 
nealogical list in chapter v., where the race is 


ADAM — ADAMAWA 


derived through Seth, and Cain and Abel are 
unknown; and where the first generations of 
men are demigods with enormous spans of life. 
The last is not only later than the other two, and 
corresponding to Greek, Assyrian, etc., pedi¬ 
grees carrying the race or its first families back 
to the gods, but it is entirely unconnected with 
the first two, which have a certain relation as 
efforts of early man to account for the origin 
and propagation of life on the earth, which every 
race has undertaken as soon as it attained self- 
consciousness. The first, however, is that pure 
and simple, with no ulterior purpose. The sec¬ 
ond is quite other, combining the creation story 
of a single couple, the progenitors of the human 
race,— as with the Greek Deucalion and Pyrrha, 
etc.,— with a deeply moralized account of the 
origin of moral evil, and the rapine and violence, 
pain and disease and hardship, which it brought 
into a world previously free from them. It is 
this, reflecting the predominant religious tone of 
the Jewish mind, that has formed the basis first 
of the Jewish and then of its successor the 
Christian theology: Adam as the reason for and 
spring of human sin. This resulted in Paul’s 
conception of two Adams: the fleshly one, 
whence come sin and death; and the spiritual 
one, whence springs salvation. 

Most of the later Jews regarded the story 
as an allegory. Philo, the foremost writer of 
the Alexandrian school, explains Eve as the 
sensuous part, Adam as the rational part, of 
human nature. The serpent attacks the sensuous 
element, which yields to the temptation of plea¬ 
sure and next enslaves the reason. Clement and 
Origen adapted this interpretation somewhat 
awkwardly to Christian theology. Augustine ex¬ 
plained the story as history, but admitted a 
spiritual meaning superinduced upon the literal; 
and his explanation was adopted by the re¬ 
formers, and indeed generally by the orthodox 
within the Catholic and the various Protestant 
Churches alike. More modern critics, loth to 
abandon it wholly as legend, have sought to 
separate a kernel of history from the poetical 
accretions, and attribute the real value of the 
story not to its form, but to the underlying 
thoughts. Martensen describes it as a combina¬ 
tion of history and sacred symbolism, «a fig¬ 
urative presentation of an actual event.® The 
second narrative may be regarded as embodying 
the philosophy of the Hebrew mind applied to 
the everlasting problem of the origin of sin and 
suffering: a question the solution of which is 
scarcely nearer us now than it was to the primi¬ 
tive Hebrews. Hesiod describes man in his 
primitive state as free from sickness and evil 
before Prometheus (q.v.) stole fire from heaven, 
and Pandora (who corresponds to Eve) brought 
miseries to the earth. Prometheus gives man 
the capability of knowledge; his daring theft is 
for man the beginning of a fuller and higher 
life. Hfschylus regards Prometheus as the rep¬ 
resentative of humanity led into misery by his 
self-will until he submits to the higher will of 
God. This corresponds with the story of Gene¬ 
sis, save that in the latter the spiritual features 
are clearer and more distinct. 

Adam, Graeme Mercer, Canadian author 
and editor: b. Scotland 1839. He was trained 
in Blackwood’s publishing house in Edinburgh, 
and, emigrating, became a publisher in Toronto 


and New York. He later edited several Cana¬ 
dian periodicals, assisted Goldwin Smith on the 
c Bystander,) and founded with him the < Cana¬ 
dian Monthly) (1872). In 1879 he founded the 
c Canadian Educational Monthly.) In 1896 he 
became editor of < Self-Culture.) He has writ¬ 
ten < An Outline Plistory of Canadian Liter¬ 
ature) (1886); (The Canadian Northwest) 

(1895) ; and with Ethelwyn Wetherald, the his¬ 
torical novel <An Algonquin Maiden); etc. 

Adam, Juliette, ad-an, zhii-le-et (Mme. 
Adam, nee Lamber), prolific Parisian journalist 
and author: b. Verberie, Oise, 4 Oct. 1836. She 
founded in 1879 the Nouvelle Revue, the organ 
of the Extreme Republicans, and edited it till 
her retirement in 18971 an d her salon was a 
noted influence in Paris. Her second husband, 
Edmond Adam (later life senator, d. 1877), was 
prefect of police in Paris during the Prussian 
siege, and her first book was a diary of the siege. 
She has written largely (often under the pseudo¬ 
nyms Juliette Lamber and Comte Paul Vasili) 
on women’s rights and various literary and so¬ 
cial subjects; novels assailing Christianity for 
its crucifixion of natural instincts; ( The Hun¬ 
garian Fatherland)' (1884), (General Skobeleff ) 
(1886), etc. 

Adam, Quirin Frangois Lucien, ad-an, ke- 
ran fran-swa loo-sean, French philologist: b. 
Nancy, 1833. His works, largely devoted to thr 
study of primitive or savage tongues, have in 
eluded among others American Indian subjects 
as ( Sketch of a Comparative Grammar of Cro; 
and Chippeway) (2d ed. 1876) ; ( Studies on 
Six American Languages)' (1878); also 
« Grammar of the Manchouc Language ) (1873) ; 
('Lorraine Patoises) (1881); 1 Negro- Aryan 

and Malay-Aryan Idioms): (1883). 

Adam, Book of. See Apocrypha. 

Adamant, a word loosely used to signify 
a substance of extreme hardness. It is probably 
derived from the Greek adamas, «unconquer¬ 
able.® Very possibly the name adamant was at 
one time applied to a definite substance; but it 
has been used to signify corundum, various 
gems, a hard metal (probably steel) that was 
used in making armor, the lodestone, and various 
other substances. It is now chiefly used in a 
poetical or rhetorical sense. 

Adamantine Spar, a name sometimes 
applied to corundum (q.v.) on account of its 
hardness; especially to the dark colored, non¬ 
transparent varieties which are used in pulver¬ 
ized form for polishing gems. 

Adaman'toid, a crystalline form belong¬ 
ing to_ the isometric system, and bounded by 
48 similar scalene triangles. It has 6 octahedral 
solid angles, at the extremities of the principal 
axes ; 8 hexahedral solid angles, at the extremi¬ 
ties of the trigonal axes ; and 12 tetrahedral solid 
angles, at the extremities of the digonal axes. 
Its name is due to the fact that the diamond 
usually occurs in this crystalline form. (Also, 
and more commonly, called hexoctahedron.) 

Adamawa, a'da-ma/wa (formerly Fumbi- 
na), an internally autonomous sultanate of 
central Africa, between lat. 6° and n° N., and 
Ion. ii° and 17 0 E.: part of the Sokoto empire 
in northern Nigeria; area some 50,000 sq. 
m. Much of. the surface is mountainous, the 
mountains rising to about 8,000 ft. The princi- 


ADAM BEDE —ADAM OF BREMEN 


pal rivers are the Benue and its tributary the 
Faro. The eastern part belongs to the German 
Kamerun; the western to British North Nigeria. 
A great part of the country is covered with thick 
forests, though there are also extensive and 
splendid pasture lands and cultivated fields. 
The native inhabitants are industrious and in¬ 
telligent, but they have been in a great measure 
subdued by the Mohammedan Fulahs, who pos¬ 
sess innumerable slaves. Slaves and ivory are 
the chief articles of trade. Pop. conjectured at 
3,000,000. Chief towns, Yolo the capital, est. 
12,000 to 20,000; Banjo, chief ivory mart; and 
Nganudere. 

Adam Bede, the earliest of George Eliot’s 
novels, was published in 1859 as « by the author 
of < Scenes of Clerical Life. >» A skeleton of 
the plot gives but a poor impression of the 
strength and charm of the story. It seems to 
have been, in the author’s mind, a recognition 
of the heroism of commonplace natures in com¬ 
monplace surroundings, of the nobility of noble 
character wherever found. But Adam Bede, in¬ 
telligent, excellent, satisfactory though he is, is 
subordinated in interest to the figure of Hetty, 
made tragic through suffering and injustice. 
Dinah Morris, the woman preacher, is a study 
from life, serene and lovely. Mr. Irwine is a 
t) r pical English clergyman of the early 19th 
century; Bartle Massey, the schoolmaster, is 
one of those humble folk, full of character, 
foibles, absurdities, and homely wisdom, whom 
George Eliot draws with loving touches; while 
Mrs. Poyser, with her epigrammatic shrewdness, 
her untiring energy, her fine .pride of respecta¬ 
bility, her acerbity of speech, and her charity of 
heart, belongs to the company of the Immortals. 

Adam de la Hale, or Halle, ad-an duh la 
al, French poet and composer: b. Arras about 
1235; d. Naples about 1287 r nicknamed the 
Hunchback of Arras, although he was not de¬ 
formed. His satirical extravaganza, <■ The Play 
of Adam, or The Play in the Arbor 5 (1262), 
constitutes the earliest comedy in the vulgar 
tongue; while the pastoral drama, < The Play of 
Robin and of Marion,>’ may be looked upon as 
the earliest specimen of comic opera. 

Adami, Friedrich, a-da/me, fred'riH, German 
author: b. Suhl, 18 Oct. 1816; d. Berlin, 
5 Aug. 1893. He wrote stories, plays, etc., a 
very popular biography of Queen Louise, and 
cThe Book of Emperor William > (1887-90). 

Ad'ami, John George, English-American 
pathologist: b. Manchester, Eng., 1862; edu¬ 
cated at Owens College there and Christ’s Col¬ 
lege, Cambridge; studied at Breslau and Pans; 
became demonstrator of pathology at Cambridge 
in 1887; fellow of Jesus College 1891. In 1892 
he came to Montreal as professor of pathology 
at McGill University; from 1894 has been head 
of the pathological department at the Royal V ic- 
toria Hospital there; from 1896 lecturer to the 
New York Pathological Society. He has pub¬ 
lished papers on pathological topics, and articles 
in Allbutt’s < System of Medicine.) 

Adamine, a mineral better known as 
adamite. 

A'damite (named for M. Adam, a French 
mineralogist), a mineral, isomorphous with 
olivenite, and occurring in small orthorhombic 
crystals that are often grouped in fine granular 


aggregations. It is an arsenate of zinc, having 
the formula Zn 3 As 2 Os.Zn(OH)2, although cop¬ 
per and cobalt may also be present. Its hard¬ 
ness is 3.5, and its sp. gr. 4.35. Its color is 
variable. It occurs at Cap Garonne, near 
Hyeres, France; and also at Laurium, Greece, 
and in certain parts of Chile. 

Adamites. (1) A Christian sect said to have 
existed in the 2d century: so called because 
both men and women appeared naked in theii 
assemblies, either to imitate Adam in the state 
of innocence or to prove the control which they 
possessed over their passions. The tradition is 
probably baseless, originating in a name of deri¬ 
sion given to the Carpocratians. (See Gnos¬ 
tics.) (2) Also called Picards, from the 
founder of their sect, Picard (perhaps also Beg- 
hards). He called himself Adam the Son of 
God, and advocated community of women. They 
appeared about the year 1421 on an island in 
the River Lusinicz, where Zisca surprised them, 
but was not able to destroy the whole sect. In 
the following year they were widely spread over 
Bohemia and Moravia, and especially hated by 
the Hussites (whom they resembled in hatred 
toward the hierarchy) because they rejected 
transubstantiation, the priesthood, and the Sup¬ 
per. They subsequently formed one sect with 
the remaining Taborites, who have accordingly 
been confounded with them. In 1849 a similar 
sect sprang up in Austria. 

Ad'amnan, St. (dim. of Adam), an Irish 
ecclesiastic and author: b. in Donegal, c. 625; 
d. 703 or 704. He was descended from a cousin 
of St. Columba and from powerful Irish chief¬ 
tains. Entering the monastery of Iona, he be¬ 
came abbot in 697; but was involved in quarrels 
with his monks over Easter and the tonsure (en¬ 
forcing the orthodox Roman view against the 
Irish Church view), which hastened his death. 
He wrote a most valuable life of St. Columba 
(q.v.), the founder of Iona, full of historical 
information about the early Irish-Scotch 
Church (best edition Reeves’, 1857; English 
translation in the < Historians of Scotland,') 
1874, reissued Oxford 1895) ; and a hearsay but 
valuable report of matters in Palestine in his 
time, the first we have of that land in the early 
Middle Ages. 

Adam of Bremen, celebrated German his¬ 
torian : b. probably in Meissen, Saxony; d. 12 
October of an unknown year, probably 1076. He 
lived at Magdeburg, removed to Bremen in 1067, 
was made canon of its cathedral and next year 
principal of the cathedral school. His fame 
rests on his ■< History of the Church of Ham¬ 
burg) (1072-6), an inestimable mediaeval classic, 
for which he gathered material far and wide; 
making a special trip to Denmark to interview 
King Svend Estridson, whose communications 
he gives. As an appendix to his last book he 
gives an account of the Danish, Swedish, and 
Norwegian possessions, containing a passage of 
the first interest to Americans, as verifying the 
Saga stories of Vinland: « He [Svend] told of 
still another island found by many in that [At¬ 
lantic] ocean. It is called Wineland, because 
grapes grow there spontaneously. ... I have 
learned through definite information from Danes 
that unsown crops also grow there in abun¬ 
dance.)) 


ADAM OF ST. VICTOR —ADAMS 


Adam of St. Victor, famous mediaeval 
hymnologist: d. in Paris c. 1192; nothing is 
known of him save his great hymns, the most 
numerous of any mediaeval writer, and among 
'he foremost in rank. A few have been finely 
translated by J. M. Neale; a complete (so far 
as known) edition was published in London, 
3 vols. 1881. 

Adam Family, British architects, a cele¬ 
brated 18th-century family consisting of William 
and his four sons, William, Robert, James, and 
John: of whom Robert ranks first and James 
next. The father was born in Fifeshire, Scot¬ 
land, and his work was done in his native coun¬ 
try: the town hall at Dundee, the library and 
university at Glasgow, and many other public 
and private buildings there and in Edinburgh, 
etc. Robert was born in Edinburgh, studied in 
Italy, and examined the noble remains of Dal¬ 
matia before settling in London: his work on 
Diocletian’s palace at Spalato was a valuable ad¬ 
vertisement to his talents and taste, and all the 
brothers increased their repute by publishing 
engravings of their plans. Under Robert’s di¬ 
rection they constructed a great number of build¬ 
ings in London,— the Adelphi Terrace and the 
Streets around commemorates them specifically. 
He also did much to remodel the appearance 
of the city. Robert also built Lansdowne 
House, Kedleston Hall near Derby, and Regis¬ 
ter House near Edinburgh. A special feature 
of the brothers’ work was their careful atten¬ 
tion to harmonious interior arrangement and 
decoration. 

Adam’s Apple, in botany, (1) the name 
given by Gerard and other old authors to the 
plantain tree (Musa paradisiaca ), from the no¬ 
tion that its fruit was that sinfully eaten by 
Adam in Eden. (2) The name given, for the 
same reason, to a species of Citrus. 

In anatomy, a protuberance on the fore part 
of the throat, due to the thyroid cartilages. The 
name is supposed to have arisen from the ab¬ 
surd popular notion that a portion of the for¬ 
bidden fruit, assumed to have been an apple, 
stuck in Adam’s throat when he attempted to 
swallow it. 

Adam’s Bridge, or Ra-ma’s Bridge, a chain 
of shoals across the Gulf of Manaar, between 
Hindustan and the island of Ceylon, in the 
Ramaana fabled to have been constructed by 
monkeys. 

Adam’s Peak, one of the highest moun¬ 
tains in the island of Ceylon, about 45 m. E. 
of Colombo. It is of a conical shape, 7,420 ft. 
high, and can be seen in clear weather from 
sea 150 m. away. From its solitary position 
and immense height above the surrounding coun¬ 
try the peak forms a striking and awe-inspiring 
object and has been for centuries venerated 
by the inhabitants. On the top, under a sort of 
open pagoda, is the sacred footmark, a natural 
hollow in the rock, artificially enlarged, and 
bearing a rude resemblance to a human foot. 
Mohammedan tradition makes this the scene of 
Adam’s penitence after his expulsion from Para¬ 
dise; he stood 1,000 years on one foot weeping 
for his sin, hence the mark. To the Buddhists, 
the impression is the Sri-pada, or sacred foot¬ 
mark, left by Buddha on his departure from 
Ceylon; and the Hindus recognize Buddha as an 
avatar of Vishnu or Siva. Devotees of all 


creeds here meet and present their offerings 
(consisting chiefly of rhododendron flowers) to 
the sacred footprint, finishing their devotions by 
a draught from the sacred well. The ascent of 
the mountain is very steep, and toward the sum¬ 
mit is assisted by steps cut and iron chains 
riveted in the rock, the last 40 feet being accom¬ 
plished by an iron ladder. The top is an area 
of 64 feet by 45. 

Adams, Abigail Smith, wife of President 
John Adams: b. Weymouth, Mass., 23 Nov. 
1744; d. 28 Oct. 1818. She was daughter of 
a Weymouth clergyman, who opposed the 
match and took for a text «My daughter is 
grievously tormented with a devil.» Though 
lacking strength and regular school education, 
she became a self-made force of high order in 
public affairs and one of the best of early Amer¬ 
ican writers: her letters to her husband, col¬ 
lected and published, are not only of great his¬ 
torical and social value, but full of delightful 
genial humor and acute comment and judg¬ 
ment. Her husband’s position kept them apart 
for years; but she joined him in France in 
1784, went with him to his life of torment in 
London, and lived in Washington 1789-1801; 
thence till death at Braintree, now Quincy. 

Adams, Alvin, founder of Adams Express 
Co.: b. Andover, Vt., 16 June 1804; d. 2 Sept. 
1877. On 4 May 1840 he started an express 
business between Boston and New York which 
developed into the great company above named, 
formed in 1854 by the consolidation of several ri¬ 
val firms,— including Hamden’s, the initiator of 
the express business,— with Mr. Adams as pres¬ 
ident. In 1850 he helped to organize the pioneer 
express service through the California mining 
camps, which on the consolidation above he sold 
out. In the Civil War the Adams Express Co. 
was of immense help to the government; in 1870 
it extended its business to the far West. 

Adams, Brooks, American social writer, 
son of Charles Francis: b. Quincy, Mass., 2 June 
1848; was graduated at Harvard in 1870; and 
practised law till 1871. He has written ( The 
Gold Standard, ) ( The Emancipation of Massa¬ 
chusetts, ) a bitter assault on the Puritan the¬ 
ocracy (1887). ( The Law of Civilization and 
Decay, 5 (i900 ) ; ( America’s Economic Suprem¬ 
acy; ( The New Empire ) (1902). 

Adams, Charles Baker, American natural¬ 
ist: b. Dorchester, Mass., 1814; d. 1853. He was 
graduated at Amherst; assisted in the geological 
survey of New York, 1836; held scientific chairs 
in Amherst (1836-8), Middlebury College, Vt. 
(1838-47), and Amherst again (1847-53) I State 
geologist of Vermont 1845-7. He wrote a geolog¬ 
ical text-book. 

Adams, Charles Follen, American dialect 
poet_: b. Dorchester, Mass., 21 April 1842; Union 
soldier; began writing broken German poems in 
1872; author of ( Leedle Yawcob Strauss, and 
Other Poems ) (1878); ( Dialect Ballads* 
(1^887) ; ( Der Oak unde der Vine* (1905), etc. 

Adams, Charles Francis, American states¬ 
man, son of President John Quincy: b. in Bos¬ 
ton, 18 Aug. 1807; d. there 21 Nov. 1886. At the 
age of two he was taken by his father to St. Pe¬ 
tersburg; in 1815 went with hie mother thence to 
I- aris; the same year his father was made minis¬ 
ter to England, and he was placed in an English 


ADAMS 


boarding-school. In 1817 both returned to 
America; he was placed in the Boston Latin 
School, and in 1825 graduated at Harvard. His 
father had just been inaugurated President, and 
he spent two years in Washington ; then returned 
to Boston, studied law with Daniel Webster, and 
was called to the bar in 1828, but never prac¬ 
tised— engaging in literature and political writ¬ 
ing in magazines and pamphlets, and editing 
John and Abigail Adams’ letters (1840-1). He 
was Representative in the legislature 1841-4, 
State Senator 1844-6, as a Whig; heading the 
« Conscience Whig » wing, he edited the Boston 
Whig, 1846-8, was chairman of the Free-Soil 
Convention at Buffalo in 1848, and was nom¬ 
inated for Vice-President on the ticket with 
Martin Van Buren. In 1850-6 he edited John 
Adams’ < Works > in 10 volumes. He joined the 
Republican party on its organization in 1855, and 
in 1858 was sent to Congress, and re-elected in 
i860. In 1861 Lincoln sent him to England as 
minister, as his father and grandfather had been 
before him. But even their problems were 
trivial beside his, when the very existence of the 
Union perhaps depended on how far the English 
upper classes could drag the government in 
evasion of international obligations and covert 
help to the South. The seizure of Mason and 
Slidell on the Trent nearly precipitated war; 
the fitting out of cruisers to destroy United 
States commerce was put a stop to only after the 
escape of the Alabama (q.v.) in the face of Mr. 
Adams’ representations, and his declaration to 
Earl Russell, then foreign secretary, that per¬ 
mitting the Laird rams also to leave Birkenhead 
was «war.» Napoleon III.’s persistent efforts 
to seduce the English government into a joint 
intervention in favor of the Confederacy had to 
be checkmated; and the rancorous hostility of 
one section and the coldness of the remainder of 
the best society made it a lonely and trying 
place, which for seven years he filled with a dig¬ 
nified resolution of immeasurable importance to 
his country. Returning to America in 1868, he 
was elected president of Harvard the next year, 
but declined; for several years, however, he was 
president of its board of overseers. In 1871 he 
was the United States representative on the 
board of arbitrators at Geneva to settle the Ala¬ 
bama Claims (q.v.) ; in 1872 he nearly obtained 
the nomination as Democratic-Independent can¬ 
didate for the presidency, which Horace Greeley 
secured. In 1874-7 he edited the < Memoirs of 
John Quincy Adams ) in 12 volumes. 

Adams, Charles Francis (2d), American 
publicist, son of above: b. in Boston, 27 May 
1835. He was graduated at Harvard in 1856, 
and served as a cavalry officer through the Civil 
War, rising from first lieutenant to colonel, 
and being brevetted brigadier-general at its 
close. Shortly becoming noted for ability in 
discussion of economic, political, and social 
questions, he was appointed railroad com¬ 
missioner of Massachusetts in 1869; wrote 
('Chapters of Erie > (1871) in collaboration 
with his brother Henry, a series of papers on 
railroad accidents and on (The State and the 
Railroads): (1875-6) for the (Atlantic Month¬ 
ly,) < Railroads, the Origin and Problems ' 
(1878), (Notes on Railway Accidents) (1879), 
etc.; and 1884-90 was president of the Union 
.Pacific Railroad Company. In 1892 he published 


(Three Episodes of Massachusetts History,* 
on the settlement of Boston Bay, the Antino- 
mian controversy, and early town and church 
government, and in 1893 (Massachusetts: Its 
Historians and Its History.) In 1895 he was 
chosen president of the Massachusetts Historical 
Society, and in 1901 president of the American 
Historical Association. He has also written lives 
of Richard Henry Dana (1891) and of his 
father (1900, Am. Statesmen Series), (Lee at 
Appomattox,)- etc. (1902), and much miscel¬ 
laneous work. As chairman of the State Park 
Commission, 1893-5, he contributed materially 
toward planning out and establishing the great 
Metropolitan Park System of Massachusetts. 

Adams, Charles Kendall, American histo¬ 
rian and educator: b. Derby, Vt., 24 Jan. 1835; 
d. 26 July 1902. He removed to Iowa in 1855; 
graduated at the University of Michigan in 1861; 
became assistant professor there 1863-7, and pro¬ 
fessor of history 1867-85. He studied abroad 
1867-8; in 1869-70 introduced the German sem¬ 
inary method into the United States by establish¬ 
ing the Historical Seminary in the University of 
Michigan; and was made dean of its School of 
Political Science when established. In 1885 he 
succeeded Andrew D. White as president of 
Cornell; resigned 1892, and till 1902 was presi¬ 
dent of the University of Wisconsin. He was 
chief editor of < Johnson’s Universal Cyclopae¬ 
dia,) 1892-5. His most valued work is a < Man¬ 
ual of Historical Literature) (1882); he wrote 
also < Democracy and Monarchy in France.) 
(1872); (Christopher Columbus) (1892); com¬ 
piled (British Orations) (1884); and wrote 
much magazine and review matter. 

Adams, Charles R., American tenor: b. 
Charlestown, Mass., 1848; d. 1900. He studied 
in Vienna, sang three years at the Royal Opera 
in Berlin, and nine in the Imperial Opera at 
Vienna. He was highly reputed as an inter¬ 
preter of Wagnerian parts. In 1879 he settled 
in Boston, where he taught with great approval. 

Adams, Edwin, American actor: b. 1834 in 
Massachusetts; d. in Australia, 1877. He first 
appeared as Stephen in ( The Hunchback) at the 
Boston National Theatre, 29 Aug. 1853; played 
Hamlet at Wallack’s (N. Y.) in i860; starred in 
other cities, and returned to New York in 1866 
as Robert Landry in ( The Dead Heart) ; was 
one of Booth’s company when he opened his the¬ 
atre 3 Feb. 1867, and played Mercutio and Iago, 
but won most fame as Enoch Arden. 

Adams, Frank Dawson, geologist: b. Mon¬ 
treal, Can., 17 Sept. 1859; graduated at McGill 
University in 1878; took advanced courses at 
Sheffield Scientific School (Yale), and at Heidel¬ 
berg, applying himself particularly to lithology 
and physical geology; in 1888 became lecturer on 
geology at McGill, and in 1893 succeeded Sir 
William Dawson as Logan professor of geology 
there. 

Adams, George Burton, American histo¬ 
rical writer: b. Vt. 1851. He is a professor of 
history at Yale; author of (Civilization Dur¬ 
ing the Middle Ages > (1883), and < The Growth 
of the French Nation.) 

Adams, Hannah, American literary pio¬ 
neer: b. Medfield, Mass., 1755; d. 15 Nov. 1832. 
Her principal works were an < Autobiogra¬ 
phy); (History of New England) ( 1799 ) >’ 


ADAMS 


♦ History of the Jews) (1812); besides several 
writings on religious topics. She lived in 
Brookline, Mass. 

Adams, Henry, American historian, son of 
Giarles Francis: b. Boston, 16 Feb. 1838. He 
was private secretary to his father during the 
latter’s English ministry, and assistant professor 
of history at Harvard 1870-7, being reputed one 
of the most stimulating and original instructors 
as well as brilliant expositors in the country. 
With several pupils he published in 1876 < Essays 
on Anglo-Saxon Law,) of which he wrote on 

♦ Anglo-Saxon Courts of Law.> In 1871 he 
collaborated with his brother Charles Francis in 
< Chapters of Erie.> He edited the < North Amer¬ 
ican Review,) 1875-6. In 1879 he published Al¬ 
bert Gallatin’s writings (3 vols.) ; in 1882 a life 
of John Randolph (American Statesmen Series). 
But his life-work, and with one exception the 
foremost historical work of America in matter and 
style, is his < History of the United States from 
1801 to 1817) — that is, the presidencies of Jef¬ 
ferson and Madison (9 vols. 1889-91) : in mo¬ 
tive a defense of his grandfather John Quincy 
Adams for deserting the Federalist party; in 
essence, a history of the causes and conduct of 
the War of 1812. For this he took up his resi¬ 
dence in Washington and spent years ransack¬ 
ing its archives. He also lived for long periods 
abroad, examining various European records, 
and trained himself thoroughly in military and 
naval science and construction, besides studying 
historical and economic problems. 

Adams, Henry Carter, economist: b. Da¬ 
venport, Iowa, 31 Dec. 1852. He was graduated 
at Iowa College; afterward took a post-graduate 
course at Johns Hopkins, of which he became 
fellow and lecturer. Later a lecturer at Cornell, 
he is now professor of political economy and 
finance in the University of Michigan. He 
was statistician to the Interstate Commerce 
Commission, and had charge of the transporta¬ 
tion department in the census of 1900. He has 
published works on public debts (1887), on tax¬ 
ation, political economy, industrial subjects, etc. 

Adams, Herbert Baxter, historical student 
and educator: b. Shutesbury, Mass., 16 April 
1850; d. 1901. He was graduated at Amherst in 
1872; took Ph.D. at Heidelberg; and on the 
opening of Johns Hopkins in 1876 was made 
fellow in history, 1878 associate in history, 1883 
associate professor in history, and in 1891, full 
professor. In 1901 he resigned on account of ill 
health, and died shortly after. In 1884 he was 
a leader in organizing the American Historical 
Association, and was secretary till 1000, then 
becoming first vice-president. He edited the 
♦ Johns Hopkins Studies in History and Politi¬ 
cal Science > from the start, also the < Contribu¬ 
tions to American Educational History ) pub¬ 
lished by the United States Bureau of Educa¬ 
tion. His chief publication is < The Life and 
Writings of Jared Sparks) (2 vols. 1893). 
A.mong his historical monographs are ♦ The Col¬ 
lege of William and Mary,) (Thomas Jefferson 
and the University of Virginia,) < The Germanic 
Origin of New England Towns,) and (Mary¬ 
land’s Influence in Founding a National Com¬ 
monwealth.) But his best work was not in 
writing history, but in training others to write 
it, and he was a powerful influence in creating 
the new school of historical research. 


Adams, Isaac, inventor of the «Adams 
press )) familiar to printers: b. in Rochester, N. 
H., 1803; d. 19 July 1883. He was a cotton- 
mill hand, then cabinet-maker, then machinist. 
His press —its essence consisting in the raising 
of the bed against a stationary platen instead of 
bringing the platen down on the bed — was 
patented in 1828, and much improved in 1834. 
He was a member of the Massachusetts Senate 
in 1840. 

Adams, John, 2d President of the United 
States: b. Braintree, Mass., of a line of farmers, 
19 Oct. 1735; d. July 4 1826, the year after his 
son was inaugurated President. Graduated at 
Harvard, he taught school, and read theology 
for a Church career; but seeing his unfitness for 
it studied law and began practice in 1758, soon 
becoming a leader at the bar and in public life. 
In 1764 he married his famous wife. All 
through the germinal years of the Revolution he 
was one of the foremost patriots, steadily op¬ 
posing any abandonment or compromise of es¬ 
sential rights; and in 1766 published essays in 
the Boston Gazette, reprinted in London 1768, 
entitled •< A Dissertation on Canon and Feudal 
Law,) really on colonial rights. In 1765 also 
he was counsel for Boston, with Otis and Grid- 
ley, to support the town’s memorial against the 
Stamp Act. In 1766 he was a selectman, or in 
other words one of the three official rulers of 
the head of the New England colonies. In 1768 
the royal government offered him the post of 
advocate-general in the Court of Admiralty,— 
in fact a lucrative bribe to desert the opposition; 
but he refused it. Yet in 1770, as a matter of 
high professional duty, he took his future in his 
hands to become counsel (successfully) for the 
British soldiers on trial for the « Boston Mas¬ 
sacre.)) Though there was a present uproar of 
abuse, Mr. Adams was shortly after elected 
Representative to the General Court by more 
than three to one. In March 1774 he was con¬ 
templating writing the < History of the Contest 
between Britain and America.) June 17 he pre¬ 
sided over the meeting at Faneuil Hall to con¬ 
sider the Boston Port Bill, and at the same 
hour was elected delegate to the first Congress 
at Philadelphia (1 September), by the Provincial 
Assembly held in defiance of the government. 
Returning home, he was made a member of the 
Provincial Congress, already' organizing resist¬ 
ance to England. Just after Lexington he again 
journeyed to Philadelphia to the Congress of 
May 1775; where he did on his own motion, to 
the disgust of his associates and the reluctance 
even of the Southerners, one of the most im¬ 
portant and decisive acts of the Revolution,— 
induced Congress to adopt the forces already 
gathered in New England as a national army 
and put George Washington at its head, thereby 
engaging the Southern colonies irrevocably in 
the war and securing the one man who could 
make it a success. In 1776 he was a chief agent 
in carrying the Declaration of Independence. He 
remained in Congress till November 1777, serv¬ 
ing on the Committee on Foreign Relations and 
as chairman of the Board of War and Ordnance, 
very useful and laborious, but making one dread¬ 
ful mistake: he was largely responsible for the 
policy of ignoring the just-rights and decent dig¬ 
nity of the military commanders, which lost the 
country some of its best officers and led ultimate- 


ADAMS 


ly to Arnold’s treason. His reasons, exactly 
contrary to his wont, were sound abstract logic, 
but thorough practical nonsense. 

In December 1777 he was appointed commis¬ 
sioner to France to succeed Silas Deane. Dr. 
Franklin and Arthur Lee were there before him; 
and though he reformed a very bad state of af¬ 
fairs, he thought it absurd to keep three envoys 
at one court and induced Congress to abolish his 
office, returning in 1779. Chosen a delegate to the 
Massachusetts Constitutional Convention, he was 
called away from it to be sent again to France. 
There he remained as Franklin’s colleague, de¬ 
testing and distrusting him and the foreign min¬ 
ister Vergennes, embroiling himself with both, 
and earning a cordial return of his warmest dis¬ 
like from both, till July 1780. He then went to 
Holland as volunteer minister, and in 1782 was 
formally recognized as from an independent na¬ 
tion. Meantime Vergennes intrigued energeti¬ 
cally to have him recalled, and did succeed in 
tying his hands so that but for his contumacious 
stubbornness half the advantages of independ¬ 
ence would have been lost, as Vergennes was 
employed to gain points for France and not for 
the United States. In the final negotiations for 
peace he persisted (against his instructions) in 
making the New England fisheries an ultimatum, 
and saved them. The wretched state of Ameri¬ 
can affairs under the Confederation made it im¬ 
possible to do his country any good abroad, and 
the vindictive feeling of the English made his 
life a purgatory, so that he was glad to come 
home in 1788. 

In the first Presidential election of that year, 
he was elected Vice-President on the ticket with 
Washington; and began a feud with Alexander 
Hamilton, the mighty leader of the Federalist 
party and chief organizer of our governmental 
machine, which ended in the overthrow of that 
party years before its time, and had momentous 
personal and literary results as well. As official 
head of the party he thought himself entitled 
to its real leadership as well; Hamilton would 
not and indeed could not surrender his position, 
for the lesser men looked to him for counsel 
and policy, and the rivalry never ended till 
Hamilton’s death. In 1796 he was elected 
President against Jefferson, and his term is rec¬ 
ognized as one of the ablest and most useful of 
our administrations; but its oersonal memoirs 
are most painful and scandalous. The members 
of the Cabinet—nearly all Hamiltonians — laid 
official secrets before Hamilton and took advice 
from him to thwart the President. They dis¬ 
liked Mr. Adams’ overbearing ways and ob¬ 
trusive vanity,— for modesty or a low sense 
of personal dignity were no parts of his char¬ 
acter,— considered his policy destructive to the 
party and injurious to the country, and felt that 
loyalty to them involved and justified a dis¬ 
loyalty to him. Finally his best act brought on 
an explosion. The French Directory had pro¬ 
voked a war with this country, which the Ham¬ 
iltonian section of the Federalist leaders and 
much of the rank and file hailed with delight, 
thinking it a service to the world to cripple 
France as then ruled; but when it showed signs 
of a better spirit, Mr. Adams, without consulting 
his Cabinet (who he knew would oppose it 
nearly or quite unanimously), nominated a com¬ 
mission to frame a treaty with France. He had 
the constitutional right to do so; but the storm 


of fury that broke on him from the party has 
rarely been surpassed in the case of traitors out¬ 
right, and he was charged with' being little bet¬ 
ter. He was renominated for President in 1800, 
but beaten by Jefferson, owing to the defections 
in his own party, largely of Hamilton’s pro¬ 
ducing. The Federalist party never won an¬ 
other election; the Hamiltonians laid its death 
to Mr, Adams, and American history is hot with 
the fires of this battle even yet. 

His later years were spent at home, where he 
was always interested in public affairs and some¬ 
times much too free in his comments on them; 
where he read immensely and wrote somewhat. 
He heartily approved his son’s break with 
the Federalists (see Adams, John Quincy) on 
the Embargo (q.v.). He died on the same day 
as Jefferson, both on the 50th anniversary of the 
Declaration of Independence. 

Mr. Adams’ greatest usefulness and popularity 
sprang from the same cause that produced some 
of his worst blunders and misfortunes: a gener¬ 
ous impulsiveness which which made it impos¬ 
sible for him to hold his tongue at the wrong 
time and place for talking, his vehemence, self- 
confidence, and impatience of obstruction. He 
was fervid, combative, opinionated, and master¬ 
ful, and naturally won more hate than love; but 
he had trust, admiration, and respect from the 
majority of his party at the worst of times, and 
history justifies it. ( ( Works, ) by his grandson 
Charles Francis Adams.) 

Adams, John, American educator: b. Con¬ 
necticut, 1772; d. 1863. Graduated at Yale in 
1795, he was a school-teacher till 1810, and 
thence till 1833 principal of Phillips Academy, 
Andover, Mass., which he developed into repute 
throughout the country. He was teacher of 
Oliver Wendell Holmes, who, in the lines be¬ 
ginning « Grave is the Master’s look,» commem¬ 
orates him in his poem < The School-Boy,> read 
at the Phillips Academy centennial in 1878. 

Adams, John, Confederate soldier: b. Ten¬ 
nessee, 1825 ; d. 30 Nov. 1864. He was gradu¬ 
ated at West Point in 1846; was brevetted first 
lieutenant for bravery at Santa Cruz de Ros¬ 
ales, 1848; promoted captain of dragoons, 1856; 
and resigned 1861 to join the Confederate army, 
in which he rose to the rank of brigadier- 
general. He was killed at the battle of Frank¬ 
lin, Term. 

Adams, John, the name assumed by Alex¬ 
ander Smith, one of the mutineers of the 
Bounty. • After intoxication and massacre had 
killed off all the mutineers but himself, he was 
shocked into a complete change of heart, and be¬ 
came sincerely pious and of upright life; he was 
the patriarch of the little native and half-caste 
group on Pitcairn’s Island, taught a school and 
held worship there. It was nearly twenty years 
after the mutiny before his existence was known; 
and though technically liable to execution for the 
mutiny the English officials felt that his hard¬ 
ships, exile, and repentance had atoned for the 
crime, and that it would be wrong to remove the 
head from the little settlement. He was left un¬ 
molested and died in 1829. See Bligh, William; 
Pitcairn’s Island. 

Adams, John Couch, English astronomer: 
b. in Cornwall, 5 June 1819; d. 21 Jan. 1892. A 
precocious mathematician, he became senior 
wrangler at St. John’s College, Cambridge, and 


/ 


ADAMS 


'mathematical tutor there. He discovered in 
1845, by calculation of the perturbations of Ura¬ 
nus, that another planet must exist beyond it, 
and fixed its position within two degrees; but 
search for it not being made, Leverrier of Paris 
independently made the same discovery next 
year, and Galle of Berlin at once found the 
planet (see Neptune). In 1851 he became 
president of the Royal Astronomical Society; 
1858-9 professor of mathematics at Aberdeen 
1 University; 1859-92 Lowndean professor of as¬ 
tronomy and geometry at Camridge, and in 1861 
director of Cambridge Observatory. He was a 
delegate to the International Prime Meridian 
Conference at Washington 1884. 

Adams, John Quincy, 6th President of the 
United States, son of John Adams: b. in Brain¬ 
tree, Mass., 11 July 1767; d. Washington, 
D. C., 23 Feb. 1848. At 10 he accompa¬ 
nied his father on his first embassy to France, 
and was placed at school near Paris. He re¬ 
turned with his father in about 18 months; but 
soon went back with him to Europe, and at¬ 
tended school in Holland and at the University 
of Leyden. At 15 Francis Dana, his father’s 
secretary of legation, who had been appointed 
minister to Russia, took him with him as his pri¬ 
vate secretary. After 14 months’ stay in Russia, 
where Catherine refused to recognize Mr. Dana, 
he traveled back alone through Sweden and 
Denmark to The Hague. Soon after his father’s 
appointment as ambassador at London in 1785, 
he returned home to complete his studies, as he 
believed (< an American education to be the best 
for an American career,® a coolly judicious 
choice for a lad of 18. He graduated at Har¬ 
vard in 1788, entered the office of Theophilus 
Parsons (q.v.), and in 1791 was admitted to the 
bar. He now began to take an active interest 
in politics. He wrote a series of letters to the 
Boston Sentinel under the signature of « Pub- 
licola,» in reply to Paine’s «Rights of Man,» 
and in 1793 defended Washington’s policy of 
neutrality under the signature of « Marcellus.® 
These letters attracted attention, and in 1794 
Washington appointed him minister to The 
Hague. In 1798 he received a commission to 
negotiate a treaty of commerce with Sweden; 
and traveling through Silesia wrote an ac¬ 
count of it which was published in London, and 
later translated into German and French. On 
Jefferson’s accession to the presidency he was 
recalled and resumed law practice. 

In 1802 he was sent to the State Senate; the 
next year to the United States Senate in place 
of Timothy Pickering, leading Hamiltonian. 
But the Hamilton-Adams feud (see Adams, 
John) had split the party into rancorously hos¬ 
tile halves, and Mr. Adams was practically 
«boycotted» by the dominant section of his 
own party, as being an Adams, with an in¬ 
genuity of indecent insult curious to read of; 
still worse was it when Pickering was made 
his colleague by the other faction at the next 
vacancy. It was good training for the great 
career of his later life; he was not the man to 
conciliate his foes, and soon made the breach 
irreparable by breaking away from the party 
policy. Through life any action which strength¬ 
ened the United States, or increased its dig¬ 
nity in the eyes of the world, or simply « showed 
fight» for any purpose, met with his heartiest 


approval and warmest support, even though’ fa- 
thered by his worst enemies; and he first sup¬ 
ported (with some reservations) Jefferson s 
Louisiana purchase,— precisely in the line of the 
former Federalist policy and the nature of ^ the 
party, but now fought by them as Jefferson s,— 
and in 1807 took a far more radical step. I he 
action of France and Great Britain m plunder¬ 
ing American commerce for evading their mu¬ 
tual blockade laws, and of the latter for im¬ 
pressing American citizens under pretense of 
their being English runaways, had enraged the 
country, but it was helpless against both and 
felt not strong enough at the time to fight 
either; finally the outrage of the Leopard on the 
Chesapeake (see the latter name) roused the 
Republicans to fury, and even many of the Fed¬ 
eralists. But the leaders of the latter sym¬ 
pathized with England’s difficulties in the war 
with Napoleon, would do nothing to embarrass 
her, and even defended the Leopard’s action. Mr. 
Adams was as hot as any Republican; he tried 
to have the Boston Federalists hold a meeting 
and pledge the government their support in any 
measures to curb British insolence, and on their 
refusal attended a Republican meeting and was 
put on a committee to draft such resolutions. 
The Federalists were soon compelled by popular 
feeling to do likewise, and Mr. Adams also 
drafted resolutions there. At the extra session 
of Congress in October the Embargo on all 
American shipping was passed, to see if Eng¬ 
land could not be starved into better behavior; 
half ruining New England, most of whose capi¬ 
tal was invested in commerce, and injuring 
Americans much more than the enemy. Mr. 
Adams was a member of the committee which 
reported the bill, and earnestly advocated it,— 
not because it went as far as he liked, but as 
preferable to showing no resentment whatever, 
and all the Federalists would permit. The exe¬ 
crations leveled at his father for the French 
mission, and the charges of sectional and party 
treachery, were repeated on the son; political 
literature for half a century was glowing with 
the acrid polemics on the subject, and the 
prime object of his grandson Henry Adams’s 
< History > is to exculpate him. His term in 
the Senate was to expire 3 March 1809; in the 
preceding June the Massachusetts legislature 
elected James Lloyd to succeed him, as an in¬ 
sult, which he accepted and at once resigned. 
Meantime he had been made professor of rhet¬ 
oric at Harvard and delivered lectures there. 
The next month he declined a Republican nom¬ 
ination to the House. 

On Madison’s accession in 1809 he at 
once appointed Mr. Adams minister to Russia; 
the Senate for some months refused to confirm 
the nomination, but at length yielded, and he 
pass 4U> years there. In the peace negotiations 
with England over the War of 1812, he was a 
commissioner with Gallatin and Bayard, and 
again defeated assaults on the American fishing 
rights like his father. The treaty is usually 
considered a humiliating fiasco for America; but 
it is significant that the British press consid¬ 
ered it a surrender on their side, and especially 
reviled Mr. Adams for his share in it. Visit¬ 
ing Paris, he was made commissioner to nego¬ 
tiate the American-English commercial treaty 
signed 13 July 1815. Meantime he had arrived 
in England, 26 May, and received the news of 


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JOHN QUINCY ADAMS, 


SIXTH PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES 






















































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ADAMS 


his appointment as minister to that country. 
The synchronisms of wars, treaties, and minis¬ 
terships between father and son is so curious 
that in ancient history it would be treated as 
indubitable confusion of persons. 

Eight years later, after leaving America, Mr. 
Adams was recalled to it as Secretary of State 
under Monroe, inaugurated March 1817. His 
greatest achievement was the treaty with Spain 
ceding Florida to the United States for $5,000,- 
000, to be used in paying American claims 
against Spain; and rectifying the boundaries of 
Louisiana and Mexico. His utter independence of 
personal against national considerations is singu¬ 
larly shown in his support of Jackson for invad¬ 
ing Spanish Florida and hanging Arbuthnot 
and Ambrister; he hated and despised Jack- 
son, and the latter had violated all international 
law; but he had roughly vindicated United 
States rights and put down dangerous intrigues 
with savages, and Mr. Adams vigorously de¬ 
fended him. He was the author of the « Mon¬ 
roe Doctrine,» and though he never dreamed of 
its later interpretations would not improbably 
have sympathized with them. He also drew up 
a report on weights and measures which is still 
a classic, and shows an almost incredible amount 
of investigation. An ultimately far more impor¬ 
tant question came up over the admission of 
Missouri as a slave State. The Missouri Com¬ 
promise (q.v.) had been passed and put before 
Monroe for signature, but he submitted to his 
Cabinet the questions whether Congress had a 
constitutional right to prohibit slavery in a Ter¬ 
ritory, and whether the prohibition of slavery 
« forever » in the territory north of Mason and 
Dixon’s Line meant while it remained a Terri¬ 
tory or thereafter. The Cabinet was unani¬ 
mous in the affirmative on the first question; Mr. 
Adams was alone in declaring that « forever» 
included statehood also. 

In the presidential election of 1824 there was 
no electoral majority: Andrew Jackson had 99, 
Mr. Adams 84 (a remarkable vote considering 
his ungracious manner, gift for making enemies, 
and refusal to do anything to promote his elec¬ 
tion), William H. Crawford 41, and Henry Clay 
34. Crawford was put out of the field by a 
paralytic stroke. As Clay could not be elected, 
his supporters cast their votes for Adams as 
preferable to Jackson: the former represented 
the same public policy as theirs, he was the 
ablest public official in the country and not per¬ 
sonally hostile to Clay, while Jackson was re¬ 
garded as an ignorant and violent demagogue. 
Mr. Adams was elected, and made Clay secre¬ 
tary of state, a place to which Clay’s talents 
and position gave him almost a prescriptive 
claim. The Jacksonians denounced this as a 
corrupt bargain to defeat the people’s will, and 
absurdly gave it the name of the unsavory Eng¬ 
lish ^Coalition,® a catchword which was an 
efficient party weapon for many years. Mr. 
Adams’ administration had no dramatic events. 
Its policy was based on a new division of par¬ 
ties. The Federalists were dead, consequently 
cheir opponents were dead also, and the new di¬ 
vision was into National Republicans, afterward 
Whigs, and Democratic-Republicans, or Demo¬ 
crats: the former favoring internal improve¬ 
ments, a national bank, and high tariffs, the lat¬ 
ter opposing them. In reality, the division was 
between the preferences of the capitalist class 


and the masses. The Adams administration wa3 
Whig, and had the hostility of the Northern 
commercial classes whose trade the tariff was 
intended to cut down, and of the Southern 
planters who would lose as consumers while 
having nothing to protect as producers. Still 
more effectively the Jacksonian party, steadily 
and rapidly growing, used the promise of 
« spoils » to gain support; and in 1828 Mr. 
Adams was defeated for re-election by 178 
to 83. 

.. ^. r - Adams retired, as he supposed, from pub¬ 
lic life. But in 1831 the constituency of his dis¬ 
trict around Braintree elected him a member of 
Congress on the Anti-Masonic ticket (see Anti- 
Masonry; Morgan, William); and though 
that party soon died, his immense ability and 
unique power in Congress kept him there till 
his death. By a singular fortune, he owes by 
far his greatest fame to this relatively small po¬ 
sition after his crowning office was laid down. 
Belonging to no party, a political Ishmaelite, of 
the loftiest patriotism and the highest integrity, 
but scornful of nature and irritable in temper,, 
rousing every demon of hatred in his fellow- 
members, in constant and envenomed battle 
with them and more than a match for them all, 
the « old man eloquent» was for many years a 
storm centre of wonderful picturesqueness. 
But his repute is not a mere political curio: he 
had the fortune to take his place at the very 
outset of the struggle of the slave oligarchy to 
suppress free speech and writing on the slavery 
question, and crush political liberty to uphold 
slavery. He fought the attempt unflinchingly 
year after year by purely legal methods, up¬ 
holding the right of petition as indefeasible un¬ 
der any government or for any purpose,— he did 
not hesitate to submit a petition from Virgin¬ 
ians praying for his own expulsion as a 
nuisance,— and consequently a right of slaves 
or of others in their interest; and with little 
sympathy for the anti-slavery cause as such, 
became by force of circumstances its mightiest 
champion. He died of a stroke of apoplexy on 
the floor of the House. 

Adams, John Quincy (2d), American poli¬ 
tician, son of Charles Francis; b. in Boston, 22 
Sept. 1833; d. 14 Aug. 1894. He was graduated 
at Harvard in 1853, and became a lawyer. A 
Democrat after the war, he took hopeless can¬ 
didacies for the governorship to keep the organ¬ 
ization together, in 1867 and 1871, and for the 
vice-presidency in 1872. He also served in the 
legislature in 1866, 1869, and 1870. In 1877 he 
was made a member of the corporation of Har¬ 
vard. 

Adams, Julius Walker, American civil en¬ 
gineer: b. in Boston, Mass., 18 Oct. 1812; d. 13 
Dec. 1899. Took part of the course at the 
United States Military Academy; was engaged 
for many years on railroad and waterworks con¬ 
struction, and planned the sewerage system of 
Brooklyn, N. Y.; was colonel of the 67th N. Y. 
Vols. in the Civil War; and was the pioneer 
engineer of the East River bridge. 

Adams, Maud Kiskadden, American ac¬ 
tress: b. Salt Lake City, n Nov. 1872. She is 
the daughter of an actress, who, under the stage 
name of Adams was leading woman of a stock 
company in that city. Her first appearance was 


ADAMS 


made while a child on a stage in the west; she^ 
then continued to take children’s parts till she 
reached the age of 16 when she left Daniel 
Frohman’s company to take an important role 
in Hoyt’s ( A Midnight Bell. 5 She later be¬ 
came a member of Charles Frohman’s stock 
company; in 1892 supported John Drew in ( The 
Masked BalP ; and in 1898 scored a marked 
success as Lady Babbie in J. M. Barrie’s ( Little 
Minister. 5 In 1899 she played Juliet in ( Romeo 
and Juliet 5 ; in the season of 1900-1, won fur¬ 
ther approval as the Due de Reichstadt in Ros¬ 
tand’s ( L’Aiglon 5 ; in 1901-2 took the character 
of Miss Phoebe in Barrie’s ( Quality Street 5 ; 
in 190^4 played ( The Pretty Sister of Jose 5 ; 
and in 1905-7 Barrie’s ( Peter Pan. 5 

Adams, Nehemiah, American Congrega¬ 
tional clergyman: b. in Salem, Mass., 19 Feb. 
1806; d. 6 (Jet. 1878. He graduated at Harvard 
in 1826, and at Andover Theological Seminary 
in 1829. The same year he settled at Cam¬ 
bridge, but 1834-70 was pastor of the Essex 
Street Church in Boston, and was widely re¬ 
puted for his eloquence and learning. He pub¬ 
lished several polemic works; the most sen¬ 
sation was created by ( A South Side View of 
Slavery, 5 published in 1854 after a winter in 
Georgia, in which he lauded slavery as beneficial 
to the negroes’ religious character. 

Adams, Samuel, American patriot: b. Bos¬ 
ton, 27 Sept. 1722; d. 2 Oct. 1803. He was son 
of a rich merchant, ship-owner, and magistrate, 
a leader in provincial contests with royal gov¬ 
ernors, and inventor of the caucus in fact and 
perhaps unintentionally in name. Educated at the 
Boston Latin School, he graduated at Harvard in 
1740. In 1743 he wrote for his master’s degree a 
thesis upholding the lawfulness of resisting su¬ 
preme magistrates. He became a lawyer; but 
the profession was under ban with the upper 
classes, and at his family’s wish he entered a 
leading merchant’s counting-house. Shortly af¬ 
terward his father set him up in business, in 
which he lost half his capital, losing the other 
half by a loan never repaid. Then he became part¬ 
ner with his father in a rather unsuccessful 
brewery. Soon the father lost nearly all his 
property in a land-bank scheme crushed by an act 
of Parliament, which extended an English bank¬ 
ing enactment to the colonies. The hundreds 
of ruined shareholders denounced this act as an 
invasion of chartered colonial rights, and it 
turned the cream of the business leaders of 
Massachusetts, and their sons and daughters, 
into potential rebels at a blow. On his father’s 
death in 1748 he carried on the brewery alone, 
and was nicknamed by his opponents « Sammy 
the maltster,)) changed to « Sammy the pub¬ 
lican » when he was made tax-collector of Bos¬ 
ton 1763-5. Meanwhile he had become a great 
power in town meetings, having strong and sin¬ 
cere democratic feeling and a marvelous genius 
for political management and « caucusing.)) As 
collector he was a bad business manager and was 
sharply assailed; but his political headship is 
shown by his being selected in 1764 to draft the 
town’s instructions to its representatives relative 
to the Stamp Act,— the first public American 
protest against the parliamentary right of taxa¬ 
tion,— and the like instructions the next year. 
He was himself in the legislature 1765-74, being 
clerk of the House and on the leading commit¬ 


tees drawing up the most important state papers 
of that stormy time, and spokesman as well as 
prompter of the incessant wrangles with Govs. 
Bernard and Hutchinson. When the 1 ownshend 
Acts were passed in 17^7> be drafted the legis¬ 
lature’s petition to the king, the instructions Jo 
the Massachusetts agent in England, and the cir¬ 
cular letter of February 1768 to the other colo¬ 
nies asking their aid. The latter led directly to 
the Revolution, George III. ordering Bernard to 
command the legislature to rescind it or be in¬ 
stantly dissolved. The latter refusing by 92 to 
17, the king thereon resolved to send troops to 
overawe the colony. The same year Adams 
wrote '< The True Sentiments of America,) and 
in 1769 a famous '< Appeal to the World.) The 
morning after the « Boston Massacre)) he was 
made chairman of a committee to communicate 
to Gov. Plutchinson-and his council the town¬ 
meeting vote that the two regiments of British 
soldiers should be removed to the castle in the 
harbor. When the governor wished to compro¬ 
mise on one, Adams had the people insist on 
« both or none,)) and both were removed, there¬ 
after being known in Parliament as the « Sam 
Adams regiments.)) In 1772 the order was is¬ 
sued that the judges should thereafter be paid by 
the Crown, not by the colony, and be removable 
at the king’s pleasure: the Boston town-meeting 
requested Gov. Hutchinson to convene the legis¬ 
lature on the question, and on his refusal Mr. 
Adams revived a proposal of Jonathan May- 
hew’s in 1765, to have the towns of Massachu¬ 
setts appoint committees of correspondence to 
consult about the common weal. Eighty towns 
soon adopted the suggestion, forming an omnip¬ 
otent revolutionary legislature beyond the reach 
of government veto or dissolution, yet quite 
within the law. The next spring intercolonial 
committees of the same sort were formed,— an 
unorganized government of the united colonies. 
Meanwhile Mr. Adams had kept the public spi¬ 
rit inflamed and alive to the nature of the crisis 
by articles under various pseudonyms in the 
Boston Gazette , arguing the colonists’ legal 
rights and the practical impossibility of any 
compromise; thus not only preparing the public 
for the crisis and bringing over the waverers, 
but making the crisis itself more inevitable. The 
management of the tea-ship matter was in the 
hands of the committees of .correspondence of 
Boston and five adjoining towns, of which Mr. 
Adams was the active head; and the throwing 
of the tea into the harbor, 17 Dec. 1773, was un¬ 
questionably supervised or arranged by him. 
When as a punishment the port of Boston was 
closed and the charter of Massachusetts an¬ 
nulled in April 1774, and the legislature met at 
Salem under parliamentary order to abase itself 
and undo its bad work, Mr. Adams locked the 
door, pocketed the key, and carried through the 
measures for calling a congress at Philadelphia 
in September; the legislature adjourned sine die 
while the governor’s clerk was hammering at the 
door with the writ of dissolution, and British au¬ 
thority was at an end. Mr. Adams’ lifework — 
of assuring the breakdown of a system difficult 
to work at best, the government of a country by 
scornful aliens plus the aristocratic native fami- 
lies —was over. Though a useful and upright 
public servant, he was of secondary importance 
in presence, of large problems of constructive 
statesmanship: his abilities were parochial, and 


ADAMS —ADAMS FAMILY 


he does not figure on a national scale. He could 
manage caucuses and organize jealousies, but 
hardly frame constitutions. At the Philadelphia 
Congress he was of course a delegate, and great¬ 
ly smoothed over sectional distrusts by his 
shrewdness, tact, and geniality. In 1775 he and 
Hancock were the only patriots excepted from 
amnesty; and it was Gage’s attempt to seize 
them under government orders, and with Lon¬ 
don forecasts that their heads would soon adorn 
1 empie Bar — that brought on the battle of 
Lexington and opened the Revolutionary War. 
/■ escaped by Paul Revere’s warning. He 
led in pushing forward the Declaration of Inde¬ 
pendence, of which he was one of the signers; 
and was active in Congressional work till the 
close of the Revolution. With much creditable 
service, his sympathies were always with divi¬ 
sion of authority; he believed in committees in¬ 
stead of executive heads, and national policy was 
often affected disastrously by the delays and ir¬ 
responsibility involved. He was largely instru¬ 
mental in < framing the State Constitution of 
1780. Nationally, he was of course an Anti- 
Federalist, opposing a strong national govern¬ 
ment in fear of tyranny: after long hesitancy 
over supporting the Constitution of 1787, he did 
so only on the understanding that amendments 
constituting a bill of rights should be submitted; 
but his voice in favor of ratification by Massa¬ 
chusetts secured it by 187 to 168. and saved it to 
the nation. He was long on the Executive Coun¬ 
cil of Massachusetts, lieutenant-governor 1789- 
94, and governor I 794"7 (three terms). 

Adams, Suzanne, American lyric soprano: 
b. Cambridge, Mass., 28 Nov. 1873; studied with 
Marchesi at Paris: made her debut 1894 at the 
Opera, as Juliet in Gounod’s (( Romeo and Ju¬ 
liet.® After three years there she went to Nice, 
then to Covent Garden in London, then (1898-9) 
to the Metropolitan Opera House, New York. 
She married Leo Stern the violincellist in 1898. 
She sang at Covent Garden in 1904. 

Adams, William, the first Englishman in 
Japanb. Kent, c. 1575. in 1598 he sailed as 
pilot of five Dutch vessels from the Texel to the 
East; landing at Kiushiu, the great Shogun 
Iyeyasu, who had shortly before crushed his 
rivals and ended Japan’s feudal anarchy, first 
imprisoned and then took him into service, em¬ 
ploying him in shipbuilding, as informant, etc. 
In 1613 other Englishmen came on the Clove, 
and with Adams started a factory at Firando, of 
which Richard Cocks was chief. Iyeyasu dying 
in 1616, a reaction against foreigners set in, and 
Adams wished to return to England, where he 
had left a wife and children; but was forbidden, 
and married a Japanese wife,, their descendants 
still living in Japan. He died 16 May 1620. 
«Pilot Street® in Yedo (Tokio) was named 
after him. 

Adams, William Henry Davenport, Eng¬ 
lish journalist and critic: b. 1851; d. London 27 
July 1904. He published ( A Dictionary of Eng¬ 
lish Literature > (1878) ; ( The Witty and Hu¬ 
morous Side of the English Poets } (1S80) ; 

( Bv-Ways in Bookland ) (1888); <A Book of 
Burlesque ) (1891); ( With Poet and PlayeH 
(1891). 

Adams, William Taylor, American author 
and editor, best known by the pseudonym (( 01i- 
ver Optic®: b. Medway, Mass., 30 July 1822; d. 


27 March 1897. He taught for many years in the 
Boston schools. He was a voluminous and 
highly popular, writer of fiction for young read- 
ei s, his works including over 100 volumes, main' 
ly travel and adventure: (Young America 
Abroad,> < Starry Flag Series,> and others. 

Adams, Mass., town in Berkshire County, 
containing villages of Adams (formerly South 
Adams), Maple Grove, Zylonite, and Renfrew; 
the first and chief 16 m. N. of Pittsfield, 6 m. S. 
of North Adams, which was set off in 1878; on 
Pittsfield & N. A. branch of the Boston & A. 
division of the New York Cent. R.R. It is on 
Hoosac River, and contains Greylock Mountain, 
the highest point in Massachusetts. Founded 
in 1749 as East Hoosuck, it was renamed for 
Samuel Adams 1778. Manufactures, paper, 
foundry work, fabrics, etc. It has a public 
library and a town board of three selectmen. 
Pop. (1900) 11,134. 

Adams Family, of Massachusetts. In the 
varied abilities and conspicuous public impor¬ 
tance of its members, this family confessedly 
outranks every other in the United States. It 
has furnished in a single line two Presidents; 
both of great weight and permanent importance, 
and even more interesting as virile and indi¬ 
vidual characters, provoking admiration or hate, 
but never indifference; a statesman and a diplo¬ 
mat of high order; the author of one of the two 
first-rate histories yet written in America, mat¬ 
ter and style both considered; a noted financier 
and business magnate, and prominent author as 
well; another keen and vigorous writer; and an 
able lawyer and local politician who might have 
attained larger importance but for belonging to 
a party in a hopeless minority in his State. The 
founder in America was Henry Adams, an Eng¬ 
lishman with eight sons, who removed to Brain¬ 
tree, Mass., in 1636; but the fortunes of the fam¬ 
ily began when to this tough stock — in the 
person of John Adams, who died in 1760, a se¬ 
lectman of Braintree and a deacon, and a farmer 
almost a rich man for the times — was added the 
energetic, passionate Boylston blood, a strain 
commemorated in Boylston Street, Boston, and 
the town of Boylston, Mass. The son of John 
Adams and Susanna Boylston was President John 
Adams (q.v.), the real founder of the family 
greatness and its striking individuality. All its 
members since have been distinguished by the 
same general qualities in varying mixture. They 
have mostly been vehement, proud, pugnacious, 
and independent, with hot tempers and strong 
wills; but with high ideals, dramatic devotion 
to duty, and the intense democratic sentiment so 
often found united with personal aristocracy of 
feeling. They have been men of affairs first, 
with large practical ability, but with a deep 
strain of the man of letters which in this gen¬ 
eration has outshone the other faculties; strong¬ 
headed and hard-working students, with power¬ 
ful memories and fluent gifts of expression. But 
no curio of heredity in all time is stranger thar 
the contrast between the President father and 
his President son, John Quincy Adams (q.v.), 
when it is remembered that to the fiery, com¬ 
bative, bristling Adams-Boylston blood was 
added an equal strain from the gay, genial, 
affectionate Abigail Smith (see Adams, Abi¬ 
gail). The son, though of deep inner affections, 
and even hungering for good will if it woulci 


ADAMSITE — ADAMSON 


come without his aid, was on the surface in¬ 
comparably colder, harsher, and thornier than 
his father, with all the socially repellent traits 
of the race and none of the softer ones. The 
father could never control his tongue or his 
temper, and not always his head: the son never 
lost the bridle of either, and much of his terri¬ 
ble power in debate came from his ability to 
make others lose theirs while perfectly keeping 
his own. The father had plenty of warm friends 
and allies — at the worst he worked with half 
a party: the son in the most superb part of his 
career had no friends, no allies, no party ex¬ 
cept the group of constituents who kept him in 
Congress. The father’s self-confidence deepened 
in the son to a solitary and almost contemptuous 
gladiatorship against the entire government of 
the country through long years of hate and 
peril. The father’s irritable though generous 
vanity changed in the son to an icy contempt or 
white-hot scorn of nearly all about him. The 
father’s spasms of acrimonious judgment 
steadied in the son to a constant rancor alw r ays 
finding new objects. The country has reason to 
be thankful for his unamiable traits, for each 
one strengthened his fibre to do the work await¬ 
ing him, and only John Quincy Adams could 
have accomplished the work of John Quincy 
Adams. His son, Charles Francis Adams, Sr., 
had the useful and forcible qualities of both 
without their besetting defects. He was in youth 
as hotly pugnacious as his grandfather; he was 
always as self-centred as his father, and as will¬ 
ing to stand alone amid hate and incessant con¬ 
flict: but he had far more self-control than the 
former, and far less bristling repellence and con¬ 
tempt of co-operation than the latter. His 
diplomacy was cast in a spot where he was too 
much «boycotted» to make the softer side of 
much avail; but he roused no useless and costly 
hatreds, and ranked the peer in effectiveness of 
any European diplomat. Of his living sons (see 
Charles Francis, 2d; Henry; Brooks) it 
would be invidious to analyze the personal 
traits. The former, soldier, railroad commis¬ 
sioner, president of the Union Pacific Railroad, 
and present historical scholar and publicist, has 
shown the family traits of courage, independ¬ 
ence of thought and action, and intellectual en¬ 
ergy, to the full, and is still an active public 
force. The historian was distinguished during 
his historical professorship as the most original, 
independent, and stimulating of instructors; and 
his history displays not only massive research, 
enormous power of acquisition in the most wide¬ 
ly separated fields, and entire freedom from 
beaten roads and traditional views, but tem¬ 
pered self-control, the moderation of judgment 
bred by thorough knowledge, and a pervasive at¬ 
mosphere of gentlemanly irony. The essayist, 
assailant of the Massachusetts «theocracy,® and 
student of economic history to saturation, is as 
eager and passionate as his great-grandfather, 
and in striking contrast with his brothers in 
literary style, but none the less a man to reckon 
with. The late John Quincy 2d would perhaps 
have filled a larger public field in a less strongly 
Republican community. It is not likely that this 
virile stock has lost its energy with the present 
generation. 

This by no means, however, ends the con¬ 
tributions of the Adams stock to our public life. 
The patriot, Samuel Adams, the father of 


American liberty, was own cousin to John 
Adams the President: a more dexterous and 
politic man, and much abler political manager, 
but not otherwise cast in as large mold. From 
different sons or grandsons of the pioneer have 
descended William Taylor Adams (« Oliver Op¬ 
tic®), the well-known juvenile writer; Charles 
Baker Adams, the naturalist, and Edwin Adams, 
the actor, the grandfather of the first being the 
great grandfather of the second; Herbert Bax¬ 
ter Adams, the eminent American historical 
scholar and educator, and promoter of the higher 
historical methods in America; Alvin Adams, the 
founder of the Adams Express Company; Wil¬ 
liam Claflin, the distinguished Massachusetts 
merchant and governor, whose mother was an 
Adams; and many other strong but lesser figures 
in public and private life. 

A'damsite, a variety of the mineral musco¬ 
vite (q.v.). 

Adamson, Patrick, Scotch prelate (real 
name was spelled Constyne, Constean, Conston, 
Constant, and Constans; later changed to Con¬ 
stantine, then to Adamson) : b. Perth, 15 March 
1536; d. 19 Feb. 1592. He took his degree at 
St. Andrews, and in 1566 went to Paris as 
tutor. Here he wrote a Latin ode on the birth 
in June of James VI., and called him « king of 
France and England,® for which the French 
court gave him six months’ imprisonment. Re¬ 
leased, he went to Padua, Geneva, and Paris, and 
finally to Bourges, where he lay in hiding for 
seven months in fear of the rage against Protes¬ 
tants let loose by the massacre of St. Bartholo¬ 
mew (1572), and which cost his host’s life. 
Recalled to Scotland (in 1573), he became a 
prominent minister, one of the commissioners to 
settle Church matters, and chaplain to the regent 
Morton, who in October 1576 made him arch¬ 
bishop of St. Andrews. The tragedy of his life 
lay in his attempting to be an old-fashioned pre¬ 
late in the new Scotland which hated prelacy, 
and to air High-Church preferences before men 
who considered them popery. He began the 
warfare himself by declaring that he would op¬ 
pose all attempts to deprive the archbishopric of 
any of its former power; the presbytery took up 
the glove, and never ceased till they had pulled 
him down. He was assailed first for not having 
been consecrated to his post; -making his peace 
somehow for this, they again attacked him for 
insolence to the presbytery, for opposing its in¬ 
terests in Parliament, for popery, and heresy. 
The conflict grew so hot that he retired to the 
castle, of St. Andrew’s, where he was cured by 
a « wise woman® of a disease the doctors could 
not handle, and the presbytery afterward seized 
and burnt her for it. In 1583 he went to Eng¬ 
land as James’ ambassador, exciting attention by 
his eloquence, and being savagely libeled by the 
Presbyterians for alleged looseness of behavior. 
Returning next May, he was high in favor with 
James, and his chief agent or prompter in severe 
measures against the Puritans. In December 
1585 he published a paper on the « King’s Ma¬ 
jesty’s Intent in the Late Acts of Parliament,® 
which was a chief article in his derelictions then, 
but in 1646, in the heart of the Civil War, was 
reprinted by the Puritans as on their own side. 
In 1585 Andrew Melville and other Presbyterian 
leaders returned after the Raid of Ruthven 
(q.v.), and that party was gaining the upptT 


ADAMSON — ADAPTATION 


hand: Morton had been executed in 1581. In 
April 1586 Adamson was impeached and excom¬ 
municated ; the next year the excommunication 
was removed, but in 1588 he was freshly ac¬ 
cused,—’among other things, of mutilating and 
abstracting registries,— and the king, tired of 
the quarrel or convinced that it was Adamson’s 
fault, transferred the revenues of his see to an¬ 
other party and left him in actual want for him¬ 
self and family. A small pension was afterward 
granted him, but he died poor and wretched. 

Adamson, Robert, Scottish philosoph¬ 
ical writer: b. 1852; d. 1902. He was professor 
of philosophy at Owens College, Victoria Uni¬ 
versity, Manchester, England. He wrote <The 
Philosophy of Science in the Middle Ages ) 
(1876); ( On the Philosophy of Kant ) (1879); 
< Fichte ) (1881). 

.Adana, an ancient town in the S.E. of 
Asia Minor, capital of Adana vilayet, on the 
Sihun, about 25 m. from its embouchure in the 
Mediterranean, and about 30 m. from its port 
Mersina, with which, and with Tarsus about 
half way between, it is connected by railway. 
Pop. 45,000. 

Adanson, a-dan-son, Michel, French nat¬ 
uralist and traveler (of Scottish extraction) : 
b. 7 April 1727; d. 3 Aug. 1806. Although he 
gave much time and attention to the study of the 
sciences, particularly electricity, his chief work 
was in the.realm of botany. From 1784 he spent 
five years in Senegal and collected a large num¬ 
ber of plants and animals which he classified 
and described. His more important works are: 
<Histoire Naturelle. du SenegaP and ( Familles 
des Plantes,* in which he opposed the system of 
Linnaeus. 

Adansonia. See Baobab. 

Adaptation, the power and process of 
gradual change in an organism to fit it to chang¬ 
ing conditions of environment. See Biology; 
Evolution. 

The initial causes of life and evolution are 
motion and change of condition or environment. 
Whether there is a principle of life or a special 
impelling life-giving force or not, or whether 
what we call life is only a mode of being, we 
can easily perceive and realize that life is a 
relation, a process, and a process of adaptation 
or adjustment to the environment both physical 
and biological. Adaptation is a fundamental 
fact in the material universe; the different cos- 
mical realms are interrelated in their action, 
and the harmony existing in the movements of 
the heavenly bodies have excited the wonder and 
admiration of mankind from the time when man 
walking erect could look toward the heavens and 
perceive the stars and guide his course by them. 
So also in the beings endowed with life. The 
adaptation of the living world to the environ¬ 
ment is a universal fact. The individual mem¬ 
bers of each species of plant and animal are 
perfectly adapted to their surroundings. Though 
the individual may suffer or perish, in the long 
run the death of individuals does not disturb the 
harmony existing throughout nature, which has 
attracted the attention of observers and natural¬ 
ists from the earliest times. It should be ob¬ 
served that plants and animals often have struc¬ 
tures or habits which are not adaptive, but this 
is an exception to the rule, and does not inter¬ 
fere with the general course of nature. 


By the terms environment, surroundings, 
conditions of life, medium or milieu, or monde 
ambiant, we mean the nature of any region or 
area on the earth’s surface stocked with plants 
and animals. The nature of the earth’'' surface, 
of the soil, of well-watered regions, of deserts, 
plains, or barrens, the physics of ‘the air and 
sea, are taught in our text-books of physical 
geography. Each such area is inhabited by as¬ 
semblages of living beings adapted to such or 
such conditions or to such a climate, whether dry 
or humid, hot or cold. We speak of alpine or 
arctic life, of the flora and fauna of deserts, of 
mountains, of lowlands, of the great plains, of 
forests, of the coasts and abysses of the sea. 
The word «fauna» means the assemblage of 
animals inhabiting any area, as the word 
«flora » is used for the plants. Now each of 
these areas, with its peculiar surface features, 
climate, soil, etc., is characterized by a set of 
plants and animals perfectly adapted to it, and 
which flourish better there than in adjoining 
regions. 

The most successful groups of animals, con¬ 
sidered numerically, are the insects and the 
birds, which have become adapted for a life in 
the air, for flying, where they are more or less 
out of reach of their creeping enemies. Adapta¬ 
tion to this or that mode of life has been the 
cause of variability. Every species is adapted to 
its special niche or habitat. 

The most remarkable cases of adaptation to 
extreme conditions of life are seen in animals 
living in the darkness of caves, or in the dark 
abysses of the sea, or parasitic animals, as the 
fluke and tapeworm, the root-barnacles (Saccu- 
lina), the fish-louse ( Lerncea ), and many in¬ 
sects. In all these forms the body has, as the re¬ 
sult of a parasitic life, undergone profound 
modification, becoming so atrophied in certain 
respects as to present the utmost contrast to 
their free-living allies. Adaptation is contin¬ 
ually correlated with certain given conditions. 
If the conditions be changed, in time the organ¬ 
isms, unless they are modified and changed to 
what we call new species, become inadapted, 
unfit for the new environment, and unsuccessful 
in the struggle for existence. 

Extinct species are such unfit, inadapted 
forms. However well adapted they were at the 
period in which they lived, when the conditions 
of existence changed; when the climate changed 
from warm to cold, or the reverse; when the soil 
changed its elevation above the sea, or degree 
of dryness or humidity; when one area subsided, 
and another became elevated,— certain species 
or groups of species, unless they migrated, or 
were plastic enough to undergo modification and 
become what we call « new » species or « new » 
genera, unable to resist the change, died out,— 
became extinct. It is the harder parts of these 
extinct species which we find in the rocks and 
call «fossils.» They are the relics of former 
worlds, witnesses of the profound changes in 
physical geography through which our planet 
has passed. If we examine these fossil shells, 
and the remains of the hard parts of insects, the 
bones of reptiles, birds, mammals, or whatever 
they are, we perceive no imperfection, no half- 
formed organs, no signs of decay. We see no 
reason why they were not in their lifetime as 
species perfectly adapted to their environment. 
But living in a changing world, they became 


1 


ADAR — ADDINGTON 


useless, cumbered the ground, and had to suc¬ 
cumb in the struggle for existence, and make 
way for those forms better adapted to the new 
conditions environing them. 

But extinction has not been thoroughgoing 
and complete. A few ancient primitive forms 
have persisted and are still flourishing. Such 
are many of the Protozoa (Saccamina and oth¬ 
ers), the Lingulella and Lingula, the king-crab 
( Limulus) t the Peripatus and ScolopencLrella, 
which are probably the ancestral forms of in¬ 
sects ; among the fishes the Australian lung-fish 
(Ceratodus) , and among lizards the Hatteria of 
New Zealand. These forms, by reason of their 
astonishing vitality, have withstood the most 
widespread and the profoundest geological 
changes, but they are exceptional forms. On the 
other hand there were a vast number of species 
which were plastic enough to yield to the 
changes in their surroundings and became modi¬ 
fied into new species adapted to the new condi¬ 
tions of existence. It is undoubtedly the case, 
then, that certain forms became inadapted and 
suffered extinction, though all through the ages 
the plant and animal census by no means became 
at any time lessened, but rather gradually in¬ 
creased in extent. Another fact clearly estab¬ 
lished is that the earlier forms were generalized 
and the later were specialized, and the former, 
the ancestors of the present species, had to make 
way for their more specialized descendants. 
Thus the trilobites were succeeded by the king- 
crabs, the creeping dinosaurs were succeeded by 
the flying reptiles or pterodactyls, and the high¬ 
ly generalized tailed Amphibia yielded the right 
of way to the tailless frogs and toads of the 
present day. Adaptation, then, is the process of 
modification of organisms caused by changes in 
the conditions of life. See also Evolution ; 
Species. 

Adar, Jewish month, 12th of the ecclesias¬ 
tical and 6th of the civil year; representing 
parts of February and March of ours. The 7th 
was a fast for the death of Moses, the 9th for 
the falling-out of Hillel and Shammai. But the 
important days were the 13th, a fast in com¬ 
memoration of that of the Jews for their threat¬ 
ened destruction by Haman (see Esther), fol¬ 
lowed by a feast on the next two days for their 
escape. 

Adar'ce, a-dar'se, a salty deposit found 
on the grasses and sedges growing in wet places 
in ancient Galatia. It is used somewhat for 
cleansing the skin in cases of leprosy. 

Adda (ancient Addua), a river of north 
Italy, descending from the Rhsetian Alps, falls 
into Lake Como, and leaving this joins the Po 
after a course of about 170 miles. 

Addams, Jane, American philanthropist: 
b. Cedarville, Ill., 6 Sept. i860. Graduated at 
Rockford College in 1881, after post-graduate 
studies in Europe and the United States she 
became an active social reformer. She inaugu¬ 
rated in 1889 at Chicago the establishment 
known as Hull House, an adaptation of the (( so¬ 
cial settlement )y plan to Chicago conditions. 
She has acted as street-cleaning inspector in 
Chicago, and has lectured on the improvement 
of the condition of the poor in great cities; and 
on social and political reform. She has written 
( Democracy and Social Ethics ) (1902). See 
Social Settlements. 


Addax, or Addas (Lat., of African origin), 
a North African antelope ( Addax nasomacula- 
tus ), related to the oryx and similar to it in 
habits. Its large broad hoofs fit it for travel¬ 
ing over loose shifting sand; it has a long tail, 
long ears, and spirally-twisted horns three to 
four feet high. The animal measures about 
three feet in height at the shoulder; in color it 
is nearly white, with shading of reddish brown 
on the head and front of the body. The hoofs 
are black and there is a black, shaggy marking 
on the forehead above a white blaze on the nose. 
It is now becoming very rare in all parts of the 
Sahara. The Arabs hunt the adax with grey¬ 
hounds. 

Adder (Anglo-Saxon needder, Goth, nadro, 
Ger. natter, a snake), a colloquial name for 
several poisonous snakes, mostly belonging to 
the family Viperidce, such as the copperhead, 
moccasin, asp, etc.; and also for certain harm¬ 
less snakes of the family Colubridce, particu¬ 
larly the spreading adder ( Hcterodon platyrhi- 
nus), which when angry resembles the poison¬ 
ous snakes. (See Hognose.) In England the 
name denotes the only venomous snake of Great 
Britain,— the European viper ( Pelias berus). 
See Copperhead; Death-Adder; Puff-Adder; 
Viper ; etc. 

Addicks, John Edward, American capital¬ 
ist: b. Philadelphia, 21 Nov. 1841; became 
wealthy and prominent first as a flour merchant, 
then as a gas manufacturer, organizing and be¬ 
coming president of the Bay State Gas Co. of 
Boston in 1884, and buying control of the Brook¬ 
lyn (N. Y.) Gas Co. in 1892. For 11 years 
( i 895~ i 9o6) he was of national prominence as 
candidate for the United States senatorship 
from Delaware, which he did not succeed in 
obtaining, but till 1906 was able to prevent the 
election of any rival, leaving first one and from 
1901-3 both of Delaware’s two seats vacant. 
The details are: In 1895 his rival was H. A. 
Du Pont; among the members of the legis¬ 
lature voting was the former speaker of the 
Senate, now governor through the death of Gov. 
Marvel; the Democrats and Populists declared 
his vote illegal, and refused to seat Du Pont. In 
1896 the Republican State Convention to elect 
delegates to the St. Louis National Convention 
split and elected two sets, Du Pont and Addicks: 
the former were recognized as (( regular )} by the 
St. Louis . Committee on Credentials, and the 
other section called themselves Union Repub¬ 
licans. In 1899 a successor to Senator Gray was 
balloted for, but there was no election. In 1900 
as in 1896 two sets of delegates went to Phila¬ 
delphia, and this time the committee seated the 
Addicks party; though he was thus recognized 
as State party chief, the 1901 election for sena¬ 
tor was again a stalemate, and as there were two 
to elect, the State was left entirely unrepre¬ 
sented in the Senate. In the session of 1903 
Addicks nominally withdrew, and the Legis¬ 
lature elected two Senators, a Regular for the 
shoit term and a Union for the long term. On 
12 June 1906 Du Pont was elected. 

Adding-Machine. See Calculating - Ma¬ 
chine. ' 

Addington, Henry, Viscount Sidmouth, 
English statesman: b. 30 May 1757; d. 15 Feb 
1844; educated at Winchester and Brasenose 


ADDISON 


College, Oxford; he then studied law, and, 
through the influence of Pitt, entered Parliament 
(1784) ; was speaker of the House of Commons 
(1789-1801) ; chancellor of the exchequer and 
first lord of the treasury; he put through a bill 
disqualifying clergymen from sitting in the 
House of Commons, and later, with Pitt’s ad¬ 
vice, negotiated (1802) the Peace of Amiens, a 
cessation of war much needed by England. In 
1805 he was raised to the peerage. As home 
secretary (1812-22), he was strict in his ad¬ 
ministration of justice and in conservative over¬ 
sight of the press and public meetings. Partly 
due to his too great zeal was the (< Manchester 
massacre. w He resigned in 1824, owing to his 
disapproving of the recognition of the independ¬ 
ence of Buenos Ayres. 

Addison, Joseph, English essayist: b. Mil- 
ston, near Amesbury, in Wiltshire, 1 May 1672; 
d. Holland House, London, 17 June 1719. Ad¬ 
dison was the eldest son of the Rev. Launcelot 
Addison, a Royalist clergyman who, after the 
Restoration, had been chaplain of the garrisons 
at Dunkirk and Tangier, and at the time of the 
birth of Joseph was rector of Milston. Later 
(1683) he was made Dean of Lichfield. He was 
a man of character, attainment, and considera¬ 
ble literary gift, which found its most interest¬ 
ing expression in devolutions of the Kingdoms 
of Fez and Morocco,’ a historical sketch of 
lively character. Addison’s mother was Jane 
Gulston, daughter of Dr. Nathaniel Gulston and 
sister of William Gulston, Bishop of Bristol. 
Addison was brought up in a pleasant country 
and in a family of admirable manners; his home 
life is described by Steele as delightful. He 
went to schools in the neighborhood and to the 
Charter House School, where he acquired some 
knowledge of Greek and a considerable familiar¬ 
ity with Latin literature. 

In 1687 he entered Queen’s College, Oxford, 
whence, after two years, he transferred to Mag¬ 
dalen. The change was the result of some 
excellent Latin verses, ( Inauguratio Regis Guli- 
elmi, ) in honor of King William, which attracted 
the admiration of Addison’s preceptor and ob¬ 
tained for him a demyship. At Magdalen he 
lived a quiet, studious life, and his scholarly 
reputation is said to have extended itself to 
London. His academic career is chiefly con¬ 
nected with Magdalen : his m.a. came from that 
college in 1693, he was made Probationary Fel¬ 
low in 1697, and actual Fellow the following 
year; and a pleasant walk along the Cherwell 
to-day bears his name. 

Addison’s first published work was an Ac¬ 
count of the Greatest English Poets’ (1693), 
chiefly interesting to-day because of the low 
plane which, following the taste of the times, 
he accorded to the great Elizabethans. Com¬ 
plimentary verses to Dryden (q.v.) the same 
year won for him the favor of the dictator. He 
next experimented with translation, rendering 
the fourth book of the Georgies,’ two books of 
Herodotus, and the second book of Ovid’s 
Metamorphoses.’ This last task, though a 
distasteful one, had, according to Mr. Court- 
hope, a marked effect on his taste in that it 
taught him to avoid extravagance of style. 
By this time he had made a fair name as a 
writer and had attracted the notice of the 
ministers, Charles Montague, afterwards Lord 


Halifax, and Somers, who may have in¬ 
duced him to write a perfunctory ( Address to 
King William’ (1695) and who probably per¬ 
suaded him to enter civil rather than ecclesi¬ 
astical life. At all events, Halifax and Somers 
obtained for him, in 1699, a pension of £300 a 
year for foreign travel. One of Addison’s 
recommendations for this honor had been his 
'Peace of Ryswick,’ a Latin poem (1697), and 
various trifling contributions to the 'Musse 
AnglicanaP (1699). .It was a critical year for 
Addison, in that his career was then deter¬ 
mined. 

Addison set out, in the summer of 1699. for 
France, where he remained a year and a half, 
chiefly at Blois, studying the language. From 
December 1700 to December 1701 he was tour¬ 
ing in Italy, whence he went to Switzerland and, 
in the autumn of 1702, to Vienna. Thence he 
visited the Protestant cities of Germany, reach¬ 
ing Holland in the spring of 1703. and, in the 
fall, on receipt of news of the death of his 
father, returning to England. Some time pre¬ 
vious to his return he had been deprived of his 
pension, for the death of King William, in 1702, 
led to the dismissal of Addison’s patron, Hali¬ 
fax, and Addison was accordingly out of em¬ 
ployment. The literary result of his travels was 
a 'Letter from Italy’ in verse, and his prose 'Re¬ 
marks on Italy.’ The latter is an interesting 
document in the history of English taste: Italy 
is interesting to Addison chiefly as the source 
of classical poetry, and his pleasure in it is 
almost wholly literary. His judgments, too, on 
the taste of the mediaeval church builders are 
made from a narrow classical point of view. 
During the journey, Addison wrote his 'Dia¬ 
logue on Medals’ (1702) and the first four acts 
of 'Cato.’ 

In 1704, Addison, on the recommendation of 
Halifax, was asked by Godolphin to write a 
poem on Marlborough’s victory at Blenheim, 
and accordingly, in that year, produced 'The 
Campaign,’ a panegyric narrative in heroic 
couplets. The poem was of such aid to the 
Whig party that Addison at once gained prefer¬ 
ment and was, in 1706, made under-secretary of 
state. His political duties did not keep him 
wholly from literature: in 1705 he helped Steele 
with 'The Tender Husband,’ a drama, and on 
2 April 1706 himself signally failed with the 
presentation of his opera 'Rosamond,’ though 
it had some success when printed. On the loss 
of his political office in 1708, he was almost 
immediately made secretary to the Lord-Lieu¬ 
tenant of Ireland, Lord Wharton, and the same 
year sat in Parliament for Malmsbury, a posi¬ 
tion that he held till his death. From the Irish 
appointment dated his friendship with Swift 
(q.v.). The friendship of the two suffered 
some strain when, in 1710, at the fall of the 
Whig ministry, they found themselves arrayed 
on opposite sides in a bitter struggle for as¬ 
cendency. Addison wrote five numbers of the 
Whig Examiner (up to Oct. 8) in opposition to 
the Examiner of the Tories, of which Swift 
took charge in November. Most of his offices 
Addison lost with the change of the ministry, 
and was free to pursue the course on which his 
fame rests. 

Steele had issued the first number of the 
Tatler on 12 April 1709. It appeared three 
times a week and was first issued as a news- 


ADDISON 


paper, with different classes of news, political, 
social, literary, etc., purporting to come from 
different quarters of London. The paper, how¬ 
ever, was not long in losing these distinctions 
and soon became chiefly moral. For this change 
Addison, who entered at the 18th number and 
wrote 42 out of the total 271 numbers, may have 
been largely responsible. Coming to an end on 
2 Jan. 1711, the Tatler was followed, on 1 March 
of the same year, by the Spectator, which, while 
modelled on the Tatler, was an improvement on 
it in all ways. It appeared daily, it was more 
essay-like in form, it was more varied in sub¬ 
ject, more satirical in tone, and it addressed a 
wider range of readers, particularly women, in 
the belief that improvement in manners must 
begin with them. Since its place, as a form of 
literature, had been carefully prepared by the 
rise of the daily press, and, as an organ of 
education, by the growing reaction against the 
dissoluteness of Restoration manners and litera¬ 
ture, it had marked success. Its circulation is 
estimated to have been ten thousand copies 
toward the close of its career, 6 Dec. 1712 
(a continuation, issued thrice a week, came to an 
end in 1714), and the sale of completed volumes 
was equally great. Addison contributed 274 
papers to 236 by Steele; Addison’s are nearly all 
signed by one of the letters C. L. I. O. 

On 13 April 1713, ( Cato ) was acted. Though 
wholly different from the prevailing and the tra¬ 
ditional English play in that it was built on 
severely classical and unromantic principles, and 
though succeeding generations have pronounced 
it to be a poem of noble sentiments rather than a 
dramatic play, it had great success and ran for 
35 nights, an unprecedented period. This was 
largely due to the political situation,—the eve 
of the fall of Tory power and of Whig success, 
—and Addison was a man of such political 
eminence that his play was naturally to be re¬ 
garded as of uncommon importance. Abroad, 
the play was well received. It was twice 
translated into Italian, twice into French, and 
once into Latin, besides being often adapted. 
Voltaire praised it highly as a (< regular tragedy,® 
and regarded it as much superior to preceding 
English plays. Two years later Addison wrote 
( The Drummer/ which was coldly received at 
Drury Lane. 

In 1714, on the ascendency of the Whig 
party, Addison was made chief secretary to 
the Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, the Duke of 
Shrewsbury, an office which he held till August 

1715. From 23 Dec. of that year till 9 June 

1716, he wrote The Freeholder, a semi-weekly of 
55 numbers altogether, designed to prove to the 
freemen of England the justice of the Whig 
cause and the need of the Protestant succession. 
In 1716, he was made a commissioner for trade 
and the colonies. This same year he married 
Charlotte, Countess Dowager of Warwick, to 
whom he is said to have been long attached. 
The marriage has been called unhappy and there 
is a fairly established tradition to that effect; 
in Pope’s innuendo he (< married discord with a 
noble wife.® For the tradition there is, how¬ 
ever, no good evidence. By her he had one 
daughter, Charlotte, who died unmarried, in 
1797. His marriage was coincident with the 
height of his political career; in 1717 he was 
made secretary of state, an office which he 
resigned in March of the following year. His 


health was failing and he had never been a 
good public speaker. 

The last half decade of his life was some¬ 
what embittered by two famous literary quar¬ 
rels. The first, with Pope, in 1715, was due, 
generally, to the fact that the two were es¬ 
sentially incompatible, and, in particular, to the 
fact that Pope felt aggrieved because Addison 
had praised warmly a rival translation of the 
< Iliad ) by Tickell, and even went so far as to 
suspect Addison of being the real author. Addi¬ 
son’s acquaintance with Pope began with a 
favorable comment in the Spectator on the 
( Essay on Criticism/ but thereafter he never 
spoke of Pope so highly as of the members of 
(< his little senate.® Addison may have advised 
Pope against adding to ( The Rape of the Lock > 
the brilliant and charming machinery of the. 
fairies, and Pope is said to have tried to dis¬ 
suade Addison from presenting ( Cato ) on the 
stage, neither pieces of counsel likely to increase 
the mutual respect of the two authors. The 
result was that long after Addison’s death, Pope 
published in his ( Epistle to Arbuthnot/ his 
famous satire on Addison, already written dur¬ 
ing the latter’s life, and then defended his course 
by the publication of a somewhat doctored cor¬ 
respondence. 

In 1719, Addison and Steele found them¬ 
selves on opposite sides of a bill for definitively 
limiting the number of peers. Steele, though a 
Whig, opposed the party measure in a pam¬ 
phlet called the Plebeian (March 14), and was 
answered by Addison five days later in the Old 
Whig. The contest ended in some personalities 
on Steele’s part. Before a reconciliation could 
take place between the two life-long friends, 
Addison died of dropsy. He lies buried in 
Westminster Abbey. 

By Addison’s contemporaries and biog¬ 
raphers he is almost always spoken of as a man 
of fine intellect, lofty character, considerate and 
distinguished manners, and great personal 
charm. He has been called the chief architect 
of public opinion in the 18th century. His 
posthumous fame, of course, rests almost ex¬ 
clusively on his contributions to the Tatler and 
the Spectator, which contain nearly all that he 
had to say of permanent value. Their influence 
was directed, socially, to the bettering of con¬ 
temporary life and manners and the inculcation 
of virtue, and, intellectually, to' the improvement 
of the taste of his generation; of the former his 
mild satires on the affectations of his time are 
perhaps the best example, and, of the latter, 
there may be taken his somewhat formal but 
enlightening examination and criticism of 
( Paradise_ Lost.* In literary history he is com¬ 
monly said to have contributed to the art of 
novel writing an unprecedented skill in drawing 
individual character or personality and of thus 
preparing the way for Richardson (q.v.) and 
Fielding (q.v.) ; and the proof of this remark 
lies in his lively sketches of the members of the 
Spectator Club, particularly Sir Roger de 
Coverley. As a stylist he has, in his own field 
of inoffensive social satire and gentle humor, 
no superior, and the famous phrase of Dr. 
Johnson that <( Whoever writes to attain an 
English style, familiar but not coarse, and 
elegant but not ostentatious, must give his days 
and nights to the volumes of Addison,® remains 
largely true. Addison brought English prose to 


ADDISON’S DISEASE —ADELAIDE 


a degree of finish and accessibility that had been 
wanting before. Even his great predecessor 
Dry den (q.v.), one of the most flexible and 
•easy of prose writers, has not quite that sense of 
the audience which Addison possessed to so 
great a degree, and which is the basis of his 
secret of writing easy, readable prose. Techni¬ 
cally, this is Addison’s contribution to the art 
of expression. 

Bibliography .—Editions of Addison’s works 
are numerous. The famous essays on Addison 
are Johnson’s, in the ‘Lives of the Poets,’ 
Macaulay’s ( The Life and Writings of Addison,’ 
and Thackeray’s in the ( English Humorists,’ 
the two last being brilliant rather than sound. 
The life by W. J. Courthope in the ‘English 
Men of Letters Series’ (1884) is excellent, and 
is more convenient than the older and longer 
life by Lucy Aiken (1846). For Addison’s 
place in literature consult T. S. Perry’s ‘English 
Literature in the 18th Century’ (1883), and A. 
Beljame’s ( Le Public et les Homines de Lettres 
en Angleterre au XVIII Siecle’ (1881) ; they 
are more satisfactory than the criticism in 
Taine’s ‘History of English Literature’ (1863), 
or Professor Gosse’s ‘A History of 18th Cen¬ 
tury Literature, 1660-1780’ (1889). 

William T. Brewster, 
Professor of English , Columbia University. 

Addison’s Disease, a disease associated 
with disturbance of the functions of the supra¬ 
renal glands and characterized by general de¬ 
pression of the functions, anaemia, lowered tone 
of the circulatory apparatus, irritability of the 
stomach, and pigmentation of the skin. This 
last symptom is the most pronounced and was 
fully described by Addison in 1855. The disease 
is more common in men and between the twen¬ 
tieth and fortieth years. The heart muscle also 
suffers very markedly, there being frequent 
attacks of rapid and feeble pulse with vertigo, 
and fainting, sometimes fatal. Headache is fre¬ 
quent and anaemia may be present. The disease 
is usually fatal, but recovery has taken place. 

The treatment is symptomatic with the pro¬ 
longed use of the suprarenal gland. 

Addled Parliament, The, a nickname given 

to James I.’s second Parliament, of 1614, because 
it passed no statute and finished no business. 
It did, however, settle a far more important 
question than any point of administration: 
namely, that the Commons were to have the 
power of the purse thereafter — that is, the rule 
-of the kingdom — unless the Crown crushed 
them by force. In a word, it proclaimed the 
revolution, though not consciously. The previous 
Parliament had been dissolved for not granting 
supplies until the king had abolished the illegal 
imposts and regulated the Court of High Com¬ 
mission by statute — that is, given church as 
well as state into their hands. The elections 
for 1614 were contested with a passion un¬ 
known for generations: the court candidates 
were overwhelmingly defeated, and 300 of the 
victorious ones were new men sent up for the 
■first time, among them John Pym, Thomas 
Wentworth (afterward Earl of Strafford), and 
John Eliot. After a two months’ session they 
became involved in a quarrel of privilege with 
the Lords, and the king dissolved the House 
•on that pretext,— really on the point of their re- 
iusal of supplies,— and imprisoned four of them. 

Vol. 1—7 


Add-Ran Christian University, a Waco, 

Tex., coeducational institution; organized in 
j 873 under the auspices of the Church of the 
Disciples. Reported in 1899: Professors and in¬ 
structors, 20; students, 200; volumes in the 
library, 5,000; grounds and buildings valued at 
$150,000; income, $20,000; number of graduates, 
200; president, Albert Buxton, Ph.D. 

Ade, George, American journalist and author: 
b. Kentland, Ind., 9 Feb. 1866. He made his 
first mark as a writer for years of (( Stories of the 
Streets and the Town ” in the Chicago News, with 
remarkable variety of motive and local-reporter’s 
knowledge; published ( Artie,’ made up from 
these, and in 1897 the dialect story ( Pink Marsh’; 
in 1901-2 two sets of ( Fables in Slang,’ full of 
pungent wit and knowledge of the less agreeable 
phases of human character; and in 1903 the satiri¬ 
cal comic opera, ( The Sultan of Sulu,’ a musical 
comedy, ( Peggy from Paris, ’ a political comedy, 
( The County Chairman,’ a comedy of college 
life, ( The College Widow,’ and others. 

Adee, Alvey A., American diplomat: b. 
Astoria, N. Y., 27 Nov. 1842, son of a fleet sur¬ 
geon; was secretary of legation at Madrid 1870-7, 
charge d'affaires at different times; in 1878 be¬ 
came chief of the United States diplomatic bu¬ 
reau, 1882 third assistant secretary of state, 1886 
second assistant, which he still remains. He 
was secretary of state ad interim 17-29 Sept. 
1898; and acting secretary during some of the 
most acute Chinese troubles of 1900. 

Adelaide, capital of S. Australia, 7 m. 
by rail S.E. of Port Adelaide, on St. Vincent 
Gulf. It stands on a large plain, and is walled 
in on the eastern and southern sides by the 
Mount Lofty range; the town proper is enclosed 
by a wide belt of garden shrubbery. The first 
settlement was made in 1836, and named after 
the queen of William IV. The Torrens divides 
the town into North and South Adelaide, the 
former being occupied chiefly with residences, 
and the latter forming the business portion of 
the town. Four substantial iron bridges span 
the Torrens, which has been formed by a dam 
into a lake one and a half miles long. The 
streets are broad and regularly laid out, espe¬ 
cially in Adelaide proper, to the south of the 
river, where they cross each other at right an¬ 
gles, and are planted with trees. Among the 
public buildings are the new Parliament Houses, 
erected at a cost of about $500,000; government 
offices, post-office, and town-hall; South Austra¬ 
lian Institute, with museum, library, and art 
galleries; and hospital. The botanical garden, 
with the botanical garden park, covers more than 
120 acres of ground. The chief manufactures 
are woolen, leather, iron, and earthenware 
goods; but the chief importance of Adelaide de¬ 
pends on its being the great emporium for South 
Australia. Wool, wine,, wheat, flour, and cop¬ 
per ore are the staple articles of export. Among 
educational institutions the most important are 
the Adelaide University; St. Peter’s (Episco¬ 
pal) College; St. Barnabas Theological College, 
opened in 1881, and Prince Alfred (Wesleyan) 
College. It is the seat of an Anglican and of a 
Roman Catholic bishop. Glenelg, on the sea, 
5 miles away, is a favorite watering-place. Pop. 
with suburbs (1901) 160,691. 

Port Adelaide, its haven, dates from 1840. 
It is a principal port of call for vessels arriving 



ADELARD — ADHESION 


from Europe; has railway communication with 
Melbourne, Sydney, and Brisbane. Tramways 
were introduced in 1878. Pop. with Semaphore 
about 15,000. 

Adelard, or ZEthelhard, of Bath, English 
philosopher and mathematician of the 12th cen¬ 
tury. Little is known of the facts of his life, 
except that he traveled widely, visiting Greece, 
Asia Minor, and Africa. He wrote ( Perdiffi- 
cilis Qusestiones Naturales ) and ( De Eodem et 
Diverso^ a philosophical allegory in which he 
sought to reconcile the theories of Plato and 
Aristotle. He also made a Latin translation of 
Euclid and of several Arabian mathematical 
treatises. See Arithmetic, History of. 

Adelbert College. See Western Reserve 
University. 

Ad'elieland', an Antarctic continent dis¬ 
covered 20 Jan. 1840 by Du Mont d’Urville. It 
consists of a chain of mountains without promi¬ 
nent peaks, with a few shallow bays filled with 
icebergs, and a number of islands with rounded 
summits. 

Adelochorda, a group standing at the 
base of the branch of phylum Chordata, and in¬ 
cluding certain animals, formerly supposed to 
be worms, but now placed in the same group 
as the vertebrates. The class Adelochorda is 
represented by Balanoglossus, while with it are 
provisionally associated two forms of doubtful 
position, the worm-like Rhabdopleura and 
Cephalodiscus. The Adelocephala are worm¬ 
like, but from the fact that the body is in part 
supported by a structure supposed to be homolo¬ 
gous with the notochord of true vertebrates, and 
that the animal breathes through gill-slits, like 
those of the lowest vertebrates, it is supposed to 
be related to some extinct form which gave rise 
to the vertebrates. It is also itself probably an 
ancestral persistent form. If we throw out the 
doubtful forms Rhabdopleura and Cephalodis¬ 
cus, leaving only Balanoglossus, we have the old 
group Enteropneusta. A typical example of the 
Adelochorda is Balanoglossus (q.v.). 

Adelphi College, Brooklyn, N. Y., a coed¬ 
ucational, non-sectarian institution, was in¬ 
corporated by the regents of the University of 
the State of New York, 24 June 1896. It is 
intended to be a school of arts, a college of 
liberal culture. The requirements for admission 
and graduation are the same as those of the 
leading Eastern colleges. It is the only institu¬ 
tion in Brooklyn in which a woman may obtain 
the usual baccalaureate degrees. The curric¬ 
ulum is arranged semestrally, and eight semes¬ 
ters are required for graduation. The courses 
in pedagogy are arranged so that the studies 
preparatory to the profession of teaching may 
all be taken as a part of the work offered for 
the degrees of bachelor of arts and bachelor of 
science. From the beginning the college has 
always offered special facilities to students who 
wish to enter the profession of teaching. It 
also makes provision in afternoon, evening, and 
Saturday morning classes for teachers in public 
schools who desire to study for a degree without 
giving up their positions. Connected with the 
college are the Normal School for Kinder- 
gartners, with a two years’ course, organized in 
1893, and School of Fine Arts. The college 
reported in 1905: professors and instructors, 


26; students, 5 00 > volumes in the library, 9<°oo> 
Adelphi College maintains a preparatory depart¬ 
ment, known as Adelphi Academy, which has 
50 instructors and 760 students. The total value 
of the property and endowments of the college 
is $600,000. The total annual income is $118,000. 

Aden, Arabia: peninsula and town belong¬ 
ing to Great Britain, on the S.W. coast, 105 m. 
E. of the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, the entrance 
to the Red Sea. The peninsula is a mass of 
volcanic rocks, 5 miles long from E. to W., and 
rising to 1,776 feet. It is joined to the main¬ 
land by a narrow, level, and sandy isthmus. The 
town is on the eastern shore of the peninsula, 
stands in the crater of an extinct volcano, and is 
surrounded by barren, cinder-like rocks. The 
main crater is known as the Devil’s Punch-bowl. 
Frequently the heat is intense; but the climate is 
unusually healthy for the tropics. 

The Romans occupied it in the 1st century 
a.d. Till the discovery of the Cape route to 
India (1498) it was the chief mart of Asiatic 
produce for the Western nations; but in 1838 
it had sunk to be a village of 600 inhabitants. 
The increasing importance of the Red Sea route 
gave Aden great value as a station for the Brit¬ 
ish to hold; and in 1839 after a few hours’ 
contest it fell into their hands. It is of high 
importance both in a mercantile and naval 
point of view, especially as a great coaling sta¬ 
tion ; it has a garrison and strong fortifications. 

The population and resources of the place 
have rapidly increased since 1838, and the open¬ 
ing of the Suez Canal in 1869 gave it a great 
impetus. The value of its imports (1892-3) 
was over $20,000,000, while that of its exports 
(coffee, gums, spices) amounted to over $15,- 
000,000. It is a telegraphic station on the cable 
between Suez and Bombay, and on the line to 
Zanzibar and the Cape. To provide for its 
growing population, a considerable territory on 
the mainland has been acquired and added to 
the peninsula, the total area (including the 
island of Perim) being 75 square miles; and the 
settlement, which is politically connected with 
Bombay (7 days’ sailing, or 1,819 nautical miles, 
distant), has a population of over 41.000. 

Adhesion, in physics, the force which 
holds together two surfaces brought in contact; 
distinguished from cohesion, the mutual attrac¬ 
tion exerted by particles of the same body, and 
from affinity, since the particles adhering re¬ 
main unchanged. It is a force exerted on each 
other by the molecules of the adhering bodies, 
and not to be confounded with mere mechanical 
contact due to pressure. The wetting of solid 
bodies is an instance. 

It usually happens that when a solid and a 
liquid come in contact, a film of the liquid 
adheres to the solid too firmly to be detached, 
showing its adhesion to the solid to be stronger 
than the cohesion of its particles or the force 
of gravitation, as it can be removed only by 
forcible rubbing or evaporation. On the othei 
hand, solutions are supposably cases where the 
adhesive force of solid and liquid overbal- 
ances > the cohesive force of the solid, so 
that it loses its form and adheres particle by 
particle; but see Solutions, the true theory 
of which is keenly debated. The force of 
adhesion is measured by poising a metal plate 
on a balance, and then finding what additional 


ADIABATIC TRANSFORMATION--ADIPIC ACID 


force is required to detach it from the surface 
of a liquid which does not wet it (otherwise it 
would be measuring the cohesive force of the 
liquid) nor act on it chemically. The phe¬ 
nomena of capillary attraction (q.v.) depend on 
adhesion. Solid bodies also adhere to solids: 
most smooth surfaces will adhere; the smoother 
the tighter; and two plates of polished glass 
laid together can hardly be parted without break¬ 
ing them. If the solids are pressed together, 
it usually increases the adhesive force; but it de¬ 
pends but little on atmospheric pressure. Fric¬ 
tion is a looser kind of adhesion, which prevents 
surfaces moving freely on each other, and may 
result from gravitation or mechanical appliances. 
Plating, gilding, etc., also depend on adhesion. 
Soldering, the use of mortar, cementing, gluing, 
etc., are familiar applications of the principle, in¬ 
termediary substances being employed, whose 
particles have at once great cohesion among them¬ 
selves and great adhesion to each of the bodies 
to be joined. A familiar example is the split¬ 
ting a thin sheet of paper by pasting it between 
two sheets of cloth and pulling them apart after 
it has dried: the adhesion of paste to paper and 
cloth is so great that the paper fibres yield to it. 
Furthermore, air and other gases adhere to sol¬ 
ids : a favorite children’s experiment is to float 
a dry needle in a basin of water, it resting on a 
cushion of air; and when thermometers are filled 
with mercury it has to be boiled in them to ex¬ 
pel the air that adheres to the glass. Every ma¬ 
terial body, and every particle of such body in 
however fine division, is surrounded by its own 
atmosphere of condensed gases, which are an 
efficient factor in many physical and chemical 
phenomena; this property in comminuted bodies 
is called adsorption, and in metallic substances 
is sometimes so avid that they grow red-hot. 

Adiaba'tic Transformation. In thermody¬ 
namics (q.v.) a body is said to undergo an 
adiabatic transformation when its state or con¬ 
dition is modified in such a way that the fol¬ 
lowing two conditions are fulfilled: (i) There 
is no exchange of heat between the body 
and its surroundings; (2) the transforma¬ 
tion is reversible at every stage. . It is usual to 
define the adiabatic transformation by stating 
the first of these conditions only; but the sec¬ 
ond is equally essential, because if it is omitted 
the definition will also include the transforma¬ 
tion known as (( free expansion.® (See Gases, 
General Properties of.) When the body under 
consideration is a « perfect gas,» and all possi¬ 
ble states are excluded from consideration ex¬ 
cept such as are uniquely determined when the 
pressure and volume of the body are given, the 
adiabatic transformation requires that the 
product pv k shall remain constant throughout 
the transformation, k being the ratio that the 
specific heat of the gas at constant pressure 
bears to its specific heat at constant volume. 
For air, k is about 1.41* When the changes that 
the body can undergo are represented graph¬ 
ically, as for example on a diagram in which 
the volume is taken as abscissa and the pressure 
as ordinate, the lines along which the fore¬ 
going algebraic expression is constant are called 
adiabatic lines or curves. Adiabatic trans¬ 
formations are often called isentropic trans¬ 
formations, from the fact that the entropy (q.v.) 
of the body remains constant along every such 


line. (For further information concerning lines 
used in thermodynamics, see Line.) 

Adiaphorists, a-di-af'or-ists, or Adiaph- 
orites, a party or wing of the Lutheran re¬ 
formers of Germany, who held that certain 
things practised by the Roman Catholic Church 
were indifferent and might be received. In 1548 
an ecclesiastical controversy broke out among 
the reformers. The Emperor Charles V. hav¬ 
ing issued a paper popularly called the «In¬ 
terim,® in which he prescribed what faith and 
practice the Protestants were to adopt till the 
Council of Trent should dictate a permanent 
form of belief and worship, Maurice, Elector of 
Saxony, urged Melanchthon and his friends to 
decide what portions of the document they 
would accept and follow. Melanchthon consid¬ 
ered that to a very large extent the « Interim » 
might be accepted and obeyed. A controversy 
in consequence arose between the followers of 
Luther and those of Melanchthon. It was called 
the adiaphoristic controversy, and embraced two 
questions: (1) What things were indifferent; 
and (2) whether, with regard to things indiffer¬ 
ent, the emperor could or could not in con¬ 
science be obeyed. 

Adi-Buddha, a-de-bud-ha, from the San¬ 
skrit, the Primord Buddha, a conception of 
Buddha due probably to the influence of Chris¬ 
tianity. It came into vogue among the Northern 
Buddhists about the middle of the 10th century. 
In this conception he is represented as self- 
existent and omniscient. 

Adige, a'de-je, a considerable river of 
N. Italy, which has its source in the Alps 
of Tyrol, above Brixen ; it enters Italy by Bol¬ 
zano and the valley of Trento, flows in a south¬ 
ern direction by Roveredo, parallel to and for 
the most part about 6 miles from the lake of 
Garda, then, turning abruptly toward the east, 
passes through Verona and Legnano; it after¬ 
ward enters the great delta between the Brenta 
and the Po, and, forming several tranches, emp¬ 
ties its waters into the Adriatic Sea. It is a 
deep and rapid stream, dividing by its course the 
old Venetian territories from Lombardy proper. 
The valley of the Adige has been rendered 'or- 
ever memorable by the wars of Bonaparte. 

Adi-Granth, the Bible of the Sikhs (q.v.), 
mainly compiled by the guru (spiritual guide) 
Arjun (1584-1606), fifth successor of the 
founder Nanak (q.v.). He gathered up the 
poetical pieces of his four predecessors, and 
fragments from other great teachers like Rama- 
nanda, Kabir, Namdev, etc., and added composi¬ 
tions of his own. The tenth and last Sikh guru, 
Govind (1675-1708), made additions to it, and 
composed an entirely new Granth, the « Granth 
of the Tenth Reign.® The language of these is 
an archaic Punjabi called Gurmukhi («from the 
guru’s mouth »). These Granths, with the bi¬ 
ographies of gurus and saints, and instructions 
for ritual and discipline, comprise the Sikh sa¬ 
cred books. 

Ad'inole, a variety of the mineral albite. 

Ad'ipate, any salt of adipic acid (q.v). 
Thus the compound of adipic acid with so¬ 
dium is called sodium adipate. 

Adip'ic Acid, an organic acid having the 
formula CeHioCb, and crystallizing in monoclinic 
liminae which are sparingly soluble in cold 


ADIPITE—ADIRONDACK MOUNTAINS 


water, but freely so in alcohol and ether. It 
melts at 300 ° F. and is formed by the action of 
nitric acid on natural fats. 

Ad'ipite, a gelatinous mineral substance of 
the same composition as chabazite (q.v.). 

Adipocere, ad'i-po-ser' Lat. adcps, fat, + 
cera, wax), a fatty substance consisting largely 
of palmitic, stearic, and margaric acids, com¬ 
bined to some extent with ammonia. It is 
sometimes formed by the decomposition of ani¬ 
mal matter from which air has been excluded. 
It was first observed by Fourcroy. The most 
notable example of its occurrence was in the 
Cimetiere des Innocens at Paris. A large num¬ 
ber of coffins had been piled together in this 
cemetery for many years, and in 1786-87, when 
the coffins were removed, it was found that in 
many cases the corpses had been changed into 
shapeless masses of a dingy white color and 
waxy consistency, only the bones remaining 
unaltered. Adipocere is not a result of the de¬ 
composition of albuminous tissue, but is formed 
from the fats that are present in the body at the 
time of death, the fatty matter collecting to¬ 
gether, undergoing further decomposition, and 
finally losing its glycerine and oleic acid. A 
similar substance, called bog-butter, is occasion¬ 
ally found in peat bogs in Ireland and Wales. 
Sometimes spelled adipocire. 

Adipo'cerite, a mineral better known as 
hatchettite (q.v.). 

Adipose Tissue, a fatty membrane or tissue. 
See Fat Tissue. 

Adiposis Dolorosa, a disease described by 
Dr. F. X. Dercum of Philadelphia in 1892, and 
characterized by enormous collections of fat in 
different parts of the body, not in the hands 
or feet, and associated with neuralgic-like pains 
and prickling sensations. 

Its cause is unknown. The internal use of 
the thyroid eland has been of benefit in some 
cases. 

Adirondack Mountains, a group in the 
N.E. part of New York State, lying between 
the depressions occupied by Lake Champlain 
on the E., the St. Lawrence on the N.W., and 
the Mohawk River on the S. The group is 
sometimes included in the Appalachian system, 
but physically and geologically the two uplifts 
are quite independent. The Adirondacks cover 
an area of more than 12,000 square miles and 
include within their limits most of the coun¬ 
ties of Clinton, Franklin, Essex, and Hamilton, 
and portions of St. Lawrence, Lewis, HerkTier, 
and Warren. They are formed by several folds 
arranged parallel or en echelon, with a north- 
east-southwest trend, sloping on either side to¬ 
ward the narrow longitudinal valleys that sepa¬ 
rate the individual ridges. Most of the peaks 
have a rounded outline due to long-continued 
erosion, although in the northern part, where the 
highest elevations are found, the peaks are 
bold and picturesque and have bare rock walls 
rising several hundred feet in vertical escarp¬ 
ments. The summit of the group is Mt. Marcy, 
5,344 feet above the sea, and there are many 
prominences exceeding 4,500 feet, including Mt. 
McIntyre, 5,112; Skylight, 4,920; Whiteface, 
4.872; Santanoni, 4,644; and Nipple Top, 4,684 
feet. Toward the south and west the elevations 


become less pronounced and rise but a few hun¬ 
dred feet above the level of the plateau, which 
stands 1,500 feet or more above the sea. The 
parallel ranges are interrupted frequently by 
gaps or passes; some of them, like the Avalanche 
Pass and Indian Pass, possessing beautiful scenic 
features. Gorges and waterfalls occur along 
many of the stream valleys, the Ausable Chasm 
being especially noteworthy. 

Rivers and Lakes. — The Adirondacks form 
the water parting between the Hudson and St. 
Lawrence, both of which streams receive many 
important tributaries from this region. Most of 
the western region drains directly into the St. 
Lawrence through the Oswegatchie, Grass, 
Raquette, and St. Regis rivers, but a small por¬ 
tion is drained by the Black River, which flows 
into Lake Ontario. On the eastern side there 
are the Saranac and Ausable rivers and many 
short streams flowing into Lake Champlain. 
The Hudson River receives the waters of the 
Sacondaga, Indian, and Boreas, and has its 
source in the interior of the mountains in the 
northeastern part of Hamilton county. 

The lakes are perhaps the most attractive 
feature of the Adirondacks; they are distributed 
over the entire area to the number of many hun¬ 
dreds. The greater proportion lie in the larger 
valleys, to which they conform more or less 
closely in outline, being elongated along a north¬ 
east-southwest axis. Many, however, are nes¬ 
tled on the higher slopes at an elevation of 2,500 
feet or more above the sea. Lake Tear of the 
Clouds on the crest of Mt. Marcy has an alti¬ 
tude of 4,320 feet. Lakes Champlain and 
George, the largest of the Adirondack lakes, are 
among the most attractive sheets of water in 
the United States. Among the smaller lakes 
much frequented by tourists are Long, Raquette, 
and Blue Mountain in Hamilton County, the 
Fulton Chain in Hamilton and Herkimer coun¬ 
ties, St. Regis and the Saranacs in Franklin 
County, and Lake Placid in Essex County. Most 
of the lakes are of glacial formation, the outlets 
of the old rivers having been obstructed by de¬ 
posits of glacial material. 

Geology and Mineral Resources. —The strata 
of which the mountains are formed belong to 
the most ancient geological period, consisting 
for the most part of crystalline formations 
which were uplifted long before the Appala¬ 
chian ranges had been defined. Gneisses, gran¬ 
ites, and basic igneous rocks predominate, al¬ 
though there are small areas underlaid by lime¬ 
stones and quartzites. One of the most* prom¬ 
inent types is a basic feldspar rock called 
anorthosite, composed almost entirely of the min¬ 
eral labradorite. It constitutes the highest 
peaks in Essex County. On the borders these 
ancient formations are overlaid by early Palseo- 
zoic strata of Cambrian and Silurian age, which 
have been little disturbed from their original 
horizontal position. The whole region was in¬ 
vaded by the great northern ice-sheet, which 
eroded and polished the rock surfaces and upon 
its retreat left a heavy mantle of drift covering 
all but the highest elevations. Valuable ores 
and minerals occur at numerous localities. The 
deposits of iron ores have been of great economic 
importance, although in recent years the indus¬ 
try has suffered from competition with the Lake 
Superior and Pennsylvania ores, which can be 
extracted at much less expense. The mines of 


ADIRONDACK PARK — ADJUTANT 


magnetite ore near Port Henry yield a large 
annual output, which is shipped to distant points 
for smelting. There are also deposits at Lyon 
Mountain, Lake Sanford, and Benson Mines, 
and other localities, which are not exploited at 
present. One of the richest graphite mines in 
the United States is located at Hague on Lake 
George. Garnet for abrasive purposes is mined 
in large quantities at North River, while ex¬ 
tensive deposits of foliated talc occur near Gou- 
verneur. Marble, granite, and other stones suit¬ 
able for building and other purposes, are the 
basis of a large quarry industry. 

Forests .— Pine, spruce, and hard woods are 
found over extensive areas. The mountains 
have been denuded of much of the larger tim¬ 
ber, and the principal lumbering industry is 
based upon the cutting of pulp-wood for paper 
manufacture. Spruce and poplar are most valu¬ 
able for this purpose. The wholesale destruc¬ 
tion of the forests has induced th; State govern¬ 
ment to purchase extensive tracts with a 
view to forest-cultiv:.tion and to preserve the 
sources of the principal rivers. (See Adiron¬ 
dack Park.) 

Game .— The Adirondacks are one of the fa¬ 
vorite hunting-grounds cf America. Owing to 
the stringent legal restrictions limiting the sea¬ 
son for killing game, there is an abundance of 
deer, rabbits, partridge (grouse), and water- 
fowl. Deer are hunted chiefly by stalking, the 
use of dogs being prohibited. Black bear and 
wildcats may be found in many parts of the 
mountains, but moose and caribou, which for¬ 
merly were plentiful, have entirely disappeared. 
Several moose were introduced from other 
States in 1902 with the hope that they might 
again roam through the woods in numbers. 
Brook and lake trout and black bass are found 
in most of the streams and lakes and furnish ex¬ 
cellent sport for the angler. 

Resorts .— The climate of the mountains is 
bracing and healthful; in the summer season the 
heat is tempered by cool mountain breezes and 
by the elevation, and the severe cold of winter 
is made more endurable by the dry atmosphere. 
There are many sanitariums for invalids, espe¬ 
cially for those afflicted with pulmonary diseases. 
The pleasure-seekers, who visit the mountains in 
great numbers, find ample accommodations in 
the many hotels and camps. The railway lines 
afford easy access to most parts of the Adiron¬ 
dacks, while by taking advantage of the network 
of rivers and lakes the most remote regions can 
be reached without much difficulty. During the 
summer months steamboats make regular trips 
for the convenience of travelers on many of the 
larger lakes. See New York (State). 

Adirondack Park, a large district, prin¬ 
cipally forest land, set apart by the State of 
New York in 1892 for the protection of the 
watershed of the Hudson and other rivers of 
the State, for public recreation, and for the prac¬ 
tical study of forestry. (See Cornell Univer¬ 
sity.) It covers Hamilton County, and parts 
of Essex, Franklin, Herkimer, and St. Law¬ 
rence counties, and contains many mountains 
and lakes. From time to time additions are 
made to the reservations, as the appropriations 
are available, and it is hoped that in time the 
whole region not under cultivation for crops, 
will be under State control, and while saved for 
the use of the people, will become a source of 


revenue to the State from the forestry indus¬ 
tries. 

Adit (« approach »), an underground pas¬ 
sage with but one opening; distinguished from 
the tunnel proper, which has two. In military 
use, the burrow by which miners approach a 
place they wish to sap. In industrial mining, a 
gently sloping drift, used to drain a mine of 
the water coming into the workings from the 
top or sides, or pumped up from below; usually 
but improperly called a tunnel. When there are 
two adits at different levels, the lower one is 
termed the (( deep adit.® The greatest in thf 
United States is the Sutro Tunnel, 2,000 feet 
deep and 20,000 feet long, made in the palmy 
days of the Comstock Lode near Virginia City, 
Nev., to drain the mines along it. 

Aditi, ad’e-ti, in the mythology of the 
Hindu Rig-Vedas, Infinity endued with life and 
form, from which are born the Adityas — the 
source and substratum of the universe; in later 
Vedic literature, the mother of the gods of 
storms (which are represented as life-produ¬ 
cing), and of the sun. Aditi is the daughter of 
Dakslia and wife of Kasyapa, and besides being 
the mother of the 33 gods and of the sun, was 
also the mother of the Tushitas, or the 12 Adi¬ 
tyas. The latter in the Vedic literature num¬ 
bered seven and are the gods of the heavenly 
light, with Varuna at their head. In the Brah- 
manas and later they numbered 12, with sup¬ 
posed reference to the months of the year. 

Adive, a local Asiatic name of the corsac 
(q.v.). 

Adjective. See Grammar. 

Adjustment, in insurance, is the determin¬ 
ing the amount of a loss. No specific form is 
necessary to an adjustment. It must be in¬ 
tended and understood by the parties to a policy 
to be absolute and final, in order to render it 
binding. It may be made by indorsement on 
the policy, by payment of the loss, or by the 
acceptance of an abandonment. (4 Burr. 1966; 1 
Camp. 134; 22 Pick. (Mass.) 191.) If an adjust¬ 
ment is brought about by the fraudulent con¬ 
duct of one of the parties, it will not bind the 
other person. (2 Johns. Cas. 233; 3 Camp. 
319.) If one party is led into a material mis¬ 
take of fact by fault of the other, the adjustment 
will not bind him. (2 Johns. (N. Y.) 157; 
2 Johns. Cas. 233.) 

Adjutant (« assistant»), in the armies of 
most chilized powers, a staff officer, the chief 
assistant to the commander of a regiment, bat¬ 
talion, or squadron, in the drill and discipline 
of the troops, and their general management off 
the battlefield, and in such other duties as fall 
to the commander’s charge. In the United States 
army he is appointed by the colonel for four 
years, has the rank of captain, and is not eli¬ 
gible to reappointment; he is the colonel’s sec¬ 
retary, and is generally so indispensable that 
in time of war ambitious men often dreaded the 
appointment, as death to further promotion. 
The squadron and battalion adjutants rank as 
lieutenants, are similarly appointed for two years, 
and have the same relation to their chiefs; there 
are also post, garrison, and brigade adjutants. 
For further details see the < U. S. Army Regis¬ 
ter.) 


ADJUTANT — ADMINISTRATION 


Adjutant, a large stork ( Leptoptilus ar- 
gala ) found in India and southeastern Asia, and 
so called by the English on account of its erect, 
officer-like appearance. Its Hindu name is 
« argala.» Its height is about 5 feet, its spread 
of wings about 14 feet. The back and wings 
are slate-colored, the bare, flesh-colored head 
and neck are marked with black, and elsewhere 
it is white. The beautiful «maribou » feathers 
of commerce are taken from the under side of 
the wings. A pouch, which probably serves 
some purpose in connection with the organs of 
breathing, hangs from the under part of the 
neck and is capable of great distension. The 
bill is of great size, and the appetite of the bird 
is correspondingly large. It is a scavenger, its 
food being carrion, offal, and small live animals, 
and it runs freely about Indian villages, pro¬ 
tected for its useful works. The marabou 
(q.v.) of Africa is a closely related species. 

Adjutant-General, an officer on the staff of 
the commander-in-chief, his secretary and prin¬ 
cipal assistant in issuing orders and supervising 
their execution, making reports and keeping 
registers, etc.; and having general charge of the 
drill and discipline of an army. In the United 
States he ranks as major-general and is a lead¬ 
ing officer in the War Department; he has 
charge of the recruiting service, collection of 
military information, and preparing annual mili¬ 
tia returns. Most of the States have an adju¬ 
tant-general, similarly related to their militia. 

Adler, Cyrus, adder, librarian and archae¬ 
ologist: b. Van Buren, Ark., 13 Sept. 1863. He 
was graduated at the University of Pennsylvania 
in 1883, and took the degree of Ph.D. in 1887 at 
Johns Hopkins, where for several years he was 
instructor in Semitic languages. Since 1892 he 
has been librarian of the Smithsonian Institu¬ 
tion; special commissioner of World’s Fair to 
Turkey, Egypt, Tunis, Algiers, and Morocco; 
President of the American Jewish Historical So¬ 
ciety, and member of numerous learned societies. 
He is the author of numerous articles on Ori¬ 
ental archgeology, Assyriology, Semitic philology, 
comparative religion, and bibliography; and one 
of the editors of the < Jewish Encyclopaedia.) 

Adler, Felix, American lecturer and schol¬ 
ar: b. Alzey, Germany, 13 Aug. 1851, son of 
an eminent Jewish rabbi. In 1857 he emigrated 
to the United States, in which country and at 
Berlin and Heidelberg he was educated. 
After being for some time professor of He¬ 
brew and Oriental literature at Cornell he 
founded in New York (1876) the Society for 
Ethical Culture, of which he is lecturer. Simi¬ 
lar societies have been established elsewhere 
in the United States and in other countries. He 
is an effective writer and speaker. He has pub¬ 
lished ( Creed and Deed* (1878) ; ( The Moral 
Instruction of Children* (1892). In June 1902 
he was called, to the newly created professor¬ 
ship of social and political ethics in the depart¬ 
ment of philosophy in Columbia University. 

Adler, George J., German-American phi¬ 
lologist: b. Germany, 1821; d. 1868. He came to 
New York 1833; graduated at the University of 
the City of New York 1844, and from 1846-54 
was professor of German there. He published 
a valuable ( German-English Dictionary* (1848, 
many editions since), still very useful for its 


careful discrimination of synonyms; < German 
Grammar) (N. Y. 1868) ; (Wilhelm von Plum- 
boldt’s Linguistic Studies) (N. Y. 1868), and 
translated Fauriel’s (History of Provencal Po¬ 
etry.) 

Adler, Hermann, Anglo-Jewish leader: 
b. in Hanover, 29 May 1839. He has lived most 
of his life in England, where he has held many 
positions of high trust connected with his race, 
having been since 1891 chief rabbi of the Brit¬ 
ish Empire, and has been active in general be¬ 
nevolence. He was principal of the Jews’ Col¬ 
lege, London, 1863-91, and as chief rabbi be¬ 
came its president. Besides sermons, lectures, 
etc., he has written < The Jews in England»; 
(The Chief Rabbis of England) ; (Ibn Gabirol, 
the Poet Philosopher,) etc. 

Adler, Nathan Marcus, German-Jewish 

leader: b. Hanover, 1803; d. 1890. Educated at 
Gottingen, Erlangen, and Wurzburg, he became 
chief rabbi of Oldenburg 1830, of Hanover and 
the provinces 1831 ; and of the British Empire 
1845. He was a chief organizer of schools for 
Jews in England, assisted Sir Moses Montefiore 
in raising the £20,000 fund for Palestine, was co¬ 
founder of the United Synagogue (association of 
the leading synagogues), and founder and first 
president of the Jews’ College. He published 
several volumes of sermons and a commentary 
on the Targum. 

Administration, in law, the management of 
the personal estate of anyone dying intestate or 
without an executor. If the deceased leaves 
real estate, the estate devolves upon heirs related 
by blood; if personal property is left and no 
executors named, administrators are appointed 
by some court. 

In the United States a surrogate or judge 
of probate appoints the administrator, and 
grants letters of administration. The adminis¬ 
trator is a trustee within the jurisdiction of a 
court of equity as well as of a court of pro¬ 
bate. His duties are to inventory the estate, 
collect accounts due, pay all debts, and distribute 
the remainder among those entitled to it. In 
England the power of such appointment was 
vested in the ecclesiastical courts until 1857, 
when it was transferred to a court of probate. 
The personal property of a decedent is appropri¬ 
ated to the payment of his debts so far as re¬ 
quired, and until exhausted must first be resort¬ 
ed to by creditors; but by certain statutes, 
courts may grant an administrator power to sell, 
lease, or mortgage real estate when the personal 
estate of the deceased is not sufficient tc pay his 
debt:. At common law the real estate of an in¬ 
testate goes to his heirs; the personal to his ad¬ 
ministrator. The fundamental rule is that all 
just debts shall be paid before any further dis¬ 
position of the property. 

Ancillary Administration .— That which is 
subordinate to the principal administration, for 
collecting the assets of foreigners. It is taken 
out in the country where the assets are locally 
situate. 

Of Estates .— The term is applied broadly to 
denote the management of an estate by an execu¬ 
tor, and also the management of the estates of 
minors, lunatics, etc., in those cases where trus¬ 
tees have been appointed by authority of law to 
take charge of such estates in place of the legal 
owners. 


ADMIRABLE CRICHTON — ADMIRALTY LAW 


Foreign Administration. — That which is ex¬ 
ercised by virtue of authority properly conferred 
by a foreign power. In England and in the 
United States the general rule is that letters 
granted abroad give no authority to sue or to be 
sued in another jurisdiction, though they may be 
ground for new probate authority. Consequently, 
when persons are domiciled and die in one coun¬ 
try, as A, and have personal property in another, 
as B, the authority must be had in B, but exer¬ 
cised according to the laws of A. (Story Confl. 
Laws, 23, 447.) There is no legal priority be¬ 
tween administrators in different States. The 
principal administrator is to act in the intes¬ 
tate’s domicile, and the ancillary is to collect 
claims and pay debts in the foreign jurisdiction 
and pay over the surplus to his principal. (2 
Mete. (Mass.) 114; 3 Day, 74.) But some 
courts hold that the probate of a will in a for¬ 
eign State, if duly authenticated, dispenses with 
the necessity of taking out new letters in their 
State. So it has been held that possession of 
property may be taken in a foreign State, but a 
suit cannot be brought without taking out letters 
in that State. 

Public Administration. — That which the pub¬ 
lic administrator performs. This happens in 
many of the States by statute in those cases 
where persons die intestate, without leaving any¬ 
one who is entitled to apply for letters of ad¬ 
ministration. 

Jurisdiction over administrations is in Eng¬ 
land lodged in the ecclesiastical courts, and these 
courts delegate the power of administering by 
letters of administration. In the United States 
administration is a subject charged upon courts 
of civil jurisdiction. A perplexing multiplicity 
of statutes defines the powers of such courts in 
the various States of the Union. The public 
officer authorized to delegate the trust is called 
surrogate, judge of probate, registrar of wills, 
etc. As to surrogate courts and proceedings 
therein in the State of New York, see the 
Code of Civil Procedure (Chase’s ed. 1902, ch. 
18). The death of the intestate must have taken 
place or the court will have no jurisdiction. A 
decree of the court is prima facie evidence of his 
death and puts the burden of disproof upon the 
party pleading in abatement. 26 Barb. 383. The 
formalities and requisites in regard to valid ap¬ 
pointments, and rules as to notice, defective 
proceedings, etc., are different in the various 
States. 

In Politics, the word is applied to the collec¬ 
tive body of governmental officers exercising au¬ 
thority as an executive power; in this sense being 
the equivalent of the term government; as, the 
bill was an Administration (or government) 
measure. It is also applied to a political term 
of office; as, during the Roosevelt administration. 

Admirable Crichton, cre'ton, (N. Irish 
Cri'ton). See Crichton, James. 

Admiral (Arabic amir-al or emir-al, « com¬ 
mander of the »—whatever follows it), the high¬ 
est rank of naval officer. The first English ad¬ 
miral was William de Leybourne (1286). His 
duties corresponded to those afterward vested in 
the lord high admiral; viz., the administrative 
powers now delegated to the lords commissioners 
of the admiralty. In Great Britain there were 
formerly three grades of admirals, commanding 
subdivisions known as the red, the white, and 


the blue, from the colors of their flags; but this 
distinction is now abolished. The last lord high 
admiral was the Duke of Clarence, afterward 
William IV. In the British navy admirals are 
classified as admirals, vice-admirals, and rear- 
admirals, ranking respectively with generals, 
lieutenant-generals, and major-generals. These 
distinctions were adopted in the United States 
navy during the Civil War; the rank of rear- 
admiral being established in 1862, vice-admiral 
in 1864, and admiral in 1866, all created for Far- 
ragut. David D. Porter succeeded in the titles 
of vice-admiral and admiral, both of which 
grades were abolished at his death (1891). In 
1899 the title was recreated in the United States 
navy, and conferred upon George Dewey. In 
1882 Congress reduced the number of rear- 
admirals from 10 to 6, and in 1899 increased it 
to 18, comprising two classes of 9 each: the 
first corresponding in rank to major-generals in 
the army, and the second to brigadier-generals. 
See Navy of the United States. 

Admiral. (1) In entomology, a nymph- 
alid butterfly,— any one of several species, as 
the red admiral ( Pyrameis atalanta ), and the 
white admirals of the genus Basilarchia. (2) 
In conchology, one of the cones ( Conus am- 
miralis). See Cone-Shell. 

Admiralty Inlet, a narrow body of water 
connecting Puget Sound with the Strait of 
Juan de Fuca. 

Admiralty Island, a mountainous island, 
90 m. long, off the W. coast of Alaska, to 
the N.E. of Sitka; belongs to the United 
States. 

Admiralty Islands, a group of 40 islands, 
to the N.E. of New Guinea; Basco, the largest 
of them, being 60 m. in length, mountain¬ 
ous, but fruitful. The total area of the islands 
is 878 square miles. They were discovered by 
Schouten in 1616. Carteret named them in 1767. 
Some are volcanic; others are coral islands. 
They abound in cocoanut-trees and are inhabited 
by a race of tawny, frizzle-headed savages of 
the Papuan stock, about 800 in number. To¬ 
gether with New Britain and some adjoining 
groups they were annexed by Germany in 1885, 
and now form part of the Bismarck Archipelago. 

Admiralty Law, the system of jurispru¬ 
dence administered by admiralty courts. 

In American law, a tribunal exercising juris¬ 
diction over all maritime torts, contracts, injuries, 
or offenses. Its civil jurisdiction extends to 
cases of salvage, bonds of bottomry or hypothe¬ 
cation of ship and cargo, seamen’s wages, seiz¬ 
ures under the laws of impost, navigation, or 
trade, cases of prize or ransom, charter-parties, 
contracts of affreightment between different 
States or foreign ports, contracts for conveyance 
of passengers, contracts with material-men, jet¬ 
tisons, maritime contributions, and averages, and 
generally to all assaults and batteries, dam¬ 
ages, and trespasses, taking place on the high seas. 
Its criminal jurisdiction extends to all crimes 
and offenses committed on the high seas or be¬ 
yond the jurisdiction of any country. A suit is 
commenced in admiralty by filing a libel, upon 
which a warrant is issued for the arrest of the 
person, or attachment of his property if he 
cannot be found, or a simple monition to appear; 
or, in a proceeding in rem, a warrant is issued 
for the arrest of the thing in question. 


ADMISSION — ADOLPHUS 


Admission. In practice, the act by which 
attorneys and counsellors become recognized as 
officers of the court and are allowed to practise. 

In corporations or companies, the act of a 
corporation or company by which an individual 
acquires the right of a member of such cor¬ 
poration or company. In trading and joint-stock 
companies no vote of admission is requisite, for 
any person who owns stock therein, either by 
original subscription or conveyance, is in general 
entitled to, and cannot be refused, the rights and 
privileges of a member. Nothing more can be 
required of a person demanding a transfer on 
the books than that he prove to the corporation 
his right to the stock. 

In evidence, a concession or voluntary ac¬ 
knowledgment made by a party of the existence 
of certain things or conditions, or of the truth 
of certain statements. The admissions or declar¬ 
ations of a party in respect to the subject-matter 
of an action at law or suit in equity, may always 
be given in evidence against him. _ As distin¬ 
guished from confessions, the term is applied to 
civil transactions, and to matters of fact in crim¬ 
inal cases where there is no criminal intent. 
Express or direct admissions are those which 
are made in direct terms. Incidental admissions 
are those made in some other connection, or 
involved in the admission of some other fact. 
Implied admissions are those which result from 
some act or failure to act of the party. To 
be considered as evidence, admissions may 
be made by a party to the record or one identi¬ 
fied in interest with him, but not where the 
party of record is only a nominal party and 
has no active interest in the action. 

Adobe, a-do'ba (Sp., from adobar, to daub 
or plaster), colloquially <( dobie®: sun-dried 
bricks, from any native clays; especially those 
made in the arid western and southwestern re¬ 
gions of the United States, as in the Great Basin, 
Arizona, New Mexico, etc., by molding the bricks 
and then turning the sides alternately to the sun 
day by day for a week or two, stacking up for 
use when sufficiently baked. These, however, 
are the resource only of people in an inferior 
state of civilization, as the rain soon dissolves 
them into streams of mud; hence also they are 
impossible at all save where rain is very infre¬ 
quent. The sizes are usually two, 18x9x4 and 
16 x 12 x 4, the larger ones in the best building 
used as headers (the greatest length crosswise 
to the wall) and the others as stretchers (length¬ 
wise). The earliest building material in Assyria 
and Egypt was adobe, usually strengthened with 
straw, and it is still much used in Japan and 
China. Adobe soils are clay soils very plastic 
when wet, but too hard for cultivation when 
dry; they are lightened by plowing in sand or 
sandy loam, and are often very fertile. 

Adolescence, the period of human de¬ 
velopment which extends from puberty to men¬ 
tal and physical maturity. Clouston restricts 
puberty to the <( initial development of the func¬ 
tion of reproduction®; while, by adolescence, he 
denotes <( the whole period of 12 years [about 
13-25] from the first appearance up to the full 
perfection of the reproductive energy.® The 
period of adolescence is characterized by impor¬ 
tant anatomical, physiological, and mental 
changes which attend the development and the 
ripening of the adult individual. The first ap¬ 
pearance of the reproductive functions, at pu¬ 


berty, is followed by a long process of gradual 
change during which the secondary sexual char¬ 
acteristics are matured and during which, also,, 
general nervous functions are profoundly modi¬ 
fied. The progress of adolescence depends, 
somewhat upon sex — the female maturing 
slightly faster than the male —and upon racial 
and social conditions. 

The mind of the youth, especially in the 
latter half of adolescence, discovers new in¬ 
stincts, new impulses, new powers of imagina¬ 
tion and of sensibility. Along with the dawn¬ 
ing consciousness of sex, come strong emotions 
and desires and a sense of novel relations and 
untried responsibilities. <( The adolescent feels, 
instinctively that he has now entered a new 
country, the face of which he does not know,, 
but yet that is full of possibilities of good and 
happiness for him.® Ideals are formed, roman¬ 
tic situations imagined, and adventures planned. 
The feelings are unstable and are apt to fluc¬ 
tuate between excitement and depression. The 
boy is likely to develop a pronounced egotism, 
a longing for action, and a desire Jo impress, 
persons of the opposite sex. The girl displays 
equally characteristic traits; such as sentimen¬ 
tality, coyness, self-sacrifice, and a craving for 
admiration. It should be remarked, however,, 
that the adolescent consciousness is subject to 
wide individual variations. It is during this 
stage that individuality comes into prominence; 
for it is then that those hereditary tendencies 
which underlie temperament and character are 
fully realized. As a result, the youth attains 
not only a general sexual maturity but a definite 
personality as well. 

But <( bad® as well as <( good® inheritance 
comes to light during adolescence; and, since 
it finds the developing organism in an exceed¬ 
ingly unstable equilibrium, the result is not in¬ 
frequently physical and mental derangement. 
Various mental diseases — particularly mania 
and hysteria, which are marked bv wide emo¬ 
tional disturbances — frequently appear during 
the latter half of the adolescent years (20-25). 
Some alienists recognize a distinct type of <( ado- 
lescent insanity.® 

Consult: G. S. Hall, ( Adolescence 5 (1904); 
Clouston, T. S., ( The Neuroses of Develop¬ 
ment 5 (1891) ; ( Mental Diseases 5 (5th ed. 

1898), Lecture xvi. 

Adolf of Nassau. See Adolphus of Nas¬ 
sau. 

Adolphus, or Adolf, of Nassau, Emperor 

of Germany: b. about 1250; d. 2 July 1298. He 
was elected emperor 1 May 1292, and was 
crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle 25 June in the same 
year. He owed his election in part to intrigues 
with the electors of Cologne and Mainz, who 
imposed on him the hardest conditions; but, re¬ 
fusing to fulfil them, he soon saw himself hated 
and deserted. Urged by want of money, he 
took fioo,ooo sterling from Edward I. of Eng¬ 
land to assist him against Philip the Fair of 
France; but obeyed the Pope’s prohibition with 
alacrity. He thus made himself contemptible 
to the German princes, and became still more 
odious by taking advantage_ of the hatred of 
Albert, landgrave of Thuringia, against his sons, 
and purchasing this territory from him. This 
involved him in a fruitless five-years war to* 
subjugate his purchase. Disgusted, and urged 
on by Albert of Austria, the majority of the 


ADON AI — ADOPTION 


college of electors cited Adolphus before it; he 
failing to appear, the throne was declared vacant 
23 June 1298, and Albert of Austria was elected. 
A war already existed between the rivals, in 
which Adolphus seemed superior until he was 
outmanoeuvred and surrounded at Gallheim, and 
fell by Albert’s own hand. 

Adonai, a-do'nAi, a Hebrew name for the 
Supreme Being; a plural form of Adon, « lord,» 
combined with the pronoun of the first person. 
In reading the Scriptures aloud, the Jews pro¬ 
nounce «Adonai» wherever the old name 
«Jhvh» is found in the text; and the name 
« Jehovah » has arisen out of the consonants of 
« Jhvh » with the vowel points of Adonai. 

Adonijah, the fourth son of King David, 
by Haggith. His claim to the throne was best 
after Absalom’s death, and the chief commander 
Joab and the high-priest Abiathar supported 
him; but the captain of the body-guard Benaiah, 
the priest Zadok, the prophet Nathan, and 
Solomon’s mother Bathsheba, induced the old 
king David to make Solomon associate at once. 
Adonijah fled to the tabernacle for protection; 
but after the death of David he was slain by 
order of Solomon on the pretext that his re¬ 
quest foi a concubine of David’s was a claim 
to the throne. 

Adonis, a-do'nis, in Greek legend, son 
of Myrrha, daughter of Cinyras king of 
Cyprus; born in Arabia. Before the birth 
of her son she was transformed into the tree 
which produces the fragrant gum called by her 
name; this, however, did not hinder his being 
brought into the world in due season. He grew 
up a model of manly beauty, and was passion¬ 
ately beloved by Aphrodite (Venus), who quit¬ 
ted Olympus to dwell with him. Hunting was 
his favorite pursuit, until, having gone to the 
chase against the entreaties of his mistress, he 
was mortally wounded in the thigh by a wild 
boar. Venus, coming too late to his rescue, 
changed his blood into flowers. After death 
he was said to stand as high in the favor of 
Persephone (Proserpine) as before in that of 
Aphrodite; but, the latter being inconsolable, 
her rival generously consented that Adonis 
should spend half the year with his celestial, 
half with his infernal mistress. This is a highly 
decorated form: the simpler and older myth 
seems to have been that Aphrodite and Perse¬ 
phone contested the beautiful child’s possession, 
and Zeus ordered that he should spend four 
months with each and four as he chose. The 
fable has been variously interpreted. The al¬ 
ternate abode of Adonis above and under the 
earth is typical of the burial of seed, which in 
due season rises above ground for the propaga¬ 
tion of its species. How much of the myth 
was cause and how much result of the famous 
Greek woman’s festival, the Adonia, cannot 
be said. This represented the union of Adonis 
and Aphrodite on one day and the sorrow over 
his death the other, and the women performed 
the funeral rites over small images of him; 
also planting quick-growing herbs like fennel 
and lettuce in shards filled with earth, and 
throwing them into springs after the burial. 
It v/as a worship of the reproductive principle 
of plants, which after a short life die and are 
buried and again spring up; naturally, # it was 
involved with the grossnesses of phallic wor¬ 


ship, for which all growth-cults tended to be an 
excuse. The name is Semitic, adon, « lord,® — 
though of course all the local gods were « adons » 
of the place,— and the cult was widespread in 
the East; in Phoenicia the Adon was termed 
Thammuz, «the hidden.® The Greek celebra¬ 
tion was often performed by the priestesses of 
Aphrodite, courtesans; but Theocritus’ charm¬ 
ing Idyl XV. shows that in his time at least it 
was perfectly respectable for decent women to 
attend. 

Adonis, a genus of plants of the natural 
order Ranunculacecr, or crowfoot family. The 
genus is a native of Europe, and only a single 
species, A. autumnalis, the «pheasant’s eye» 
of the flower-garden, is shown in the United 
States. It is a low leafy annual with scarlet or 
crimson flowers, darker in the centre. It is. 
said to have been stained with the blood of 
Adonis. 

Adoptian Controversy, The, one which 
arose in Spain toward the end of the 8th cen¬ 
tury. Its leaders were Felix, bishop of Urgel,. 
and Elipand, archbishop of Toledo; they modi¬ 
fied the doctrine of Nestorius (see Nestorian- 
ism) to the opinion that Christ was the Son. 
of God only in his divine nature, and in his 
human nature only so by adoption. It was 
hoped that this doctrine would be more accept¬ 
able to the Mohammedans than the orthodox 
view, and a means toward their conversion; 
and Elipand was a zealous missionary among 
them. Felix introduced it into Frankish Spain, 
and Charlemagne called a synod at Regensburg 
(Ratisbon) in 792 to have him explain and 
justify it. Instead he renounced it, confirming 
the renunciation by a solemn oath to Adrian I., 
to whom the synod sent him; yet on returning 
to his diocese he taught it as before. Another 
synod was held at Frankfort in 794, and the 
doctrine was formally condemned, neither Felix 
nor any of his followers attending. After some 
controversy a commission of clergy was sent to 
Spain to put down the heresy. Leidrad, arch¬ 
bishop of Lyons, one of the commission, per¬ 
suaded Felix to go before a synod at Aix-la- 
Chapelle in 799 and recant; which after a 
week’s dispute with the great Alcuin he did, 
and was prevented from further relapse by being 
kept under surveillance at Lyons for the rest 
of his life, to 816. Elipand, at Toledo, main¬ 
tained his Adoptian views despite their ban by 
the Church; but after his death they were 
abandoned by practically all. Occasional advo¬ 
cates afterward arose during the Middle Ages* 
however, and the question has been discussed 
even in modern times. 

Adoption, the act of taking a stranger 
into one’s family, as a son or daughter; or the 
taking of a person, a society, etc., into more 
intimate relations than formerly existed with 
another person or society; or the taking as one’s 
own, with or without acknowledgment, an opin¬ 
ion, plan, etc., originating with another; also 
the selecting one from several courses open to 
a person’s choice. 

In law, both ancient and modern, the act of 
taking a stranger into one’s family constituted 
the person so adopted one’s heir to all intents 
and purposes. The practice was common among 
the Greeks and Romans, and is still in use 
among some modern nations. 


ADORATION — ADOWA 


A proceeding which so materially affects the 
succession of property and the rights of natural 
heirs is a very important one. It is not recog¬ 
nized by the common law of England, and 
exists only in the United States by special 
statute. Comparatively few of the * States 
have engrafted it upon their systems of juris¬ 
prudence. But among many of the Continental 
nations it has been practised from the remotest 
antiquity. The effect of adoption was to cast 
the succession on the adopted in case the adopt¬ 
ing father died intestate. 

The statute in force in the State of Michigan 
is substantially similar to other statutes in the 
various States upon the subject. The Michigan 
statute provides, among other things, that the 
person or persons so adopting such child shall 
thereafter stand in the place of a parent or 
parents to such «child-in-law,® and be liable 
to all the duties, and entitled to all of the rights, 
of parents; and such child shall thereupon be¬ 
come an heir-at-law of such persons, the same 
as if he or she were in fact the child of such 
oerson or persons. 

Adoption by matrimony is the placing the 
children of a former marriage on the same 
footing, with regard to inheritance, etc., as those 
of the present one. 

Adoption by testament is the appointing of a 
person one’s heir on condition of his assuming 
the name, arms, etc., of his benefactor. 

Adoption by hair was performed by cutting 
off the hair of the person adopted and giving 
it to the adoptive father. 

Adoption by arms was the presentation of 
arms by a prince to a brave man. These the 
recipient was expected to use for the protection 
of his benefactor. 

In heraldry, arms of adoption are the heraldic 
arms received when the last representative of 
an expiring aristocratic family adopts a stranger 
to assume his armorial bearings and inherit his 
estates. The recipient may obtain permission 
from parliament to take the name of his bene¬ 
factor, either appended to, or substituted for, 
his own. 

In Scripture and theology, the act of ad¬ 
mitting one into the family of God, or the state 
of being so admitted. The previous position of 
the person adopted in this manner was that of 
a « servant,® now he is a «son,» an «heir of 
God,» and a «joint heir with Christ.® 

In ecclesiastical language, adoption by bap¬ 
tism is the act of becoming godfather or god¬ 
mother to a child about to be baptized. Unlike 
real adoption, however, this does not constitute 
the child heir to its spiritual father or mother. 

Adoration, in unspecialized modern usage, 
a spiritual homage to God; but originally an 
act to express obedience and reverence per¬ 
formed before the images of the gods. Among 
the Romans it was performed by raising the 
hand to the mouth, kissing it, and then waving 
it in the direction of the image; the devotee had 
his head covered except before Saturn and 
Hercules, and after the act turned himself 
around from left to right. Sometimes he kissed 
the feet or knees of the images. This homage 
was afterward transferred to the emperors, by 
bowing or kneeling, laying hold of the imperial 
robe, and then pressing the hand to the lips. 
The Oriental methods were of course still more 


abject,—bending the knee, falling on the face, 
striking the earth with the forehead, and kissing 
the ground or floor. Alexander borrowed this 
from the Persians and made it a feature of his 
court; the rough Macedonian Cassander burst 
into a roar of laughter when he saw the Persian 
grandees performing this kotow (the Chinese 
term for the same act) before Alexander, who 
was so enraged that he seized him by his long 
hair and dashed his head against the wall. But 
the Greeks considered it impious and degrading, 
and the best of them would not bend to it: 
Conon refused it to Artaxerxes, and Callisthenes 
to Alexander. The abject degradations which the 
mediaeval far-Eastern rulers exacted from for¬ 
eign traders, by submitting to which the Dutch 
purchased trade privileges, though the English 
would not,— crawling on the face from the 
door to the monarch’s seat, licking up the dust 
as they went, till the victim was often unable 
to speak when he reached it, and could only 
gasp with his mouth full of dirt,— are well 
known. Milder forms in modern times, hardly 
thought degrading even by the sturdiest demo¬ 
crat, are kneeling and kissing the monarch’s 
hand; and the similar homages of lovers have 
never been considered so. The ceremony of 
kissing the cross embroidered on the Pope’s 
slipper is a like form, said to have been bor¬ 
rowed from a similar ceremony introduced by 
the emperor Diocletian, who greatly extended 
court ceremonial. The original signification of 
the word as an act and not an emotion is 
preserved in the marriage service of the English 
and Protestant Episcopal Churches, «with my 
body I thee worship.® In the Roman Catholic 
Church, also, a distinction is made between 
latria, the worship due to God alone, and dulia 
the veneration paid to the Saints, and hyper- 
dulia, that accorded to the Virgin. 

Adour, a river of southern France, hav¬ 
ing its source in the mountain ridge of the 
Tourmalet, in the department of Hautes-Pyre- 
nees. Its course is first N., then W., S.W., and 
S.S.W., passing St. Sever and Dax, to the for¬ 
mer of which it is navigable, and falling into 
the sea a little below Bayonne, flowing through 
many exceedingly fertile valleys. Its whole 
length is estimated at about 200 miles. The 
current is rapid, and sometimes'serious inunda¬ 
tions are caused by the melting of the snows 
on the slopes of the Pyrenees. At the mouth 
of the river there is a shifting bar. 

Adowa, or Adua, Abyssinia, capital of 
Tigre; on the left bank of the Hassam, a tribu¬ 
tary of the Tacazze, 6,000 ft. above the sea, 
about 10 m. E. of Axum. It is the chief com¬ 
mercial depot on the great caravan route from 
Massowah to Gondar, about no m. from the 
former. Though it still carries on some trade 
and has manufactures of cotton cloths, iron, and 
brass ware, owing to the Abyssinian civil wars 
it has greatly declined from its former prosperity 
and presents a rather miserable appearance. The 
inhabitants, numbering about 4,000 in 1902, are 
considered the most civilized of the Abyssinians. 
It was here that the Italian Gen. Baratieri was 
defeated by the Negus Menelek, 1 March 1896, 
when 7,000 men, 250 officers, and the whole ar¬ 
tillery were lost. 


ADRA —ADRIAN 


Adra (the ancient Abdera), a seaport of 
southern Spain, in the province of Almeria; 29 
m. W.S.W. from the town of that name, near 
the mouth of the Adra, on an eminence facing 
the Mediterranean. The inhabitants are em¬ 
ployed in agriculture, fishing, distilling brandy, 
and manufacturing lead from the ore produced 
from the extensive mines in the neighborhood. 
Top. (1901) about 12,000. 

Adragan'thin (from adragant, a corrupt 
fiorm of tragacanthe ), a gum, better known as 
bassorin (q.v.). 

Adrar', Sahara, a district peopled by Ber¬ 
bers, possessing camels, sheep, and oxen, and 
cultivating dates, wheat, barley, and melons. 
Chief towns, Wadan, pop. 4,000, and Shingit, 
which has inexhaustible beds of rock-salt. The 
region embraces about 30,000 square miles and 
since 1892 is a part of the French possessions. 

Adrastus, in Greek legend, king of Argos, 
son of Talaus and Lysimache. Polynices, being 
banished from Thebes by his brother Eteocles, 
fl a d to Argos, where he married Argia, daughter 
of Adrastus. The king assisted his son-in-law, 
and marched against Thebes with an army led 
by seven of his most famous generals. All per¬ 
ished in the war except Adrastus, who, with a 
few men saved from slaughter, fled to Athens 
and implored the aid of Theseus against the The¬ 
bans, who opposed the burying of the Argives 
fallen in battle. Theseus went to his assistance 
and was victorious. In a later story Adrastus 
after a long reign died from grief occasioned 
by the death of his son Aigialeus. He was wor¬ 
shipped at Sicyon, Megara, and Athens, perhaps 
also at Argos and the Troad. See Argos; 
Thebes. 

Adrets, Baron des, Francis de Beaumont: 

b. Dauphine, 1513; d. 1587; a violent French 
Huguenot, who distinguished himself by many 
daring exploits as well as cruelties. From 1562 
on he made himself noted for a ferocity match¬ 
ing his opponents, but seemingly from no reli¬ 
gious motive. He subsequently became a Catholic, 
but died as he had lived, in general detesta¬ 
tion. At some places he obliged his prisoners to 
throw themselves from the battlements upon 
the pikes of his soldiers. Reproaching one for 
retreating twice from the fatal leap, « Sir,» re¬ 
plied the man, «I defy you, with all your 
bravery, to take it in three.» This keen rejoin¬ 
der saved his life. 

Adria, N. Italy, in the province of Rovigo, 
between the Po and Adige, is one of the oldest 
cities in Europe, having been founded by the 
Etruscans. So late as the 12th century a.d. 
it was a flourishing harbor on the Adriatic Sea, 
to which it gave name; but by the continual de¬ 
position of alluvium on the east coast of Italy it 
has been gradually separated from the sea, from 
which it is now 15 miles distant. It still retains 
several interesting remains of Etruscan and Ro¬ 
man antiquity, with a fine cathedral. It has a 
considerable trade in cattle, grain, and wine, 
silk, linen, leather, and pottery. Pop. (1900) 
15,649. 

Adrian, Emperor. See Hadrian. 

Adrian I., Pope, b. Rome; succeeded 
Stephen III. in 772; d. 795- Like his predeces¬ 
sor, he had to struggle against the power of the 
Longobards, who had invaded the Exarchate and 


other provinces bestowed by Pepin, king of the 
Franks, on the Roman see. Adrian applied to 
Charlemagne for assistance against Desiderius, 
king of the Longobards. Charlemagne crossed 
the Alps, defeated Desiderius, and overthrew the 
Longobard kingdom in 774; he then went to 
Rome, where Adrian acknowledged him as king 
of Italy, and the latter renewed Pepin’s grant. 
Charlemagne paid another visit to Adrian at 
Rome in 787, when his son Pepin was christened 
by the Pope. In 787 the seventh General Council 
of the Church was held at Nicaea. Adrian died 
after a pontificate of nearly 24 years. He was 
a man of talent and dexterity; he succeeded in 
gaining and preserving the friendship of the 
greatest sovereign of his time, and saved Rome 
from the last barbarian invaders of the Western 
Empire. He was the first Pope to change his 
name on election. 

Adrian II., b. Rome; succeeded Nicholas 
I. 867; d. 872. He had been married and had a 
daughter by his wife Stephania, from whom he 
afterward separated in order to live in celibacy. 
During his pontificate Photius, Patriarch of 
Constantinople, withdrew from the Church of 
Pome; from which time dates the schism be¬ 
tween the Greek and Latin Churches. He was 
succeeded by John VIII. 

Adrian III., b. Rome; succeeded Marinus 
884, and died the following year. 

Adrian IV., the only Englishman ever 
raised to the papacy; succeeded Anastasius IV. 
1154; d. 1 Sept. 1159. He was Nicholas Brake- 
speare, and for some time filled a mean situation" 
in the monastery of St. Albans. Being refused 
the habit in that house, he went to France and 
became a clerk in the monastery of St. Rufus, of 
which he was afterward chosen abbot. Eugenius 
III. created him cardinal in 1146, and, in 1148 
made him legate to Denmark and Norway, which 
he converted to Christianity. As Pope he grant¬ 
ed to Henry II. a bull for the conquest of Ire¬ 
land. In 1155 he excommunicated the king of 
Sicily; and about the same time the Emperor 
Frederick II., meeting him on a journey, held 
his stirrup while he mounted his horse. Adrian 
took the emperor with him and consecrated him 
king of the Romans in St. Peter’s church. The 
next year the king of Sicily submitted and was 
absolved. His term was stormy: the R.omans, 
influenced by Arnold of Brescia (whom he put 
to death), opposed him; his high claims for the 
papacy opened the long struggle with the Ho- 
henstaufen house; and he was about to excom¬ 
municate Frederick II. when he died. He was 
succeeded by Alexander III. 

Adrian V., a Genoese, succeeded Innocent 
in 1276, and died five weeks after his election. 
He was succeeded by John XX. 

Adrian Vi. ; succeeded Leo X. 1522; d. 
1525. Fie was born at Utrecht, of an obscure 
family, advanced himself by his talents to the 
post of vice-chancellor of the University of 
Louvain. Ferdinand of Spain gave him the 
bishopric of Tortosa. After Ferdinand’s death 
he was co-regent of Spain with Cardinal Xim- 
enes. He was elected Pope chiefly through the 
influence of Charles V., whose authority was 
then spreading over Italy. He was succeeded 
by Clement VII. 


ADRIAN — ADRIANOPLE 


Adrian, Mich., city and county-seat of Lena¬ 
wee County. (Adrian’s first name was Logan.; 
It was founded in 1825 by Addison J. Comstock, 
incorporated as a village in 1828, and as a city 
in 1833. Situated on the Raisin River, 30 miles 
from Toledo, and 59 miles from Detroit, at 
intersection of Lake Shore, Wabash and Detroit 
Southern R.R.’s. The branch lines of Lake 
Shore, to Jackson, to Detroit, and to Fayette, 
Ohio, terminate here. 

Commerce and Manufactures .— Apart from 
its large business in agricultural products, 
Adrian has become an important manufactur¬ 
ing centre. It has extensive foundry and ma¬ 
chine shops, and a large flouring mill. The 
Adrian Manufacturing Company, the American 
Electric Fuse Company, the Bond Steel Post 
Company, the Clough & Warren Company, and 
the Spring Brook Brewing Company are all 
large and flourishing concerns. Adrian saw the 
beginning of the woven wire fence industry, 
which was established here by J. Wallace Page 
in 1886. The Page Wire Fence Company was 
the pioneer in wire fence industry, and has be¬ 
come a great institution with its main factory 
here, and its wire mills at Monesson, Pa. Its 
output in 1904 was 17,543 miles of fence, with 
thousands of iron gates, employing in factories 
and mills 1,627 men. Another large fence com¬ 
pany is the Lamb Wire Fence. Its output was 
$1,000,000 for 1904, with 150 employees, and 
running 25 fence looms. The Adrian, the Lion, 
and several other new companies are also manu¬ 
facturers of wire fence. The factories of the 
Anthony and Globe Fence Companies are not 
far from Adrian. Capital used in the wire fence 
industry at Adrian is about $3,500,000, and the 
number of men employed is about 1.000. 

Banks .— There are four State banks, with 
combined capital and surplus of $456,000, and 
deposits of $2,750,000. 

Education and Religion .— City has fine sys¬ 
tem of public schools, with 2,700 pupils, and 
a public library of 20,000 volumes. Adrian Col¬ 
lege and a business college furnish higher educa¬ 
tion and business training. Adrian College is 
controlled by Methodist Protestants, has 300 
students and six departments,—• literature, the¬ 
ology, music, arts, manual training, and prepara¬ 
tory school. Saint Joseph’s Academy, a school 
for girls, with 150 pupils, is conducted by the 
Sisters of the Order of Saint Dominic. The 
Industrial Flome for Girls, a State institution 
for education and reformation of juvenile fe¬ 
male offenders, is located here, with 353 in¬ 
mates. There are many fine church edifices and 
a fine Y. M. C. A. building is under construction. 
Two daily and one weekly newspaper are pub¬ 
lished in Adrian. 

Government, Population, etc. — The city gov¬ 
ernment is by mayor and board of 12 aldermen. 
Adrian has system of sewerage, waterworks, 
and electric lights, paving, public steam heating, 
electric street car line, and a fine new post- 
office building. From its beautifullv shaded 
streets, Adrian is called the Maple City. Pop. 
(1904) 10,680. Charles R. Miller. 

Adrian de Castel'lo (Adriano di Castelo, 
a-dre-a'no de kas-tel'o). Italian cardinal and 
scholar: b. Corneto, Tuscany, c. 1460; d. 1521. 
He was educated at Rome; sent by Innocent 
VIII. to England, and to Scotland and recon¬ 
ciled James III. to his subjects; after that mon¬ 
arch’s death at Sauchieburn he remained in 


England, and obtained a prebend and rectory 
from Henry VII. After Innocent’s death in 
1492 he returned to Rome and became pro- 
thonotarv or secretary to Alexander VI. (Bor¬ 
gia), and finally cardinal just before Alexan¬ 
der’s death in 1503. The story that Alexander 
fell a victim to his own attempt to poison Adrian 
in order to inherit his great fortune is scouted 
by recent historians. In 1502, in his absence 
Henry VII. made him bishop of Hereford, and 
in 1505 bishop of Bath and Wells. In 1517 he 
was involved in the plot of Cardinals Petrucci, 
De Sauli, and Riario to poison Leo X., con¬ 
fessed, and was absolved on condition of paying 
25,000 ducats, though deprived of his cardinal- 
ate and English dignities. He fled from Rome, 
however, lived in retirement till Leo’s death in 
1521 (probably in Venice), and died suddenly 
on his way back to Rome, there being a sus¬ 
picion that he was murdered by a servant. He 
is honorably remembered as one of the first 
who sought to rescue Latin from its mediaeval 
corruptions and restore it to purity. He wrote 
a religious treatise ( De Vera Philosophy (The 
True Philosophy, 1507, printed Cologne 1548); 
( De Sermone Latino et Modo Latine LoquendP 
(The Latin Speech and Mode of Speaking 
Latin, a scholarly work published at Rome in 
1515, and repeatedly since). 

A'driano'ple ( (( Hadrian’s city®)? Turkey: 
its third city in size, next after Constantinople 
and Salonica; 137 m. W.N.W. of Constantinople, 
connected by rail; near the W. end of the great 
Thracian coast-plain where it rises to the Rho¬ 
dope Mts.; at the confluence of the large 
Maritza (ancient Hebrus) which drains the 
centre of S. Bulgaria, the Tunja from the N., 
and the Arda from the W., all navigable. This 
position and the convergence of several trade 
routes have made it from very old times a place 
of great importance: it was an antique Thracian 
city, rebuilt by the emperor Hadrian, seized bv 
the Turks under Amurath (Murad) I. in 1361', 
and the residence of the Sultans thence till the 
capture of Constantinople in 1453. Since the 
Russo-Turkish war of 1877-8 and the separation 
of Bulgaria, it has lost nearlv half its popula¬ 
tion and a large part of its trade. The old wall 
that once surrounded it, now existent only in a 
few fragments, has been replaced by a circle of 
earthworks. It has a palace and two fine ba¬ 
zaars, besides schools and mosques. Pop. about 
80,000, half Turks and the remainder Bulgarians, 
Greeks, Armenians, and Jews. 

It has immense historic interest as the scene 
of three events of the first importance. (1) The 
battle of Adrianople, 9 Aug. 378, a.d., the most 
tremendous disaster to the Roman arms since 
Cannae, and incomparably greater in permanent 
effects. The Goths, whose head chief was Friti- 
gern,— a man of superior genius and honorable 
character,— were being crowded southward by 
the great movement of the Huns which culmi¬ 
nated in Attila’s occupancy of all central Europe 
three generations later, and asked leave to set¬ 
tle in the lands south of the Danube they had 
ravaged into semi-desolation. This was granted 
on condition that they came unarmed and left 
the children of the leading families in Roman 
hands as hostages; but when the Goths complied, 
the imperial officers, who were to supply them 
with food, forced them to pay famine prices for 
it, and sold or kept many of the girls for con¬ 
cubines. The enraged Goths, in return, carried 


ADRIATIC SEA —ADULLAM 


fire, sword, and plunder far down into Thrace; 
driven back for a time, they returned in the 
spring of 378, reinforced by Huns and Alans, 
and their vanguard came near Constantinople. 
The emperor Valens was an incompetent but 
ambitious man. Jealous of his brilliant nephew, 
Gratian, who had just won a great victory over 
the Western barbarians, and eager to fight be¬ 
fore Gratian could join him and have the credit 
of a fresh victory, he made a long march on a 
sultry dog-day and attacked the Goths with his 
fatigued troops. The Alan and Sarmatian cav¬ 
alry surrounded and hemmed in the Roman 
infantry, like Hannibal at Cannae, till they could 
not use their weapons; thousands were driven 
into a marsh; the Roman army was practically 
exterminated; Valens was never again seen 
alive, and the Goths obtained permanent pos¬ 
session of the broad plains south of the Danube. 
(2) The Treaty of Adrianople, 1829. In the 
Russo-Turkish war of 1828-9, Diebitsch passed 
the Balkans, advanced on Constantinople, and 
halting at Adrianople made the demands of a 
conqueror, and the panic-stricken Turks ac¬ 
ceded to everything. Russia received the N.E. 
coast of the Black Sea, and all rights over the 
Caucasus tribes, the district of Akhaltsikh, and 
the protectorate over Moldavia and Wallachia 
(now Rumania) ; and Turkey recognized the in¬ 
dependence of Greece. (3) The Treaty of San 
Stefano (q.v.), after the capture of Osman’s 
army defending Shipka Pass in the war of 
1877-8. 

Adriatic Sea, or Gulf of Venice (ancient 
Mare Adriaticum), an arm of the Mediter¬ 
ranean, stretching in a N.W. direction from the 
Straits of Otranto, between the E. coast of the 
Italian Peninsula, and the W. coasts of Turkey, 
Dalmatia, and Illyria; length, about 480 m.; 
average breadth, about 100 m.; area, estimated 
at about 60,000 sq. m.. Its depth in the north, 
between Istria and Venice, is only from 12 to 
20 fathoms, but increases in proceeding south to 
100 fathoms near its centre, and to S°° fathoms 
between its centre and its entrance. < At the 
straits between Otranto and Valona its depth 
does not exceed 350 fathoms, but increases very 
Tapidly toward the Ionian Sea. Its opposite 
shores present a striking contrast, the east being 
generally bold and rocky, lined with islands 
and furnished with good harbors, but thinly 
peopled and comparatively sterile; while the 
west are low, shallow, marshy, and ill provided 
with harbors, though generally populous and 
fertile. The Adriatic is evidently a continua¬ 
tion of the longitudinal valley of the Po, form¬ 
ing a long and narrow trough between the paral¬ 
lel ranges of the Apennines and the mountains 
of Illyria. The rivers which it' receives, par¬ 
ticularly the Po, its principal feeder, have pro¬ 
duced, and are still producing, great geological 
changes in its basin by their alluvial deposits. 
Hence Adria, between the Po and the Adige, 
which gives the sea its name, though once a 
flourishing seaport, is now 15 miles inland. The 
principal trading ports on the Italian side arc 
Brindisi, Bari, Ancona, and Venice; on the op¬ 
posite side, Ragusa, Fiume, Pirano,. Pola, and 
Trieste, particularly the last, which is the prin¬ 
cipal seaport of Austria and possesses a large 

trade. 

Adsorption (a variation of the word ab¬ 
sorption.”) The condensation of a gas or vapor 
upon the surface of a solid. The fact that solid 
bodies are capable of condensing upon their sur¬ 


faces air films or gas films of considerable 
density was probably first forced upon the at¬ 
tention of the physicist by the difficulty of ob¬ 
taining a permanently good vacuum. Thus it 
was found that a glass globe (for example) 
might be highly exhausted, and yet after a time 
the vacuum would be found to be materially re¬ 
duced, even when it was apparently impossible 
that any air should have leaked in from without. 
It is now known that unless special pains are 
taken to prevent it, a film of air remains con¬ 
densed against the surface of the glass, even 
when the vacuum through the general bulk of 
the globe is very high; and air molecules from 
this film are gradually given off until the vacuum 
becomes much less perfect than it was at first. 
To prevent this action it is customary to heat 
the vessel that is being exhausted, as the gas 
film is largely driven off from the walls of the 
vessel when they are heated. See Vacuum. 

The condensation of gaseous films upon the 
surfaces of solids is undoubtedly due to the 
molecular attraction exerted by the solid upon 
the gas. This molecular attraction is insensible 
at distances that are easily measurable, but 
it may be very great at points sufficiently near 
to the surface of the solid. The expression 
<( sensible molecular attraction,” which is in use 
among physicists, is indefinite, and no very pre¬ 
cise statement can be made with regard to the 
limiting distance beyond which the attraction is 
not sensible; but from the investigations of 
Quincke, Plateau, Maxwell, Kelvin, and others, 
we may infer, in a general way, that molecular 
attraction is not sensible at a greater distance 
than about i~200,000th of an inch. Hence it is 
safe to say that this is the maximum thickness 
that the gas film condensed on a solid surface 
can have. 

Concerning the condition of the gas in the 
film we can only say that where it is in imme¬ 
diate contact with the solid it probably has a 
very great density, this density rapidly falling 
off as we pass away from the solid. Under or¬ 
dinary conditions of temperature the air film 
condensed against a solid cannot actually be in 
the liquid state, because it is not possible for air 
to exist in this state at any temperature higher 
than 220° below zero F. (See Critical Point.) 

It is well known that a solid body appears 
to weigh less when it has been recently heated, 
or is still hot, than it does when it has been al¬ 
lowed to stand for some time in contact with the 
air at ordinary temperatures. This phenomenon 
is apparently due, to a considerable extent, to 
variations in the thickness of the film of air and 
moisture that the body condenses upon its sur¬ 
face. In accurate thermometry (see Thermom¬ 
eter), where the gas thermometer, is used as 
a standard, great pains are taken, in filling the 
thermometer bulb with gas, to avoid the con¬ 
tamination of the thermometric gas by moisture 
condensed upon the surface of the bulb; the 
bulb being repeatedly exhausted, heated, and re¬ 
filled, until there is no longer the smallest chance 
of any appreciable part of the original surface 
film remaining. The phenomena of adsorption 
have not yet been fully studied. 

Adullam, Palestine, a town in the Shephe- 
lah, or southwestern Judean coast-land ; the cen¬ 
tre of a Canaanitish clan later fused with Judah- 
ite Hebrews, but not till after David’s time, 
when it was still <( outside Judah,” for which 
reason he and his 400 freebooters took refuge in 


ADULLAMITES —ADULT EDUCATION 


jts «stronghold» (not «cave,» a misreading 
which has led to many fruitless identifications 
of site and a familiar English nickname — see 
below) when outlawed by Saul (i Sam. xxii.). 
He also dwelt there when at war with the Phil¬ 
istines. Rehoboam fortified it. In Judas Mac- 
cabasus’ time it was in « Idumaea,» as he stopped 
there when he raided that territory. 

Adullamites, in English history, the Lib¬ 
erals who left their party in 1866 and joined the 
Conservatives, to oppose extension of the fran¬ 
chise by Mr. Gladstone and Earl Russell. John 
Bright in a speech compared them to the outlaws 
in the Cave of Adullam; to which Lord Elcho 
retorted that the band was hourly increasing, 
and would deliver the Parliament from the 
tyranny of Saul (Gladstone) and his armor- 
bearer (Bright). The group was also known 
as « The Cave.» 

Adult Education. The provision for edu¬ 
cation of adults that is widely extending at the 
beginning of the 20th century is the logical con¬ 
sequence of the belief that universal education 
is a necessity in a democracy, and that it is es¬ 
sentially an organic part of the true political 
and social structure. The 19th century wit¬ 
nessed the spread of educational opportunities 
open to all. These opportunities are evidenced 
by the increase of the length of the school term; 
the lengthening of the period of school life 
of children; the establishment of compulsory 
education; the increase in number of public 
high schools, and the establishment of colleges 
and universities, maintained either by munici¬ 
palities or States. These facts indicate that in 
a true democracy no limit is recognized in the 
field of education, and that educational oppor¬ 
tunity should be open to all, regardless of age 
or sex. Philosophically speaking, the provision 
for education of adults can be justified on the 
ground that the mind reaches its maturity long 
after the school days end, and that much of the 
best and most effective work has been done by 
those who have passed beyond middle age. Pro¬ 
vision for adult education, therefore, may be 
considered as having two distinct lines of de¬ 
velopment : First, to provide means for over¬ 
coming illiteracy, due to immigration or to in¬ 
sufficient education during the proper age; and 
second, a provision for a continuance of educa¬ 
tion as a means of culture, on the theory that 
education is life. 

The first form of provision for adult educa¬ 
tion established by municipalities has been by 
evening schools, and such schools are found in 
the United States and the leading countries of 
western Europe. These schools are either ele¬ 
mentary schools, in which the rudiments of an 
ordinary education are imparted, or high schools, 
in which systematic instruction is given in spe¬ 
cialties. The term of these schools, taking New 
York city as an example, is from 90 to 120 
nights, the session being two hours a night. 
There were, during the year 1902-3, in New 
York, 11 evening high schools, and 68 elementary 
schools, with an average attendance of about 
25,000. The total enrollment of pupils in all 
the evening schools of the United States, from 
the latest report of the commissioner of educa¬ 
tion, was 190,000. A new law has just gone into 
effect in New York which compels boys between 
14 and 16 years of age, who have not completed 
the regular day school course, but who are en¬ 


gaged in any useful employment or service, to 
attend the public evening schools for not less 
than six hours per week for a period not 
less than 16 weeks in each school year or cal¬ 
endar year. One of the most valuable features 
of evening school work, especially in great cities, 
is teaching the foreigners who come to these 
cities our language and our customs, and in¬ 
forming them of the nature of our government. 
More than 10,000 foreigners attended the even¬ 
ing schools of New York during the winter 
of 1902 for the purpose of studying the English 
language. 

Courses of instruction are also provided for 
the supplementing of the education of working- 
men. Types of these schools are the Mechan¬ 
ics’ Institute in England, after the model estab¬ 
lished by Dr. Birkbeck; the continuation schools 
that are established in Prussia and other German 
cities, and in the United States by such insti¬ 
tutions as the Cooper Union (q.v.) classes for 
science and art; the evening classes at the Pratt 
Institute (q.v.) ; the New York Trade Schools 
(q.v.), and the Hebrew Technical Institute. 
Instruction in these institutions is given on spe¬ 
cial lines and for the purpose of increasing the 
skill and general intelligence of the mechanic. 
In Germany this instruction is given either in 
the evening hours of week-days or on Sundays. 

Education for adults for the larger purpose 
of adding to the general culture of the mass of 
the people has taken other forms during the past 
20 years. In the United States the chief agents 
in adult education have been the Lowell Insti¬ 
tute (q.v.) ; the Chautauquan Movement (q.v.) ; 
the University Extension Movement (q.v.) ; the 
Public Lecture Movement; and the work of 
such institutions as the Brooklyn Institute 
of Arts and Sciences; The People’s Institute of 
New York; the League for Political Educa¬ 
tion ; and the People’s University Extension 
Society. The Lowell Institute was established 
in Boston in 1839, through the generosity of 
Mr. John Lowell, a merchant of Boston, who 
bequeathed half of his property to the support 
of public lectures for the benefit of his fellow 
citizens. The Lowell Institute has been the 
means of presenting the leading lecturers of the 
world to the citizens of Boston, and has pro¬ 
vided courses, not alone for the general public, 
but lectures for more advanced students, in¬ 
cluding instruction in science to the school 
teachers of Boston, and has furnished instruc¬ 
tion by lectures to workingmen in co-operation 
with the Wells Memorial Working Men’s In¬ 
stitute. 

The Chautauqua Literary and Scientific 
Circle was established in 1878, and had for its 
purpose the organization of adult education. 
In one of its earliest announcements it says: 
(( It is for high school and college graduates; for 
people who never entered either high school or 
college. Several of the members are over 80 
years of age, very few are under 18.® The fea¬ 
tures of the Chautauqua system of education are 
the general survey or college outlook; the four- 
years cycle and the unity of each year; that is, 
all readers in a given year read the same course. 
The course of studies includes history, natural 
science, and art. The seat of the Chautauqua 
Movement is Chautauqua, N. Y., where a great 
summer educational city annually assembles, and 
where religion and education go hand in hand. 
I he number of local reading circles in the past 


ADULT EDUCATION 


25 years has been about 10,000, and there are 
about 300 educational gatherings that are known 
as Chautauquas. 

The movement known as University Exten¬ 
sion is a general provision for the education of 
adults. Originating in England, the attention 
of the University Convocation in Albany, N. Y., 
July 1888, was called to the matter, and on 1 
May 1891 a bill was signed by the governor, 
appropriating $10,000 for the New York State 
organization of University Extension. This 
grant is the first case on record of a State ap¬ 
propriation for University Extension. Under 
this appropriation courses of lectures controlled 
by university authority were arranged, and Li¬ 
brary Extension by means of well-selected clas¬ 
sified libraries, suiting local needs. The Uni¬ 
versity Extension work now forms a part of the 
Home Education department of the University 
of the State of New York. According to the 
latest report, 394 courses of three or more lec¬ 
tures were givep during the year 1900. The 
American Society for the Extension of Univer¬ 
sity Teaching, which has its chief office^t Phil¬ 
adelphia, has been in operation since 1890. In 
the 10 years from 1890 to 1900 over 5,000 lec¬ 
tures were given, with a total attendance of 
more than 1,000,000. The University of Chi¬ 
cago, immediately after its opening, took part 
in the University Extension movement, and now 
the extension division of the University of Chi¬ 
cago forms an important department of its 
work. All the non-resident work connected 
with the University of Chicago is conducted 
through the extension division by means of 
lecture study courses, correspondence courses, 
study clubs, and evening and Saturday classes, 
and in the year 1900 it gave 17 courses of lectures 
in 13 different public school buildings. 

The Free Lecture Movement of New York, 
which is being followed in other cities, is the 
pioneer in an adaptation of University Extension 
in its best sense, to the purpose of educating all 
the people in a great city. The provision for the 
free lectures was made by an act of the legisla¬ 
ture in New York in 1889, authorizing the board 
of education of New York to provide for lectures 
to working men and working women, and an 
appropriation of $15,000 was made for the first 
year. Lectures were at first given in six school- 
houses, and the attendance during the first winter 
was a little over 20,000. In the year 1902-3 lec¬ 
tures were given in 128 different places, includ¬ 
ing not alone the assembly halls of schools, but 
halls of museums and in many cases church halls, 
with an attendance of 1,207,000. The sum ex¬ 
pended during the year 1902 was about $125,000, 
and New York therefore spends a greater sum 
than any other city for the education of adults. 

This recognition by the board of education of 
a great city of adult education as an integral 
part of its educational system, and its support 
from the general school fund, marks a great edu¬ 
cational advance. 1 he lectures are divided into 
two classes. First, those intended to give gen¬ 
eral culture, under which are included lectures 
on travel and on music (abundantly illustrated 
either by stereopticon or vocal and instrumental 
music), and other lectures on history, science, 
art and literature, which are given in courses of 
from six to eighteen accompanied by a quiz, ex¬ 
amination, syllabus and collateral reading. The 
lecturers include professors from the leading 


colleges and universities and other men who 
have become distinguished in their respective 
callings. Co-operation with the public library 
is established by means of lists of books posted 
in the various libraries which bear upon the 
lectures. A further extension of this work in 
New York has recently been made by the giving 
of lectfires in Italian and other foreign lan¬ 
guages to those ignorant of English, upon sub¬ 
jects relating to American life and institutions. 
As the population of our land is becoming more 
and more urban, the question of proper provision 
for adult education will gradually become more 
prominent in municipal administration, and the 
provision for such purpose can be defended on 
the ground of its necessity in a democracy and 
also as a means of furnishing rational joy to the 
people.' The example of New York has been 
followed by many of the adjoining cities and 
also by Boston and Milwaukee. Some agencies 
of adult education in New York are: 

(a) The People’s Institute, which has its 
seat in Cooper Union and provides lectures of 
an economic, social, and ethical character and 
arranges for discussions on these subjects. 

( b ) The People’s University Extension So¬ 
ciety, which has been in existence since 1897 
and works in co-operation with settlements, 
missions, mothers’ clubs, and other institutions, 
and arranges lectures on hygiene and sanitation, 
the care of children, civics, and American his¬ 
tory. 

The Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences 
received its charter in 1843, but began its great¬ 
est period of activity in 1887. This institute 
provides for courses of lectures in science and 
art, and maintains a library and art and science 
museum, and is supported by membership dues, 
and in the year 1901-2 the attendance at the 
lectures was 254,361. The city of New York 
in 1901 appropriated $300,000 toward the mu¬ 
seum of this institution. ■, 

In the cause of adult education a very im¬ 
portant factor now is the Young Men’s Christian 
Association. Throughout the United States, 
courses of study for men are established in con¬ 
nection with all the main associations. Provision 
for instruction in mechanical subjects, literature, 
civil government, citizenship, form a feature of 
such courses of study. The league for Political 
Education in New York has for its special 
object the study of political and social science, 
and work for municipal and national progress, 
and maintains day lectures and classes for 
men and women, and evening lectures and classes 
primarily for men. The summer schools that 
have come into existence as a result of the Chau¬ 
tauqua movement form a valuable feature of 
adult education. Prominent among these schools 
in America is the Catholic Summer School 
which meets at Plattsburg, on Lake Champlain. 
The objects of the school are to increase the 
facilities for busy people, as well as for those 
of leisure, to pursue lines of study in various de¬ 
partments of knowledge, and opportunities for 
instruction are provided by lectures from emi¬ 
nent specialists. The Columbian Catholic Sum¬ 
mer School assembles at Madison, Wis., and the 
summer assembly of the Jewish Chautauqua at 
Atlantic City. The University of Chicago re¬ 
cently adopted the summer school idea, and now 
academic work goes on during the entire year; 
and Harvard University and Columbia Univer¬ 
sity both now maintain summer schools. 


ADULTERATION 


The recognition of the right of the adult to 
•education will have its influence on the character 
-of schoolhouses that hereafter are to be built, 
and already many of the newer school buildings 
in New York are equipped with auditoriums 
with ample provision for adults. Laboratories, 
too, will be provided in which further educa¬ 
tion in science may be given, so that technical 
instruction, such a great need in an industrial 
age, may be encouraged. The extension of the 
schoolhouse will make it, as Horace Mann said, 
mot only a nursery for children but a place of 
intelligent resort for men. The public school- 
house when used for the broad purpose of the 
instruction of youth and the education of the 
adult fulfills its real mission. See Education. 

Henry M. Leipziger, 

Supervisor of Lectures, New York Board of 
Education. 

Adulteration (« making otherwise »), de¬ 
ceiving buyers of goods as to their quality by 
secretly adding or taking away constituents. 
The element of deception must be present: open¬ 
ly selling any mixture, however poor, is not adul¬ 
teration legally or morally. In usage the term is 
restricted to food products, drugs, and dye¬ 
stuffs ; the adulteration of coinage is termed 
«counterfeiting» (q.v.) that of unsound meat, 
fish, etc., « doctoring,» a term which, with « so¬ 
phistication,® is also used for wines and liquors. 
Adulterated woolen fabrics are colloquially but 
not always properly known as <( shoddy.® 1 he 
•object is to gain more profit: with costly wares, 
either by diluting them with cheaper ones, or by 
removing some valuable element for separate 
sale; with cheap ones, to make them look like 
■or have the flavor of costlier ones; with spoiled 
or damaged ones, to make them appear sound. 
Most adulterations are not directly injurious to 
health, the public being cheated rather than 
poisoned, and it is to some extent a co-operator 
in the deception, as the cost of wholly pure ar¬ 
ticles would greatly curtail buying; on the other 
hand, it is often forced into such co-operation 
hy inability to find or know the good when 
willing to pay for it, and wastes its money 
by paying for a pure article and receiving 
an adulterated one. And as the reduction 
of the nutritive value of food is itself a 
great evil; as the extent or harmfulness of 
adulterations cannot be known offhand, and 
tends always to grow worse as the maker grows 
greedier and his character deteriorates from los¬ 
ing his self-respect (itself a great social evil) ; 
as honest dealers are not only prejudiced by un¬ 
fair competition, and suspected of fraud when 
qualities are poor, but often driven into the 
same course in self-defense; and as hasty addi¬ 
tions of cheap materials are always liable to 
come from diseased sources and menace public 
safety,— modern legislation constantly broadens 
its scope in dealing with this offense alike from 
a pecuniary, a sanitary, and a moral standpoint. 
Ignorance is no excuse to a dealer who sells 
adulterated wares under the ordinary trade title: 
it is a fraud at common law, and he may be 
compelled to take back the goods or pay dam¬ 
ages. 

The history of adulteration would probably 
be coexistent with that of trade. We know that 
it was practised by the Greeks and Romans, and 
the comic dramatists have diverting references 


to the « doctoring » of stale fish. English stat¬ 
utes exist from 1266 with penalties for debasing 
beer or wine and selling inferior bread or meat, 
while tea (see below) had later a special statute, 
and the law-makers have never ceased struggling 
with the problem. But the first great general 
agitation was in 1851, when the London Lancet 
produced a great effect by a special investiga¬ 
tion and publishing analyses and names of 
dealers, and the first parliamentary commission 
was appointed. The first general adulteration 
act was passed in i860. 

The chief articles subject to adulteration have 
been, first of course the great staples of life, 
flour and bread, milk, butter, and cheese, with 
beer, wines, liquors, and tobacco, staple in use if 
not need; relishes and seasonings, as sugar, 
honey, preserves, vinegar, pickles, condiments, 
and spices; oil and lard; tea, coffee, cocoa, 
and chocolate; confectionery; drugs and dye¬ 
stuffs. The selection and extent of adultera¬ 
tions vary indefinitely with place and time: as 
cost or popular wealth differs in different coun¬ 
tries and epochs, adulterations common in one 
place or generation are almost unknown in an¬ 
other. 

Beer. — The objects of its adulteration are 
three: to give artificial strength to weak beer, 
to disguise the badness of poor or spoiled beer, 
and to keep it from spoiling. The mineral adul¬ 
terants used have been among the worst pos¬ 
sible, as arsenic (the cause of some known 
deaths and very likely others) and sulphate of 
copper. Picric and salicylic acids are used 
for disguise: the latter is prohibited in Ger¬ 
many and is certainly liable to injure the digestive 
system. Alum, potash, cream of tartar, and salt, 
used to make beer keep, are not regarded as dele¬ 
terious adulterants proper. Wild cherries, flax¬ 
seed, various herbs and foliages, etc., are em¬ 
ployed,— cheats but not injurious. 

Butter. — A formidable list may be made of 
the butter adulterants at different times and 
places,— chalk, gypsum, alum, and borax, boracic 
and salicylic acids, glucose, flour, etc.; but for 
practical purposes they may be reduced to water, 
buttermilk, cheese, salt, and oleomargarine (q.v.) 
as increasers of bulk, with arnotto, aniline yel¬ 
low, etc., to improve the color. The latter is 
hardly adulteration either in bad intent or bad 
effect: the public universally connects a yellow 
tint with richness in cream,— quite irrationally, 
as the milk of many cows gives butter as white 
as tallow, yet of perfect quality and taste,— and 
the harmless pigments merely remove incorrect 
prejudices. The first four others are equally 
innocuous (save that buttermilk makes it grow 
rancid more quickly: it is usually carelessness or 
incompetence rather than fraud), and are mere 
diluents. In normal butter, water should not 
exceed 12 per cent and salt 5 per cent. Oleo¬ 
margarine is not even an inferior product in any 
respect: its nutritive value equals that of butter, 
and it keeps better; and the severity of the laws 
regulating its manufactuie and inspection gua¬ 
rantee its quality beyond that of any other 
manufactured article. Only a small percentage 
is directly bought for table use, the vast major¬ 
ity being sold to dairymen to churn with their 
cream into ostensible butter. Its use as an adul¬ 
terant concerns business interests, not public 
health. 


ADULTERATION 


Cheese .— American and English cheeses are 
practically not adulterated. Fancy foreign 
cheeses, as the Swiss, etc., often contain coloring 
matter and potato meal. 

Cocoa and Chocolate. — The chief adulterants 
are starch and sugar; but they have also con¬ 
tained wheat and potato flour, sawdust, oils and 
fats, and other things. The tests are for the¬ 
obromine (the characteristic principle of the 
cacao bean), fat, starch, inorganic matter, etc. 

Coffee. — Its usual adulterations are seeds 
(roasted peas, beans, etc.), or roots (chicory, 
dandelion, carrots, turnips, parsnips, etc.), with 
caramel to color their gray tint. All these are 
mere diluents; though there are some who 
actually prefer an admixture of chicory for its 
flavor, though it gives black, bitter, and muddy 
grounds. It and the roots may be easily de¬ 
tected by putting a little of the sample into a 
glass of water: each bit of chicory or other root 
will be soon the centre of a yellowish-brown 
cloud, which will rapidly spread till the water is 
all colored. There are also chemical tests for 
both tea and coffee, by determining the amount 
of theine or caffeine, the percentage of matter 
soluble in water, treatment with hot mineral 
acids which increase the sugar in coffee but not 
in chicory, etc. 

Confectionery. — The extreme cheapness of 
sugar has practically put an end to the adultera¬ 
tion of all but the very poorest grades of can¬ 
dies ; and those mainly with the harmless terra 
alba, or pipe-clay. 

Distilled Liquors. — Whiskey, brandy, and 
rum are often purely factitious, being made from 
caramel and dilute alcohol, and given the char¬ 
acteristic flavors by ethers of various sorts and 
fusel oil (often left in genuine whiskeys, etc., 
from carelessness or grudging the cost of puri¬ 
fication, and recognizable by its nauseous smell 
when a little of it is evaporated in the hand). 

Drugs. — The adulteration in each case is 
special, with some article looking like the gen¬ 
uine but inert. This is of course potential 
manslaughter wholesale, as each prescription 
made from such materials might cost a life. 
Unfortunately, a large part of the drugs, are 
imported, and the fraud is probably committed 
before they come to this country at all. 

Dyestuffs. — These are very variously adul¬ 
terated with cheaper dyes, determinable if at all 
by expert chemical examination. 

Flour and Bread. — Flour is not much adul¬ 
terated in the United States, though it is in Eu¬ 
rope, where the masses are poorer. The chief 
admixture is ground gypsum or other minerals, 
which can be detected with the microscope; 
diluents but harmless. The chief illegitimate ad¬ 
ditions to bread are alum and sulphate of copper, 
to whiten it or correct sourness. Alum in bak¬ 
ing-powder is not thought objectionable, the 
heat of baking converting the mixture into in¬ 
soluble aluminum phosphate; and by itself its 
chief harm is in disguising the sourness of the 
bread. Copper sulphate is always dangerous. 
Both are tested by dissolving gelatine, laid for 
some hours on a sop of the bread, in a wood- 
alcohol tincture of logwood with ammonium 
carbonate, which turns blue for alum and green 
for the copper salt. 

Honey — Strained honey, a costly article when 
pure, is heavily adulterated with glucose syrup 
and sugar, cane sugar, corn-starch, etc. The 

Vol. I— 6 


taste is a better guide to these than any analysis, 
as that of native flower-fed honey is beyond 
counterfeiting; but chemical analysis can detect 
most of them. Still better is the buying of comb 
honey. The charge has been made by English 
chemists that American combs are often made 
of paraffine and filled with glucose; this is most 
improbable, but a very simple test will decide it. 
The microscope will show pollen grains in the 
real, and warm sulphuric acid will blacken bees¬ 
wax but not paraffine. 

Lard. — Hogs’ lard is adulterated with stear- 
ine, tallow, and cottonseed oil; other vegetable 
oils, and the lard from animals dying a natural 
death, are sometimes added, but have no com¬ 
mercial importance if true. 

Milk. — The adulterations of this are re¬ 
ducible to five: diluting, skimming, replacing the 
skimmed cream with cheaper animal fats, color¬ 
ing to give it the look of that cream, and adding 
preservatives or correctives to keep it from 
souring or to sweeten its taste when beginning 
to turn. Its use as the staff of life for millions of 
children and invalids makes its purity one of 
the most exigent demands, and its bad quality 
or innutritiousness a cause of enormous amounts 
of disease and death. In some great cities pure 
milk is simply not attainable for the masses at 
any price within the means even of ordinary 
workmen: the dairy districts within reach of 
the city by train, during any time it will keep 
sweet and not churn, cannot supply enough for 
all, and it is inevitably diluted with water, and 
more or less of it treated with chemicals. To 
this is added what is not at all necessary, the 
skimming off of the cream to sell separately; 
both the first and the last heavily reducing its 
nutritive value. Still worse, the water used is 
always liable to contamination from discharges 
of diseased bodies (diphtheria, typhoid, and 
scarlet-fever outbreaks have been repeatedly 
traced to this cause, sometimes merely from 
cooling leaky cans in the tainted water), from 
decaying animal or vegetable matter, or from 
the germs with which street dirt is laden. (The 
contamination from sores on cows kept in un¬ 
sanitary conditions belongs to another subject.) 
As to the effect of the adulterations: Skim- 
milk is a cheap and valuable food for blood- 
making protein, as evinced by the cheese made 
from it; but it should be sold as such, otherwise 
infants and invalids who need the cream may 
be injured. The fats simply do not replace the 
characteristic and valuable qualities of the 
cream. Of the chemicals, formaldehyde (also 
used for preserving other foods) is dangerous 
and should not be permitted. Borax, salt, and 
carbonate of soda are also used; neither they 
nor the arnotto used to give the milk a cream 
color are harmful in themselves, but only as dis¬ 
guising the real quality of the milk sold. Chalk 
and calves’ brains are probably jocular figments. 

The method of testing for dilution is‘by the 
lactometer, to determine specific gravity, which 
is lowered by admixture of water; in exact re¬ 
verse, it detects skimming (which increases 
specific gravity by removing the lighter cream) 
by showing normal specific gravity when looks 
and taste are inferior. Skimming is also in¬ 
ferred from increase in transparency, as indicated 
by the lactoscope: opaque normal milk needs 
thinning with a certain percentage of water be¬ 
fore a dark object, or black line drawn on a 


ADULTERATION 


white surface, will show through; the less 
water a given sample needs for this visibility, 
the less cream it contains. For more precise de¬ 
termination the chemist finds the amount of 
solids in a sample by evaporating a mixture of 
milk and heated sand and weighing the residue; 
the amount of fats, by dissolving them out with 
ether and evaporating. Watering may often be 
detected by testing for nitrates, which milk does 
not contain and most water does, and contam¬ 
inated water almost always. The detection of 
animal fats used to replace cream is not easy, 
though the butyrates have some individual quali¬ 
ties. 

Mustard. — This is perhaps the most heavily 
and universally adulterated article in the mar¬ 
ket : only a small percentage of it is pure, and 
even that has had its abundant essential oil, 
which makes it difficult to grind, expressed 
from it. For one harmless adulteration the 
public is responsible, as for butter-color and 
pickle-green: that of turmeric or ochre to give it 
the bright yellow demanded by customers, while 
real mustard is very dull. But it is regularly 
diluted with starch,— wheat, corn, or rice,— 
rape-seed, flaxseed, old turnip- or radish-seed 
unfit to plant. For starch, easy tests are iodine, 
which turns it blue, and its thickening in boil¬ 
ing water; for mineral matter, the chemist deter¬ 
mines the amount of ash. For the others, 
though the microscope is useful, the best remedy 
is to pay for a known brand,— which indeed is 
best for all. 

Oil. — A large part of the so-called olive oil 
of the market is cottonseed, peanut, or mustard 
oil, or greatly mixed with it: probably the equal 
in quality and taste of the genuine (as it is in¬ 
distinguishable), but a fraud as exorbitant in 
price through deception. The use of lard oil is 
probably a figment, that of petroleum oils cer¬ 
tainly so. Tests: Nitric acid colors the adul¬ 
terant oils, but not olive, and sulphuric acid 
raises their temperature higher. 

Pickles and Canned Goods. — The public de¬ 
mand for bright green pickles has been gratified 
by boiling them in copper kettles with vinegar 
and some alum, the vinegar forming the highly 
poisonous acetate of copper with the kettle, and 
coloring the pickles green: it is easily tested by 
dipping a piece of clean bright iron in the pickle, 
which will gain a coating of copper if it is 
present. The same process is said to be gone 
through with peas; and even the copper salts 
directly added, which would be a basis for a 
criminal prosecution. The presence of metallic 
salts from the can — which would result from 
careless canning and not deliberate addition — 
has been thoroughly demonstrated to be harm¬ 
less : oxid of tin would make the canned food 
too nauseous to eat long before it reached even 
a medicinal proportion, and oxid of lead has 
not been found in any quantity. By far the 
greatest danger in canned foods is bad canning, 
causing putrefactive ptomaines to be created, 
which have caused many deaths. 

Preserves, Jams, Jellies. — Gelatine and glue 
are often used to help the fruit to jelly (not 
always an easy thing to assure even by experts), 
and are often not restricted to the amount need¬ 
ed ; the goods are also artificially colored, and 
flavored with so-called «fruit oils,)) chemical 
analysis being needed to determine the con¬ 
stituents. Zinc oxid has been found in pre¬ 


serves, from its use to make covers of jars air¬ 
tight. 

Spices: Nutmeg, Pepper, Cinnamon, Mace, 
Cloves, Allspice, etc.—Whole spices are gener¬ 
ally thought safe from adulteration; but they are 
not, as inferior members of the same species may 
be substituted for them, with immense loss of 
quality, exactly as if crab-apples were sold for 
dessert apples, i hus, wild nutmegs are often 
sold for the cultivated ones, and cassia almost 
always for cinnamon. The method of detection 
is to know the genuine. For instance, the best 
nutmegs are about an inch long and shaped like 
a damson plum, weigh one-seventh to one-fifth 
of an ounce, and exude oil liberally when pricked 
with a pin; the wild ones are small and pointed 
and have less oil and fragrance. The genuine or 
Ceylon cinnamon is a thin small roll, of delicate 
fragrance which lasts long in the mouth, and tears 
rather than breaks; the cassia or Chinese cin¬ 
namon is much coarser and thicker, breaks but 
does not tear, is rather mucilaginous when 
chewed, and has a strong woody flavor. In 
1875 the United States imported $4,073 worth of 
cinnamon and $279,250 worth of cassia, or nearly 
seventy times as much. Cloves are adulterated 
by making them absorb water, of which they will 
take up a great deal, to increase their weight. 

The immense adulteration of ground spices 
makes their convenience a costly purchase. At 
the outset, sawdust and starch are added even to 
the best, to absorb the oil which makes them 
difficult to grind ; and it rarely stops there. Of 12 
specimens called (( ground cinnamon }> examined 
by the New York Board of Health in 1883, only 
three contained any cinnamon whatever, and 
even those were largely mixed with cassia and 
sawdust; the others were almost entirely com¬ 
posed of those ingredients, two were sawdust 
with a very little cassia, and one was pure saw¬ 
dust. Seventy per cent of the allspice, 70 per 
cent of the pepper, 82 per cent of the cinnamon, 
57 per cent of the cassia, 76 per cent of the 
cloves, and 66 per cent of the ginger, was adul¬ 
terated. The most universal adulterations are 
starch for bulk, mustard for pungency, and tur¬ 
meric for color. Black pepper demands a spe¬ 
cial note, as it is the exception rather than the 
rule to find it pure. A large percentage of the 
samples examined in the past have contained no 
pepper at all. « Pepper dust » (the sweepings of 
warehouses, in trade a regular article of sale as 
« P. D.»), mustard husks, ground wheat, corn, 
or rice, capsicum, and even gypsum and sand, 
have been found in it. Red or cayenne pepper is 
much purer than black pepper and is mainly 
adulterated with flour. 

Sugar .— White cane sugar has become so 
cheap that it does not pay to adulterate it, and 
the old adulterants like marble dust, terra 
alba, etc., have practically disappeared except 
in cheap confectionery. Sand was never much 
used except in brown sugar (4 per cent has 
been said to be unavoidable in Manila sugars, 
but any percentage is indictable if the direct 
addition can be proved), and glucose from saw¬ 
dust has taken its place: equally healthful with 
cane sugar, but of course a fraud as less sweet 
and a deception. 

Tea.— Owing to its cost and the difficulty of 
judging its quality by the eye or taste (Adam 
Smith has some acute remarks on this), tea has 
always been a favorite article of adulteration 


ADULTERY —AD VALOREM 


from its introduction into the West; fortunately, 
more than most products the price is an index 
of the quality, and it is easy to procure a good 
article by paying for it, the supply of good qual¬ 
ity not being limited by nature as with foreign 
wines. It has the distinction of having had a 
special law passed to prevent its adulteration, 
and for the most curious reason imaginable: the 
Act of 17 Geo. III. alleges that the admixture 
of the leaves of sloe, ash, elder, and other trees 
and shrubs with it was working great injury 
to the timber and undergrowth. Being a luxury 
whose cost presses heavily on the very poor, its 
substitutes within the means of that class have 
usually none of the characteristic properties, 
good or bad, of the genuine, and are mere 
flavored warm drinks; curiously, the only 
poisonous adulteration ever alleged against it 
(groundlessly), Hiat of obtaining its green color 
from copper pans, was against the very costliest 
brand of all. It has been said, however, that tea 
was « faced» with Prussian blue and indigo; 
if so, the time has gone by. But the.stuff sold 
to the poor, besides spent tea-leaves, and those 
of various plants as above, has been found to 
contain masses of sheer dirt, sweepings, brick- 
dust, etc., unwholesome and liable to contain 
disease germs. See Tea. 

Tobacco .— Color and flavor are often given 
to inferior grades by. artificial means. No leaf 
is known which will counterfeit the tobacco leaf 
outright. Snuff, however, lends itself readily to 
debasement by colored powder, and lime and 
chromate of lead have been found in it. 

Vinegar .— The most usual form of adultera¬ 
tion is thinning down with water, then restoring 
the lost strength with sulphuric, muriatic, nitric, 
or other cheap mineral acids. The first is 
easily detected by the considerable precipitate 
when barium chloride is added; the second by a 
white flocculent precipitate on adding a few 
drops of solution of silver nitrate. Nitric acid 
needs special chemical tests. 

Wines .— Naturally their chief adulterants 
are water and alcohol, to increase bulk or 
strength; colors and flavors, astringents, etc.,— 
caramel, logwood, glycerine, syrups, etc.,— to 
give artificial qualities resembling reputed 
wines; salicylic acid to prevent souring; gypsum 
to precipitate organic matters that muddy the 
wine (the latter injurious as likely to turn into 
acid potassium sulphate) ; sugar in the must, to 
increase the alcohol, etc. Natural colors like 
fruit juices and cochineal are harmless; aniline 
colors not always. The chemical tests are too 
special to be detailed in a popular work. It 
should be said, howeyer, that by far the leading 
adulteration consists in the wine not being real 
fermented grape-juice at all: this applies only to 
foreign wines, the American being generally 
pure, and practically the only pure wines at 
moderate price on the market. Real wine from 
foreign vineyards is a costly article, and the 
better grades are pledged years ahead to the great 
foreign courts, noble houses, and private Euro¬ 
pean buyers. Cheap foreign wines should be 
understood from the outset to be made either 
from exhausted grape-skins or raisins treated 
with alcohol and water (it is not for dessert 
use that the great majority of the California 
raisin crop is exported to France), or from pear- 
juice (much the greater part of the so-called 
French « champagne » in America being perry). 


(Ellen H. Richards, < Food Materials and 
Their Adulterations,) an admirable household 
manual of food selection and preparation, Bos¬ 
ton 1886; < Health in Diet, Health Exhibition 
Literature,> Vol. V., London 1884; Battershall, 
<Food Adulteration and its Detection,) New 
York 1887; Wedderburn, popular treatise on 
<Food Adulterations,) Washington 1890; Wiley. 
Richardson, Crampton, and Spencer, < Foods 
and Food Adulterants,) 7 parts, Washington 
1887-92; etc.) 

Adultery, unlawful intercourse between 
two married persons not standing to each other 
in the relation of husband and wife, or between 
a married person and another unmarried. In 
the former case, it has been called double, and 
in the latter single adultery. Unlawful volun¬ 
tary sexual intercourse between two persons, 
one of whom at least is married, is the essence 
of the crime in all cases. In general it is suffi¬ 
cient if either party is married, and the crime of 
the married party will be adultery, while that of 
the unmarried party will be fornication. In the 
United States there is a wide diversity in the 
laws relating to this offense. In some States it 
has been made a crime, while in others civil 
proceedings are allowed substantially similar to 
those of the English law. Varied punishments, 
mostly of a very severe character, have in nearly 
all countries and ages been inflicted on those 
who have committed this offense. In some cases 
it has been deemed lawful for a husband or the 
woman’s father to kill the guilty person if taken 
in the act. By the law of England the slaughter 
of the offending parties in such cases is deemed 
manslaughter of a not very aggravated sort. In 
English law the act is punishable only by the 
censure of the ecclesiastical courts, but when 
committed by a wife it is regarded as a civil 
injury, and an action for criminal conversation 
may be brought by the husband against the para¬ 
mour. Adultery is now considered in England 
a ground for total divorce. 

Advance Guard. See Tactics. 

Advaita, a-dwAi'ta, a philosophical school of 
India, founded by Sankarujurya (or Cankara- 
carya), who flourished about the middle of the 
8th century a.d., or earlier. Its principal doc¬ 
trines are that the human soul is not essentially 
different from God, but that it is imprisoned in 
the body from which at death it is released to 
return to the impersonal God, and that the ma¬ 
terial world is not different from God. Its ad¬ 
herents are called Advaitavadin, or Confessors 
of Monism. 

Ad Valor'em ( (< according to value))), a 
term denoting the method by which customs 
taxes are determined at a percentage of the 
value of the imported article at its place of ex¬ 
port, on the seller’s oath and the appraiser’s 
estimate. Theoretically, this is much fairer 
than a specific duty (on a unit of measure, as 
pound, yard, bushel, bale, etc.), since the costlier 
pay their equal percentage with the cheaper; 
but in practice, it has serious drawbacks, annoys 
both sellers and government much, defrauds the 
latter somewhat and its people a great deak 
Values are unstable, the exporter is interested 
to understate them, and the officials are eager 
to scent fraud, whence much friction and many 
lawsuits. As to the last item, general tariffs are 
apt to produce an appearance of moderate aver- 


ADVANCEMENT — ADVENTISTS 


age by equating a low duty on grades of slight 
consumption with a high one on those chiefly 
used; a deception impossible on specific duties, 
which at least must declare themselves. The 
customs officers much prefer these also. The 
United States tariffs are of both kinds, some ar¬ 
ticles having a combination of the two. 

Advancement, in law, is a gift by antici¬ 
pation from a parent to a child of the whole or 
a part of what it is supposed such child would 
inherit on the death of the parent. An advance¬ 
ment can only be made by a parent to a child 
(2 Jones, 137), or in some States by statute 
to a grandchild. (4 Kent Comm. 419.) The 
effect of an advancement is to reduce the dis¬ 
tributive share of the child by the amount so 
received, estimating its value at the time of re¬ 
ceipt. In some States, however, the child has 
his option to retain the advancement and aban¬ 
don his distributive share. 

Advancement of Learning, The, by Fran¬ 
cis Bacon, 1605, the original title being < Of the 
Proficience and Advancement of Learning, Di¬ 
vine and Human.) This book, received with 
great favor by the court and by scholars, was 
afterward enlarged and published in Latin with 
the title < De Augmentis Scientiarum,) as the 
first part of a monumental labor, < The Installa¬ 
tion of the Sciences.) of which the second part 
was the still famous < Novum Organum,) on 
which Bacon’s fame as a philosopher rests. 

Advent, the period of some weeks before 
the Nativity, observed in all the apostolic 
churches as a season of solemnity of emotion 
and action, marriages and public amusements 
being interdicted or reprobated; in the Roman 
Catholic Church also a season of fasting and 
penance. In the Western Churches — Roman, 
Lutheran, English, and Protestant Episcopal — 
it is of four weeks, beginning the Sunday next 
after 26 November, or that nearest St. Andrew’s 
Day (30 November) ; in the Greek Church it is 
six weeks, beginning 11 November, St. Martin’s 
Day. Our first notice of it is in the 6th century, 
at the Synod of Lerida (524) ; and two sermons 
on it in 542 show that it was then in general ob¬ 
servance. In that century also the Eastern and 
Western Churches, following the Nestorians, 
made it the beginning of the ecclesiastical year 
instead of Easter. Its four Sundays were be¬ 
lieved to have been introduced into the calendar 
by Gregory the Great; and to have reference to 
Christ’s fourfold coming early spoken of — in 
the flesh, at the hour of death to his faithful 
followers, at the fall of Jerusalem, and at the 
day of judgment. On these grounds the gospels 
were chosen for the four Sundays. Its ordering 
was settled in the Western Church by Charle¬ 
magne’s « Homilarium.)) 

Advent, Second. See Millennium. 

Adventists (often spoken of as « Second- 
Adventists,® and formerly as « Millerites »), a 
sect founded by William Miller (q.v.), begin¬ 
ning with his preaching in 1831, on no doctrinal 
creed or theory of ritual or church government, 
but the belief in the speedy coming of Christ to 
reign on the earth: a persuasion shared by so 
many hundred thousands in many sects,— form¬ 
ing indeed an essential foundation-stone of one 
considerable body, the Catholic Apostolic.— that 
it hardly seems a basis for a separate church; 


and in fact it is not one, but six, each with a 
special creed and organization. Mr. Miller’s 
study of the Biblical prophecies, especially the 
Book of Daniel, had convinced him that the 
coming was to be between 21 March 1843 and 
21 March 1844; after this time had passed, he 
was led to believe that he had erred by a year 
through mistaking the Jewish year for the 
Roman, which would be 1844, the exact date 
(the prophecies having given it even to an hour 
if we understood them) being 24-5 October. 
Vast multitudes, many being first baptized by 
immersion, assembled in different places (one 
group on an island in the Connecticut River 
above Hartford) to welcome the occasion and 
the Saviour (not however in ascension robes, as 
usually stated, or not generally) ; one lady went 
to Palestine to meet her Saviour first; some in 
the fervor of their faith gave away their prop¬ 
erty ; and the excitement scarcely flagged till 
far into November. There was a « Shut-Door » 
faction, who believed that on the tenth day Christ 
had shut the door, and the «tenth-day » debate 
and literature were considerable; one of « Feet- 
Washers ”; and in the shock of disappointment, 
the Shakers received considerable accessions. 
On 20 April 1845 Mr. Miller called a convention 
at Albany, N. Y., of the still faithful (over 
50,000 in all), which issued a declaration of be¬ 
lief and adopted the name of Adventists. The 
declaration was that Christ will come soon, but at 
an unknown time; that the dead both just and 
unjust will arise, and with the resurrection of 
the saints the Millennium will begin ; but that 
there is no promise of the world’s conversion, 
and the saints do not enter into their inheritance 
at death. Mr. Miller died in 1849, but the sect 
has maintained its vitality with remarkable per¬ 
sistence in the face of repeated disappointments, 
several other periods having aroused wide hopes 
among them. They now, however, in general 
fix no specific date, but like their fellows in other 
Churches await the hour in the Lord’s good 
time. Their Church government is congrega¬ 
tional, save that the Seventh Day Adventists 
and the Church of God (originally one) have a 
general conference which is supreme. Their bap¬ 
tism is by immersion. 

Their branches are: (1) The Evangelical 
Adventists, formed 1845. who believe in the 
resurrection of the saints first to eternal bliss, 
and the wicked last to eternal torment, but that 
all are conscious after death while waiting. (2) 
The Advent Christians, organized 1861, who be¬ 
lieve that the dead are unconscious, that the 
wicked are punished by annihilation, and that 
salvation is free to all who meet its conditions 
before death. They are chiefly located in New 
England, and their literature is published by the 
American Millennial Association, Boston. They 
maintain home and extensive foreign missions; 
the former aided by the <( Helpers’ Union,® a wo¬ 
man’s auxiliary. (3) The Seventh-Day Advent¬ 
ists (q.v.), formed in 1845, who believe as (2) con¬ 
cerning the dead; that the gift of prophecy still 
exists, and was accorded to Mrs. Ellen G. White; 
that the United States is the Two-Horned Beast: 
that 1843 was a real fulfillment of prophecy, 
namely, the «cleansing of the sanctuary» and 
the beginning of the « investigative j udgment » ; 
and that total abstinence, vegetarianism, and 
hygiene are part of religion. This is by far the 
strongest of all. Its headquarters are at Battle 


ADVERB — ADVERTISING 


Creek, Mich., and its members are spread 
throughout the United States, being especially 
strong in the West, and numerous in other 
countries as well as America, having a mis¬ 
sionary society active in all parts of the globe. 
It has seven publishing houses, in America, Eu¬ 
rope, and Australia, and sanitariums and semi¬ 
naries in a number of States. Its members 
are spread throughout the Atlantic States. 

Four camp-meetings are held each year, in New 
England and Virginia. Home missions are sup¬ 
ported by an adult and a juvenile society. The 
publishing house is at Springfield, Mass. 

(4) The Church of God, formed 1864-5 

by a split from (3), on refusal to hold Mrs. 
White inspired or the United States the 
Beast; otherwise its beliefs are the same. It 
is located chiefly in the West and South¬ 

west, and has a publishing house at White 
Cloud, Mich., and a sanitarium at Stanberry, Mo. 

(5) The Life and Advent Union, organized 
i860, which believes that the wicked never wake 
from their sleep of death. (6) The Churches of 
God in Jesus Christ («Age-to-Come Advent¬ 
ists®), who believe in the establishment of the 
kingdom of God on earth, with Christ as king 
and the saints partakers with him, the annihila¬ 
tion of the wicked, and the restoration of Is¬ 
rael. They are established in various parts of 
the United States and Canada. 

The following is a summary of the size and 
activities of the various United States Advent¬ 
ist bodies in 1900: — 


Denominations. Churches. Ministers. Communi¬ 

cants. 

1. Evangelicals . 30 34 1*147 

2 . Advent Christians ... 610 912 26,500 

3. Seventh Day . 1,494 3^6 57,539 

4. Church of God. 26 19 647 

5. Life and Advent Un¬ 

ion . 28 60 3,800 

6. Churches of God in 

Jesus Christ . 95 94 2,872 

Adverb. See Grammar. 


Adverse Possession, a possession against 
any other claimant. It is the enjoyment of land, 
or such estate as lies in grant, under such cir¬ 
cumstances as indicate that such enjoyment has 
commenced and continued under an assertion or 
color of right on the part of the possessor. 

In a majority of the States of the Union, 
when such possession has been actual and has 
been adverse for 20 years, of which the jury 
are to judge from the circumstances, the law 
raises a presumption of a grant. This presump¬ 
tion, however, arises only when the use or occu¬ 
pation would otherwise have been unlawful. 

Such possession, however, must be open, 
notorious, visible, exclusive, and continuous. 
But possession is not adverse when both parties 
claim under the same title, as if a man seized of 
certain land in fee have issue two sons and die 
seised, and one of the sons enter by abatement 
into the land, the statute of limitations will not 
operate against the other son; for when the 
abator entered into the land of his father, before 
entry made by his brother, the law intends that 
he entered claiming as heir to his father, by 
which title the other son also claims. 

Adversity Hume. See Hume, Joseph. 

Advertisements of Elizabeth, orders issued 
by Matthew Parker, Archbishop of Canterbury, 
in 1566, to enforce dignity and uniformity in the 


conduct of Common Prayer and the administra¬ 
tion of the sacraments; prescribing the wearing 
of the surplice and college cap by the clergy', 
and of the cope in cathedrals and collegiate 
churches. They were so entirely in accord with 
Elizabeth’s known views that the Archbishop 
had no doubt of her sanction; but after a year’s 
waiting and copious correspondence with her 
minister Cecil (Burghley), he could not extract 
an official guaranty and was obliged to assume 
personal responsibility. Their modern importance 
springs from the quarrel in the English Church 
over ritual and their varying interpretation by 
the High and Low parties. In the Ridsdale case 
of 1877, the latter, headed by Lord Selborne, 
held that they prescribed absolutely the vest¬ 
ments to be worn, and were infringed by addi¬ 
tions; the former, through James Parker, held 
them merely a minimum for decency. 

Advertising. From French Avertir, to no¬ 
tify. Originally, advertising implied mere pub¬ 
lication, a notice for an individual, or class, such 
as legal advertisements. The word, however, is 
now generally applied to the advertisement of 
merchandise to the public at large, through 
periodicals, circulars, posters, painted signs, 
electrical display, etc. In its present sense ad¬ 
vertising is a powerful and legitimate force in 
the commercial world and in the distribution of 
commodities, and it has been designated as the 
literature of persuasion. Its volume in the 
United States figured in dollars is greater than 
any other line of business except banking, insur¬ 
ance and transportation. 

History of Advertising .— The rudiments of 
advertising as it is practised to-day for the pro¬ 
motion of commerce can be traced back as far 
as commerce itself. With the invention of the 
rudest forms of writing came advertisements 
such as the rewards for runaway slaves. These 
were written on papyri and well-preserved copies 
have been exhumed at Thebes. Before writing 
was developed advertising by means of criers 
and sign-boards existed. The latter have been 
used in all ages for the information of the illiter¬ 
ate. Shops in ancient Pompeii had terra-cotta 
signs, showing a goat to denote a milk-seller’s 
stall, or two men at sword-play to indicate a 
fencing school. Old tavern signs like the (( Star 
and Garter )} are a mediaeval form of the same 
species of advertisement. All shops in London 
and Paris had such picture-advertisements in 
the Middle Ages, so that servants unable to 
read might find them. Until the invention of 
printing advertising was necessarily of this 
primitive character. But since the 16th century 
it has steadily kept pace with the increase in 
periodicals and books. The oldest newspaper 
advertisement preserved appears in a German 
newsbook of 1591, and is a book notice. The 
first newspaper traceable in France (1612) was 
partly an advertising medium. The first Eng¬ 
lish newspaper appeared in 1622, and the first 
advertisement 30 years later. But before that 
the puffing of books, shows, cure-alls and quacks 
by posters, processions, etc., was very common. 
The introduction of tea, coffee and chocolate 
into England is recorded in old newspaper ad¬ 
vertisements (1652-58). Addison’s ^Tatler^ 
No. 224 (1710) is devoted entirely to descrip¬ 
tions of advertisements of that day in the pub¬ 
lic press, and tells of methods of exploiting 







ADVERTISING 


pills, plasters, cosmetics, books, houses for rent 
and advertising for lost animals and runaway 
wives. Fifty years later (1759) Dr. Johnson 
thought that (( the trade of advertising is now 
so near to perfection that it is not easy to pro¬ 
prose any improvement.® The first newspaper 
advertisement in America appears in the Boston 
( News-Letter^ of 1704. Notices of shipping 
and rewards for slaves were numerous in the 
( New England Weekly Journal y (Boston) of 
1728, and shortly after this American newspapers 
began to carry miscellaneous trade advertise¬ 
ments. 

In Great Britain advertisements were heavily 
taxed until 1833, an impost of 3s. 6d. being levied 
on each one appearing in a newspaper, though it 
might be but a laborer’s advertisement for work. 
Upon the abolition of this tax advertising imme¬ 
diately began to grow. To-day Great Britain 
probably stands next to the United States in the 
extent of its advertising expenditure. The Lon¬ 
don and provincial newspapers are heavily pat¬ 
ronized, while outdoor advertising is more exten¬ 
sive and less sightly than in this country. Eng¬ 
lish magazines, though numerous, have never 
been developed as advertising mediums to the 
extent that the American have. In advertising 
practise British tradesmen and manufacturers 
respect and study American advertising methods, 
adapting many of our devices to their own 
needs. In Continental Europe advertising finds 
its chief outlet in the newspapers, which often 
have tremendous circulations, and by mean's of 
outdoor posters and bulletins. The latter forms 
of advertisement are generally controlled by gov¬ 
ernments on the Continent, and not only yield 
a revenue to the State, but are regulated as to 
size, location and display. While France, Ger¬ 
many, Italy and other countries have numerous 
weekly and monthly reviews, none of them have 
ever attained the importance of leading Ameri¬ 
can magazines as advertising mediums. Great 
Britain and the continental countries have better 
facilities for the transportation of merchandise 
parcels through the posts, and it might be 
thought that on this account some system corre¬ 
sponding to our mail order advertising would 
have been developed. But mail order advertis¬ 
ing is limited there, probably because most of 
the population is in close touch with distributing 
centers, and also because the mass of the people 
not so evenly prosperous as American farmers, 
have a smaller purchasing power. 

The real development of advertising as a 
factor in the distribution of commodities may 
be said to have begun only with the appearance 
of the steamboat and railroad, the modern pos¬ 
tal system and the telegraph. Its rapid growth 
since then, especially in the United States, 
where the great distances between producer and 
consumer lessen direct dealing, would seem to 
indicate that it is a legitimate wheel in dis¬ 
tributive machinery rather than a form of ag¬ 
grandized puffery. In this sense, advertising is 
but little more than 50 years old. Before then, 
it had chiefly a curious interest. A full and 
entertaining description of early advertising will 
be found in Sampson’s ( Flistory of Advertising 
from the Earliest Times ) (London 1874).’ 

Development of Advertising .—Advertising in 
the modern sense was first sparingly employed 
by retail merchants in large cities. About 1840 
improved postal facilities in the United States 


broadened newspaper circulation and brought 
into being the earliest trade, denominational, 
agricultural and general periodicals of national 
circulation. These made it profitable to adver¬ 
tise over wide territory. Soon there were firms, 
chiefly patent nostrum makers, whose chief 
expenditure was for advertising, and the value > 
of the new force was appreciated by charlatans, 
quacks and swindlers to such an extent that the 
public soon learned to distrust advertising. For 
more than a generation it was not considered 
reputable by the great majority of legitimate 
business houses. The power of advertising as 
a force in merchandising, however, eventually 
brought reputable interests into the field. The 
swindler began to retreat. Among the first classes 
of manufacturers to advertise widely were mak¬ 
ers of novel commodities, such as sewing ma¬ 
chines, typewriters, bicycles, baking powders, 
infant foods, etc., then quite new for the most 
part. In the period from 1880 to 1890 the char¬ 
latan was practically forced out of American 
advertising mediums as legitimate business in¬ 
creased in them, and in the period from 1890 
to 1905, with public confidence gained, the 
growth of both advertising and publications in 
the United States has been so great that pub¬ 
lishing and printing now rank seventh in the 
country’s industries, being exceeded only by iron 
and steel, slaughtering, foundries and machin¬ 
ery, lumbering, milling and men’s clothing. 
Where formerly the novelties of commefce were 
advertised, it is now the staples that predomi¬ 
nate, such as shoes, flour, cereal foods, clothing, 
vehicles, etc. The advertising revenue of lead¬ 
ing publications is to-day so important that most 
publishers censor advertising, and investigate a 
doubtful advertiser before his announcement is 
inserted. The practise of the publisher making 
good to readers any loss they may incur through 
a swindling advertisement is becoming common 
in this country, and few losses occur. More¬ 
over, the Government has thrown safeguards 
around advertising, and through the Postoffice 
effectually prevents swindling operations by 
denying the use of the mails to an advertiser 
whose methods will not bear investigation. Ad¬ 
vertising has had an immense influence upon 
the lives of the people, ior it not only increases 
the standard of living and health by introduc¬ 
tion of modern conveniences such as baths and 
sanitary appliances, heating and lighting appa¬ 
ratus, the spread of means of culture, the en¬ 
couragement of travel, etc., but also tends to 
improve the quality of commodities without a 
corresponding increase in cost. Competition in 
advertising takes the form of price rivalry much 
more rarely than might be presumed. Adver¬ 
tisers seeking to create national demand for 
commodities sold under their trade-brands, com¬ 
pete rather in offering excellent staples, assur¬ 
ing purity and marketing in sanitary packages. 
Advertising has resulted in the invention and 
use of dust, germ and air-proof cartons, boxes 
and containers. Formerly it was a kind of 
puffery, but at present the widest advertising is 
characterized by the completeness with which it 
presents information, and the logical reasoning 
by which it seeks to persuade readers. In the 
decade from 1895 to 1905 advertising in the 
United States has outgrown that of every other 
nation in volume, and has also been conspicuous 
for its division into special channels, following 



W«».York, Siturdir, Mirch 7, 1795. 


O I L, 

T <i|ln Mb'nki, --f »Uf; f fiit AK* 

*(-.*•••« *»•*••* f »fi» If can k' oh 

f . wj "ft ’%fm ‘mil. f»M*k bf A'JI. /ii(i,i. 
nM t»«*._IW( l«. 


I'nmeJ oy I RANCIS CHILDS. Pnjucr io the Sate.Jo. 71, Pinc strcct, corner ol Watenneet. Vul. M.-N» V** 


f SUYDAM .nd HEYER. 

11.#-*-»(■* •tlhtkft'we N* A*, tm.,« Cr»ti 

* MA prime **J 

^1^4 to Itlb-a, illv, (uprrftnc iiV'««.io' 


For Freight or Chirrtr, 

T* 1 Port in Ei-ngy or the Atf/i- 

Tto *•♦**(>».p A R eft HI TEN. 
C»|>» Ak^| Znnqutft. 

•'Y" •’t'fc ■ Midiuirmnn 

p*i> />rp'r»» covvEHNum a wtMsu 

Ian 1 a . 


--FO R SAI. E. 

|1*»V n‘t-'»vrt IA* of France 1t<dl|o, 

V |*h# , -4 k ft •* C-llOft. A -p»y l» 

fOSPl'H THl IMIf',(i*n,f#f|) cbmii 
•■' •-'*• • 


l o be I inilcil this tl.ty/ 

m > Imk 1 r't* V M| Vlir»,<wi| r *y*'. 
CI,Vc« ' »Y>twlftrf. * 

^ VT H0I7.SH. 


I' \ l'<l 


1,me Bt-d.th. Wnei 

• f.lrmajj »rbf 


IUH 


•Street, 

HI Ilf r*|U, fMH 

’ IhaMm. 

here*. at * •• »- re' ••!*. Vi it*, J-4 
—4*.l Cirevftf, d'wl*f* *t>4 (l*Hnct*. wb-th be 
*(#! to*b*r * r T«n ii» if 


* For Sal* 01 Vaar.l 'Ship Mari*! 

ftoiM k. •>* < ••»"« '■ 

* C'wpk't *’• ° f * ,, ' 4 a*.ft»« 'to* an ,fu ^ 'to 
A .w«.( tbe Ml gunt-iy. reliable i*r • 

■mb<«r. |c '•»* * tAK* 

*.-> .r ■*> ».* *••’»?■'■» 

«w»* apply* t*w« m 'tkrew*. Na • »• to 
J|.«ri. wt-ib-n-aftct-n hnmd._ Jhi i*. 


Pi nemo for Sail. 

r s-nfi»At; P %f uamo»io nC*.N#. 

* d»4*m RrtM fcbroa/y *»• 


FOR S AU&, 

A bou r *h •b»* r%* p»*ob, 

I »•** 4«. , 

yuoftrrdt. o*t of a «r*» fure/Wr anil if, be¬ 
ta t#r.foi:y (ctoen 4 *->4 *1 f e i-wnre-kac «'<• 
AM>* f*a i-ar-vt. of keel. Spr*T « N * »• 
tirlllTl • lan-iot ' 


MAMXBAY A IMJR AND, ’ 

Rare r **r SaW.it 'Self ’Were, Win. ftr.<*,N*. toj 

INDICO. 

*•.-n* pW'i- kI *ii lii Niibc'ii, 
r P » *W MaJrin »»to, L*aJ®" p»rilr*’*r 


ur 


FOR S A I. E, 

at konk(W< of rrrr pood Brown 5or«r, 
» r XtlN'rU tV *CS 

X».4IJ fi*rl-(U«rt. 

AVto japtitV 

II f.*A.g«l.»* 

<4 »**» A-f'«re r *w ** »f 


FOR SALE, 

T WOtoe«"f Oma'C In Man«;**nrTT 

W*##;«r 4 M» S f Hr-it of «U Oiyof N « • 
T*r% arft’MHn* (mK *iIi r, b’unilid "» «"c Me 
*l*«,M#H|iii'# i« | hiiVipW.ituoif •* * he 
tod tow toi *•« <*..• ton .1.0! OH t, ■ (k IM Mil 
fc im araiyia .’ Im >n Tanr "i «to f«< J flrrn 
«to tov'limfud Im Uoin.ty h** Wet 
it,. oib«r cuMf rl < (. n. 4"t r-rfon 
to.toto| i> ynrrl.it., • |*l.n>( io*hr Ivbf.ri. 

Alft.l-IA Hcj.l <V«'t .UN «b*« *y **f 
Ato#A*.w<ll ♦>* •'■aoitaird »iib (be ttode. >n« 
Of lair. J-nt mo.le *f pit"' 1 M, end an Ir.JilpaU- 
%laU)l: toilibv ,!'«■ 1* »t.#- urrKafii.br 

Clones wrR<\V 

Ca I HAKfNE WRAY. 

Ato***. N^r. »••# 




FOR AMSTERDAM, 

ltotof Oi lVE BhaNIII, 
blf*|rtb/l,l»inrr, 

St’tA to d Ip'lcbrd with all coa»-#_. 
Min* Nfd. P' f A-tchl or i.#n#^r 

arr'y t* uro i h^rs, co> in ft 

• • r ». .« 


FOK HAMbl ROH, 

Tb. Ur.g I • Itarw. 

min<r. intcu.lrJ tu fall atom (br 
•| ->( A'»»rH. Por frc'fht wf 
tom or p •(tir; »pr’» *« 

M >6l f * HICK*, 

... *P* Water llrcrt. 

V" n ba» r r r * vj . 

Fprt matrtir•n.H # «<!>*> oil, 

M fc*«idoluf <r tuu r. Iiid and taPo«r. 
fibnorv (ft tf 



Lt It’anfrJ to Chtrfrr t 

kg A ».IT lfr«(li U*r#l|Mnf< !»'• 
(b.n, m a 1 0 i tn kpflanJ. Ir 
F»|>T)r .tif.-tivK »-II t»» ftn.n K.r. A(». 
irflK |iri A D'auind CimaUII. It II(m 
»— * ■ .#JU. 

/•/o f'ftili, 

tHno*bulb>1* r»rjf r.iK ioUiAH cm. tayli’f In 
VI—• •• F-hi»ar r i*. 



For Sale or Ch.irter, 

Tlr WH bin (Lip t.»-nd '|nfb, 
(. M(rf<'% IkA W»f4 fr-n Rwf- 
f * - ftH»( lau.Kh !•« tK n r- 
Ihm.i 70 *t> n».a Utile n n»'ah. ft J 
y art *'J,h<-rttifbi 'hr pm 
bffiAbti nttt. •«rn■ r.t« «vll iwnd acj fu 
iJC.IUf.ft, *.4f(.i»b.-r par Ifti 1 .'* cvftitie of 
«b« t.atito •« totfd. at liana’ • wi a f, >r io 

1 iiu apn « no: it. 

Vto toe Um» l«.reeled »r-1 fo f*r b) («i4\,(T.I 
14a (iai b,ft V k*rif (bnr^b brmp. 
I4 Mi>i*aM (ib'< lr«n. 

to **n« ft. » itoiAft'l.c.»br**» Fulfil P-,i<%, 
i*« 4 • ftaflla ,l'rril«.i jl(iA»(in.iW|ili"». 
fr»f V • (» 1 le*«f'«»•! i»b. it. d’ 



For AfflUVim. 

1 be flit-* cmaui.oi rr, 
T«Ltl**tf> dl 'wr •»■«» fpenl, 
tbe tmull pan “f tor o *•• K Irg 
1 ftf i£C<J. r*< »rr gb( «r pail' a • 
ply to Cm. Seiiba. No. 40 f**aJ* 
>-K. II 



FOR SAVANNAH, 

The ft Ip Unnr. Ilaac Cbann- 
•t ft»r, b.» .ewllrot erremrnnd-! 

a. tnr radr-pri, will (>| on Ta | 
•t’T *br loth loft. P*.r frU*S« «, j I 
f»|' apply t« iKe "tofter «a to., I 
nca »Lar>.. r to Pr. ItR ICNIRMH 
IIOKN Wto b>a f-r Sale, 1 

(ft* t<rrr#tf f, a 
* ‘d« Arulgua raw. 

An.'a larcr (,>m t ( -f Englilb daeb.tn 
No I tn I.©I ike 6flk qui'liy March 


ForrCdpe N ooto Mole, 

*) ftr (Wo Hih(«f Had y K *( n.»t 
rrr will {.it m a frailo-, k.i p>4 

« eHOilKljlMO. ( .1 p*J(<..(.r» far 

eppty *a the m««i* a«* boarJ, 
it ttnmi Wb.rf, Ar <to 
DtaDOli Y fcXn. No 11 l.lbcrty Rrret. 
Ml# bar* at bka. 

S*u»r Ikprr, cot « and Uu%.. ao wblcb br 
drawbetb «•» b- ubt'tn>< . Jam. ad. >ailii 



For H*vre-dc-Gracc, 

The oe»r Sctoor>t» |*' a. “ • ton 
. .p-. r „ rm..n, K'a'*e». •( ton* tonlicn, 

» ,>- *] # m fa 1 onl*>e »0 March, n»* Inp t'.e 
-wurlt • art ot her <ar»o rc«-ly. Fr 
•f' ■ lie fht nr paltagr. Iicinj clcp.*nt *< 

c-rri<aoa»iioa» m pa'icp«e> e ap ly (•• the fttillfr 
00 bo.rd »t " b rt nt to 

- ROi tRI Wll-VWAfVi. 

Pcb. tr.tf No-If j. Trout Ore t. 


Lbndinr tlnpdafst Cr.inc Wharf, 

C bl'T •( tbeSln*,i (.blr*Kf"*.i» A"* Ceye*. 
M it (*di. •■>( 1 a 11- < Par-, 

11 kb to d maf «*.•. »f j r, . 
it kb irlt oaabty rnotofT 1: mJ tor f»lr bp 
|) SMI I H A Co. 

f.b tf. No. tlk f*e*rf lirAv 

FOR .<r A I. F., 

S 'arTt^cn ctolt afbvkm•• a ,k tl eftefteof'en' 
tbai 4o of nolle t ILivt an4 qo.'ltf. £n- 
M.Hc II Iraad lit ft. _ fikftnn t|. 

"" FOR SALE, ■ 

Jk P«W»*i PbiUJc'pi h made cbarlot, » blcb 
j\ baa b*.• *.ry Irttic *<cj Alfa, a pa'r rf 
Whikrlii. iAt a remtf ab*e fait n.rtl-| 
tafbiJbbaMc. Porpanieu‘>r* cftftu-r iftb. 
Wmw- R. B TW ato*<«Ui be f‘d»-v-v»e 
• tptrwriy. . P H <t . 


A toegr .doc 

O^NtTINB DRUCS k MEDICINES, 

. • Far Uto at a# «i IVaMArni.b* 

]m »y C. M OR AM AM. 


Fte 


Wilium and James Uatley, 
Me jo, Prone Wf<ct. kite ( 1 Ul. 


J o, Prone 

•*dn4 Wo fupe/bue a <4 

PLOl'N. 


Re 4o Cargo ao4 prt nc porb, 

••* da. Car_o #n.l prime beef, 

ho* Srbta, tod. jo die. b«t«r, 

t—itof pkatfodd. Ja*. if t/ 


_ __, ... __aei— 

**au qf JO>HUh I' MNE.Iitcor thUcu> 
* * *»4, rRb«r by tortil. note, or ac 

1, ar* r. *a (l«»l to ribltot »br feme wHb»o> 
•M <hj, iH'lebtrd to tto Ce. J rdatr, a/e ft 
“ - Hoaabe Inonrdiit, .••tnrrt 

ORRIS RAISE. Ad/tolflrtror. 

It tf Nn 144 4 r**» It met 


m 


* 


THOMAS BLOODG.IUI), 

2"f*f‘Wot bn t.BTf »N I 0 -ftrn Wbcff 
1®"* A • ra l" chcfti.Urn.l'• pimm*<* In bag. 
' v*h-» Mbij. lubjiUto tbadritrbacb. • 


r«BmH. of Vu-oft;. FLOUR,- 

n»hii»iC4UVAixaA» ise aox 

oaa. . k . ■ • .. ** • ,<n L*n 4 - 

*^)bbde, R bSadalpWt b«i« p ( ca- 

ItdWH Qttin i^P , * 


LTOMisa yiLU.79.1.1,1 ‘ 

2 SsvS£?«t«T. , !ft 

■-r-4 

_ IHh .«0n, TO VU,_ .. 

and Lwdt0 K Mom, P, n ~ 

. h*^ 1 from On tort »f m,. w . , ’ 


l«m. 

■ toiinirr,* .< M.ro-a. 




WANTED. 

Afttw AtpKbmibrt# in fnvr htft* 
.'red tom tontoft. (W tor fra » oa»- 
mwt nl »bb b #1. to b**P.r V. EJ..M- , 
n »trir» |^ uiona-*dparvc*to,4<- 
. _ .1 tbcUid tQ4H.lofM4.Wlri appr-nrOby 
mcrctiirt at«b feid Ifter-J Alto a (ilnviif 
frn'ra a bwMrt.ttn » bur.Jri.l aft*t r*mt» toot. 
Enquire at N«* 144. Cracnwcb Rr«rt. lanoa/y 1J 

. For”KINGSTON. Jam. 

Tbr f It la'ili-g fc*> t.ft«r hOPP, 
htirttott *»< barren, arQlb-dif- #»eb. 
ni with aH eooTeo eot fprrR («r 
*f fit 't if Applied fto 'onrt •• r*fag« 
•PI Pto T JOHN »Ovt. , 
r 4---- - W# Water- firm. 

hJA'ARI) CODED “ 

Hit la ft import'd 4 qu.atlty of loiU 0**4*. 

1 Cr.Gll.ag b< 

rUftdinn hendt'e. C ■$ do. tl ft nr By da. 

Sjcgitrot rrallip and aH<n )aco«ct n.uQtoa, 
Cnidar>J 6l*er fwrrtg'd tnuftli.. 

Sb'I'um aafci, B« «rb«o jurriKt. 
bleraih fannib*. Boom f.ltea. Patna tblatJ, 
TugidaIsiftai. I.IIUhalfatwwba, 

1 »»4 j manwda. Ntarath gongf, 

Hdrrlrt bummlote, 

bury toll Cine Mad. I/a win*. 

Af<»Ci&« id br-tftrrf Alo/d, 
gn.nno lert mrrcb-fttlSIr board*. 

Alfn UnJn.g f ftn the f' h«*aorr olftrra.CipC —- 
4no p* tbr heft rrd raarbrj Rufftadocb, 

(on p«. ft **/!*• do. 

t*p*'Salem ducb.'fttial A»«y Pngtlfft Jaft. g 




nhO be let. fold, or exchanged for 

A oeny In tbi* City, a Urge »W* flnry 
Jwcbmg "OUIE. web a I'lta arid \h(M aa- 
j .ingttoCmr t iK# 1 fpiHoee 1.01' of gmtift*', 
ind WkRAKF lo fboot thereof, op* ar<W of too 
'ret long, and jbnut yebmad. boundeo pit tbc 
rajt r 4 *^. or bartour oopoGt • t><« elte» aa.f .toat 
(••yar-'a to tbc ocltwa/d of Breotlrn ferry on 
J^oni.lOand, near Mr. Meg’i to*«uy : >U h* 
to* art U rary conr«*lrm to a I >mtor nr (blp> 
yird 1 tbr 4w. Utog bomi«> lo a »• ry pic fiat and 
s.althy AtaatWan, a&d enmauo/, an cirenflv* 
•lew of tb«.«lt*ai>4 bartour Fm 1 rm% ipplf 
u_ *“ CARY Li»ni.OW, r 

Pitowyto. |tr N* 14J Ptorr-Pmt. 


Thoi.Fanfver k Vo.Nb. Front Street, 

Ha*r to *oke. *cry ctoat* for c»(b or (bo t credit. 


H O Uod etalaVSra.fc.Crodtnjot.by thrbhd 
• fttofb* wlaaWqr. raft*. taal\(a'do do. 
rc ertfr, lon«to> torrtolararvd errgo, hi pipe* 
>— •/ eaftta-HioSe/u brnwa (tout, brownluo/ 
m bd* and bU- to*f m.l tump fog.'. Alto, 

■ *to Arblm hlcbUod butter, dilrbloi Loga lint 
ltoy. my rtotfe. a few bi/rcW ryr.'tvtoal and 
hocbwhrat fl •cr.pttnw and evgotorf and pork 
■tea. an4 emccvlciaiofuit. tan t. 





For Madeira 

_ Tb- Pnrtufy-er brig Prnfartt' , 

a felle. Cap.ain |n«e »• maj.de 
M. uJopf*. Ki r trim* apply (to 
captaia • o to'ird or in 

Aft. AMs gt WILC<. 
Who bare to fak, 

Midrln.l 1 IV#a and pnri wtn«#, 

A li w raft, nl«| tnUgoaraot, 

Jimal -a piocnt* _ faft- rtf 

FOR SALE 

Tbr «to» NANCY. 

I y'ng at BuH.-ti SUp. faiftbft. 
ftrong talk an J bonb.ii tlwiban- 
r**t »<vt Ally bk/tcl* Ia P ol 
t'. Prower. )i*.t.1l. 

Wintcd to Charu 
Two a. f. t# ei'rvkiud «o <ry eat- 
tie. tor wb.eb • troiraui In »t w«U 
bcgt'.ft. Apply »• Aft MfttOWU 
md I)\RNtWAll., No- *> W*. 
«*r ftrcrl. a.4ft. 


JOHN M'VlCKAR, 

Pucli-'g SHy, 

LlASluft freeiredby «i.< 0*VYnftft|'P*gfr.(Von> 
** t>*hftn 10 c««re>n*e af •(•.)• nf j.g «nj 
4 - 4.111 ft. fti.en. r amhc.c k 1 •* \ tong lawn*. 4W- 
per* , *J iitoe <toii <b..b-‘md tod •*»•, t-t 
lif'.**. «l'|.li r-i-’to. I r * 



SUGAR aiut COFPJLI*., 

)US1 a/Hu.d per .be brig (WAN. Cape. Mtt< 
gan,f<on« A'cUeyr. 

47 bdi Tuier.it dn 14 t.‘|, Caft#*. PoT bk 
by S. li. &ARRICK, W1 S rPH \l. A C». 
Ttbnary ti if ai.rb r»y •-# j 


GUIRLA1N xmt Co. 

No.af. Slone ft».n hi»» tre\l**.( b* ih* 

III#. fr- n» 1 n. 4>-A. an affortoi.uiu *4 Ml 
COO0S.a-btk.wa 

f liwo*. *I»K 4* ».l#>Trtl, ctoba, 

I. Q..II.4B* *1 at btruto. 

Brown anJ t'.lb bniliy, 
tka » tn.l|t4#n.i oiofliwk, ' 
Cordurofi.twikdand p*a*a, 

,Ai*li *(d “ ** 



Bemmn^hove, Acnr** Jb tl/Ff. 

A* top IM guUitlf. I * Ui« hflh* bftB Of 

VJ GwiUcr g*4i«iy, ht 

JOHR ODPnS.OIdtto. 

\TVo to. to lak, 

A few poork# #** old JimaUa f,jrl'i bArft reaof 
‘o. do. Otrrada earn ad md ,|4 pi*4, 
.aw *ri*,d fogi/ by tbe bbj. burnt, 
B-tsxlf hi pip-.. #nfi In f p lind yiji 


Ftooei.U 

RAeVaobct#. . . 

Stick benelona baadlfto 
tilodn. 

p. 1 barn *f 44T- re" (float*. 

|amkHwrr< eaUun rtA fttpA 

CiftUrKrea of d>ft-r.M eotoua. 
f iia. itaftHnii Kia 4A , 
w>l,bibey wtnft !tw’-4<«raJe onto. f*^.va% 
•r Hrto--* 1 *" -its. <• f C e "» -rat 


\mx fak hy 1 reJenck >^t»f»4,# 
rid/ H, bteCroiDad fti«d 


^•4 truUlJ «, U 
n 'Lur*i>»tij|fi«i( 

Knta and iniiiittl 


byfae. 


for sal, 

Tb«n*w (blf AbainJcrt-alttn*. 
t*tog at *•«>.»» wbi'f totoi* • 

_ _ kwi IM tone. »nt f*nb. raretru- 

r***." on bnATd.nr nlaeiU.tJ 
•t e»- - - W >w> | Haydoeb, No *tj M 
*b t' _ * 

NAeNKbtNS 

A* -W li# dmlki •«» •> 4/tend. 
p.rf#fti* iAStvecokf. 

nwrwtoX. t f 

X»E PARTNERSHIP of IENRY 

L A .O.rr* mj CHAH.-k> . . AM* 

PROTHERS COVPF.R on,I TOMP. 

li-Ii a.liy eapl i4^..-lto -ttut.-rlcoxf.-diO-d* d, 

It nti in* hiviti# a-f'l Mind --hi -ai-* Ifri-crd-i" 
4»* i, yueftc-* m prrf i>t itob arc ; and all 
tb©f- •twj.htrdlnmtbe o'-.n nt. tn.brroflbc 
f .btcnbcra. IlkNHY A. fb»bl ft. 

IW. Ji. 1 H tftl.r.- ft. CMMANN 

COP ARTNERSHll 

Htart y. Cn-Kf an I |-toi U. Cult* ha*e t*«|* I 
day entrf.d <ntn pun tW, aud all r.'.lefl I 
their buGnefr vti.lef tbe Came An of BT 7- 
HEfta tOsTER aftd Co. Jaft.» 


Efolitr* be • be hl#d b#kev l«uLk»ng 
tea* ay tbe theft. 

P.pper aod pinamao U bap. a yvanthy of 
■Sort'd fttae, 

A few m** tb ilk. logwood and faftlt by tbe »Oft 
la.tf and lump fu^ar, 1 ftw lain eviton. 

In, to iA(h,i quint try ♦(•O'WaAttk 
d bi berrcW and ArtoAt, 

(nb. (K.I- bicbery oata. 

H ney b. ft. Ii«a. b«ttrr In do. 

Mvft. *>/•"»* ami eirg* p*eb, a few Mt b*tf, 

A yu#ntltt -f I .to .ft Ca’a ant teller! *.u'«y k 
1 i.etpo.d bi-.Mb lilt. f.Vlt. 

WILLIAM :a 4 JOHN HARVET 

N.- 1 -01*. 4f* ftre't, 

H a VP. '#*'!». 4 Forfdebrtt^ llir»b#tbtoon 
l.noj.-n. and'K* A p'u**c Iront L**,rp.ot at'-* 
ul - l».<b li-s-r* Cctt'ty iud d ap-"• afoartai 
•* nf Hft-Wtt- .V fC.t-t.t.'wn -f-Mt au-tab-w b * 

• A-trr* » 


CHARLES L CAMMaNn, 

So. ft Bruod-ftprct, ku tap/ted [gt tbe VM 
OUoc Branch, tota AdAordam, 

00 fuI-nUik'ittk . —. 

G IN I- ptp-bhrf ftwvoihelUatrainhalfehefta. 
Hnfiafld and Roflkftyn<Utb4tAokB(f, 
Commod ft rr niiytk. 

On fi'-a, Hrfrtty* odd tore (kwh, 
p»rtr to paper aod fiou-aSrtid, 

OO ctnfb. fcdlkb. dt»Hr*. ;* 

Brown Ho>uod- tao«a aadftrk hair ribbon 
H# baa H« an band 
Oto to Urp.lmaH.ow! half caCd. 

*#-kmg ten,rewacot, large rmoiy (la eofirv 

N •.rroberg (d»a,torJUpy Aotba, Ac. 
fa • --* 


O I N S A N C, 


nra * • **•*•*.gw®-. »ha “ * 


x 4t, 


DR 1 MS St, CtoH Sonr tod Ram, 

1 CjJ«.. P»ata H.fca md Rsbna Tcoa. 
tJto. maLp rr tai7w. P*r koto hy 
la*44A^aad*|g MUtOijbb CBlDOEJ 


rhi» Day will tie Laiutl. 

AtTayt*re U ba/>, Ircot-.1 >oi.d o< fluop Ma- 
f(» (» n M-.»tmien, 

N INLT V.f.ve kid U'l M.r.r*-t* S..pr, 

• •» Ca’e by CONKLI.vtlellO.il. 
r*K.-tOtf N«t- rr n (V. wh irl 

STEHIEN PATERSON, 

“ - to file. 


iu>). 1 «n\/i\ 1 lL), 

PER the |I - Ckl tie. •" • » the to p ©line 
Pra-eh.from Amfterlam, 

A gtiMfttyofk*U ftt.-uch. 

Da 0.1 •H.o'ftitriga 
A pored of Duteb /'rat emi Too ftla by 
JACOBI » BO' A '*'N, 
ftk tg._ No. m Front "fee t. 

THOMAS WHITEg 

No j t WftlUtta Itrr. t. 

H kS fnt for (ik. I»*. , lnr f.o.n hr If Hnp/.bnd 
SI .»p w |iitam,F».«nt Wtlmin*it»»». N-titb Ca- 

roUna, 17 »kre»« and at Itaglwf riff,IV boft».b 
p. If.* I-I. t irr ,41 .In ft u», >tO ItV’beea o»i. 
4,jon ,k> t,«.w And a <m«ll quantity nt boc«o, 
vr twn it a (h.*n due . P,N. y. 


doey.m4 


feeding*, 

Harr-o. ftrtpa.ta»J *ki«*, 

FW ra il»\«n*g«a^#r n aebAth, 

H-d*a4 aevd Mftitotk,' 

Lrypaad ekar toon. 

Otlelotb **to.# r<bw m. > baa toee, *»(a. 

Bob, a im tn who*# ■ b#.*» tan ao. 


lT»t D»y toJI b< 

At Caa*rr*.ot'. *»a I andf-eCat*. 

T H'ft'fv to*biota ftt Dwoia'i.ft.ifg 
• a<*ilaat yo*M*y twurr •' 

L. (IM * D a*« (to 
Pah al. No 4 to'»n-«in-ftr"*. 

T 7FvTb3otorr3T^r^ierirtoirr7ir^ 

aa ' ywch .ed >.oMg»roo'- V tar', ftaoe 
k *r J tb tcb/.k*K*4, loh iwuwp.fr^a 1 rrnlw 
tor (ale by (OINO.WAAft' I, 

No. 41 '(rreowl/b- r.cu 
Afea, for Si t 

.. _ don*>»t»iciUrM». , e4rawl**r* 

l)*r « to-tb.»re wt -e.*(ib. \ H. br.nd, 
I'klli-Ulr 1 la kt' -ortb-mn fag ■nn ka.'». 

|| (toll, b I to I fit, I* hbl* <cf P b kf. 


to* SAL I, 

THI TV bab 4* sto.r, I eofe- * .r*tt*»»», 
I 440 by H k) lO.tNbONJkl* 

Trv . ar id. 


Fof fak by Maxwell & Davit, diddle* 

* K- a it. Or no-eb rinn. 

X Orh ftin. knbd. or b#r«e a, * 

A a* fkatt ab. do *• 
yoiotity otgnmA rataliwg aw-Ufers 
Ct-.tT hbm okb a *nm|.*rtr jloHmrat or 
C*r4i*l*. wb*eb tbry will 4N|o>(* *( at • *>-h-4»* 
tWM«.to eatoor apfr*oednny*-. I toy k.r. -Ho 
to f*to, iw. (mp* r moUg o bd*.tr< to rw*ptw< Jl 
In g.od order. Cl* (bat H eo>-wr*d rrajeroto 
aW*r andr»t*n* d.quit »*t(o.ntity yaairt#, *«to 
pr-d f» -r ft - aprnet* t car- ye. » •/ ay t\ 


«4 Hrrery (U* ertor Rlc, 
a* tberifp./ wnl C*"-1<»,. 

Indlgn. ry.t* r tv- aody.fwftiekb 

Hyfoo an*l (noebretg tf ••• . . 

hot* ffcnnn.foi **W ret frree/ # r. Jan.f IteJ 


ROLL'D IRON,. 

W Anted anngaMr fmm (not* HyWt-tit *1 
Amcrie m r.lt'd trcft. ol tl.f.r.ni gift* 
Any pe*f *n ** Itt'ft«» ftipty th* wbvle, 0/• 

nn.’o«v«J-v^} StnHMArrt 

N* 140 Water Itryut. 
N-1- None hut Amrricit lr*o will to oetrp- 
J*y. 9. 


ITiift Mornin; wilt be Lfttuktl* 

¥7*ROM *e bn«r.t tie Sknon Honeoeb.ae Cnn* 
F* wharf, 0 bd*. fm ar. g bda *nd 1 beyt- tnffrr. 
r*rfakthy If**/ and FpKra*wt ]>rk, Poeb h>'^ 
Wk« kt-»il't to (ib \t-i A- N’t filorr. 160 
eato-6 -af-ed, od ye*ft* (tiprenor ft-Ur . f« 


R ICL 

T ^HIlTt ft- t'-re-a -rw Rice, Jafl are.red 

Front Cba-let'on.Nr fakr t»y 

ANDYK A'HiW V.n* 44 Tront fteoet. \ 

, V'he bi*( atfo tut (lit , 

A few ton* ehl,.t I -wvnoJ » 

Turk. tflind.S* Utot L.aUift, Cadto and f.1 

ftqp otri <ai . r. _Kb u tf 

Landing Tha* Day, 

PROM on board/be Td-toner I ocy Aw, Hf5«r 
fte»»»fn, maltrr.from). rmiic.layLigat I y.^K 
and Mongbtom wharf; mo tor file by the f* feri- 
tor, j»»oo tot. c ••ffet ft'ft o*«»titf, 

.loooo do. Cocoa FI MON NATHAN, 
•eh. to- No lag Peart itreci 


I N D ( C OT 

T Hre.tiTO.il be l^n.l-tl. tn-nt no hnafl the 
Sto.iplMt.thm. D-1.tnti-rr. matter, ft»m 
N. o Oik-Mt*. ftnn* Ih* l-.J-gn ftfft yuefttf, and 
It tow Cinintieb* luo-,'*n-..l. | -r (*' b» 

HFKRY VTANiNO, 

No Ig7 "'iter tt.-e*. 
VVrr *'fn ony b« J)id, 
to,on* pireca n w-t «en«. »(• 

NICHOLAS COOKE, 

hturtay- WK if, h.a lor 'BALE, 
|to?ol«e ftuff'a d< ck, 

-InbloL. Jamdea Ip-titt, . 

Jn b*.J.. ebnlee Ami.iaYwi, 
lo dttti* nt*laS t, 
jy or eato* Oh rr* wtnr, 

17 iLrt-oaed g kulfd--. relh tke, 
l'.pp-r and pknen'nlo b*g*, 

1 our hhla and 1 k-t (pdig* Pebruary -f 


LITERARY MAGAZINE, 

THE cl -reath and twelfth volarbea of tMa^ery 
Tiluable M*git.n#, are H/rUrd ;and tot 14 
hy I ALbOT, AI I.DMto I.PR. 

P.bntary M. m< Nn. tn IV rl ftrret. 


Superfine and Fine Flour, 

Poe file by Wm.C Mumfnrd.et Pri tog ■ «io ftore. 

W HO ha* a rnnftioe torpiy of Floor, fmm I 
one milt only,In the ItMl repute at ftieh- 
fttond Virginia, which be will ftU oa ■toJcrak.- 
ti rm and * genema-'credit. Atfo, 

P'*m a tn too barrel# mldllne* Ian *0. 


LAWRENCE and WHITNEY. 

Corner nf Eu'ling 0ip. tore l^rfUc, 

Ma.of otrfa, prime and ro'gowort, 

500 do. dn . do 00 toei, 

Xjo ftrktna af boure. 

To* ftryKitlawf, ta bU nr tallow, 
j bd* PMtadetobta to*f fugw, j boor* call*. 

* J* to*, caft lie toip. 

Jftpfyea andgbbd* MaUya wine. Jtn.tg. 


. ’COP AB 1’NERSIIIP. 

IJ* aft V BAri.FW Kaeknotikm Into Cnytre- 
llflMp hla nrytow. WllXtAM CftAIO, 
•bel. bcCrxCi w(ll be eowdudb-d andertbe (rm ol 
HENRY SAOLPM to Co. 

Wb« boot for fak No. FraaiJIrwL 
goo root Kaft Uwk* Sofia, of good grOo and 
tJiaMty. 0—0- 

.Frrnrb and Plata Indigo. 

Sbereo Win* ta htada. and yoartrr eatoa, 
Madeva do lo pi pm ond hail plyea, 

Pry per la bag* #n*J caP;*, 
frith and Eoglllb foil eoarae. dlEaau oaxabor* 
A parcel of old Iron and Copper, 
dla/g< Oppre KmW. 

Alto reertord by tbe brig A big . L free ^uhfto 
i ** ,r »<h tore (Irg and l«o pkwu «heck*. and 
‘ l/M. I 


FUR ' ALL, 

By tbe toMrnto-r. at Mo ore *• Braatora whaN, 

I 4 hdl UlffwdtM* •«!/. 

XAdv in 14* n-afr^ tin fttraP, 
ton., hud-. *o 1 urk* Iftind St, 

BUrb ry'J p< aa. InJi v* e* m. 

9 -«b#frel»#nnlhi>ea,f*i'r-f n< to rwmmrm ftogr, 
Feb. tl- w VVli.I.lAM fl TCH. 

JOSEPH BLACKWELL, 

Cano pi Cwi'ixt flti«. and I title l*oeb-ftffto 
k*i (or fate on k»w t*Ttnt foerafb- 

S Wedcaimn for ctuir. w«ggo« and'da/t tire 
neatly d/aww. . , _ . 

Rtf<ord & hk-omed Bet,and f.|i»«Te hota.of aft Ike# 
Nad and fplke rod* ofo l fu*a. (banc naowhla, 

T CrowWyatxft F*ft*t ftbe-ck nn y, J 
rngflto Ko<« I-and Country hhftcredrdo. 
Grrnjin bell heart and club do 
Bl.*ek(niltK« owotu.akea Hid fledge#. 

MiHtiw*, fad kma, (boreU anJI|»a.K«, 

Pot# kciUc*. ad kctBca.Iwke pan*, toe. 

Cart, **agRnn and chair Hoit#, 

Potato belt I.a. frnm Ogden'a wrekt. 

Caft weight*, 7lb i«tb »l)b jilUinJ (otb 
troo boon* foe bd*. hot .mill ftone as-liiiil cotter*, 
Milb and foil 
Window fill 
Com (o*u. Ht 

Powder aod toot, pipe* Ar. Ac.— Alfo. 

Iron < eft lag. of *«<ry kind, agreaebk tw v pan pro 
(tceuted lit the neatrft o<ino". ol the *cryh. ft me¬ 
tal 00 0*4 (borteft notice,01 the Union At/ Fu/naee. 
lo Gecae George ft r\Tt. Alfo forge tno«n»r* and 
ouvfto etiftOnry bieh«,|afn« and b«.qrth*. franil a 
and clofc (toow.and-yCTyotlx/xmOr tkiattulb- 
•L 


CEURLAlN and C» 

}o t) Mota-ftr.* tatel-wb* Mice*. 

( 4 AY It reetiwdby tbe Lit *\AI- frnn* I «t*g^ 
** a *rn<ral •A-etment at D»y (#»d*. »k-to 
toy wilt Jilpufe uf bf Wb-Wulcun y.fnrcdtooft 
TMwil n.nre at 0 m«rt date 
l'u««h and Mrm.lb Iturot ah'J c»mbr'-cb*, 

Cbrtft »*» »rd gUlaw#reodf all kl-nl*. 

CLf* glubea awd Umctm */ different k U d o Mb 

fix-’-. 

I.'wkieg r Hffce from Lbe fftxalkft 0*e to ;g |i 

> French m ►«#, 

Om.i of all kkAd4#UmbrelUo of aU Gam, 

bi k ftweWinga, 

Mia* t.iillaiiuto, loffety. fattlna, fltridt No 
i-t#*.MV cl-tba awdoctreto, iauiJlM, fUta#* 
I'ch.ng, Y.. 

S.la biiuT rrbfffb, W* %Sortm#M of ri kk o o *, 
(*ra«ae«, (b*» la >*d mwdtn bkia. 

'Em bn-tdetidn orbrootg. 

I'otit-I* hair to*wW, 

ISri. tuioitotc m tbe mi-lt rtegtftt tattoo 
f. #lto re nf ill biodo. ei-nto. 

At* ilrgiit* tf icnnnH --f paper hanging*, 
lii* #».l ^>«in nl 4K r. nt hind*. 

An . lt('ii affurtmeut ol hlicb and •SIkImm 
aod 'ace '.ih, 

,A eutltdludi nf iMuoalfiit print* with Inoo, 
Brudu- an.l pi ted w*rr« .fill khtJ-, 

M«G*#I li.fttunacnt- inf ht» of tfnop, 
CMnift^oe-a ituwt tkt'«o##i nuiiiHidifytl 
iertt, s w 

B.romrtcp*. aod mm re* waret of *tt foci*. 
IbrfaldGI'f HLaIN toCn K**#*U« f # (-»* 
Cloret in e»f«* *• j« bn tt- a pr« * tb ot nil. 
Whkr fautrm. »«• r ,( « nf cnt».«*ie« 


- tor bd# inn .null Rone as-itiaii cotrer#, 
(olke*. (lit end (harp point**1 all ft*.-#, 
<(if* « hr 6. 9 by y.ind I* by l», tor. 
1, Hriuol Earthen war*, 


To Sold xt I'nvafe Sole# 

A F* 0* cm.taini.ig abn.r lu# ocTe* -t |#4 

l*4-d UH«4 *" tb*- pf efift rnd bettFay »<|. 

I gt nf Km Buto. Ki< *- Too- ty. I ung Ifland.o- 
b-ree • querttf of a nul* f.mo the (l-t rrti.ud.k* 
Mi-ftmy, uhJ 4 ml** ftvw New Vo-k Ik r* 
l« nn the r rmK*a * Urge ennoenlmt 4w<lHnf 
bn«f*-, oriob a gowl blttben. a large K<rn— tgire 
d*n palbd In, taltb o ron.1 bed nf Af, otafn*. • **- 
b-rriv*. goof*bun i a qubw.a. Ac.o w. 11 h g-o4* 
water n*ar tbe iwlmi J-or. in ofetord o< >b* 
b<ft crofted fruit, »Ith pear*, p. arhe*. plan-oo, 
k-flTto tberre «,Ke. Alfo. ire Ire* of gnodGIX 
m#aJow. » bkb yield jeariy about Jo bid of bay. 
Tbe firm |. In tie tort order.*11 I-* g-r~4 *.a^ 
t.mr.-, ond dl*>d*dlot-lnta tu»b -a muty ■*#• 
Bur.4 all tre*r with itoev. tbr k-'-l I* eLa- of 
finer*, and *_My cutt'.Titcd.lf tbe pu'cfoC r #lto'0 
tbc ft nth and fatmtng utt-f-k Will to Add ori.to 
(hr firm. A <K*/ II4L *1-1 be g+vro. aod mA- 
frfG-nthe (ftof May. PnejMt* of M-. tu-Ow*. 
Smith, tfq Cto-rry ftrret.No* York, ef U ttoo 
fu Cc/itof «n the premif**. 

. Woe. 8. CtffORD' 
Faiboto, F»l.naary t|. 


-F TP ft R. 

foooto. btft biorh oerwer. P« fbk W, 

KUb!* 1 1 x. otoJr A BHHIDON. 

Vko hive lb •* h«wAw~' 1 
40M* wWk on. robot** Kito <Uti, 

7 bda. toft Cbmlloa pio4 root. 

40 (rklo* bnga U/d. n> dn. of bwfl«v, 
too Ma rrlrrw tort. (4 M# pi<w»*A. 
goaulk Ca< ofi&a Ind**. go bag# pWiroo, 
j M* Pb4od«t»btotoM fagv, 
t bd* Wrfl I oil* rtgiw, 

>1 V- oatoo torrrgwlor.mff 

A few nto New lUa. Jmg 


Landing thig Dgy tt Burling Sh ». 

F ROM un boar J l'„ .-lo >0 Pea *4 f. Capt 
CMorp. from MarelOKO, 

0* bd* motif * * Kd- *»4y«d I Lhd tolg 
to of oaotoooad*. fogure i f-r fete bf 

O o*W w BAM i*i P-to Co. 

Nn .6< F»-0t Sirort, 

AJTofor fale.the Hnop Ft-rn-lto^,. >i •ppll(«t 
for wbbm 6 day*.* ft*unrb bi.ft It-op *f i»«#t 
l — .tww b-ritoo. tompkiefy ImuoJ Poe -«rmi 
•apply a# abore. v#*s 0 

FOR SAL F, 

goobhda Itif'r J u % p,**ng «i ,*r, 

jo> baktb td »ofi*J, 
yooto-b brer, god* i—b. 
jl do LreioU -• (ram.bu'tey. 
Itraokiawth*’, 

twodry JruB# a»f»*^‘.rt# a , Tag-i-a# af 

ju: .. ftf .-e" •>., 

Fib *7. Be !'», i^. .Wk. 


A VcnHre, a Maim Fcrme. 

TINE Kfftte, (ontrnonte omrln-oa coi« a m* 
ff- Tree*. <dan* L«aKtl'et*craf<ma) ituoe faa* 
le’ot^*.*- Ida ft «p*oH. do FUtt ufrft. dgoo |w 
Cine r»Po«..'ti KtQgakou’vy.f-.r U lorgtoc 
TOr.e. nr-anaa goan dr mile «W I'LogUl/Yt 
da VArm *(■-(•. gt*itr mlk* de N -w-Vork • toy 
lur loti o* t#n< g-onde amn-oodt • I brIW i n to * , 
oreeMM h — w t ewtAotot ,(M*« go*n-»e irep. u 
one kardtn emioadVao U da. A* bo-* guipr ,4ol; 
dr* ripe*gm, 4oo*mhrr,,groftU ca, |W»t*4 A rotoew 
rt t-wir* rfftm deUgUm.* Ac on pok € »- 
t Ik t. *i-t per* tot k co Gone. *« re g r Bo 
m Run frill*, euimwo p oke a. pomneo. ooi hoi. 

t unc-.ct (•<«» A-g>oi'r Kr-ditm tone oU tow 
o f 4it (ate d—-t o«t rwire uowufflrmta 
re/a*trrrtceh>-ora -I# f 4m 
L.t|. ftrn* ft d.ng k OW-TVoT cWtore 4* mkn 
**rn,i-ti’t borkadot do botr-e-e* do k*b left* 
*jr»;-t tl-Ti or *• h-t# o •• a v -r dwpo(« p*w on Iw 
m r t**e ‘ta fendrs* tea If rT-« fuct % ko. 4Ww 
a T ihnurtf.r*nt t.»>*e idp-etr*-; to l *rW*erw 
Tuhii'/ kab-Mi.o* o> -ttredo- 4r Iitoto W area 
fn w-to are*to htwr, v * 4»t<r«<i t «r Bn 
an • * ot «p**.‘co*4tou ff»tre*. c U ptoto w . 
n. f*m 4 area ■» r#*m^T do May pr etato*. 
f Are -be* to'I Vatvwon H-o h Unto* 
Kfe-c a I4»f>dtf/T1. •*(♦«• 


fr.lk.t 


.1 Ol ILLLaUML ■. WiffFOKD 

’.IW.,, w 







































































































ADVERTISING 


the lines of the various periodicals and condi¬ 
tions of demand for commodities. 

Retail Advertising embraces the announce¬ 
ments of merchants, large and small, in their 
own communities, from the full page in each 
day’s newspapers employed by great department 
stores to the small announcements once or twice 
a week of the minor shopkeeper. This form of 
advertising is really a species of news, prepared 
daily, and is of such interest to the public that 
many readers take newspapers for their store 
advertisements, and the journals which carry 
most of these have the largest circulations. 
Merchants also publish store news by means of 
circulars through the mails, minor local jour¬ 
nals, programmes, bulletins, posters, etc. 

General Advertising is the general term de¬ 
scribing exploitation intended to reach the public 
nationally, or in a group of states. It is found 
■chiefly in magazines and reviews, and in daily^ 
newspapers. Street cars, billboards and bulletins 
are employed as accessories. General advertis¬ 
ers include large manufacturers of food articles, 
soaps, musical instruments, clothing, beverages, 
tobacco, household and office supplies, furniture, 
plate, jewelry, sanitary appliances, etc., as well 
as the great insurance, steamship and railroad 
companies, cities and villages seeking popula¬ 
tion, banks and trust companies, and so forth. 
This is easily the largest branch of advertising, 
and the one most influential in distribution. It 
acts as a stimulus to the local merchant’s efforts, 
and is so wide in scope as to touch every class 
and interest of the nation, however remote. 

Mail Order Advertising is the term applied 
to a form of exploitation peculiarly American. 
When the newer communities of the West were 
insufficiently supplied by their local merchants, 
several intelligent merchants in Chicago, a city 
situated geographically for this form of trade, 
began to advertise commodities to be forwarded 
direct to consumers by freight and express, re¬ 
ceiving orders and remittances through the 
mails. This was the beginning of (( mail order® ad¬ 
vertising. Several of these merchants have built 
up businesses with a gross annual income of 
$25,000,000 or more, selling practically every¬ 
thing in the way of supplies, machinery, food, 
clothing, etc., direct to the consumer. Thousands 
of small advertisers operate with a few com¬ 
modities through the mails, and many local mer¬ 
chants conduct mail order departments. Mail 
order advertising is found in the magazines, the 
farm and religious press, the newspapers, and 
in a class of cheaply printed periodicals known 
as <( mail order journals,® having enormous cir¬ 
culations among people on farms and in villages 
who are not reached by more costly magazines 
or daily papers. A large volume of mail order 
advertising is also done through catalogues and 
printed matter sent through the mails. 

Agricultural Advertising is a form of pub¬ 
licity similar to mail order advertising,but which 
appears chiefly in farm periodicals and exploits 
machinery, fertilizers, farm animals, stock food, 
building materials and farm supplies. 

Trade Journal Advertising appears in the 
numerous special publications devoted to manu¬ 
facturing, retail and wholesale, commerce, 
finance, medicine and the professions, mining, 
transportation, etc. Tts object is to acquaint 
local merchants with commodities manufac¬ 
turers wish to distribute, to inform engineers 


and superintendents of manufacturing plants 
about new machinery, and, generally, to main¬ 
tain that great organization which produces and 
handles commodities up to the point where they 
pass into the consumer’s hands. 

Advertising Mediums % —In the United States 
advertising may be divided roughly into four 
groups, represented by the mediums used: 
Periodical advertising, outdoor advertising, 
street-car advertising and mail advertising. 

Periodical Advertising includes newspapers, 
magazines, reviews, trade, denominational and 
farm publications, periodicals printed in foreign 
languages, theatre and concert programs and 
other publications, of which there are not less 
than 23,000 of all kinds. In 1900 the output of 
printing and publishing in this country was 
valued at $350,000,000, of which, it is estimated, 
fully $200,000,000 represented revenue from ad¬ 
vertisements in periodicals and the printing of 
advertising matter. This item of expenditure 
is increasing so rapidly that it was estimated at 
$275,000,000 for 1905. Advertising in periodicals 
exceeds receipts from subscriptions by $30,000,000. 
During the 20 years from 1880 to 1900 the in¬ 
crease in advertising receipts of American 
periodicals was over 40 per cent. In the four 
States that publish the greatest number of pe¬ 
riodicals— New York, Pennsylvania, Massachu¬ 
setts and Illinois — the receipts from advertis¬ 
ing in 1900 were over $52,000,000. The adver¬ 
tising revenue of some of our largest newspapers 
runs into millions of dollars yearly. Magazines 
have shown the greatest growth in numbers, 
circulation and advertising patronage the past 
decade. In November, 1904, 31 leading monthly 
magazines in the United States published a total 
of 3,128 pages of advertising, representing, at 
an average of $21 an inch, an income of more 
than $t, 000,000 per month from this source. 
More than 7,500 separate advertisements were 
represented, and 2,000 separate business houses, 
with an average expenditure of $500 each for 
the month, or $6,000 per year. It is held to be 
a safe rule to spend 5 per cent of the selling 
price of a commodity in advertising, so that this 
advertising for a single month in 31 publications 
would have to return a gross amount exceeding 
$20,000,000 to be profitable, or nearly $250,000,000 
yearly. While the largest newspaper circulations 
seldom exceed 300,000 copies, daily, the circula¬ 
tion of several monthly magazines is more than 
1,000,000 copies per issue, and of one weekly 
more than 800,000 copies per issue. 

Outdoor Advertising includes posters and 
placards pasted on billboards and barns, painted 
signs on barns, fences and walls, as well as 
specially constructed bulletin boards in large 
cities which are electrically illuminated at night, 
the erection of advertisements about buildings 
in process of construction, the use of advertising 
along railroad lines and at populous seaside re¬ 
sorts, etc. As much as $10 per square foot has 
been paid for the privilege of advertising on a 
wall in New York City. Electric signs, with 
advertisements outlined in incandescent lamps, 
are an important form of expenditure for out¬ 
door advertising. The largest advertisement of 
this sort in the w^orld is a single word on a 
New York building, with letters 60 feet high, 
visible to 50,000,000 passengers on ferries each 
year. Advertising of this character adds to the 
attractiveness of a city by its diffusion of light 


ADVERTISING 


through the main streets at no cost to the public. 
Billboards and other outdoor advertising are 
more often charged with abuses and unsightli¬ 
ness than any other form, and in some cities are 
prohibited in the vicinity of parks by municipal 
regulation. They have never come under con¬ 
trol to the extent comrrfon on the Continent, and 
in comparison with the outdoor advertisements 
of London are perhaps pleasing. Outdoor ad¬ 
vertising is thought to be effective in reaching 
persons not habitual readers of newspapers, as 
well as to lay emphasis upon newspaper and 
magazine advertising by repeating the names of 
commodities more fully described in the press. 
It necessarily affords no opportunities for de¬ 
scription of articles, but is confined to repetition 
of brands and trademarks. 

Street Car Advertising is a medium that has 
become prominent in the United States since the 
introduction of electric traction and the spread 
of trolley lines through cities and suburbs. An 
enormous population is carried in these vehi¬ 
cles— more than 5,000,000,000 cash fares are 
paid on trolleys yearly, and perhaps two-thirds 
of these represent an extra ride in the shape of 
a transfer. It is possible to maintain an adver¬ 
tising card in the 32,000 cars throughout the 
United States, covering about 400 towns and 
cities, for $150,000 a year, and in point of the 
number of persons who can be reached for a 
given sum the trolley, elevated and subway lines 
are said to offer the cheapest form of advertis¬ 
ing. Car advertising in New York City, it is 
claimed, has a national circulation owing to the 
fact that 250,000 persons from all over the 
country are constantly in the metropolis. More 
matters may be printed on a car card than on 
an outdoor poster, and while there are few in¬ 
stances where large advertisers have attained 
success through the use of billboards alone, quite 
a number have confined their operations to street 
cars with profit. As a rule, though, advertising 
aims toward a balanced effect in magazines, 
newspapers, cars, billboards and printed matter. 

Mail Advertising .— In 1679 a London haber¬ 
dasher gave to each customer who purchased 
goods to the value of a guinea a printed list of 
his stock, and this was regarded as a dangerous 
innovation because, if followed generally, it 
would result in the investment of too much 
tradesmen’s capital in printed bills. From this 
humble beginning the use of circulars and cata¬ 
logues has grown to a point where, at present, 
in the United States, every second letter carried 
through the mails is an advertising letter, and 
for every periodical posted there is mailed a cat¬ 
alogue or brochure. Postage on advertising 
matter aggregated between $25,000,000 and $30,- 
000,000 in 1904, and this perhaps represented only 
one-tenth the cost of compiling and printing such 
advertising. Mail advertising takes many forms, 
from the leather-bound catalogue of 500 or more 
pages to the humble postal card. Every general 
advertiser has descriptive matter in booklet form 
which is mailed freely to those who express in¬ 
terest in his magazine or newspaper advertising, 
and in many instances the periodicals are used 
only to excite such interest, printed matter being 
relied upon to tell the whole story of such com¬ 
plicated apparatus as an agricultural implement, 
heating furnace or piano-player. Many adver¬ 
tising letters are sent out to lists of persons who 
may be interested in certain commodities, either 


printed in imitation of typewriting or actually 
written on a typing machine. Mail advertising 
also embraces the distribution at regular postal 
rates of small periodicals devoted to the interests 
of a manufacturing or merchandising house. 
There are hundreds of these personal business 
organs, some of which have been of sufficient 
interest to enlarge into standard magazines. 
Mail advertising also includes the distribution 
of what are known as “advertising novelties, }) 
ingenious or useful trifles ranging from puzzles 
to match-boxes, and comic cards to desk calen¬ 
dars, all bearing the name of an advertiser. 
Blotters, calendars, almanacs, reproductions of 
paintings and many other forms of printed ad¬ 
vertising, upon tin, cardboard, paper, wood, 
leather, cloth, bark, porcelain, glass and other 
substances travel through the mails. This is 
the most costly form of advertising known, in 
proportion to the number of persons that can be 
reached for a given expenditure, but as most of 
this matter is sent to persons thought to be 
directly interested, it often pays a larger return 
than advertising distributed promiscuously 
through periodicals, etc. 

Advertising Agencies .— Soon after advertis¬ 
ing began to be used nationally instead of locally 
it was found convenient to put details of corre¬ 
sponding with newspapers, arranging rates, writ¬ 
ing the advertisements, seeing that they were 
properly inserted, etc., into the hands of a new 
functionary who then sprang up — the Advertis¬ 
ing Agent. The first advertising agent to open 
an office for the reception of advertisements in 
this country was Volney B. Palmer. . He began 
business in Philadelphia in 1840, and subse¬ 
quently established offices in Boston and Balti¬ 
more as well. Before this, however, the adver¬ 
tising agent was known abroad, for Balzac men¬ 
tions (“Le Depute d’Arcis w ) as among the ten¬ 
ants of a Paris rookery in the thirties, “women 
of the town, still-born insurance companies, 
newspapers fated to die young, impossible rail¬ 
way companies, discount brokers and advertise¬ 
ment agents who lack the publicity they profess 
to sell — in short, all description of shy or doubt¬ 
ful enterprise.When national advertising was 
new there existed no newspaper directories. To 
advertise in a given territory it was necessary 
to go to an advertising agent who had lists of 
the newspapers and knew their rates. Agents 
often purchased several columns of space in a 
number of newspapers by the year, re-selling 
allotments to advertisers for a price less than 
the newspaper would charge direct. The adver¬ 
tising agent was thus a broker, and to encourage 
him in developing advertising the newspapers 
paid him a commission on what he sent in. 
Then, as demand grew, he became also an ad¬ 
viser to new advertisers, giving counsel as to the 
ways in which a given appropriation should be 
spent, preparing the text and illustrations and 
supplementary matter to be used, checking in¬ 
sertions in papers and bills, etc. This detail work 
is complex, and the advertising agent usually per¬ 
forms it more reasonably than an advertiser 
could do himself. From a broker in space, the 
advertising agent of the present day has become 
a specialist whose services are valued because 
he has a wide experience in directing the opera¬ 
tions of many advertisers, as well as an equip¬ 
ment for writing and illustrating advertising 
matter. While the advertising agent is still 


ADVOCATE 


paid by commissions of io to 15 per cent 
allowed him by publishers of newspapers and 
magazines, he is in no sense the agent of the pub¬ 
lishers, but receives rather a wholesale rate upon 
advertising space, which he sells to the advertiser 
at a retail or gross price. An advertising agent's 
interests are so wholly bound up with his adver¬ 
tising client’s that in some instances he receives 
for his services a salary besides. Advertis¬ 
ing agents have been of the utmost im¬ 
portance in the development of advertising, 
for by active work in leading conservative 
business houses to utilize this modern dis¬ 
tributive force, they have built up the reve¬ 
nues of publishers, improved publications and 
driven advertising charlatans from the field. A 
few of the largest advertisers maintain depart¬ 
ments in their business to prepare and supervise 
their own advertising, while publishers of mag¬ 
azines and newspapers also carry on independ¬ 
ently the work of converting business houses to 
advertising. Despite this, the agent’s function 
has remained an indispensable one, and with 
the development of advertising he has en¬ 
trenched it by specializing. One of the leading 
New York advertising agencies, for example, has 
been instrumental in building up the large show¬ 
ing of steamship, railroad and travel advertising 
now carried in leading magazines, with supple¬ 
mentary advertising of hotels and resorts. Two 
other agencies are known for their work among 
advertisers of agricultural implements, another 
has found its field in the development of textile 
advertising through magazine and trade journal 
advertising, etc. 

With the past decade the advertising agent 
has ceased to be what the name would imply 
and has really become a professional man whose 
advice is sought as such by the largest commer¬ 
cial and financial concerns. The leaders in 
this new profession have become experts on 
trade conditions, and in the introduction of new 
goods or the development of trade in well-estab¬ 
lished lines. The modern well-equipped adver¬ 
tising agency has attached to it not only compe¬ 
tent writers of advertisments, artists and photog¬ 
raphers, but experts in salesmanship who study 
economic questions and conditions with the 
greatest thoroughness. This branch of the work 
has been carried by some of the leading agen¬ 
cies to the point of becoming advisors and lec¬ 
turers to the regularly employed traveling men 
of the concerns represented. 

Special Advertising Agencies differ from the 
foregoing general advertising agencies in that 
they actually represent the publishers of certain 
newspapers or miscellaneous journals in a given 
territory, promoting advertising only for those 
journals and receiving commissions on all busi¬ 
ness that comes from such territory. These 
special agents are found chiefly in New York 
and Chicago, where a large percentage of adver¬ 
tising originates, and are simply branch offices 
of publishers outside such cities, who take such 
means for being represented. In several States 
associations have been formed among the smaller 
daily papers who unite in employing a represen¬ 
tative who acts as their agent in procuring 
business. 

As advertising has developed in this country 
it seeks ever new, varied channels, so that while 
it is possible by a proper selection of mediums 
to reach practically the whole public, it is also 


possible, on the other hand, to appeal to a small 
group of persons interested in some special com¬ 
modity. No adequate outline of the many forms 
of advertising could be given in an article of this 
scope, and readers interested in a fuller presenta¬ 
tion of methods, cost, the stories of famous ad¬ 
vertisers, etc., are referred to ( History of Adver- 
tising ) (London, 1874) ; ( Modern Advertising 
(New York, 1905) ; ( The Theory of Advertis¬ 
ing 5 (Boston, 1904) ; ( Forty Years an Adver¬ 
tising Agent 5 (New York, 1906) ; Principles of 
the Mail Order Business 5 (Chicago, 1903) ; 
( The Business of Advertising 5 (London, 1905). 
In addition to the above there are numerous 
newspaper directories published annually. 

American advertising has a large periodical 
literature of its own, comprising fully 25 weekly 
and monthly journals. Many of these are illus¬ 
trated and assume the dignity in matter and 
typography of the standard magazine. Among 
the most notable of these publications are 
Printers’ Ink 5 (weekly, New York) ; Profit¬ 
able Advertising 5 (monthly, Boston) ; Paine 5 
(monthly, New York) ; Agricultural Advertis¬ 
ing 5 (monthly, Chicago) ; ( Mail Order Journal 5 
(monthly, Chicago) ; ( Judicious Advertising 5 
(monthly, Chicago) ; ( Ad Sense 5 (monthly, 
Chicago), and others. Frank Presbrey. 

The Frank Presbrey Co., New York. 

Advocate, (1) Originally one whose aid 
was called in or invoked; one who helped in any 
business matter; (2) in law, at first, one who 
gave his legal aid in a case, without, however, 
pleading, this being the function of the patronus; 
(3) the advocatus dsci, who attended to the in¬ 
terests of the dscns, or the emperor’s privy 
purse. 

In the old German empire, a person ap¬ 
pointed by the emperor to do justice. In Ger¬ 
many and elsewhere juridical advocates were 
made judges in consequence of their attending 
when causes were pleaded in the count’s court. 

In the mediaeval church, one appointed to de¬ 
fend the rights and revenues of a church or 
monastery. The word advocate, in the sense of 
a defender of the Church, was ultimately super¬ 
seded by that of patron, but it still lingers in 
the term advowson. 

Constitutional advocates, in Rome, pleaded 
before the consistory in cases relating to the 
disposal of benefices which they opposed. Elec¬ 
tive advocates were chosen by a bishop, an 
abbot, or a chapter. Feudal advocates were 
persons assigned lands on condition of their 
fighting for the Church, leading out their vas¬ 
sals for the purpose. Matricular advocates de¬ 
fended the cathedral churches. Military advo¬ 
cates were appointed to fight for the Church. 
The Devil’s advocate is a Roman ecclesiastic 
whose office it is to urge whatever objections 
may exist to the canonization of any proposed 
saint. 

In English law, originally one who pleaded a 
cause in a civil, but not in a criminal, court; 
alone entitled to plead as counsel in ecclesiastical 
and admiralty courts, which are now thrown 
open to the ordinary bar. Now, in English and 
American law, one who pleads a cause in any 
court. It is not properly speaking, a technical 
word, but is used only in a popular sense, while 
the attorney and barrister (q.v.) have defined 
special attributes. 


ZEETES — ZEGYPTUS 


ZEe'tes. See Argonauts. 

ZEga'dian Islands, a group lying off the 
W. extremity of Sicily, and consisting of Mari- 
timo, Favignana, Levanso, and Le Formiche. 
Favignana, the largest, is about 14 m. in cir¬ 
cuit, and has productive tunny and anchovy 
fisheries. The group has a population of 6,300. 
Near these islands the Romans won a great 
naval battle with the Carthaginians, 741 b.c., 
which ended the first Punic war. 

ZEgean Sea, e-je'an or i'ga-an, the old 
name of the gulf between Asia Minor and 
Greece, now usually called the Grecian Archi¬ 
pelago (q.v.). 

ZEgeus, e'jus. See Theseus. 

ZEgi'na, a Greek island about 15 m. S.W. of 
Athens, in the Gulf of ZEgina (old Sinus Saro- 
nicus) ; area, 32 sq. m.; pop. about 7,000. It is 
the triangular top of a partly submerged rocky 
hill, with deep gorges and ravines, and the 
eastern half rocky and unproductive; but the 
western is a well-cultivated plain, which un¬ 
der the warm air and sea produce the best Greek 
almonds, with olives and other fruits, wine, and 
seme grain. The non-agricultural inhabitants 
do a considerable commerce and navigation 
from the one port, the capital, ZEgina (pop. 
about 5,000), at the northwest, on the site of the 
old Greek town, of which considerable remains 
are left, the ruins of solidly built walls and har¬ 
bor moles still attesting its ancient size and im¬ 
portance. According to the legend, the island 
was named after the nymph yEgina, brought 
thither by Zeus. Historically, its first inhab¬ 
itants were Achseans, and were expelled by a 
Dorian colony from Epidaurus, under whom it 
was one of the foremost commercial cities of 
Greece, full of hardy, energetic people, born 
seamen, who covered themselves with glory at 
Salamis. They were later forced to become a 
tributary part of the Athenian empire, and in 
431 b.c. were expelled altogether. Lysander 
afterward restored them, but the city’s old im¬ 
portance was gone. On a hill in the northeast 
are the remains of a splendid temple of Zeus 
Panhellenius (or, as others maintain, of Athena), 
many of the columns of which are still stand¬ 
ing. Here were found in the early 19th cen¬ 
tury a number of marble statues which once 
adorned the east and west fronts of the temple; 
they were purchased by the king of Bavaria in 
1812, the deficient parts restored by Thorwald- 
sen, and are now among the chief ornaments of 
the Glyptothek at Munich. 

ZEg'inhard. See Eginhard. 

ZEgir, a'jir, a Norse god of the sea-storms, 
who treats the other gods to foaming beer, and 
has a wife Ran caring for those lost at sea. 
Their nine daughters are sea-waves, with names 
representing the aspects of the ocean. 

ZEgirite, a mineral essentially identical 
with acmite (q.v.). Like it, segirite is mono¬ 
clinic, and is a silicate of sodium and both ferric 
and ferrous iron, the former largely predomi¬ 
nating. It is a member of the pyroxene group 
and is regarded by Miers as an alkali diopside. 
It is distinguished from acmite by its simple, 
prismatic crystals, usually bluntly terminated, 
its dark green color, and its characteristic grass 
green, pale green and brown pleochroism. Its 
hardness is 6 to 6.5 and specific gravity about 


3.53. It occurs in long prismatic crystals 
chiefly in the elaeolite-syenites of Norway and 
Arkansas. 

ZEgis, e'jis (^stornH), the shield of Zeus, 
fashioned by Hephaestus (Vulcan). From a 
probably mistaken etymology it was often said 
to have been the skin of the goat Amalthea, who 
suckled Zeus, and to have had the Gorgon’s 
head in the centre. When Zeus was angry he 
waved and shook the aegis, making a sound like 
a tempest, by which the nations were overawed. 
It was the symbol of divine protection, and be¬ 
came in course of time the exclusive attribute 
of Zeus and Athene. 

ZEgis'thus, e-jis'thus, son of Thyestes, and 
cousin of Agamemnon; adopted son of Atreus 
(q.v.). He did not accompany the Greeks to 
Troy, and during Agamemnon’s absence lived in 
adultery with his wife Clytemnestra. He as¬ 
sisted her in murdering her husband on his re¬ 
turn, but was himself put to death seven years 
later by Orestes, son of Agamemnon. This is 
the account given by Homer; the tragic poets 
make Clytemnestra alone murder Agamemnon, 
her motive in ZEschylus being her jealousy and 
wrath at the death of Iphigenia of Cassandra; 
in Sophocles and Euripides, the latter alone. 
Later writers also describe ZEgisthus as the son 
of Thyestes by unwitting incest with his daugh¬ 
ter Pelopia. See Agamemnon ; Atreus. 

ZEgium, e'ji-um, Greece, modern Vas- 
titza, though officially restored to its ancient 
name. See Achaia. 

. 5 £gle, a genus of plants of the natural 
order Aurantiaceco. The TEgle marmelos is the 
tree which produces the bhel fruit. This fruit 
is most delicious to the taste, being exquisitely 
fragrant and nutritious, but laxative. When a 
little unripe it has been long used in India with 
great effect as an astringent in cases of diarrhoea 
and dysentery. 

ZEgospot'amos or ZEgospot'amoi ( (( goat- 

riveH), the Thracian Chersonesus (now penin¬ 
sula of Gallipoli) : a river and town memorable 
for the battle, or rather surprise, in which the 
Spartan general Lysander annihilated the Athen¬ 
ian fleet, 13 Dec. b.c. 405, and ended the Pelo¬ 
ponnesian war by the temporary ruin of Athens. 
The latter had 180 vessels, with a number of 
coequal commanders, only one of whom (Co- 
non) had common military sense, and perhaps 
treachery was at work; while Lysander was an 
eminent military genius and had no one to con¬ 
sult but himself. Having put them off their 
guard by ostentatious carelessness and absence 
for several days, he swooped down upon them 
one day at dinner-time while their ships were 
totally unprepared (despite the warnings of 
Alcibiades, whose castle was close by and who 
was fully a match for Lysander), and destroyed 
or captured the entire fleet except Conon’s small 
squadron. Athens fell under the rule of Sparta, 
which set up an aristocratic government, the 
outcome of which is infamous in history as the 
Thirty Tyrants. 

ZEgyp'tus, in Greek legend, son of Belus, 
king of.Arabia; conquered the land called Egypt 
from him. He gave his fifty sons in marriage 
to the fifty daughters of his brother Danaus, 
who had established himself in Argos and was 
jealous of his brother, and who obliged all his 
daughters to murder their husbands on the night 


TELFRIC — .ffiNEID 


of their nuptials; Hypermnestra alone spared 
her husband, Lynceus. Even Tigyptus was killed 
by his niece Polyxena. See Danaus ; Egypt. 

.ZElfric, al'fric, the Grammarian, Anglo- 
Saxon author and translator; fl. 1006. In his 
youth he was taught by a secular priest who 
could scarcely understand Latin. “There was 
no one,® he says, (( who could write or under¬ 
stand Latin letters until Dunstan and Tithel- 
wold revived learning.® This may account for 
his warm interest in education and his industry 
in translation and compilation. <A Treatise on 
the Old and New Testaments* (printed 1623); 
the ( Heptateuchus,* an abridgment and trans¬ 
lation of the first seven books of the Old Testa¬ 
ment, with the Book of Job (pr. 1699) ; a 
( Pastoral Letter,* written for Wulfstan, arch¬ 
bishop of York (1003-23), in which he makes 
the archbishop declare that he will not forcibly 
compel his clergy to chastity, but admonishes 
them to observe it; a ( Latin Grammar and Glos¬ 
sary* (printed by Somner, 1659). 

■ffilia, a Roman gens, whose members in¬ 
cluded Sejanus, Hadrian, and the Antonines, 
as also the families of Pietus (q.v.), Gallus, etc. 

JElia Capitolina, the new name given to 
Jerusalem by Hadrian when he colonized it with 
Romans after the insurrection of 132-5 a.d. ; he 
built a temple to Jupiter Capitolinus, and pre¬ 
fixed the name of his own gens, the Tilian. 
The Christian emperors after Constantine re¬ 
stored the old name. 

iElianus, Claudius, e-li-a'nus, a noted Ro¬ 
man sophist who flourished in the first half of 
the 2d century: b. Praeneste, Italy. Of his many 
works, written in Greek, two are extant: Va¬ 
rious Histories,* or narratives, in 14 books, and 
( Of the Nature of Animals,* anecdotes of ani¬ 
mals,— most entertaining and uncritical com¬ 
pilations. The Peasants’ Letters* accredited 
to him are spurious. Best ed., Hercher, 1858 
and 1864. 

TEmilia'nus, C. Julius, emperor of Rome: 
a Moor who rose from the lowest stations; gov¬ 
ernor of Pannonia and Mcesia, whose troops 
killed the Emperor Gallus and gave him the 
crown. He reigned only four months, when 
he was killed in his 46th year by his own sol¬ 
diers, who then offered the crown to Valerian. 

TEmilian Way, a Roman state road about 
185 m. long, built by the consul Marcus 7 E mil- 
ius Lepidus, 187 B.C., primarily as a military road 
to make easy communication between Rome and 
her new possessions in Cisalpine Gaul _ (Lom¬ 
bardy). Beginning at Ariminurn (Rimini) on 
the Adriatic, where the FlaminHn way from 
Rome ended, it traversed Bononia (Bologna), 
Mutina (Modena), and Parma, crossed the Pa- 
dus (Po) at Placentia (Piacenza), and ended at 
Mediolanum (Milan). 

TSmiTius Paulus, surnamed Macedonicus a 
noble Roman of the ancient family of Timiln: 
b. 230 b.c. ; d. 160. He conquered Perseus, king 
of Macedon, and on this occasion obtained a 
triumph, 168 b.c. During the triumph two of 
his sons died. He bore the loss like a hero, and 
thanked the gods that they had chosen them for 
victims to avert bad fortune from the Roman 
people. He was father of the renowned Scipio 
Africanus the Younger. 


TEne as, in the Iliad, a Trojan prince, son 
of Anchises and the goddess Venus; second only 
to his kinsman Hector among the Trojan chiefs. 
Other stories tell that the care of his infancy was 
entrusted to a nymph ; but at the age of five he 
was recalled to Troy and placed under the in¬ 
spection of Alcathoiis, his father’s friend and 
companion. He afterward improved himself in 
I hessaly under Chiron the Centaur, whose 
house was frequented by all the young princes 
and heroes of the age. Soon after his return 
home he married Creusa, Priam’s daughter, by 
whom he had a son called Ascanius. Vergil, 
whose object is to connect him (according to 
Latin tradition of untraceable source) with the 
origin of Rome, tells his further story as fol¬ 
lows in the Tineid. In the night of the cap¬ 
ture of Troy by the Greeks, Hector warned him 
in a dream to fly. Tineas notwithstanding 
rushed to the fight; but after Priam was slain 
returned to his home and carried off his father, 
his child, and his household gods, losing, how¬ 
ever, his wife, Creusa, in the confusion. With 
twenty vessels he sailed for Thrace, where he 
began to build Tinos, but terrified by a miracle 
abandoned the attempt. Thence he went to De¬ 
los to consult the oracle. Misunderstanding its 
reply he went to Crete, from which he was 
driven by a pestilence; thence to the promontory 
of Actium, and in Epirus found Helenus and 
Andromache; thence past Italy and through the 
Straits of Messina, and circumnavigated Sicily 
to Cape Drepanum on the western coast, where 
Anchises died. A tempest drove him on the 
shore of Africa, where Dido received him kindly 
in Carthage and wished to detain and marry 
him. Jupiter, however, mindful of the Fates, 
sent Mercury to Tineas and commanded him to 
sail for Italy. While the deserted Dido ended 
her life on the funeral pile, .Eneas set sail with 
his companions and was cast by a storm on the 
shores of Sicily, in the dominions of his Trojan 
friend Acestes, where the wives of his com¬ 
panions, wearied of a seafaring and homeless 
life, set fire to the ships. Nevertheless, after 
building the city Acesta, he sailed for Italy, 
leaving the women and the sick behind. He 
found near Cumae a sibyl his father’s ghost had 
ordered him to seek, who foretold his destiny 
and aided his descent into the lower world; 
here he saw his father and had a prophetic vi¬ 
sion of the glorious destinies of his race. On 
his return he embarked again and reached the 
eastern shore of the river Tiber, in the country 
of Latinus, king of the Aborigines (q.v.). His 
daughter Lavinia was destined by an oracle to 
a stranger, but promised by her mother Amata 
to Turnus, king of the Rutuli. This occasioned 
a war, after the termination of which, Turnus 
having fallen by his hand, Tineas married La¬ 
vinia. His son by Lavinia, Tineas Sylvius, was 
the ancestor of the kings of Alba Longa, and of 
Romulus and Remus, the founders of the city 
of Rome. From Ascanius’ son lulus the Ro¬ 
mans derive the Julian family. For the real 
origin of Rome, see that title. 

TEneas Silvius. See Pius II. 

TEne'id, one of the great epic poems of 
the world; written in Latin by Vergil and pub¬ 
lished after his death, which took place about 16 
b.c. Being left imperfect, his friends Varius 
and Tucca edited it at Augustus’ request. For 
its story, see Tineas. See also Vergil. 


ZENESIDEMUS — ^QUI 


TEneside'mus, Greek philosopher, fl. 80-60 
B.c.: b. Cnossus in Crete, removed to Alex¬ 
andria. He was a leader of the Skeptical school, 
and is famous for the <( Ten Tropes^ attributed 
to him,— arguments to prove the impossibility of 
absolute knowledge, and reducible in essence to 
two, that no two things are alike and every¬ 
thing is relative. They are: (1) That each sen¬ 
tient being must have a different perception and 
conception of the universe from every other 
because differently constituted; (2) that human 
beings differ; (3) that sense organs differ; (4) 
that the circumstances of perceptions differ; (5) 
that objects perceived differ in location and dis¬ 
tance; (6) that different objects are confounded ; 
(7) that different combinations make the same 
sensation seem different; (8) that all knowledge 
is relative; (9) that degrees of familiarity cause 
differences in perception; (10) that the intel¬ 
lectual speculations, moral theories, laws, man¬ 
ners and customs, civilizations, etc., of all races 
differ (Locke’s argument against intuitive 
ideas). 

iEnianes, e-ni'a-nes, in classic Greek, an 
Achaean people living on the southern border 
of Thessaly, in the mountains west of Ther¬ 
mopylae; members of the ZEtolian League 
and the Delphic Amphictyony. 

ZEo'lian, a musical instrument. See Musi¬ 
cal Instruments, Mechanical. 

ZEolian Harp, or ZEolus’ Harp, is generally 
a simple box of thin fibrous wood to which are 
attached a number of fine strings, sometimes as 
many as fifteen, stretched on low bridges at each 
end, and carefully tuned so as to be in har¬ 
mony. Its length is made to correspond to the 
size of the window or other aperture in which it 
is intended to be placed. Its width is about five 
or six inches, its depth two or three. It must 
be placed with the strings uppermost, under 
which is a circular opening in the centre, as in 
the belly of the guitar. When the wind blows 
athwart the strings it produces the effect of a 
choir of music in the air, sweetly mingling all 
the harmonic notes, and swelling or diminishing 
the sounds according to the strength or weak¬ 
ness of the blast. A simpler kind of ZEolian 
harp has no sounding-board, but consists merely 
of a number of strings extended between two 
boards. 

ZEolians (Wariegated,^ mixed race), an 
ancient Greek people, perhaps the very earliest 
Greek stock — a mixture of Hellenes and Pe- 
lasgi — before the special races like Ionians and 
Dorians had differentiated from it; as their lan¬ 
guage was not a distinct dialect like those, but is 
a mixture of elements from all and presents the 
closest link of any between Greek and Latin. 
The Homeric language is ZEolic. The race ex¬ 
tended from northeast to southwest through 
Greece, from the Pagasaic Gulf through Thes 
saly . or at least Phthiotis, Bceotia, Phocis, 
Locris, and ZEtolia north of the Corinthian 
Gulf, to Elis and Messenia south of it. The 
sons of ZEsculapius (q.v.), Philoctetes, Odys¬ 
seus, Nestor, and the Oilean Ajax, were 
ZEolians; and legend accredits to the same 
stock Jason, Melampus the healer who under¬ 
stood the song of birds, Sisyphus the founder 
of Corinth, and Athamas the great king of the 
Minyae, son-in-law of Cadmus and father of 
Phrixus and Helle. The Achaeans, if not origi¬ 


nally part of the same stock, became blent with 
them and are classed by the ancients as part 
of them; and there is no separate Achaean dia¬ 
lect or art. Probably they were one, and the 
Peloponnesian Achaei were certainly part of 
them ; and the great emigration commonly called 
the ZEolian was an emigration of Achaean peo¬ 
ple. It seems probable that the emigration from 
the Peloponnesus began before the Dorian in¬ 
vasion, or return of the Heraclidae, as it is often 
called, which caused so great a revolution in the 
peninsula. Strabo says the ZEolian settlements 
in Asia were four generations prior to the 
Ionian. Their colonies on the Asiatic mainland 
were widely spread, extending at least from 
Cyzicus, along the shores of the Hellespont and 
the ZEgean, to the river Caicus, and even the 
Hermus. Many positions in the interior were 
also occupied by them, as well as the fine island 
of Lesbos, with Tenedos, and others of smaller 
importance. Homer mentions all these parts 
as possessed by a different people; which would 
be proof, if any were wanting, that the race of 
new settlers came after his time. There were 
twelve cities or states included in the older set- 
tlments in that tract of Asia Minor on the 
ZEgean which was known in Greek geography 
by the name of ZEolis and formed a part of the 
subsequent larger division of Mysia. Smyrna, 
one of them, which early fell into the hands of 
the Ionians, the neighbors of the ZEolians, still 
exists nearly on the old spot, with exactly the 
same name; thus adding one to the many in¬ 
stances of the durable impression made by Greek 
colonies wherever they settled. 

ZEolis. See ZEolians. 

ZE'olus, in Greek legend: (1) Ruler of the 
winds; a sort of sub-deity, having his residence 
in a floating island, said to be one of the 
yEolian Islands, or by the Latin and later Greek 
poets one of the Lipari Islands. Here he kept the 
winds in bags (Virgil says in caves), restraining 
or letting them loose at the orders of Zeus. In 
the Odyssey he gives them to Odysseus to take 
care of for a time. (2) The eponymous an¬ 
cestor of the ZEolians, located in Thessaly; Hel- 
len was his father and Dorus his brother (epo- 
nyms of the Hellenes and Dorians), and 
Sisyphus his son, the significance of which is not 
ascertainable. (1) and (2) -may have been 
originally the same, but if so they arose as in¬ 
dependent metaphors or eponyms. 

ZEqui, an ancient people of Italy, conspic¬ 
uous in the early wars of Rome. They inhab¬ 
ited the mountain district between the upper 
valley of the Anio (Teverone) and Lake Fuci- 
nus. Their origin is unknown; but they were 
probably akin to the Volscians, with whom they 
were in constant alliance. This league after the 
fall of the monarchy made great headway and 
captured many towns, their power culminating 
in the 5th century b.c. At length they were se¬ 
verely defeated by Cincinnatus in 458, and again 
bv the dictator Postumus Tubertus in 428. 
They were finally subdued about 304, and soon 
after were admitted to Roman citizenship, being 
included in the new tribes Aniensis and Teren- 
tina. Henceforth their name disappears from 
history; but the inhabitants of the upper valleys 
began to be called ZEquiculi, by which name they 
are mentioned by Vergil as predatory moun¬ 
taineers. The name ZEquiculani occurs in Pliny. 


iERARIUM — AERIAL LOCOMOTION 


iErarium, e-ra'ri-um (^money-place®), the 
public treasury of ancient Rome; containing not 
■only the state moneys and accounts, but the 
legionary standards, the public laws (on brass 
plates), senate decrees, and other important 
papers and registers. It was located in the tem¬ 
ple of Saturn, on the eastern slope of the 
Capitoline hill. Besides the general treasury, 
filled from general taxes and drawn on for 
regular expenses, there was in the same build¬ 
ing, a (( sacred treasury,® or reserve fund, 
replenished chiefly by a 5 per cent tax on 
the value of manumitted slaves, which was 
never drawn upon except on occasions of ex¬ 
treme necessity. The senate controlled the 
aerarium nominally even under the early em¬ 
perors, who had their separate imperial treasury 
called the fiscus; but as the senate became a 
mere name, the figment of two treasuries was 
gradually abolished. Augustus established also 
a military treasury devoted solely to army ac¬ 
counts. The later emperors had likewise a pri¬ 
vate treasury, aside from the general one which 
•they administered for the empire. 

Aerated Bread. See Bread. 

Aerated Waters. See Mineral Waters. 

Aerial Conveyer. See Conveyer. 

Aerial Locomotion. We are all of us in¬ 
terested in aerial locomotion; and I am sure that 
no one who has observed with attention the 
flight of birds can doubt for one moment the 
possibility of aerial flight by bodies specifically 
heavier than the air. In the words of an old 
writer, <( We cannot consider as impossible that 
which has already been accomplished.® 

I have had the feeling that a properly con¬ 
structed flying-machine should be capable of 
being flown as a kite; and, conversely, that a 
properly constructed kite should be capable of 
use as a flying-machine when driven by its own 
propellers. I am not so sure, however, of the 
truth of the former proposition as I am of the 
latter. Given a kite, so shaped as to be suitable 
for the body of a flying-machine, and so effi¬ 
cient that it will fly well in a good breeze (say 
20 miles an hour) when loaded with a weight 
•equivalent to that of a man and engine; then 
it seems to me that this same kite, provided with 
an actual engine and man in place of the load, 
and driven by its own propellers at the rate of 
20 miles an hour, should be sustained in calm air 
.as a flying-machine. So far as the pressure of 
the air is concerned, it is surely immaterial 
whether the air moves against the kite, or the 
kite against the air. 

Of course in other respects the two cases 
are not identical. A kite sustained by a 20-mile 
breeze possesses no momentum, or rather its 
momentum is equal to zero, because it is sta¬ 
tionary in the air and has no motion proper 
of its own; but the momentum of a heavy body 
propelled at 20 miles an hour through , still air 
is very considerable. Momentum certainly aids 
flight, and it may even be a source of support 
-against gravity quite independently of the pres¬ 
sure of the air. It is perfectly possible, there¬ 
fore, that an apparatus may prove to be efficient 
as a flying-machine which cannot be flown, as 
a kite on account of the absence of vis viva. 
However this may be, the applicability of kite 
-experiments to the flying-machine problem has 


for a long time past been the guiding thought in 
my researches. 

I have not cared to ascertain how high a 
kite may be flown or to make one fly at any 
very great altitude.. The point I have had spe¬ 
cially in mind is this: That the equilibrium of 
the structure in the air should be perfect; that 
the kite should fly steadily, and not move about 
from side to side or dive suddenly when struck 
by a squall, and that when released it should 
drop slowly and gently to the ground without 
material oscillation. I have also considered it 
important that the framework should possess 
great strength with little weight. 

I believe that in the form of structure now 
attained the properties of strength, lightness, and 
steady flight have been united in a remarkable 
degree. In my younger days the word (< kite® 
suggested a structure of wood in the form of a 
cross covered with paper forming a diamond¬ 
shaped surface longer one way than the other, 
and provided with a long tail composed of a 
string with numerous pieces of paper tied at in¬ 
tervals upon it. Such a kite is simply a toy. In 
Europe and America, where kites of this type 
prevailed, kite-flying was pursued only as an 
amusement for children, and the improvement 
of the form of structure was hardly considered 
a suitable subject of thought for a scientific 
man. In Asia kite-flying has been for centuries 
the amusement of adults, and the Chinese, Jap¬ 
anese, and Malays have developed tailless kites 
very much superior to any form of kite known 
to us until quite recently. It is only within 
the last few years that improvements in kite 
structure have been seriously considered, and the 
recent developments in the art have been largely 
due to the efforts of one man — Laurence Har¬ 
grave of Australia. 

Hargrave realized that the structure best 
adapted for what is called a (( good kite® would 
also be suitable as the basis for the structure 
of a flying-machine. His researches, published 
by the Royal Society of New South Wales, 
have attracted the attention of the world, and 
form the starting point for modern researches 
upon the subject in Europe and America. Any¬ 
thing relating to aerial locomotion has an interest 
to very many minds, and scientific kite-flying 
has everywhere been stimulated by Hargrave’s 
experiments. 

In America, however, the chief stimulus to 
scientific kite-flying has been the fact developed 
by the United States Weather Bureau, that im¬ 
portant information could be obtained concern¬ 
ing weather conditions if kites could be con¬ 
structed capable of lifting meteorological instru¬ 
ments to a great elevation in the free air. Mr. 
Eddy and others in America have taken the 
Malay tailless kite as a basis for their experi¬ 
ments, but Prof. Marvin, of the United States 
Weather Bureau; Mr. Rotch, of the Blue Hill 
Observatory, and many others have adapted Har¬ 
grave’s box kite for the purpose. Congress has 
made appropriations to the Weather Bureau in 
aid of its kite experiments, and a number of 
meteorological stations throughout the United 
States were established a few years ago equipped 
with the Marvin kite. Continuous meteorologi¬ 
cal observations at a great elevation have been 
made at the Blue Hill Observatory in Massachu¬ 
setts, and Mr. Rotch has demonstrated the possi- 


AERIAL LOCOMOTION 


bility of towing kites at sea by means of steam 
vessels so as to secure a continuous line of 
observations all the way across the Atlantic. 

Hargrave's box kite. 

Hargrave introduced what is known as the 
<( cellular construction of kites.® He constructed 
kites composed of many cells, but found no sub¬ 
stantial improvement in many cells over two 
alone; and a kite composed of two rectangular 



Fig. T.— Hargrave Box Kite. 


cells separated by a considerable space is now 
universally known as (< the Hargrave box kite.® 
This represents, in my opinion, the high-water 
mark of progress in the 19th century; and this 
form of kite forms the starting point for my 
own researches (Fig. 1). The front and rear 
cells are connected by a framework, so that 
a considerable space is left between them. 
This space is an essential feature of the kite: 
upon it depends the fore and aft stability of the 
kite. The greater the space, the more stable 
is the equilibrium of the kite in a fore and 
aft direction, the more it tends to assume a 
horizontal position in the air, and the less it 
tends to dive or pitch like a vessel in a rough 
sea. Pitching motions or oscillations are almost 
entirely suppressed when the space between the 
cehs is large. Each cell is provided with verti¬ 
cal sides; and these again seem to be essential 
elements of the kite contributing to lateral sta¬ 
bility. The greater the extent of the vertical 
sides, the greater is the stability in the lateral 
direction, and the less tendency has the kite 
to roll, or move from side to side, or turn over 
in the air. 

In the foregoing drawing I have shown only 
necessary details of construction, with just suffi¬ 
cient framework to hold the cells together. It is 
obvious that a kite constructed as shown in 
Fig. 1 is a very flimsy affair. It requires additions 
to the framework of various sorts to give it 
sufficient strength to hold the aeroplane surfaces 
in their proper relative positions and prevent dis¬ 
tortion, or bending or twisting of the kite frame 
under the action of the wind. Unfortunately 
the additions required to give rigidity to the 
framework all detract from the efficiency of the 
kite: First, by rendering the kite heavier, so 
that the ratio of weight to surface is increased; 
and secondly, by increasing the head resistance 
of the kite. The interior bracing advisable in 
order to preserve the cells from distortion comes 
in the way of the wind, thus adding to the drift 
of the kite without contributing to the lift. 



ABC 
Fig. 2 . 


A rectangular cell like A (Fig. 2) is struc¬ 
turally weak, as can readily be demonstrated by 
the little force required to distort it into the form 
shown at B.^ In order to remedy this weak¬ 


ness, internal bracing is advisable of the cha¬ 
racter shown at C. I his internal bracing, even 
if made of the finest wire, so as to be insignificant 
in weight, all comes in the way of the wind, 
increasing the head resistance without counter¬ 
balancing advantages. 

Triangular Cells in Kite Construction .— In 
looking back over the line of experiments in 
my own laboratory, I recognize that the adop¬ 
tion of a triangular cell was a step in advance, 
constituting indeed one of the milestones of 
progress, one of the points that stand out clearly 
against the hazy background of multitudinous 
details. The following (Fig. 3) is a drawing of 
a typical triangular-celled kite made upon the 
same general model as the Hargrave box kite 
shown in Fig. 1. A triangle is by its very struc¬ 
ture perfectly braced in its own plane, and in 
a triangular-celled kite like that shown in Fig. 3, 
internal bracing of any character is unnecessary' 



Fig. 3. 

to prevent distortion of a kind analogous to that 
referred to above in the case of the Hargrave 
rectangular cell (Fig. 2). 

The lifting power of such a triangular cell 
is probably less than that of a rectangular cell, 
but the enormous gain in structural strength, 
together with the reduction of head resistance 
and weight due to the omission of internal 
bracing, counterbalances any possible deficiency 
in this respect. 

The horizontal surfaces of a kite are those 
that resist descent under the influence of grav¬ 
ity, and the vertical surfaces prevent it from 
turning over in the air. Oblique aeroplanes may 
therefore conveniently be resolved into horizon¬ 
tal and vertical equivalents, that is, into sup¬ 
porting surfaces and steadying surfaces. The 
oblique aeroplane A, for example (Fig. 4), may 
be considered as equivalent in function to the two 
aeroplanes B and C. The material composing 
the aeroplane A, however, weighs less than the 
material required to form the two aeroplanes 



B and C, and the framework required to sup¬ 
port the aeroplane A weighs less than the two 
frameworks required to support B and C. 

In the triangular cell shown in Fig. 5, the 
oblique surfaces ab, be, are equivalent in func¬ 
tion to the three surfaces ad, de, cc, but weigh 
less. The oblique surfaces are therefore advan¬ 
tageous. The only disadvantage in the whole ar* 

































AERONAUTICS .—l SERIAL MACHINES 



y<\ 



Ed 








STy 

X 

n 

Mr 

uL 

1 Sj 

}f "'W 

H 

pi 

B 

















































































































































AERIAL LOCOMOTION 


rangement is that the air has not as free access 
to the upper aeroplane ac, in the triangular 
form of cell as in the quadrangular form, so 
that the aeroplane ac is not as efficient in the 
former construction as in the latter. 

While theoretically the triangular cell is in¬ 
ferior in lifting power to Hargrave’s four-sided 



rectangular cell, practically there Is no sub¬ 
stantial difference. So far as I can judge from 
observation in the field, kites constructed on the 
same general model as the Hargrave box kite, 
but with triangular cells instead of quadrangular, 
seem to fly as well as the ordinary Hargrave 
form, and at as high an angle. Such kites are 
therefore superior, for they fly substantially as 
well, while at the same time they are stronger 
in construction, lighter in weight, and offer 
less head resistance to the wind. 


strength. In this case the weight of the com¬ 
pound kite is less than the sum of the weights 



9 longitudinal sticks 



B 

30 longitudinal sticks 



Fig. 7. 


of the component kites, while the surface remains 
the same. If kites could only be successfully 
compounded in this way indefinitely we would 



Fig. 6. —Compound Triangular Kite. 


Triangular cells also are admirably adapted 
foi combination into a compound structure, in 
which the aeroplane surfaces do not interfere 
with one another. For example, three triangu- 
lar-celled kites, tied together at the corners, 
form a compound cellular kite (Fig. 6) which 
flies perfectly well. The weight of the com¬ 
pound kite is the sum of the weights of the 
three kites of which it is composed, and the total 
aeroplane surface is the sum of the surfaces 
of the three kites. The ration of weight to sur¬ 
face therefore is the same in the larger com¬ 
pound kite as in the smaller constituent kites, 
considered individually. 

It is obvious that in compound kites of this 
character the doubling of the longitudinal sticks 
where the corners of adjoining kites come 
together is an unnecessary feature of the com¬ 
bination, for it is easy to construct the com¬ 
pound kite so that one longitudinal stick shall 
be substituted for the duplicated sticks. For 
example: The compound kites A and B (Fig. 7) 
may be constructed, as shown at C and D, with 
advantage, for the weight of the compound kite 
is thus reduced without loss of structural 


have the curious result that the ratio of weight 
to surface would diminish with each increase in 
the size of the compound kite. Unfortunately, 
however, the conditions of stable flight demand 




a considerable space between the front and rear 
sets of cells (see Fig. 6) ; and if we increase 
the diameter of our compound structure with- 














































































































AERIAL LOCOMOTION 


out increasing the length of this space we 
injure the flying qualities of our kite. But every 
increase of this space in the fore and aft direc¬ 
tion involves a corresponding increase in the 
length of the empty framework required to 
span it. thus adding dead load to the kite and 
increasing the ratio of weight to surface. While 
kites with triangular cells are strong in a trans¬ 
verse direction (from side to side), they are 
structurally weak in the longitudinal direction 
(fore and aft), for in this direction the kite 
frames are rectangular. Each side of the kite 
A, for example (Fig. 8), requires diagonal 
bracing of the character shown at B to pre¬ 
vent distortion under the action of the wind. 
The necessary bracing, however, not being in 
the way of the wind, does not materially affect 
the head resistance of the kite, and is only dis¬ 
advantageous by adding dead load, thus increas¬ 
ing the ratio of weight to surface. 

THE TETRAHEDRAL CONSTRUCTION OF KITES. 

Passing over in silence multitudinous ex¬ 
periments in kite construction carried on in my 
Nova Scotia laboratory, I come to another con- 


A B 

Fig. 9. 

A—A Triangular Cell. 

E.—A Winged Tetrahedral Cell. 

spicuous point of advance — another milestone 
of progress—the adoption of the triangular 
construction in every direction (longitudinally 
as well as transversely) ; and the clear realiza¬ 
tion of the fundamental importance of the skele¬ 
ton of a tetrahedron, especially the regular 
tetrahedron, as an element of the structure of 
framework of a kite or flying-machine. 


tip to tip by a cross-bar (see B, Fig. 9; 
also drawings of winged tetrahedral cells in 
Fig. 10). 

A tetrahedron is a form of solid bounded by 
four triangular surfaces. In the regular tetra¬ 
hedron the boundaries consist of four equilateral 
triangles and six equal edges. In the skeleton 
form the edges alone are represented, and the 
skeleton of a regular tetrahedron is produced by 
joining together six equal rods end to end so as 



Fig. i 2. —Four-celled Tetrahedral Frame. 

to form four equilateral triangles. Most of us no 
doubt are familiar with the common puzzle — 
how to make four triangles with six matches. 
Give six matches to a friend and ask him to ar¬ 
range them so as to form four complete equilat¬ 
eral triangles. The difficulty lies in the uncon¬ 
scious assumption of the experimenter that the 
four triangles should all be in the same plane. 
The moment he realizes that they need not be in 
the same plane the solution of the problem be¬ 
comes easy. Place three matches on the table so 
as to form a triangle, and stand the other three 
up over this like the three legs of a tripod stand. 
The matches then form the skeleton of a regular 
tetrahedron. (See Fig. 11.) A framework 
formed upon this model of six equal rods 
fastened together at the ends constitutes a tetra¬ 
hedral cell possessing the qualities of strength 
and lightness in an. extraordinary degree. It is 
not simply braced in two directions in space 
like a triangle, but in three directions like a 
solid. If I may coin a word, it possesses 
^three-dimensional^ strength; not (( two-dimen- 





Acute-angled 

tetrahedron 




Regular Right-angled 

tetrahedron tetrahedron 

Fig. 10. —Winged Tetrahedral Cells. 



Obtuse-angled 

tetrahedron 


Consider the case of an ordinary triangular 
cell A (Fig. 9) whose cross-section is triangu¬ 
lar laterally, but quadrangular longitudinally. If 
now we make the longitudinal as well as trans¬ 
verse cross-sections triangular, we arrive at the 



Fig. 11. —One-celled Tetrahedral Frame. 

form of cell shown at B, in which the framework 
forms the outline of a tetrahedron. In this case 
the aeroplanes are triangular, and the whole ar¬ 
rangement is strongly suggestive of a pair of 
birds’ wings raised at an angle and connected 


sional® strength like a triangle, or <( one-dimen- 
sional® strength like a rod. It is the skeleton of 
a solid, not of a surface or a line. It is aston¬ 
ishing how solid such a framework appears 
even when composed of very light and fragile 
material; and compound structures formed by 
fastening these tetrahedral frames together at 
the corners so as to form the skeleton of a regu¬ 
lar tetrahedron on a larger scale possess equal 
solidity. Fig. 12 shows a structure composed of 
four frames like Fig. 11, and Fig. 13 a structure 
of four frames like Fig. 12. 

When a tetrahedral frame is provided with 
aero-surfaces of silk or other material suitably 
arranged, it becomes a tetrahedral kite, or kite 
having the form of a tetrahedron. The kite 
shown in Fig. 14 is composed of four winged 




















aSrial locomotion 


cells of the regular tetrahedron variety (see 
Fig. io), connected at the corners. Four 
kites like Fig. 14 are combined in Fig. 15. 
Upon this mode of construction an empty space 
of octahedral form is left in the middle of the 



Fig. 13.—Sixteen-celled Tetrahedral Frame. 

kite, which seems to have the same function as 
the space between the two cells of the Hargrave 
box kite. The tetrahedral kites that have the 
largest central spaces preserve their equilibrium 
best in the air. 

The most convenient place for the attach¬ 
ment of the flying cord is the extreme point of 
the bow. If the cord is attached to points suc¬ 
cessively farther back on the keel, the flying 
cord makes a greater and greater angle with 



Fig. 14.—Four-celled Tetrahedral Kite. 


the horizon, and the kite flies more nearly over¬ 
head ; but it is not advisable to carry the point 
of attachment as far back as the middle of the 
keel. A good place for high flights is a point 
half way between the bow and the middle of the 
keel. 

In tetrahedral kites the compound structure 
has itself in each case the form of the regular 
tetrahedron, and there is no reason why this 
principle of combination should not be applied 
indefinitely so as to form still greater combina¬ 
tions. 

The weight relatively to the wing-surface 
remains the same, however large the compound 
kite may be. The four-celled kite, for example, 
weighs four times as much as one cell and has 
four times as much wing-surface, the 16-celled 
kite has 16 times as much weight and 16 times 
as much wing-surface, and the 64-celled kite 

Vol. 1—9 


has 64 times as much weight and 64 times as 
much wing-surface. The ratio of weight to 
surface therefore is the same for the larger 
kites as for the smaller. 

This at first sight appears to be somewhat 
inconsistent with certain mathematical conclu¬ 
sions announced by Prof. Simon Newcomb in an 
article entitled (( Is the Air-Ship Coming,® pub¬ 
lished in ( McClure’s Magazine ) for September 
1901—conclusions which led him to believe that 
<( the construction of an aerial vehicle which 
could carry even a single man from place to 
place at pleasure requires the discovery of some 
new metal or some new force.® The process of 



Fig. 15. —Sixteen-celled Tetrahedral Kite. 


reasoning by which Prof. Newcomb arrived at 
this remarkable result is undoubtedly correct. 
His conclusion, however, is open to question, 
because he has drawn a general conclusion from 
restricted premises. He says: (< Let us make two 
flying-machines exactly alike, only make one on 
double the scale of the other in all its dimen¬ 
sions. We all know that the volume, and there¬ 
fore the weight, of two similar bodies are pro¬ 
portional to the cubes of their dimensions. The 
cube of two is eight; hence the large machine 
will have eight times the weight of the other. 
But surfaces are as the squares of the dimen¬ 
sions. The square of two is four. The heavier 
machine will therefore expose only four times 
the wing surface to the air, and so will have a 
distinct disadvantage in the ratio of efficiency to 
weight.® Prof. Newcomb shows that where two 
flying-machines — or kites, for that matter — are 
exactly alike, only differing in the scale of their 
dimensions, the ratio of weight to supporting 
surface is greater in the larger than the smaller, 
increasing with each increase of dimensions. 
From which he concludes that if we make our 
structure large enough it will be too heavy to 
fly. This is certainly true, so far as it goes, 
and it accounts for my failure to make a giant 
kite that should lift a man—upon the model of 
the Hargrave box kite. When the kite was con¬ 
structed with two cells, each about the size of a 
small room, it was found that it would take, a 
hurricane to raise it into the air. The kite 
proved to be not only incompetent to carry a 
load equivalent to the weight of a man, but it 
could not even raise itself in an ordinary breeze 
in which smaller kites upon the same model flew 
perfectly well. I have no doubt that other inves¬ 
tigators also have fallen into the error of sup- 
































AERIAL LOCOMOTION —ADRIANS 


posing that large structures would necessarily 
be capable of flight, because exact models of 
them, made upon a smaller scale, have demon¬ 
strated their ability to sustain themselves in the 
air. Prof. Newcomb has certainly conferred a 
benefit upon investigators by so clearly pointing 
out the fallacious nature of this assumption. 

But Prof. Newcomb’s results are probably 
only true when restricted to his premises. For 
models exactly alike, only differing in the scale 
of their dimensions, his conclusions are un¬ 
doubtedly sound; but where large kites are 
formed by the multiplication of smaller kites 
into a cellular structure the results are very 
different. My own experiments with compound 
kites composed of triangular cells connected cor¬ 
ner to corner have amply demonstrated the fact 
that the dimensions of such a kite may be 
increased to a very considerable extent without 
materially increasing the ratio of weight to sup¬ 
porting surface; and upon the tetrahedral plan 
the weight relatively to the wing-surface re¬ 
mains the same, however large the compound 
kite may be. 

The indefinite expansion of the triangular 
construction is limited by the fact that dead 
weight in the form of empty framework is neces¬ 
sary in the central space between the sets of 
cells (see Fig. 6), so that the necessary increase 
of this space when the dimensions of the com¬ 
pound kite are materially increased — in order to 
preserve the stability of the kite in the air — 
adds still more dead weight to the larger struc¬ 
tures. Upon the tetrahedral plan no necessity 
exists for empty frameworks in the central 
spaces, for the mode of construction gives solid¬ 
ity without it. Tetrahedral kites combine in a 
marked degree the qualities of strength, light¬ 
ness, and steady flight; but further experiments 
are required before deciding that this form is the 
best for a kite, or that winged cells without hori¬ 
zontal aeroplanes constitute the best arrange¬ 
ment of aero-surfaces. The tetrahedral principle 
enables us to construct out of light materials 
solid frameworks of almost any desired form, 
and the resulting structures are admirably 
adapted for the support of aero-surfaces of any 
desired kind, size, or shape (aeroplanes or aero- 
curves, etc., large or small). 

In further illustration of the tetrahedral 
principle as applied to kite construction, I built 
a kite which is not itself tetrahedral in form, 
but the framework of which is built up of tetra¬ 
hedral cells. This kite, although very different 
in construction and appearance from the Aero¬ 
drome of Prof. Langley, which I saw in suc¬ 
cessful flight over the Potomac a few years ago, 
has yet a suggestiveness of the Aerodrome about 
it, and it was indeed Prof. Langley’s apparatus 
that led me to the conception of this form. The 
wing-surfaces consist of horizontal aeroplanes, 
with oblique steadying surfaces at the extremi¬ 
ties. The body of the machine has the form of 
a boat, and the superstructure forming the sup¬ 
port for the aeroplanes extends across the boat 
on either side at two points near the bow and 
stern. The aeroplane surfaces form substan¬ 
tially two pairs of wings, arranged dragon-fly 
fashion. The whole framework for the boat and 
wings is formed of tetrahedral cells having the 
form of the regular tetrahedron, with the ex¬ 
ception of the diagonal bracing at the bottom of 
the superstructure; and the kite turns out to 
be strong, light, and a steady flyer. 


I have flown this kite in a calm by attaching 
the cord — in this case a Manila rope — to a 
galloping horse. Upon releasing the rope the 
kite descended so gently that no damage was 
done to the apparatus by contact with the 
ground. 

An attempt which almost ended disastrously, 
was made to fly a modified form of the kite 
described in a good sailing breeze, but a squall 
struck it before it was let go. The kite went 
up, lifting the two men who held it off their 
feet. Of course they let go instantly, and the 
kite rose steadily in the air until the flying 
cord (a Manila rope three eighths of an inch in 
diameter) made an angle with the horizon of 
about 45 0 when the rope snapped under the 
strain. Tremendous oscillations of a pitching 
character ensued; but the kite was at such an 
elevation when the accident happened, that the 
oscillations had time to die down before the 
kite reached the ground, when it landed safely 
upon even keel in an adjoining field and was 
found to be quite uninjured by its rough experi¬ 
ence. Kites of this type have a much greater lifting 
power than one would at first sight suppose. The 
natural assumption is that the winged superstruc- 
ture alone supports the kite in the air, and that 
the boat body and floats represent mere dead-load 
and head resistance. But this is far from being 
the case. Boat-shaped bodies having a V-shaped 
cross-section are themselves capable of flight 
and expose considerable surface to the wind. I 
have successfully flown a boat of this kind as a 
kite without any superstructure whatever, and 
although it did not fly well, it certainly supported 
itself in the air, thus demonstrating the fact that 
the boat surface is an element of support in 
compound structures like those described. 

Of course the use of a tetrahedral cell is not 
limited to the construction of a framework for 
kites and flying-machines. It is applicable to 
any kind of structure whatever in which it is 
desirable to combine the qualities of strength 
and lightness. Just as we can build houses of 
all kinds out of bricks, so we can build struc¬ 
tures of all sorts out of tetrahedral frames, and 
the structures can be so formed as to possess 
the same qualities of strength and lightness 
which are characteristic of the individual cells. 
I have already built a house, a framework for a 
giant wind-break, three or four boats, as well as 
several forms of kites, out of these elements. 
See Aerodrome; Balloon; Flying Machines. 

Alexander Graham Bell. 

Aerians, a religious sect who arose in the 
4th century of the Christian Church and present 
many features of modern religious liberalism in 
the way they combatted ecclesiastical tradition 
and the institutionalism professedly derived 
from the Apostolic age. They derive their name 
from their originator and leader, Aerius, a pres¬ 
byter of Sebaste, a city of Pontus. Aerius flour¬ 
ished about 355 a.d. He was fired with a spirit 
of revolt against the condition of the Church as 
he found it. Although an ascetic of a very 
stern and rigid character, he was shocked at 
the extravagant lengths to which some of his 
fellow Christians carried the practice of fasting, 
and the claims which they made to merit because 
of this rigorous self-maceration. Although he 
found fasting a settled institution of the Church 
he opposed the practice because of the delusions 
it seemed to lead to. He was also an opposer 


AERIDES — AERODROME 


of those special festivals of intercession which 
were held in behalf of the faithful departed. 
a Pray for the living, whose needs and suffer¬ 
ings some of which you may have caused,® he 
seems to say. To this vigorous and uncompro¬ 
mising onslaught on the common and ordinary 
practices of the Church he recalls such earnest 
and outspoken fathers of the Reformation as 
Martin Luther and John Knox. There were a 
great many people who sympathized and agreed 
with him, and his sect at one time was very 
flourishing. The ascendancy of the episcopal 
order in the Church was a natural aristocratic 
movement, although Bishop Lightfoot in com¬ 
mentary on the Philippians does not seem to 
think that it was sanctioned either by divine 
command or apostolic precedent. Aerius main¬ 
tained that the bishop was not superior to the 
presbyter, that they were of the same order, 
and that a bishop was merely a chairman elected 
for convenience sake to preside among equals. 
He seems also to have been opposed to holding 
of any such set festivals in the Church as Easter. 
This sect seems to have sown the earliest seed 
of modern Presbyterianism. 

Aerides, the wind flower, one of the Orchi- 
dacece, of which there are 15 species. The finest 
species, Aerides adoratum, grows wild in parts 
of Asia, but in cold and temperate climates is 
cultivated under glass, though flowering at rare 
intervals. This genus of plants derives its name 
from the fact that the species appear to take 
their principal nourishment from the air, as 
they can exist and thrive in their native clime, 
sending forth blossom after blossom while sus¬ 
pended and far away from any vegetable soil. 
They bear distichous leaves and their flowers are 
big and brilliant, while at the same time possess¬ 
ing a rare fragrance. 

Aerial Telegraphy. See Semaphore; Wire¬ 
less Telegraphy. 

A'erinite, a bright blue earthy substance 
found in the Pyrenees. It has no definite 
composition, and its blue color is perhaps of 
artificial origin. 

A'erodrome (from two Greek words sig¬ 
nifying <( air runner®), a form of flying-ma¬ 
chine invented by Prof. S. P. Langley, now 
secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. This 
machine has never yet been constructed on a 
scale sufficiently large to sustain a man, but mod¬ 
els weighing 30 pounds or so have been built, 
which, operated by a small steam engine, have 
worked successfully, and have given fair prom¬ 
ise of the solution of the problem of aerial navi¬ 
gation. The aerodrome has no gas bag, but 
relies for its sustaining power wholly upon its 
wings and upon the machinery which propels 
it. Prof. Langley has approached the prob¬ 
lem of aerial navigation with greater care and 
more elaborate preparation than any other man. 
For years before he undertook the construction 
of even the crudest of flying-machines he con¬ 
ducted an elaborate series of experiments upon 
a whirling table in which the supporting action 
of the air upon almost every conceivable shape 
of aeroplane, and at all possible velocities, was 
accurately measured and recorded. As his data, 
thus obtained, accumulated, he supplemented 
them by experiments with small models acting 
freely in the air; sometimes these were mere 
planes gliding through the air, and sometimes 
they were machines driven with screws pro¬ 


pelled by rubber bands under tension. Having 
satisfied himself of the possibilities of mechani¬ 
cal flight, he calculated the areas of the sus¬ 
taining surfaces that he would need, and the 
best shape to give them. Then came a long and 
elaborate series of investigations as to the motor 
best suited for the work, accompanied by the 
construction of a number of such motors, which 
were tested, weighed, and found wanting. His 
final choice was the steam engine, supplied with 
steam from a plain copper coil for a boiler, 
through which a circulation w r as artificially main¬ 
tained, and which was heated by a gasolene flame 
from a special jet. Prof. Langley’s work 
on the supporting power of aeroplanes is de¬ 
scribed in his Experiments in Aerodynamics. > 
He discovered the remarkable fact that in such 
aerial navigation as was there shown to be 
possible under certain definite conditions the 
power required would in theory diminish in¬ 
definitely as the speed of the flying-machine in¬ 
creased ; and that it would actually diminish, 
even in practice, up to a certain limit. This ap¬ 
parently paradoxical fact is known as <( Lang- 
ley’s law.® In the completed form of his aero¬ 
drome there are two pairs of wings, which do 
not move like the wings of a bird, but are fixed 
to the machine and serve as supporting sur¬ 
faces. These wings are slightly curved, and 
each is attached to a long central steel rod for 
support. From this same rod the body of the 
machine depends, together with the boiler, the 
engine, the machinery and the propeller wheels, 
these latter not being in the position of those of 
an ocean steamer, but more nearly amidships. 
They are made of wood, and are between three 
and four feet in diameter. The boiler supplies 
steam for an engine of between one and one-and- 
a-half horsepower; and weighs a little over 
five pounds, including the fire grate. The en¬ 
gine, with all its moving parts, weighs 26 ounces, 
and suffices to drive the propeller wheels at a 
speed of from 800 to 1,200 revolutions per min¬ 
ute. The rudder has both a horizontal and a 
vertical blade, so as to steer in both directions. 
The total length of the machine is about 16 
feet, and the span of the wings from tip to tip 
is between 12 and 13 feet. The weight of the 
whole, including the machinery, is nearly 30 
pounds. On the day when the aerodrome made 
its first successful flight from a houseboat on 
the Potomac River, at its first launching it made 
a short, sharp dive into the river. No change 
was made other than a slight adjustment where¬ 
by the centre of gravity of the whole machine 
was moved about three quarters of an inch; but 
this was sufficient to give the desired balance, 
and the second launching was entirely success¬ 
ful. 

Prof. Alexander Graham Bell, in < Nature ) 
for 28 May 1896, describes the famous trial on 
the Potomac River as follows: (( Through the 
courtesy of Mr. S. P. Langley, secretary of the 
Smithsonian Institution, I have had on various 
occasions the privilege of witnessing his ex¬ 
periments with aerodromes, and especially the 
remarkable success attained by him in experi¬ 
ments made on the Potomac River on Wednes¬ 
day, 6 May, which led me to urge him to make 
public some of these results. I had the pleasure 
of witnessing the successful flight of some of 
these aerodromes more than a year ago, but 
Prof. Langley’s reluctance to make the results 
public at that time prevented me from asking 


AERODYNAMICS — ^SCHINES 


him, as I have done since, to let me give an ac¬ 
count of what I saw. 

«On the date named two ascensions were 
made by the aerodrome, or so-called < flying- 
machine,) which I will not describe here further 
than to say that it appeared to me to be built 
almost entirely of metal and driven by a steam 
engine, which I have understood was carrying 
fuel and a water supply for a very brief period, 
and which was of extraordinary lightness. The 
absolute weight of the aerodrome, including that 
of the engine and all appurtenances, was, as I 
was told, about 25 pounds, and the distance from 
tip to tip of the supporting surfaces was, as I 
observed, about 12 or 14 feet. The method of 
propulsion was by aerial screw propellers, and 
there was no gas or other aid for lifting it in the 
air except its own internal energy. 

« On the occasion referred to the aerodrome 
at a given signal started from a platform about 
20 feet above the water and rose at first directly 
in the face of the wind, moving at all times with 
remarkable steadiness, and subsequently swing¬ 
ing around in large curves of perhaps a hundred 
yards in diameter, and continually ascending 
until its steam was exhausted, when, at a lapse 
of about a minute and a half, and at a height 
which I judged to be between 80 and 100 feet in 
the air, the wheels ceased turning, and the ma¬ 
chine, deprived of the aid of its propellers, to my 
surprise, did not fall, but settled down so softly 
and gently that it touched the water without 
the least shock, and was in fact immediately 
ready for another trial. 

« In the second trial, which followed directly, 
it repeated in nearly every respect the actions 
of the first, except that the direction of its 
course was different. It ascended again in the 
face of the wind, afterward moving: steadily and 
continually in large curves accompanied with a 
rising motion and a lateral advance. Its motion 
was, in fact, so steady that I think a glass of 
water on its surface would have remained un¬ 
spilled. When the steam gave out again it re¬ 
peated for a second time the experience of the 
first trial when the steam had ceased, and set¬ 
tled gently and easily down. What height it 
reached at this trial I cannot say, as I was not 
so favorably placed as in the first, but I had 
occasion to notice that this time its course took 
it over a wooded promontory, and I was relieved 
of some apprehension in seeing that it was al¬ 
ready so high as to pass the tree tops by 20 or 
30 feet. It reached the water one minute and 
thirty-one seconds from the time it started, at a 
measured distance of over 900 feet from the 
point at which it rose. This, however, was by 
no means the length of its flight. I estimated 
from the diameter of the urve described, from 
the number of turns of the propellers as given 
by the automatic counter, after due allowance 
for slip, and from other measures, that the actual 
length of flight on each occasion was slightly 
over 3,000 feet. It is at least safe to say that 
each exceeded half an English mile. 

« From the time and distance it will be no¬ 
ticed that the velocity was between 20 and 25 
miles an hour, in a course which was constantly 
taking it < up hill.) I may add that on a pre¬ 
vious occasion I have seen a far higher velocity 
attained by the same aerodrome when its course 
was horizontal. 


«I have no desire to enter into detail further 
than I have done, but I cannot but add that it 
seems to me that no one who was present on 
this interesting occasion could have failed to rec¬ 
ognize that the practicability of mechanical flight 
had been demonstrated. 

« Alexander Graham Bell.» 

The aerodrome is described, with illustra¬ 
tions, in the < Scientific American Supplement,') 
Nos. 1404 and 1405; and there was also a popu¬ 
lar account in < McClure’s Magazine > for 
June 1897. See also « Story of Experiments in 
Mechanical Flight,)) by S. P. Langley, in the 
Smithsonian < Report > for 1897. . For further 
information on the subject of aerial navigation, 
see Balloon; Flying-Machine. 

Aerodynamics, that branch of hydrody¬ 
namics (q.v.) which deals with the properties, 
and especially the motions, of air and other 
compressible fluids. See Meteorology. 

A'erolite, a name given to stones falling 
from the sky. See Meteorite. 

Aerol'ogy, that branch of physics that 
treats of the air. See Atmosphere; Meteor¬ 
ology. 

Aeronau'tics, the art of navigating the air 
by means of balloons (q.v.) or flying-machines 
(q.v.). See also Aerodrome; Aeroplane; Bal¬ 
loon. 

A'eroplane. This word is used in the 
following two senses: (1) A plane or nearly 
plane material surface possessed of a certain 
degree of rigidity, and used in connection with 
flying-machines to oppose great resistance to the 
fall of the machine, while allowing it to travel 
ahead without much resistance. The planes are 
usually set parallel with the horizontal axis of 
the machine, or else they are inclined slightly 
upward so that as the machine is driven for¬ 
ward by its propellers or wings the aeroplane 
will exert a lifting or sustaining effect. (2) 
Any flying-machine, but especially that invented 
by M. Victor Tatin, and tested with a certain 
degree of success in 1879 at Chalais-Meudon. 
Tatin’s aeroplane was propelled by two screws, 
which were driven by compressed air. The 
syllable -plane, in the word in its second sense, 
is derived from the Greek word pianos, (( wan- 
dering.® See Aerodrome ; Balloon ; Flying- 
Machine. 

Aerosi'derite, a meteorite (q.v.) consisting 
essentially of metallic iron. 

Aerosid'erolite, a meteorite (q.v.) contain¬ 
ing both stone and iron. The name comes from 
the Greek sideros, iron, and lithos, stone. It 
was first given by N. S. Maskelyne. 

A'erostat. See Balloon ; Flying-Machine. 

Aerosta'tics, that branch of science which 

treats of the density, pressure, and equilibrium 
of air and other gases. See Gases, General 
Properties of; Thermodynamics. 

Aerotherapeutics, the treatment of disease 

through the medium of air. See Therapeutics. 

.ffischines, es'ki-nez, the greatest of Greek 
orators except his rival Demosthenes: b. Attica, 
389 b.c. ; d. Samos, 314 b.c. That he rose to im¬ 
mense influence and high station by his un¬ 
aided genius, despite family poverty, would be 



1 Departure of Mr. Santos-Dumont from the Aerostatic Park on his successful trip on which he won the Deutsch Prize 
of $20,000. 2 The “ Santos-Dumont No. 6 ” maneuvering in midair. 8 Ascent of the Santos-Dumont 

Dirigible Balloon No. 5 at Longchamps on July J 2th. 







































-ffiSCHYLUS 


considered his best title to honor in democra¬ 
tized modern states: it was charged against him 
as a foul disgrace in Athens. The further 
« campaign » accusations of Demosthenes — that 
his father was a schoolmaster’s freedman and 
his mother a public dancer and courtesan, and 
that he changed the family name to a more gen¬ 
teel form — are valuable only as examples of 
what passed then for fatal obstacles to public 
trust and private honor, and the last-named 
reads curiously in a modern atmosphere. That 
his father was a poor schoolmaster, and that he 
worked in the school to help, is probable; more 
than probable also are his boasts of good blood 
despite it, as several of the brothers became 
leading citizens, one of them being on the board 
of ten strategoi which conducted military and 
foreign affairs. He may have been, as alleged, a 
professional gymnast: unpaid athletics were too 
reverently worshipped there to make paid ones 
seem unnatural. He certainly served a long term 
of military duty (probably not all at once), and 
with distinction; for he was in the battles of 
Mantinea (362) and Tamynse (349), and for 
bravery in the latter was deputed to carry home 
the news and accorded a crown. Meantime he 
had become a magistrate’s clerk; a petty actor; 
finally secretary to the important political lead¬ 
ers Aristophon and Eubulus, who helped him 
twice to an election as government secretary. 
He was now 40 and had not «found him¬ 
self »; but with the chance of addressing the 
public his true talent soon became manifest. He 
quickly acquired an eminent mastery of legal 
and political knowledge, and became a singu¬ 
larly graceful and effective speaker, with re¬ 
markable finish, harmony, and variety of ora¬ 
torical effect. In 348 he was sent to the 
Peloponnesus to organize a union of the Greeks 
against Philip of Macedon, but failed entirely, 
and doubtless became convinced at that time 
that any such scheme was permanently imprac¬ 
ticable. The next year he went as one of the 
embassy to negotiate peace with Philip, and on 
their report (which Grote pronounces « a tissue 
of impudent and monstrous falsehoods,» not 
necessarily of their own invention, but accept¬ 
ance of Philip’s word), the Peace of Philocrates 
(another envoy) was concluded in 346. Philip 
grew more and more powerful, and Demosthe¬ 
nes more and more urgent for opposition to his 
plans, which, however plausible,— a Grseco- 
Macedonian union against the barbarians and 
the East,— could in practice only be carried out, 
as they at last were, by absorbing Greece in 
Macedonia. ^Eschines as steadily supported the 
Macedonian alliance, and doubtless as honestly, 
from conviction that for disunited Greece the 
only choice was between league and conquest — 
which also was true. In 345. Demosthenes 
charged him with treason and bribery. He was 
acquitted without difficulty. Three years later 
the charge was renewed in Demosthenes’ great 
speech « On the False Embassy » : zEschines re¬ 
butted it with success in his speech of the same 
title. He helped on the Macedonian cause all 
through the reign of Philip and the early part 
of Alexander’s, accused by the opposing party 
of being a hired emissary of Macedonia, and 
returning as much and presumably as just abuse 
as he received. That the public made the ne¬ 
cessary discount is proved by the fact that he 
lost no credit with them. At last he assumed 


the aggressive with disastrous results. One 
Ctesiphon having proposed a golden crown for 
Demosthenes in recognition of his services to 
the commonwealth, .Eschines impeached him 
for proposing an illegal act, and made his great¬ 
est speech, « Against Ctesiphon,» an indictment 
of Demosthenes’ entire public life. Demos¬ 
thenes replied with his greatest, «On the 
Crown»; so crushing that though the pro- 
Macedonian party was in the ascendant .Es- 
chines could not obtain the one-fifth minority of 
votes legally necessary to save him from atimia, 
or infamy, and a fine of 1,000 drachmas. He 
left Athens at once without paying it, and there¬ 
after taught rhetoric or schools of oratory in 
foreign parts; some say Ionia and Caria, and 
finally Rhodes after Alexander’s death. He 
died at Samos, aged 75. Three of his orations 
are extant,— against Timarchus’ charge of 
bribery after his second embassy to Philip, one 
on that embassy, and the one against Ctesiphon. 
There is a story that he read the latter to his 
pupils at Rhodes, and on their professing to be 
astonished that despite its brilliancy he should 
have been defeated, replied, «You would not 
be if you had heard Demosthenes.)) A variant 
is that he read Demosthenes’ speech as a model 
of rhetoric, and on their expressing admiration, 
replied, « If you had heard him roll it out him¬ 
self! » (The originals are in countless editions. 
See for text and best comment, Jebb’s < Attic 
Orators,) London 1876-80. Translations are 
also plentiful.) 

iEschylus, es'ki-lus, the eldest of the three 
great tragic poets of Greece: b. Eleusis, Attica, 
525 b.c. ; d. 456. Euphorion, his father, was prob¬ 
ably connected with the mysteries of Demeter, 
and he is said himself to have been initiated. 
In 499 b.c. he made his first appearance as a 
competitor for the prize of tragedy, but was not 
successful. Before attaining his first triumph 
he had to appear as an actor on a grander scene. 
He was present, and highly distinguished him¬ 
self, at the battles of Marathon, Artemisium, 
Salamis, and Platsea. He must have gained as 
a poet by his experience in this momentous 
struggle, and probably too his fame as a warrior 
would help to recommend his compositions as 
a poet to his countrymen. His first dramatic 
victory was achieved in 484 b.c. The names of 
the pieces which composed his trilogy at this 
time are not known. The •( Persse) (( Per¬ 

sians »), the earliest of his extant pieces, formed 
part of a trilogy which gained the prize in 472 
b.c. Altogether he is reputed to have composed 
70 tragedies and gained 13 triumphs. In the 
satirical pieces which accompanied the trilogy 
of tragedies he is said also to have been a mas¬ 
ter. Only seven of his tragedies are extant. 
They are: (The Persians) (remarkable as be¬ 
ing founded on contemporary events), (The 
Seven against Thebes,) (The Suppliants, > 
(Prometheus Bound,) < Agamemnon,) < The 
Choephori,) and < The Eumenides.) The last 
three form the trilogy of the (Oresteia) (so 
named as being based on the story of Orestes), 
the only complete Greek trilogy we possess. It 
was represented in 458 b.c., between which date 
and that of (The Persians) the others were 
brought out; but, according to a suggestion of 
Bockh, the representation of the < Oresteia > in 
458 b.c. was a repetition .in the absence of the 
poet. 


JESCHYNITE — ^SCULAPIUS 


In 468 b.c. lie was defeated by Sophocles, and 
is said to have retired through mortification at 
this defeat to the court of Hiero, king of Syra¬ 
cuse. Of the fact of his residence at Syracuse at 
this time there appears to be no doubt, and with¬ 
out ascribing his retirement to mere jealousy, 
there are other reasons for associating it with 
his defeat. iEschylus belonged to the old aristo¬ 
cratic party, which had long been on the decline. 
His rival Sophocles, whose first appearance as 
a dramatist had thus been honored with a tri¬ 
umph, was favored by the democratic party, 
Cimon himself being one of the judges. The 
decline of his party might thus render Athens 
an uncongenial residence to Hischylus, and in¬ 
dispose him for an arduous contest in which he 
did not feel that justice was done to his claims. 
During his residence at Syracuse he composed 
many pieces, in which he not only selected local 
subjects, but used words unintelligible to the 
Athenians. Unless Bockh’s theory is received 
it must be supposed that yEschylus returned to 
Athens for the representation of his < OresteiaP 
There is a story that he was accused before the 
Areopagus for impiety either in representing 
the « Eumenides » on the stage or in divulging 
the mysteries of Demeter; and it is to the period 
of this representation that the accusation is 
usually referred. If HLschylus came to Athens 
he must soon have returned to Sicily, where he 
died in Gela. A tomb was erected to him, with 
an epitaph by himself, in which he speaks of 
himself as an exile from Athens, and refers to 
his part in the battle of Marathon, but not to 
his writings. Of the manner of his death an 
improbable story is told, namely, that an eagle, 
mistaking his bald head for a stone, let fall a 
tortoise on it to break the shell, and thus killed 
him. 

Hischylus was in a sense the creator of the 
Greek tragedy, the stage up till his time being 
occupied with comparatively feeble productions. 
His style, as is common with early poets, was 
grand, sublime, and full of energy, though some¬ 
times erring in excessive splendor of diction and 
imagery. Longinus, the celebrated Greek critic, 
complains of it as being often harsh and over¬ 
strained. His plays have little or no plot, and in 
personal portraiture he does not represent the 
subtle complexities of human character, which 
belong to a later development of art, but the 
bold outlines of strength and daring which per¬ 
tain to the conception of gods and heroes. A 
fatalistic tendency dominates his views of the 
unseen, and by making men the sport of su¬ 
perior beings supplies abundant material for 
tragedy. An ethical principle of retribution is 
not, however, wholly lost sight of. The practice 
of contending for the prize with a trilogy of 
plays was established before his time, but he 
was the first to reduce the trilogy to a unity by 
linking together three distinct but associated 
subjects, each of which formed the theme of 
a play complete in itself yet related to the 
others. 

yEschylus was a great improver of the stage 
as well as of the drama. He introduced a sec¬ 
ond actor upon the scene, and was thus the 
founder of true dramatic dialogue, to which he 
subordinated the chorus, which had formerly 
been the principal part. At a subsequent period 
he followed the example of Sophocles in intro¬ 
ducing a third actor. The dialogue he intro¬ 


duced was measured and formal, and without 
the license of broken lines. This gave it a dis¬ 
tant and stately character agreeable to the kind 
of superhuman heroes which it suited the genius 
of yEschylus to put upon the stage. To make 
the appearance of his personages suitable to 
their character, he introduced the thick-soled co¬ 
thurnus or buskins to raise the stature of the 
actors, and he gave them dresses appropriate to 
the parts they had to plav. He himself some¬ 
times acted in his own plays. He also made use 
of the scene-painter’s services, and Agatharchus 
is said to have painted for him the first scenes 
drawn according to the laws of linear per¬ 
spective. From the testimony of Aristotle, how¬ 
ever, it seems to be doubtful whether scene¬ 
painting was actually introduced by Hischylus 
or Sophocles. After its introduction it would 
no doubt be used by both. He carefully trained 
the dancers to represent incidents in the play 
by appropriate action, and he removed from the 
stage scenes of violence and blood. By a special 
decree of the Athenian people a chorus was 
provided at the public expense for any one who 
wished to produce any work of Hiischylus a 
second time. After his death his sons Eu- 
phorion and Bion, and his nephew Philocles, 
gained triumphs with works of his over Sopho¬ 
cles and Euripides, and thus was established a 
tragic school of Aeschylus, which continued to 
flourish for more than a century. 

The first edition of Hischylus was printed in 
Venice in 1518. The best of the earlier editions 
was that of Stanley (London, 1663). The best 
recent editions are those of Ahrens (Paris, 
1877), Wecklein (Berlin, 1884) and F. A. Paley 
(in the * Bibliotheca Classica )). There are 
English poetical translations by Potter, Blackie, 
Plumptre, Morshead, and Swanwick, and a 
prose translation by Paley. Fitzgerald’s semi¬ 
translation of the < Agamemnon,) with the 
widest liberties of omission, addition, and recast¬ 
ing, though of no very great service to the 
scholar, is of incomparable poetic brilliancy, and 
far the best introduction to make the general 
reader feel Hischylus’ greatness and charm. 
Robert Browning also has one of the same play, 
and Elizabeth Barrett Browning one of the 
( Prometheus. } 

iEs'chynite, es'ki-nlt, the mineral for 
which Dana’s iEschynite group was named. 
It is essentially a niobate, titanate and thorate 
of the cerium metals, containing also iron and 
calcium in small amounts. It occurs in black, 
prismatic, vertically striated crystals belonging 
to the orthorhombic system. Its hardness is 
about 5.5, and its specific gravity about 5. It 
is rare, and occurs in the Ural Mountains, in 
Norway, and in Silesia. It was named by 
Berzelius from a Greek word meaning “shame,® 
in allusion to the “shameful® inability of 
chemistry, at the time of its discovery, to sepa¬ 
rate titanic acid and zirconia (two of its 
constituents). 

.ffiscula'pius (Greek Asclepios ), the god of 
medicine among the ancient Greeks and Ro¬ 
mans. In Homer he is merely a man, the god 
of medicine being Pseeon; the deification was 
probably founded on the Homeric story, and at 
any rate was subsequent. The notion that he 
was originally a god of light or the underworld, 
“ reduced» to the tradition of a human being. 


ZESCULIN — ZESOPUS 


inverts all historic processes and the nature of 
early thought. In Homer he has two sons, Ma- 
chaon and Podalirius, famous as heroes and 
physicians; they are called Asclepiadae, a name 
retained by their descendants or at least a 
priestly physician-caste. His daughters, Hygeia 
(health), Panacea (all-healer), Iaso (healer), 
etc., are later inventions, abstractions of relevant 
ideas. The later myths vary: some call him 
son of Apollo and Arsinoe, some of Apollo and 
Coronis daughter of Phlegyas. In Hesiod the 
nymph was faithless, and with her bridegroom 
Ischys (one of the Lapithae) was slain by the 
gods (the raven who brought the news being 
changed from black to white as a punishment) ; 
but Apollo rescued his unborn son from the 
mother’s body on the funeral pile, and put him 
under charge of Chiron, where he grew to excel 
his master, able not only to prevent death but 
to raise the dead. At Pluto’s complaint Zeus slew 
him with a thunderbolt, and after his death he 
received divine honors. The supposition that 
his worship originated in the Peneus Valley in 
Thessaly is perhaps due to the Homeric tradi¬ 
tion being our earliest record; but if he was 
originally a healer wonderful to rude bar¬ 
barians, it is likely enough that the tradition was 
Thessalian. Anyway, Tricca there was an old 
focus of his cult; but it flourished also to the 
south, perhaps carried there by the Thessalians 
forced southward by invaders. It had noted 
seats in Phocis, Bceotia, and especially in the 
Peloponnesus, where Thelpusa in Arcadia was 
one familiar seat; but by far the greatest was 
Epidaurus south of Corinth. Here was a temple 
in a grove, where the sick had to spend a night, 
and the proper remedies were revealed to the 
priests in a dream, and the cured made sacrifice 
to ZEsculapius, commonly a cock. The sleep 
was of course a mere part of the priests’ mystifi¬ 
cation ; but from their accumulated experience 
and their register of cases they must have be¬ 
came really expert physicians for the times. 
From thence the worship spread all over Greece 
and the islands and to Rome,— nearly 200 tem¬ 
ples in all; there were celebrated ones at Cos, 
Cnidus, and Pergamus; the cult was introduced 
into Athens as late as 420 B.C., and to Rome 
293 b.c., in consequence of a plague. (Walton, 
<The Cult of Asklepios,> New York, 1894; 
Wilamowitz-Mollendorff, < Isyllus von Epi- 
dauros,> Berlin, 1886.) 

ZEs'culin, es'cu-lin, a bitter principle found 
in the bark of the horse-chestnut tree ( ^Esculus 
hippocastanum) , especially in the spring, before 
the buds open. It crystallizes in small prisms 
having the formula C15H16O9.2H2O. ZEsculin 
melts at 400° F. It dissolves sparingly in cold 
water, but easily in boiling water, the solution 
coagulating upon cooling. It is soluble in gla¬ 
cial acetic acid and in 24 parts of boiling al¬ 
cohol. ZEsculin is of special interest to the 
physicist on account of the notable bluish fluor¬ 
escence (q.v.) exhibited by its solution in water. 
The word is also spelled sesculine, esculin, and 
esculine. 

iE'sop, the fabulist. As early as the mid- 
5th century b.c. at least, fables were circulating 
in Athens attributed to a certain yEsopus, and 
held in such esteem that the city erected to him 
a statue by the great sculptor Lysippus; Aris¬ 
tophanes makes one of his characters learn the 


fables, Socrates versified such as he could re¬ 
member, and Plato speaks of them with ap¬ 
proval ; Herodotus, born c. 484 b.c, specifically 
tells us, as referring to a story too familiar to 
repeat, that when the Delphians offered com¬ 
pensation for his murder to the rightful claim¬ 
ant, it was claimed and received by one Iadmon, 
grandson of another Iadmon, a Samian and 
owner of Rhodopis the courtesan, who lived un¬ 
der Amasis, king of Egypt (c. 570-526 b.c.), 
and was redeemed by Charaxus, the brother of 
Sappho. That all this mass of detail concerning 
persons living less than a century before his 
time, with easily verifiable dates, and about one 
whose fate was notorious, was in fact told of a 
myth and abstraction, and that there never was 
an ZEsop, is exaggerating skepticism into ab¬ 
surdity; and the later accretion of fables and 
confusion of persons is irrelevant. Plutarch 
(late 1st century a.d.) fills out the story from 
lost authors, possibly with authentic traditions, 
perhaps mixed with real myth-making: that he 
was captured young and brought a slave to 
Athens, and after several changes of ownership 
enfranchised by Iadmon (which is inconsistent 
with Herodotus) ; that during Pisistratus’ 
usurpation he visited Athens and composed the 
fable of «King Log and King Stork» for 
the edification of the citizens; that, going to the 
Lydian court, he became Croesus’ favorite, was 
sent by him as envoy to Delphi to distribute 
money to the people (about 564 b.c.), and, re¬ 
fusing to do so on account of a quarrel among 
them, was thrown from a cliff by them. This 
at least coheres with Herodotus. The stories of 
his being an ugly blackamoor, and others beyond 
the above, are derived from a worthless life of 
him published (but not written) by Maximus 
Planudes (q.v.), a 14th-century monk, in which 
he is apparently confounded with the mythical 
Oriental sage Lokman. As to the fables, it is 
probable that .Esop did not write them down, 
but merely told them to audiences: and it is per¬ 
fectly certain that the ones we have under his 
name are not his (though they may incorporate 
the same incidents), but substantially a collec¬ 
tion made from oral memories by Demetrius 
Phalereus of Athens about 320 b.c. ; turned into 
Latin by Phaedrus of the 1st century a.d., with 
additions of his own much inferior in every 
way; versified by Babrius, a Greek poet of per¬ 
haps the late 1st century; and variously trans¬ 
lated and re-edited since. The usual popular 
« ^Esop » is Phaedrus. The origin of the fables 
is largely Oriental; but they are much superior 
to any Oriental prototypes in pith and concise¬ 
ness. It is often said also that they are part 
of the stock of beast-apologues common to the 
entire Indo-European races; but this is true 
only in the sense that animals have been made 
to talk in all old folk-lore. The special quali¬ 
ties of « ZEsop »—the immense compression of 
idea almost to « indecent exposure,» in Sydney 
Smith’s phrase, the sweep of generalization, the 
acute analysis of typical human characteristics 
— make it unique; and it quite probably in¬ 
herits these traits from the genius of the real 
ZEsop, a Greek of the mighty age of Greece. 

ZEso'pus, Clodius, a celebrated Roman 
actor of the 1st century b.c., a contemporary of 
Roscius. When acting he entered into his part 
to such a degree as sometimes to be seized with 
a perfect ecstasy. Plutarch mentions a report 


ESTHETICS 


concerning him while representing Atreus, that, 
deliberating how he should revenge himself on 
Thyestes, he was so transported beyond himself 
that he smote one of the servants who was 
crossing the stage and killed him on the spot. 
He was a dramatic tutor of Cicero, and be¬ 
friended him in exile. His last appearance was 
at the dedication of Pompey’s Theatre in 55 
b.c. ; his voice thereafter failed. His folly in 
spending money on expensive dishes made him 
as conspicuous as his dramatic talents. He is 
said, at one entertainment, to have had a dish 
filled with singing and speaking birds, which 
cost $4,000. His son ^Esop inherited his father’s 
worst traits: it was he who drank the $40,000 
pearl dissolved in vinegar, to be noted as having 
drunk the most expensive known beverage. 

^Esthetics, the science of beauty, in its 
emotions or attributes. The term aesthetics 
first received this application from Baumgarten, 
a German philosopher, who was the first modern 
writer to treat systematically on this subject. 
Kant uses the word aesthetics ( aisthetikos, per¬ 
ceivable by the senses) in a broader etymologi¬ 
cal sense, treating in his transcendental aesthetic 
of the a priori principles of sensuous knowledge. 
There are, as indicated, two modes of treating 
aesthetics, scientifically or empirically, by collec¬ 
tion and collation of the objects or associations 
by which the aesthetical emotions are excited, 
and philosophically by analysis and determination 
of the cause or source and mode of the emotions. 
Neither of these modes is independent of the 
other; but the scientific mode, from the multi¬ 
tude of details it involves, is little amenable to 
summary treatment, and in form at least we 
shall be compelled to limit ourselves to the other. 

Esthetics, like every other branch of philoso¬ 
phy, has suffered from the conflict of first prin¬ 
ciples which has continually impeded the devel¬ 
opment of details; but it has also profited by this 
conflict, which has itself brought out facts 
which might otherwise have been hid. Space 
will not permit a historical summary, and we 
confine ourselves to the briefest indications of 
the views of the leading thinkers. 

Socrates, according to Xenophon, regarded 
the beautiful as coincident with the good, and 
both as resolvable into the useful. Plato, in ac¬ 
cordance with his idealistic theory, held the exist¬ 
ence of an absolute beauty, which is the ground 
of beauty in all things. He also asserted the inti¬ 
mate union of the good, the beautiful, and the 
true. Aristotle, whose contributions to aesthetics 
are of the highest value, treated of them in much 
more detail than Plato, but chiefly from the 
scientific or critical point of view. In his « Po¬ 
etics » he declares poetry to be a more serious 
and philosophical matter than philosophy itself. 
In his treatises on « Poetry » and « Rhetoric» 
he lays down a theory of art and establishes 
principles of beauty. His philosophical views 
were in many respects opposed to those of Plato. 
He does not admit an absolute conception of the 
beautiful; but he distinguishes beauty from the 
good, the useful, the fit, and the necessary. He 
resolves beauty into certain elements, as order, 
symmetry, definiteness, and a certain magnitude, 
which appears to be relative to the perceptive ca¬ 
pacity. A distinction of beauty, according to 
him, is the absence of lust or desire in the pleas¬ 
ure it excites. Beauty has no utilitarian or ethi¬ 


cal object; the aim of art is merely to give im¬ 
mediate pleasure; its essence is imitation; -he 
chief objects of imitation in poetry and music are 
passions, dispositions, and actions. The essence 
of poetry consists in this imitation, and not in 
form. The end of tragedy, he says, is to effect 
a purification of pity and fear by means of these 
passions themselves. He also speaks of a purify¬ 
ing effect of music in quieting wilder forms of 
excitement. As this seems a contradiction of his 
negation of an ethical end in aesthetics it has 
been disputed whether this purification is ethi¬ 
cal or aesthetical. Plotinus agrees with Plato 
and disagrees with Aristotle in holding that 
beauty may subsist in single and simple objects, 
and consequently in restoring the absolute con¬ 
ception of beauty. He differs from Plato and 
Aristotle in raising art above nature. When the 
artist has logoi (the equivalent in the system 
of Plotinus of the ideas in that of Plato) for 
his models his creations may be more beautiful 
than natural objects. Baumgarten’s treatment 
of aesthetics is essentially Platonic. He made the 
division of philosophy into logic, ethics, and 
aesthetics; the first dealing with knowledge, the 
second with action (will and desire), the third 
with aesthetics. 

Where Baumgarten fails of a Platonic stan¬ 
dard is in limiting aesthetics to the conceptions 
derived from the senses, and in making them 
consist in confused or obscure conceptions, in 
contradistinction to logical knowledge, which 
consists in clear conceptions. Kant defines beau¬ 
ty in reference to his four categories, quantity, 
quality, relation, and modality. In accordance 
with the subjective character of his system he 
denies an absolute conception of beauty, but his 
detailed treatment of the subject is inconsistent 
with the denial. Thus he attributes a beauty to 
single colors and tones, not on any plea of 
complexity, but on the ground of purity. He 
holds also that the highest meaning of beauty is 
to symbolize moral good, and arbitrarily attaches 
moral characters to the seven primary colors. 
The value of art is mediate, and the beautv of 
art is inferior to that of nature. He classifies 
the arts according as they express the (sub¬ 
jective.^) aesthetic idea. The treatment of beauty 
m the systems of Schelling and Hegel can with 
difficulty be made comprehensible without a de¬ 
tailed reference to the principles of these remark¬ 
able speculations. Idealistic systems, which, to 
say the least, it is difficult to distinguish from 
pantheism, while it is impossible to find a beauty 
and even sublimity in the boldness of their de¬ 
velopments, they may be described from an 
outside point of view as exaggerations of Platon¬ 
ism, in which human consciousness is made the 
exhaustive measure of universal being. The 
control of subject and object, which with Schel¬ 
ling constitutes the absolute, is seen in artistic 
conception within the limits of the ego, and a 
feeling of infinite satisfaction accompanies this 
perfect perception by intelligence of its real self. 
Art accordingly is higher than philosophy, and 
the beauty of art is superior to the beauty of 
nature. Schelling’s views of art are not clearly 
developed into particular criticism. In tragedy 
he finds a conflict of liberty in the subject with 
objective necessity. In art, according to Hegel, 
the absolute is immediately present to sensuous 
perception. With him, as with Schlegel, it is the 
highest revelation of beauty and superior to 


ESTHETICS 


nature. The beautiful is the shining of the idea 
(the Hegelian idea, or absolute notion into 
which all existence is resolvable) through a sen¬ 
suous medium. Its essence accordingly is in 
appearance, and in this it differs from the true. 
Its complement is religion, which embodies 
the certainty of the idea. 

Hegel classifies the arts according to the su¬ 
premacy of form and matter, a classification 
which appears somewhat superficial and is very 
open to criticism. He treats of beauty in much 
detail, and where he is not Hegelian he is es¬ 
sentially Platonic. The extravagance of Hege¬ 
lianism, along with its pantheistic tendencies, 
become more pronounced in the systems of the 
followers of Hegel, into which we have not space 
to enter. English writers on beauty are nu¬ 
merous, but they rarely ascend to the heights of 
German speculation. Shaftesbury adopted the 
notion that beauty is perceived by a special in¬ 
ternal sense; in which he was followed by 
Hutcheson, who held that beauty existed only 
in the perceiving mind, and not in the object. 
Numerous English writers, among whom the 
principal are Alison and Jeffrey, have supported 
the theory that the source of beauty is to be 
found in association — a theory analogous to 
that which places morality in sympathy. The 
ability of its supporters gave this view a tem¬ 
porary popularity, but its baselessness has been 
effectively exposed by successive critics. Dugald 
Stewart attempted to show that there is no com¬ 
mon quality in the beautiful beyond that of pro¬ 
ducing a certain refined pleasure; and Bain 
agrees with this criticism, but endeavors to re¬ 
strict the beautiful within a group of emotions 
chiefly excited by association or combination of 
simpler elementary feelings. Herbert Spencer 
avails himself of a hint supplied by Schiller, 
which he makes subservient to the theory of evo¬ 
lution. He makes beauty consist in the play 
(sport) of the higher powers of perception and 
emotion, defined as an activity not directly sub¬ 
servient to any processes conducive to life, but 
being gratifications sought for themselves alone. 
He classifies aesthetic pleasures according to the 
complexity of the emotions excited, or the num¬ 
ber of powers duly exercised; and he attributes 
the depth and apparent vagueness of musical 
emotions to associations with vocal tones built 
up during vast ages. Among numerous writers 
who have made valuable contributions to the 
scientific discussion of aesthetics may be men¬ 
tioned Winckelmann, Lessing, Jean Paul Richter, 
the Schlegels, Gervinus, Helmholtz, and Ruskin. 

The theory of Plato affords, w r e believe, the 
true basis both of philosophical apprehension 
and of scientific investigation of the beautiful. 
What is meant when it is said there is no com¬ 
mon quality in what is recognized as beauty 
beyond the excitement of a pleasurable emotion? 
It i$ not pretended that all pleasurable emotions 
are comprehended in the notion of beauty: the 
mere excitement of pleasure is not then sufficient 
to distinguish the notion. Is the use of the 
term then a mistake, and does it imply nothing 
more than the arbitrary grouping together of 
some pleasurable emotions to the exclusion of 
others? We have the most conclusive psycho¬ 
logical evidence in the structure of all languages 
that this is not the case, and that there is some 
notion, simple or complex, subjective or objec¬ 
tive, requiring this term to express it. If, then. 


we attempt to distinguish between pleasurable 
emotions, and to group them as emotions of 
beauty or emotions not of beauty, we must either 
suppose our emotions to be self-excited, or we 
must assume a corresponding difference in the 
exciting cause. We have thus got both an ob¬ 
jective and a subjective beauty and it remains to 
inquire into the nature of the object, whether 
real or phenomenal, simple or complex, by 
which the notion of beauty is excited. Associa¬ 
tion cannot be an original cause of the emotion, 
for association as such, and without regard to 
the nature of the association, can excite no 
definite emotion such as that of pleasure. If the 
notion of beauty then is actually excited by 
association, as it undoubtedly is, it remains to 
be inquired by what association, and by what 
elements of the association? Nor can the ex¬ 
planation of Aristotle and other philosophers 
be received, that beauty is merely a recognition 
of harmony, proportion, symmetry, and such 
modes in complex objects, for it is as undoubted 
that there is a self-beauty, the beauty of a 
straight line in being straight, of a circle in 
being round, or of blueness in being blue, as 
that there is a beauty of harmony and propor¬ 
tion. Lastly, we cannot limit beauty to the ob¬ 
jects of the senses; all that is perceived by intel¬ 
ligence, whether in the forms or processes of 
matter, or in the states or operations of mind, is 
capable of exciting the emotion of beauty. There 
is then no common category in which the beau¬ 
tiful can be included except the beautiful. It 
is not the useful, or the good, or the true, the 
great or small, the high or low, but the beautiful. 
But Plato has also shown that our ideas, though 
not resolvable into each other, are mutually 
dependent and related. They are united in con¬ 
crete thought and apprehension, and they form in 
their totality a whole which constitutes the one¬ 
ness of intelligence. If beauty then cannot be 
resolved into other notions, its relations to 
and combinations with these notions can be 
traced, and this constitutes its philosophical 
definition. 

Our knowledge is indeed too limited to en¬ 
able us to trace all the relations of ideas which 
are infinite, but a just use of psychology enables 
us to apprehend in their simplest form even 
the highest verities, and Plato, in associating 
in one triad beauty, goodness, and truth, has 
expressed the highest relation and evolved the 
highest knowledge attainable of them. The 
psychological evidence of this union lies within 
the range of experience, and its generalization 
is the legitimate operation of reason. To a lim¬ 
ited intelligence goodness and truth (or reality) 
seem often wide apart, but every intelligence 
must apprehend the desirableness of their union, 
and occasionally witness practical exemplifica¬ 
tions more or less perfect of it. If uniting such 
partial realizations we assume that to a perfect 
intelligence truth and goodness would be in per¬ 
fect unity, the contemplation of this union will 
excite in us the highest emotion of beauty. 
This, then, may be regarded as both the type 
and the exhaustive realization of the notion of 
beauty. This trinity has, as indicated also by 
Baumgarten, a relation to the distribution or 
natural operation of our faculties. We have 
reason to apprehend truth, imagination to per¬ 
ceive beauty, and conscience to recognize good¬ 
ness. Imagination as a mental faculty must not 


AESTHETICS 


be understood as a mere power of reproducing 
objects of sense in the form of pictorial images. 
It is the mental power by which we apprehend 
and combine at will all the elements directly 
presented to our consciousness, whether from 
external observation or internal experience. It, 
as well as reason, is operative, but it differs from 
reason both in its mode of operation and in its 
end. Instead of the slowly elaborate process by 
which reason searches out the true relations of 
its objects, it seeks by the readiest process ob¬ 
jects of immediate contemplation on which it 
can dwell with satisfaction, and accordingly 
selects for combination those elements which 
present to it the most immediate affinities. In 
its constructive data it is as comprehensive as 
reason, but in its processes it is less sure. It 
even forms hypotheses, that is, semblances of 
reason, but it leaves reason to verify them. 
Hence the reason why the perception of the 
beautiful has been assigned to an inner sense. 
Hence also the reason why the apprehension of 
beauty separates itself from the apprehension 
of truth and of goodness. 

The apprehension of beauty is always the 
apprehension of some perfection, of some identi¬ 
fication of the good in the real, but in order 
to produce the emotion of beauty this identifi¬ 
cation must be manifest. This it is, and this 
alone apparently, which associates beauty with 
the work of imagination rather than with the 
work of reason, and makes the former the 
special faculty of beauty. The processes of 
reason are slow and their results remain long 
imperfect; thus there is no immediate realiza¬ 
tion of the perfection of truth attained by them; 
but when some final discovery completes a chain 
of reasoning, and a whole truth stands revealed, 
there is an immediate perception of goodness in 
the completed truth, and the emotion of beauty is 
at once evoked. The work of imagination is 
subject to the review of reason, but as reason 
and imagination work on the same fundamental 
principles, it is the application of these principles 
alone which reason can review. Particular 
manifestations of beauty are thus capable of 
analysis, and we may resolve the elements of the 
most complex manifestations into two, self¬ 
beauty and beauty of combination. The first 
exists when the simple type or idea is realized 
in the example, when a straight line is straight, 
a circle round, a color or a sound pure. When 
a type is suggested by simulation, on the con¬ 
trary, but so imperfectly realized that the defect 
is apparent, the result is ugliness. It thus needs 
no metaphysics to distinguish beauty from its 
opposite. In combination beauty is given when 
perfect types are combined according to laws 
of symmetry, proportion, and desiern. Every 
single curve, for example, has a particular law, 
and that curve is beautiful when produced ac¬ 
cording to its law; but when a variety of curves 
are combined according to some law of sym¬ 
metry in one outline, there is, besides the self¬ 
beauty of the several curves, a beauty in the 
observance of the law of combination, and in 
this complex beauty of outline, besides the mani¬ 
fested beauty of form, there may be suggested 
beauties of suppressed continuations. So with 
combinations of sound and color and more com¬ 
plex combinations, as in the forms of animal 
nnd vegetable life. 

Two related laws of beauty in combination 


appear to be the production of the greatest va¬ 
riety with the least expenditure of means, and 
the repetition under slight modifications of sim¬ 
ilar forms. The latter from the comparisons it 
suggests has a highly educative effect on the 
perceptive faculties. Thus all the canons of 
beauty are absolute, but as these canons are 
applicable only to the elements, whether of self¬ 
beauty or of combination, and as we are ig¬ 
norant of the laws which determine the number 
and variety of the more complex combinations, 
which we learn to know only by observation 
and comparison, principles of criticism only can 
be formed, and no absolute standard of taste for 
common empirical observation. Diversities of 
opinion are thus easily accounted for. The ex¬ 
istence of beauty in the object is distinct from 
its perception, and in a complex object each ob¬ 
server will perceive only those beauties which 
the capacity and training of his own faculties 
enable him to perceive. Even the demonstration 
to reason of the observance of a law of beauty 
will not help a defective capacity. The instru¬ 
mentality of our senses in interpreting to us the 
beauties of nature demands particular attention. 
Beauty in an object implies relation of the object 
to mind in which the canons of beauty exist, 
but not surely to the perceiving mind only, but 
also to the conceiving or creating mind. The 
perception of beauty thus establishes a com¬ 
munity between the perceiving and the creating 
mind. It is an evidence of the validity of the 
information we derive from those operations of 
our senses which are deemed most arbitrary. 
It is the stamp of the Creator on the instruments 
of our faculties. 

It is easily possible for art within a narrow 
range to excel nature, for while nature supplies 
our types she rarely carries out in any individ¬ 
ual example all the details of typical excellence 
variously presented. The whole causes of these 
deviations of nature from her own standards it 
is impossible to assign, but observation shows 
that ethical causes have a place among them, and 
the best reason of men has always inclined to 
give them a larger place than actually appears. 
In this also art imitates nature, but in this wider 
sphere to suppose that art could excel nature 
would be to assume the superiority of man to 
the Author of nature. There is thus no ethical 
indifference for art. To limit, it to the mechan¬ 
ical imitation of nature, or the mere selection 
and combination of sesthetical types without an 
ethical purpose, would be to place it below the 
level of reason, and to contradict instead of 
imitate nature. In assigning a purifying effect 
to art Aristotle spoke truly as a critic and his¬ 
torian, and to denude this purification of an ethi¬ 
cal significance would be to lower his authority 
as a witness, but not to alter the fact. No canon 
of criticism is more frequently repeated at the 
present day than that of Aristotle, that art is 
without ethical end. This criticism, however, 
is not true to nature. Art cannot cease to be 
sesthetical in order to be ethical. It must always 
deal with the perceptive, but within its own 
province it is subject to its own ethical code, 
and it has besides affinities with the general ends 
of ethics which cannot be ignored with impu¬ 
nity. The pleasure it affords must always be 
pure, and it may also be instructive. Gayley & 
Scott, ( Guide to the Literature of .Esthetics y ; 
B. Bosanquet, < History of ^Esthetics.) 


AETA — ZETOLIA 


Aeta. See Negritos. 

ZEthel, prefix in Anglo-Saxon names. See 
Ethel. 

ZEthelbold. See Ethelbold. 

ZEthelhard. See Adelard. 

ZEtheling. See Atheling. 

^ther. See Ether. 

ZEthiopis, Greek epic poem in five books 
by Arctinus of Miletus. Its heroine is Pen- 
thesilea, the Amazon queen, and its story is 
that of the events of the Trojan war which 
occurred after those narrated in the ( Iliad. > 

ZE'thiops Martial, an old pharmaceutical 
name for black oxid of iron. 

ZE'thiops Mineral, a name sometimes 
given to the artificial black sulphide of mercury. 

ZE'thogen, a compound better known as 
nitride of boron. See Nitrides. 

ZEth'rioscope, eth'ri-6-skop, a form of 
differential thermometer devised by Sir John 
Leslie. Both bulbs of the thermometer are en¬ 
closed in a concave mirror, one of them being 
in its focus. The instrument is so sensitive that 
when directed toward the sky it is affected by 
a passing cloud. It is not much used at the 
present time. 

Aetius, a-e'shius, the last great Roman 
general and savior of western Europe from 
being Hun: b. Durostorum on the Danube (now 
Silistria), c. 390 a.d. ; murdered toward the end 
of 454. He was son of a distinguished com¬ 
mander Gaudentius (probably barbarian) ; in 
military service while a boy, and given to Alaric 
as a hostage after Pollentia in 403, remaining 
three years; later a hostage to the Huns; and 
gaining close intimacy with both races, of mixed 
results. After Honorius’ death he supported the 
secretary Joannes against the empress-regent 
Placidia, and brought an army of 60,000 Huns 
to his aid; but, Joannes having just been defeated 
and slain, the Huns were bribed to go home, and 
Aetius was made count of Italy and commander 
of the army, and became the chief adviser and 
prop of Placidia and her children. His main 
rival was.Boniface, Count of Africa, at Carthage: 
and the accepted story is that by a base double 
intrigue he drove him into revolt and calling the 
Vandals from Spain into Africa; that on discov¬ 
ering the fraud Boniface fought in Italy first a 
slight battle and then a duel with Aetius, was 
mortally wounded, and in dying counseled his 
wife to marry no one but his rival. It is very 
suspicious; but any way the Vandals overran 
North Africa; Boniface was killed; Aetius in 
432 had to flee to the Huns, came back the next 
year with an army of them, was reinstated, and 
for the next 17 years was the ruling spirit in 
the Western Empire, battling in Gaul with Visi¬ 
goths, Burgundians, and Franks, upholding by 
combined soldiership and policy the declining 
state, with a vigor and genius which made him 
the one great man of the Roman world in for¬ 
eign eyes. In 450 the great Hunnish invasion 
under Attila (q.v.) came rolling down into 
Gaul with a volume it seemed impossible to stay, 
and the success of which might have blighted 
western Europe as their kinsmen the Turks have 


blighted the eastern portion. Aetius by his di* 
plomatic skill and knowledge of how to play on 
the barbarians induced Theodoric the Visigoth to 
league with him, followed Attila into the Seine 
valley, and on 20 Sept. 451 checked his progress 
in the^ mighty battle of Chalons (q.v.) ; the 
empire’s last victory, and one of the world’s 
turning-points. Attila’s death not long after 
broke up the Hunnish coalition and delivered 
the empire from it; but it was also Aetius’ death 
sentence, and with his the empire’s. Valen- 
tinian III., Placidia’s son, hated Aetius’ power 
and had only submitted to it from fear of Attila; 
and, feeling now secure, seized the occasion of a 
visit of Aetius to Rome, to arrange the marriage 
of his son with Valentinian’s daughter, and 
stabbed him with his own hand. The sack of 
Rome by the Vandals shortly followed; and 
22 years after Aetius’ murder the last of a suc¬ 
cession of puppet emperors was pulled down by 
the barbarian Odoacer. 

ZEt'na. See Etna. 

ZEtolia, ancient Greece, a district lying 
along the N. shore of the Gulf of Corinth and 
having Epirus and Thessaly N., Acarnania W. 
separated by the Acheloiis, and Locris and Doris 
E. separated by the Daphnus. The only other 
river of any size was the Evenus. Between it 
and the Acheloiis lies a marshy but fertile plain, 
separated by the Aracynthus range on the north 
from a similar plain, of which two large com¬ 
municating lakes — Trichonis (Apokuro) and 
Hyria (Zygos) —take up a great part. The 
rest of the country is crossed in all directions 
by rugged mountains, covered with forests, and 
intersected by ravines. The plains produced 
plenty of corn and fine pasture, and the ZEtolian 
horses were famous, while the mountain slopes 
gave excellent wine and oil; but for some reason 
the tribes never till late in Greek history en¬ 
tered into the fellowship of Greek civilization, 
and then but imperfectly. They were wild, 
backward, anarchic, and untamable; a race of 
robbers and pirates, and the best recruiting- 
ground in Greece for mercenary soldiers. In 
the Heroic age, when most other Greeks were 
like them, and Odysseus’ grandfather won dis¬ 
tinction as an accomplished klcpht, they were 
conspicuous; and ZEtolia was the scene of the 
Calydonian boar hunt. (See Meleager.) When 
they reappear in Thucydides’ pages on the 
Peloponnesian war, they are a congeries of un¬ 
federated independent tribes, living by plunder 
and the chase, with few and poor towns,— 
Thermon, Calydon, and Pleuron the chief,— and 
taking to the mountains when hard pressed. 
They had a sort of union like the Iroquois 
League, for common action against a common 
enemy, but no corporate accountability and no¬ 
body to make a treaty with. After Alexander's 
death Antipater and Craterus invaded the coun¬ 
try; and this, with the great new wealth their 
general trade of soldiering was bringing in and 
consequent increase of civilized interests, forced 
them to strengthen the bond into the ZEtolian 
League, first mentioned in 314 b.c., but of im¬ 
mense weight in later times and chief rival to 
the Achaian League and Macedonia. Unlike 
the former, it was a league of tribes, not towns. 
But like that, it was a democracy nominally, 
every freeman over 30 having a vote if he could 
come to the capital and cast it, but an aristocracy 


AFFECTION — AFFRE 


or timocracy in practice, only the wealthier being 
able. There was a Great Council, or Panaetoli- 
con, which met yearly at Thermon, elected all 
magistrates afresh, and enacted general laws and 
voted on foreign policy; a smaller body of 
Apocletae, who were in fact a cabinet, who pre¬ 
pared all questions to put before the Great Coun¬ 
cil and seem to have been permanent; a chief 
magistrate, the strategos (general), who was 
not only military commander but president of 
the assembly, put such questions as he chose 
(Speaker), was elected annually, and was not 
allowed a vote on the question of peace or war; 
a hipparchos or cavalry commander; and a 
chief secretary. After the expulsion of the 
Gauls from Greece in 279, in which the League 
did good service, it expanded enormously; not 
like the Achaian League because of the advan¬ 
tages of its membership, but from the exceeding 
disadvantages of its hostility — for it never lost 
its piratical character wholly to its latest day. 
It took in Locris, Phocis, and Boeotia, Acarnania, 
southern Thessaly, and Epirus, many cities in 
the Peloponnesus, Thrace, and Asia Minor, and 
the island of Cephallenia; it controlled the oracle 
at Delphi and the Amphictyonic Council. But 
its wanton invasion of Messenia (S.W. Pelopon¬ 
nesus) in 220 brought the Achaian League and 
Macedonia both against it: Philip V. in¬ 
vaded iEtolia in 218, sacked Thermon with its 
vast accumulated national treasures, and burnt 
the sacred buildings; and the next year they 
made peace. In 211 they again provoked a war 
with Macedonia, and again Thermon was cap¬ 
tured, peace being made in 205. In 200 they 
joined Rome against Macedonia, and helped 
to win the battle of Cynoscephalae, which 
crushed Philip; but they were so disgusted with 
Flamininus’ settlement of the country without 
giving them the advantages they expected, that 
in 192 they made the fatal error of allying them¬ 
selves with Antiochus of Syria against the 
Romans. Antiochus was crushed in 189, and 
the independence of the League came to an end. 
In 167 the pro-Roman party murdered 550 of 
the patriot leaders, and the League was dis¬ 
solved and ^Etolia made a Roman province. 

Affection, in psychology, is a mental ele¬ 
ment co-ordinate with “sensation.** See Feeling. 

Affidavit, a statement reduced to writing, 
and sworn or affirmed to before some officer who 
has authority to administer an oath. An affi¬ 
davit should refer to the cause in which it is 
made. The common-law rule is that it must 
contain the title of the cause. The place where 
the affidavit is taken must be stated, to show that 
it is taken within the officer’s jurisdiction. The 
affiant must sign the affidavit at the end. It is 
necessary that the officer signing the jurat should 
append his official title. 

An affidavit should also describe the affiant 
sufficiently to show that he is entitled to offer it, 
for instance that he is a party, or agent or at¬ 
torney of a party to the proceeding. This 
matter must be stated, not by way of recital or 
as a mere description, but as an allegation in the 
affidavit. 

Affidavit of Defense .— A statement made in 
proper form that the defendant has a good 
ground of defense to the plaintiff’s action upon 
the merits. 

Affidavit to Hold to Bail .— An affidavit which 


is required in many cases before a person can 
be arrested. 

Affiliation is a species of adoption which 
exists in some portions of France and in other 
European States. The person affiliated succeeds 
equally with other heirs to the property ac¬ 
quired by the deceased to whom he had been 
affiliated, but not to that which he inherited. 
See. Adoption. 

As to orders of affiliation in bastardy pro¬ 
ceedings, see Bastard. 

Affine Transformation, a-fin', in geom¬ 
etry, a transformation by means of which every 
point in a plane receives a displacement whose 
direction is parallel to a given fixed straight line 
called the axis of affinity, and whose magnitude 
is proportional to the distance of the given 
point from that axis. The affine transforma¬ 
tion is projective; that is, it transforms every 
straight line into a straight line. 

Affinity. In law, the connection existing 
in consequence of marriage between each of the 
married persons and the kindred of the other. By 
the marriage one party thereto holds by affinity 
the same relation to the kindred of the other 
that the latter holds by consanguinity; and no 
rule is known to us under which the relation 
by affinity is lost on a dissolution of the mar¬ 
riage more than that by blood is lost by the 
death of those through whom it is derived. 

Affinity is distinguished from consanguinity, 
which denotes relationship by blood. The de¬ 
grees of affinity are computed in the same way 
as those of consanguinity. 

In Chemistry .— The tendency manifested by 
certain substances to unite with one another so 
as to produce new combinations, chemically dif¬ 
ferent from the primitive ones. The word was 
originally applied in this sense in the belief that 
some obscure and undiscovered «affinity» or 
relationship existed between the combining sub¬ 
stances ; but it now appears probable that the 
contrary is more nearly true, and that the 
tendency toward combination is strongest, gen¬ 
erally speaking, between bodies that are quite 
dissimilar; though it is impossible to lay down 
any fixed rule of this simple kind. The modern 
theory of chemical affinity is too elaborate to 
be treated adequately under a single heading. 
See Chemical Affinity ; Dissociation ; Elec¬ 
trolysis ; Equilibrium (Chemical) ; Mo¬ 
lecular Theory; Solution. 

Affirmation, the act of affirming, in the 
sense of solemnly declaring in a court of law 
that certain testimony about to be given is true. 
Also, the statement made. First the Quakers 
and Moravians, who objected on conscientious 
grounds to take oaths, were allowed to make 
solemn affirmations instead; now everyone ob¬ 
jecting to take an oath has the same privilege; 
but, as is just, false affirmations, no less than 
false oaths, are liable to the penalties of per¬ 
jury. 

Affre, Denis Auguste, afr’, de-ne 6-giist, 

French ecclesiastic: b. 27 Sept. 1793; d. 27 June 
1848. From his prudent and temperate charac¬ 
ter he was made Archbishop of Paris by Louis 
Philippe’s government in 1840. Though not 
yielding blind submission to all its measures, he 
abstained from offensive opposition; and when 
a republic was proclaimed in 1848 he kept 
aloof from political strife, but displayed earnest 


AFGHANISTAN 


zeal for the public welfare. During the June 
insurrection he climbed on a barricade in the 
Place de la Bastile, carrying a green bough in 
his hand as messenger of peace; but he had 
scarcely uttered a few words when the firing 
recommenced, and he fell mortally wounded, to 
■die next day. He wrote several theological 
works and one on Egyptian hieroglyphics. 

Afghanistan, Asia, lit. (( The country of the 
Afghans® is the term which, in the present day, 
designates those regions governed by the Amir 
of Kabul. The name ®Afghan® is supposed to 
signify <( noisy or tumultous.® It is very ancient 
in its origin and has gradually been assumed 
by the subjects of the Amir. During the Afghan 
conquest of India they were known as Pathans 
and Rohillas, terms which are still used in India 
to denote people of Afghan origin. 

Afghanistan, as it now exists, embraces the 
country between the River Oxus and the Indus, 
although the province of Peshawar, a distinctly 
Afghan territory inhabited by Afghans, having 
been conquered by the Sikhs became part of the 
British dominion on the annexation of the Pun¬ 
jab (see Punjab), and has been retained by the 
British government much to the chagrin of the 
Amirs of Kabul. After the Afghan war of 1878 
the ^scientific frontier® (so designated by Lord 
Beaconsfield) was established, and the Amir’s 
dominions do not now include the independent 
Pathan tribes who inhabit the hills on the 
northwest frontier of India. These tribes are 
now under the suzerainty of the British govern¬ 
ment (see Northwest Frontier Province of 
India). 

Topography .—Afghanistan consists of ranges 
of snow-covered mountains, deep ravines, and 
valleys. Many of the valleys are well watered 
and very fertile. The surface on the northeast 
is covered with the lofty ranges of the Hindu 
Kush which reach 20,000 feet above the level of 
the sea. The total length of this range of 
mountains is estimated at 365 miles. The do¬ 
minions of the Amir as now defined by various 
boundary commissions lie on the northwest 
frontier of India, and are bounded on the north 
by Russian Turkistan, on the west by Persia, 
on the south by Baluchistan, and on the east by 
Cashmere and British India. It has an area of 
215,000 square miles and a mixed popula¬ 
tion estimated at 5,000,000. The rivers are very 
numerous. Mr. Angus Hamilton gives a list of 
not fewer than 98- Among them are the Oxus, 
or Amu-daria, which separates Afghanistan 
from Russian territory; the Murghab, which 
rises in the Afghan hills and flows through the 
City of Merve; the Helmund watering the val¬ 
leys of Afghan Turkistan; the Hari Rud, which 
waters the vallev of Herat and runs a course of 
245 miles to the Seistan Lake; the Kabul River, 
which fi'ows from the City of Kabul and enters 
the Indus at Attok; the Kuram and the Gomal 
Rivers, which enter the Indus in British terri¬ 
tory; the Lora which flows through the Pesh'in 
valley and is 200 miles in length. The only lake 
of importance is the Ab-i-Stada on the Ghilzai 
plateau about 65 miles from Ghazni. It stands 
at a height of 7,000 feet. It is about 44 miles 
in circuit and very shallow. t . 

Provinces and Cities .—Afghanistan is divided 


into five provinces—Kabul, Herat, Kandahar, 
Afghan-Turkistan, and Badakshan; and two ter¬ 
ritories—Kafiristan and Wakhan. The province 
of Kabul is bounded on the northwest by Koh- 
i-Baba, on the north by the Hindu Kush, on the 
northeast by the Pangsher River, and on the 
east by Jagdalik. It is very mountainous, but it 
also has large sections of rich arable land. A 
very large portion of the population live in tents 
during the summer months. Herat extends 
from near the sources of the Hari Rud River on 
the east, to the Persian frontier on the west. 
The Herat valley is most fertile, and it has been 
estimated that it is capable of supplying an army 
of 150,000 men. Kandahar is a most important 
province of the country. It extends over a wide 
area from Ghazni to the Persian frontier, and 
includes that part of Seistan which belongs to 
the Amir. Afghan-Turkistan was formerly the 
ancient province of Balkh but has now assumed 
its present condition through the treaty arrange¬ 
ments with Russia and Great Britain. The prov¬ 
ince of Badakshan lies to the extreme east of 
the kingdom and is bounded on the northeast by 
the River Oxus and on the south by the Hindu 
Kush. It consists of lofty mountain ranges and 
deep rugged valleys in which there is but little 
agricultural development. In the winter the cli¬ 
mate is severe and the mountain passes are 
blocked by snow. Kafiristan was for a long time 
an unexplored country, but by arrangement with 
the British government it was conquered and 
annexed by Abdur Rahman, and is being rapidly 
converted to the faith of Islam. Wakhan con¬ 
sists of two valleys watered by the Panja River. 
It is too elevated and sterile for tillage. Its 
lowest hamlet is 8,000 feet above the level of 
the sea. 

The Chief Cities .—The chief towns of the 
country are Kabul, the capital of the kingdom, 
which stands at an altitude of 6,396 feet above 
the sea (see Kabul) ; Herat, which has been re¬ 
garded as <( the key of India® both by the Rus¬ 
sians and the British, being situated on the 
great lines of communication (see Herat) ; 
Ghazni, one of the most famous cities in orien¬ 
tal history, on the direct road from Kabul to 
Kandahar (see Ghazni) ; Jalalabad, renowned 
for its defence by Gen. Sale during the Afghan 
war of 1841-42, and situated midway between 
Peshawar and Kabul, is the winter seat of the 
Afghan government (see Jalalabad) ; Balkh, 
the ancient Bactra, now a mass of ruins situated 
in a fertile valley on the right bank of the Balkh 
River (see Balkh) ; Maimana, the chief town 
of Afghan-Turkistan, with a mixed population 
of Afghans, Hindus, and Jews; Kunduz, at one 
time the seat of the local government but now 
lapsed into decay; Tashkurgan, the capital of 
the province of Badkhashan, a most important 
town near the Russian frontier; Nazar-i-Sharif, 
nine miles east of Balkh, the summer resort of 
the people of the district, held in great venera¬ 
tion by the people, especially by the Shiahs on 
account of the firm conviction that the caliph 
Ali is buried there; Istalif, 20 miles from Kabul, 
which was stormed and destroyed by the British 
29 Sept 1842; Kalat-i-Gilzi, a fortress place of 
some importance about 89 miles from Kanda¬ 
har and on an elevation of 5,773 feet, celebrated 
in the history of the first Afghan war; Zarni, 


AFGHANISTAN 


although a small town to the east of Herat is 
of historic interest as the cradle of the Ghur 
dynasty and the capital of the kingdom in those 
days; Faizabad, the present capital of the prov¬ 
ince of Badakshan; Takh-i-Pul, midway be¬ 
tween Balkh; Nazar-i-Sharif, an important forti¬ 
fied military garrison of several thousand men; 
Sabzawar, 90 miles from Herat in the centre of 
one of the most fertile areas of the Herat prov¬ 
ince, and in the centre of an important export 
trade with Russia. 

Lines of Communication. —From India to Af¬ 
ghanistan there are four well known lines of 
communication. The first is from the railway 
terminus at Peshawar through the Khybar Pass. 
The second from Thui through Bannu over the 
Paiwar and Shutturgardan Passes to Kabul. 
The third through the Gullair Surwandi and 
Sargo passes to Ghazni. The fourth from the 
railway terminus at Quetta to Kandahar via the 
Bolan Pass. 

There are four distinct lines by which Rus¬ 
sia can move on to Herat. First from the Cas¬ 
pian by the Mashat route; second from Chikish- 
liar by the Bendessan Pass and across the des¬ 
ert to Merve; third from Tashkend via Gher- 
juit; fourth by Balkh direct to Herat. The dis¬ 
tance from Peshawar to Kabul is 191 miles in 
20 stages varying from 8 to 12 miles. From 
Kandahar to Herat is 365 miles. From Herat 
to Balkh 370 miles. From Kabul to the Oxus 
by Balkh 424 miles. 

Climate. —As might be expected in a country 
having the physical conditions of Afghanistan 
there is the greatest variety of climate. In 
some parts, especially north of Kabul, the win¬ 
ter is rigorous. In the City of Kabul the snow 
lies for two or three months and the people 
seldom leave their houses. At Jalalabad the 
climate is similar to that of the plains of India 
and the heat is intense in summer. Throughout 
Kandahar the summer heat rises to a very high 
temperature, but at Herat, although much lower 
than Kandahar, the climate in summer is more 
temperate and in winter much milder. The sa¬ 
lubrity and charm of some localities is much 
praised by the people, although they have by no 
means that immunity from disease which the dry 
climate of the country and the fine physical con¬ 
dition of the people might lead us to suppose. 
Fevers are common, stone is frequent, and eye 
diseases prevail. Dr. Bellew gives rather a sad 
picture of this phase of the Afghan people. 

Natural Productions. —Afghanistan is sup¬ 
posed to be rich in minerals. Small quantities 
of gold have been taken from the streams flow¬ 
ing from the Hindu Kush. There were at one 
time famous silver mines in Badakshan. The 
ruby mines which lie some feet above the Oxus 
River have a world-wide reputation, but the 
deposits have not been worked regularly. There 
are rich lead mines in Herat. Coal has been 
found near Ghazni. Silicate of zinc comes from 
the Kaki country. Sulphur abounds in Herat 
on the confines of Seistan. Sal-ammoniac is 
found in Seistan. Gipsum exists in large quan¬ 
tities in Kandahar. Nitre abounds in almost 
every part of the land. 

Vegetable Productions. — On the Alpine 
ranges of the country there is a magnificent 
growth of forest trees—cedars, pines, hazels, 
and walnuts; and growing under the shade of 


these trees are rich varieties of honeysuckle, 
currant, gooseberry, hawthorn, and rhododen¬ 
dron. The wild rose is found in all parts of the 
land and is an important export. Lemons and 
wild vines are in abundance. In cultivated dis¬ 
tricts the chief trees are mulberry, willow, pop¬ 
lar, and ash. An important product is gum resin 
which grows abundantly in Kandahar and Herat. 
In the highlands of Kabul edible rhubarb is a 
local luxury. Walnuts grow wild and are ex¬ 
ported with the pistachio nut to both India and 
Russia. A very full and complete account of 
these productions is given by Dr. H. W. Bellew. 

Agriculture. —In most parts of Afghanistan 
there are, as in India, two harvests. One of 
them is called the <( Baharak® or spring crop, 
which is sown at the end of autumn and reaped 
in summer. It consists of wheat, barley, and a 
variety of lentils. The other harvest is called 
(( Paizah,® and is sown at the end of the spring 
and reaped in autumn. It consists of millet, 
maize, beet, turnips, etc. The staple food of the 
country is wheat, but rice is largely imported 
from Peshawar. The growth of melons, espe¬ 
cially of the tf sarda melon,® is an important cul¬ 
tivation as they are exported to Peshawar. 
Sugarcane is grown in the plains, and cotton in 
the warmer sections of the country. Tobacco is 
very widely cultivated and exported to Russia 
and India. The fruit crops are abundant. Every 
kind of European fruit—pears, apples, peaches, 
oranges, and grapes are produced in many va¬ 
rieties and of excellent quality. Mulberries are 
reduced to flour, and when prepared in cakes 
form the staple food of many districts. Grapes 
are cultivated to a very high degree. They are 
placed in boxes protected with cotton wool and 
exported in large quantities to India. The vine¬ 
yards and peach gardens at Kandahar and Herat 
are very productive. 

Industrial Products and Trade. —Silk is pro¬ 
duced in Kabul, Kandahar, and Herat, and al¬ 
though it is largely consumed in domestic manu¬ 
factures the best qualities are exported to Bom¬ 
bay. Excellent carpets, soft, brilliant, and dura¬ 
ble in color, are made in Herat and are very 
often sold in America as <( Persian carpets.® 
They are woven by the Nomads of the desert, 
and bv the girls and women while the men are 
tending their flocks on the hills. Of recent years 
the Amir has given very great attention to the 
manufacture of all kinds of articles, and Eng¬ 
lish artisans have been brought into the coun¬ 
try for promoting various industries. The chief 
exports of the country arre wool, horses, silk, 
fruit, madder, and asafcetida. Under the fos¬ 
tering care of the Amir the exports of Afghan¬ 
istan are very rapidly on the increase. 

Animals. —Bears, jackals, hogs, monkeys, 
leopards, wolves, hyenas, wild dogs, and cats 
are among the wild animals of Afghanistan. 
1 he wild ass is found in the southwest part of 
the country. Neither the elephant nor rhi¬ 
noceros is found in Afghanistan, although there 
is evidence that they were hunted in the Pesha¬ 
war plains in the middle of the 16th century. 
During the breeding season Afghanistan appears 
to be the retreat of a variety of birds, of which 
Dr. Bellew gives a complete list. Camels are 
frequently employed, although they cannot travel 
in rainy weather or through snow. The two¬ 
humped Bactrian camel of historic lineage is 


AFGHANISTAN 


still seen. Horses are a staple export to India, 
especially the <( Yabu,® a stout heavy-shouldered 
pony about 14 hands high. The breed has been 
much improved as they are used for the cav¬ 
alry of the Afghan army. The cows are the 
humped variety of the east and the dairy pro¬ 
duce is an important feature in Afghan diet, 
especially the pressed and dried curd called 
(< krut.® There are two varieties of Afghan 
sheep both having the fat tail. One bears a 
white fleece and the other a russet or black 
one. The export of wool is very largely culti¬ 
vated. Goats are also valuable on account of 
their hair which is used in the manufacture of 
shawls. Dog breeding is cultivated by the 
Afghan nobles as they are used in the sports of 
the field, especially for turning up quail and par¬ 
tridge for the hawk, hawking being a popular 
sport among both the nobles of Persia and Af¬ 
ghanistan. 

The People .—The Afghans themselves do not 
recognize as entitled to the name Afghan all 
those to whom western writers assign it. But 
gradually the title Afghan, and also Afghanis¬ 
tan, are being used by the Amir in all treaty 
documents, and henceforth an Afghan is a per¬ 
son under the rule of the Amir of Afghanistan, 
the term being used very much the same as 
British and Great Britain. 

The origin of the Afghans is involved in ob¬ 
scurity and has given rise to various opinions. 
Some have supposed that they are descended 
from the soldiers of Alexander the Great whom 
he left in these countries. Others affirm that the 
Copts of Egypt or the Chaldaens and even the 
Armenians were their ancestors. The Afghans 
themselves stoutly maintain that they are of 
Jewish origin descended from Afghana who was 
in lineal descent from Abraham and Hagar by 
their son Ismail. Some Afghan authors affirm 
that Afghana was the grandson of King Saul. 
Some writers state that they are descended from 
Jewish prisoners sent into the mountain by 
Nebuchadnezzar. It is related that when Nadir 
Shah marching to India arrived at Peshawar, 
the chief of the Yusufzai tribe presented him 
with a Hebrew Bible. There is no trace of 
Israelitish origin in the Afghan language (see 
language and literature), but there is not a 
single "Afghan, from the Amir on the throne to 
the tiller of the soil, who does not believe 
that he is one of the (( Beni Israil.® Of the Af¬ 
ghans proper there are numerous clans, some¬ 
what similar to the clans of the highlands of 
Scotland. Of these the most important are the 
Durranies, originally called Abdalis, who re¬ 
ceived the name from their famous clansman 
the poet king, Ahmad Shah. The Barakzais 
are a powerful tribe represented by the present 
reigning dynasty. The Gilzais were supreme in 
power at the beginning of the 18th century and 
are still a powerful clan, occupying the high 
plateau of Kandahar. The Yusufzais inhabit a 
district called Yusufzai in the Peshawar valley 
and are found occupying extensive tracts among 
the surrounding hills (see Peshawar). The 
speak a Persian dialect. The Hinkis are people 
The Kizilbashes are Persianized Afghans who 
came into the country in the time of Nadir Shah. 
The Hazaras, living in a district of that name, 
came from the east with the army of Ghenjiz 
Khan. They have Mongolian features, and 


speak a Persian dialect. The Hinkis are people 
of Hindu descent. They are the merchants and 
bankers of the country and being idolaters they 
pay a poll tax, according to Muhammadan law, 
and are denied many privileges. In religion 
the Afghans are of the Sunni sect of Islam, and 
in jurisprudence belong to the Hanafi school of 
interpretation. The Kizilbashes are of the Shiah 
sect of Moslems. The people of Kafiristan are 
idolaters who are being rapidly converted to 
Islam. 

As a race the Afghans are exceedingly at¬ 
tractive to the western traveller. They are 
handsome and athletic. They have fair com¬ 
plexions with aquiline features and long flowing 
beards. The women are exceedingly fair and 
handsome, and more intellectual than the aver¬ 
age woman of the East. In cities they are rigidly 
secluded, but in outlying districts they are free 
to roam and are often employed in the field. 

The Afghan, familiar with bloodshed from 
his boyhood, makes a valiant soldier, and there 
are many Afghans who have attained to high 
positions in the Anglo-Indian army. (< The 
avenger of blood® is an institution among the 
Afghans and it is a point of honor for the next 
of kin to avenge a murder. With the Afghans 
hospitality is the very salt of life, and the ordi¬ 
nary salutations of the people bear this char¬ 
acter. When passing along a road the 
mounted chieftain salutes the weary traveller 
with (( may you never be tired,® to which the 
man on foot responds (( may you ever be pros¬ 
perous.® On approaching the village <( Hujrah,® 
or guest house, the traveller is received by the 
host with the welcome of (( may you ever come,® 
to which the guest replies <( may you ever re¬ 
main master of this house.® When the guest 
departs he is escorted to the village boundary 
and is sent on his way with the salutation (( may 
God protect you.® 

The Afghans of to-day believe that their 
nation has a great future in harmony with the 
noble traditions of the past and they believe that 
they will again become a great and powerful 
nation. They are shut in by Russia on the one 
side and by Great Britain on the other, and in 
consequence of the British conquest of Balu¬ 
chistan and Sind they have been deprived of a 
seaport. But they hope against hope and conse¬ 
quently avoid committing themselves to either 
Russia or Great Britain, and pose as the ene¬ 
mies of Persia. 

Language and Literature .—The national lan¬ 
guage of the Afghans is Pashto, or Pakhto, 
Pushto, or Pukhto, Pushtu, or Pukhtu, the pro¬ 
nunciation varying in different tribes. It is 
an Aryan or Hindu-Persian language, written 
in the Arabic character, with three letters pe¬ 
culiar to Pushto. It is only of late years that 
the language has been expressed in writing with 
a system of phonetic spelling. Specimens of 
Afghan prose and poetry are found in the 
(( Kalid-i-Afghani,® a work compiled for the use 
of government students by Mr. Thomas P. 
Hughes in 1872. As the Afghans claim an 
Israelitish origin Oriental scholars have thought 
that there were races of Hebrew in certain 
Afghan words, but these words, without ex¬ 
ception, have been brought into the language 
through the religious terminology of Islam. 

Pushto is the spoken language of the people 


AFGHANISTAN 


in the I rans-Indus territories of British India, 
including Peshawar, also in the Province of 
Kandahar, and among the hills between the 
provinces of Kabul, and Kandahar and British 
India. Persian is the language of the educated 
classes. 

The earliest English grammar of Pushto was 
compiled by Prof. Bernard Dorn of the Imperial 
Russian University of Kharhov in 1829. There 
are Pushto grammars by Captain Vaughan, 
Major H. G. Raverty, Dr. Henry Walter Bel- 
lew and Dr. Trumpp; Pushto dictionaries by 
Dorn, Raverty and Bellew. 

There must be a very large number of Pushto 
manuscripts in existence stored away in the 
mosques of the country, where native calli- 
graphists employ their time in copying them. 
Peshawar has been the literary centre of the 
Afghan language. The earliest work discov¬ 
ered in Pushto is a history of the conquest of 
Swat by Shaikh Mali Yusufzai, a.d. 1413. 
There is also a history of Bunair by Khawjah 
Khan. In the reign of Akbar, 1600, Bayazid 
Ansari, known as Pir Roshan, the (( enlightened 
saint,® wrote several works in Pushto. There 
are also several books, chiefly religious, by his 
contemporary Akhund Darweza. In Hughes’ 
text-book there is a selection from the Trikh-i- 
Murassa, the ( 'gem studied history® by Afzal 
Khan Khattak, who was a voluminous writer. 
His grandfather, Khushbal Khan, chief of the 
Khattaks, translated about a hundred works 
from Persian into Pushto, and he is also the 
author of a <( Diwan® of poetry of very high 
merit. He died in 1691 and is buried at Isuri, 
near Attock. Ahmad Shah, the founder of the 
present Afghan monarchy, was a poet of some 
reputation. The popular poet of the Afghans, 
whose <( Diwan® is read wherever the Afghan 
language is spoken is Abdur Rahman, who re¬ 
sided near Peshawar at the beginning of the 
18th century and whose grave is to be seen 
at Hazarkhana, two miles from Peshawar. 



A STANZA FROM DIWAN-I-ABDUR RAHMAN. 

The Christian scriptures have been translated 
into Pushto by William Carey, the Baptist mis¬ 
sionary, 1825, Isidor Lowenthal, an American 
Presbyterian missionary 1862, and in 1886 by a 
committee of missionaries working under the 
supervision of the late Thomas Valpy French, 
Bishop of Lahore 1886. 

Government and Administration. — When 
Amir Abdur Rahman ascended the throne the 
greatest confusion prevailed in every department 
of political, civil, and military administration, 
while the supremacy of the Amir at Kabul was 
scarcely recognized by the chieftains of thp va¬ 
rious tribes. But with statesmanlike ability, 
supported as he was by the British government, 
he succeeded in establishing a permanent gov¬ 
ernment. It consists of a board of treasury, a 
board of trade, a bureau of justice, a depart¬ 


ment of police, a public works department, a 
postal system, and a department of education. 
The government is conducted by a supreme 
council known as the (( durbar.® This council 
has three sections. First the (< Durbar,-i-Shai,® 
or such members of the reigning family as are 
invited by the Amir. Second, the (< Khawanin,® 
or assembly of Maliks and chieftains. Third, 
the <( Ulima® or representatives of the Mullahs or 
Moslem priesthood. The Amir is seldom absent 
from the council, and its assembling depends en¬ 
tirely on his pleasure. The Amir’s cabinet con¬ 
sists of the Lord of the Seal, the Commander- 
in-chief, the Lord Treasurer, the Postmaster- 
General, and the chief secretaries of depart¬ 
ments. The laws are those established by the 
Moslem religion, the (( Pukhtanwali,® or peculiar 
customs of the Afghan people, and the supreme 
will of the Amir. Amir Abdur Rahman gave 
his closest attention to revenue and in order to 
establish the currency of the country he opened 
a mint in Kabul. The annual revenue is un¬ 
known but it probably amounts to a sum equal 
to $5,000,000 which includes the subsidy received 
from the government of India. According to 
the old system the Afghan army was composed 
entirely of tribesmen collected by their Maliks 
who were supposed to hold their land on condi¬ 
tion of military service. At the present time 
the regular army is estimated at 150,000 men, 
consisting of a royal bodyguard of four regi¬ 
ments of infantry, and three regiments of cav¬ 
alry, a regular army of 80 regiments of infan¬ 
try, 40 regiments of cavalry, and 100 batteries 
of artillery. The police force consists of 30.000 
men, and the tribal auxiliaries are about 30,000. 
When placed on a war footing it is thought 
that the Amir could put in the field at least a 
half million men, because every Afghan is by 
birth and education a soldier, a man of war 
from his youth. 

History .—For many centuries this country 
was the centre of history. First, as the seat of 
powerful Buddhist kingdoms, and then as the 
highway of Moslem conquest. In the time of 
Darius Hystaspes, b.c. 515, these regions em¬ 
braced the Achemenian Satrapies, and among 
them a district known as Paktyes, which must 
have been on the right bank of the River Indus 
now known as the district of Yusufzai, and the 
Peshawar Valley. This is undoubtedly the 
origin of Pukhtun which is the oldest name of 
the country of the Afghans, and is still retained 
in the designation of their language. 

Alexander the Great marched to Herat, the 
ancient Artacoana, the capital of Aria, and pro¬ 
ceeded to Zarangae on the banks of the Hel- 
mand. He then advanced to <( a country among 
the snows in a barren land® which seems 
to have been the mountain regions of Kabul, 
and Ghazni. After retiring to the foot of the 
Caucasus for the winter he advanced to Bac- 
tria, the modern Balkh, and proceeded to Kabul, 
from whence he marched down the left bank of 
the Kabul River and crossed the Indus proba¬ 
bly at Hund near Attock. 

The Ariana mentioned by Strabo, about the 
beginning of the Christian era, must have occu¬ 
pied the limits of the present Afghanistan. In 
310 b.c. an Indian king named Chandragupta 
ruled the province of Kabul. In 250 b.c. there 




AFGHANISTAN 


was an independent Greek dynasty in Bactria 
(Balkh). 1 he ancient coins, and the old Bud¬ 
dhist ruins show evidences of this, and when the 
old ruins at Balkh have been excavated very 
interesting historical facts will be made known 
regarding this Greek kingdom in Central Asia. 
At present we know but little regarding it. 

Demetrius, b.c. 190, reigned in Arachosia 
after being expelled from Bactria. Eucratides, 
181 b.c., reigned in the mountain region. Under 
Heliocles, 147 b.c., the Parthians extended their 
conquests through the country into India. In 
126 b.c. Meander invaded India. The Chinese 
accounts of the time when Bactria was over 
run by Sythian invaders are supposed to be very 
extensive although they have not yet been 
translated into western languages. 

The first attempts of the Moslem to conquer 
Afghanistan were unsuccessful. It was not 
until the end of the 10th century that the Hindu 
princes ceased to reign in Kabul. Chinese his¬ 
torians say there was a nation called Yuchi 
settled in the Oxus valley in 126 b.c. In the 
travels of the Chinese pilgrim Hwen Tsang in 
the 7th century we have accounts of the 
country now known as Afghanistan. In 630 a.d. 
he says there were both Indian and Turk rulers 
in the Kabul valley. 

The first attempts of the Moslem conqueror 
to bring these regions to the faith of the 
Prophet of Arabia were unsuccessful. It was 
not until 977 a.d. that Subuktigin the Turk con¬ 
quered the country and established his capital 
at Ghazni and founded what is known as the 
Ghaznavi dynasty. His son was the famous 
Mahmud of Ghazni who in 1001 invaded India, 
and in course of time established Afghan rule 
both at Lahore and Delhi. He is credited with 
having made 12 expeditions to India. His tomb 
is still to be seen at Ghazni. The Gasnivi 
dynasty was succeeded by that of Ghor or 
Ghur which transferred the capital of the em¬ 
pire to Herat. Muhammad Ghori ruled Afghan¬ 
istan in the 12th century and made Delhi the 
capital of his kingdom. About 1220 Genghiz 
Khan the great Mogul ruler of the Tartars 
marched through Afghanistan and displaced the 
Ghor dynasty. In 1398 Timur made himself 
master of Central Asia, and crossing the Indus 
plundered the Panjab as far as Delhi.. 

Baber, who was sixth in descent of Timur, cap¬ 
tured the City of Kabul in 1504, and made it 
the capital of his empire. He was eventually 
killed and his body was carried from Agra and 
interred in Kabul where his tomb is still to be 
seen. His son Humayun was defeated and 
driven out of India in I 54 °« but in 1555 be again 
mounted the throne at Dehli, and at his death 
was succeeded by Akbar the, greatest of the 
Mogul emperors of India. The Afghans gave 
Akbar much trouble. When the power of the 
court of Dehli was weakened Kandahar with a 
large part of Afghanistan fell under the power 
of the Shah of Persia. _ Nadir Shah was pro¬ 
claimed King of Persia in 1736. He seized the 
City of Kabul as one of the main gates of India, 
and then leading his army through the Khybar 
Pass entered the Peshawar Valley and there de¬ 
feated the imperial forces. Ahmad Khan, a 
general of the Saddozai clan, seized the treasury 
at Kandahar, and was crowned king of the 
Vol.i —10 


Duranis about 1747. With Ahmad Shah com¬ 
mences the history of Afghanistan as an inde¬ 
pendent nation. He reigned 26 years and was 
succeeded by his son Timur, who in 1773 re¬ 
moved the seat of government from Kandahar 
to Kabul. He reigned 20 years, and died in 
1793 leaving three sons. The youngest son, 
Shah Sbujah, eventually ascended the throne 
and made Peshawar his capital. In 1800 the 
Czar of Russia and Napoleon Bonaparte con¬ 
cocted a scheme for the invasion of India, and 
consequently the British government sent Mr. 
Montstuart Elphinstone as Ambassador to Shah 
Shujah at Peshawar and concluded a treaty in 
1809. 

The Barakzai tribe, under the leadership of 
Fateh Khan, deposed Shah Shujah, who fled 
from Peshawar to seek protection at Lahore, 
where the Sikh ruler Runjit Singh extracted 
from him the famous koh-i-nur diamond, which 
eventually became the property of the English 
sovereign. In 1826 Dost Muhammad became 
Amir of Afghanistan, founding the present dy¬ 
nasty of Afghan rulers. Dost Muhammad ob¬ 
tained supreme power, and establishing himself 
as Amir, entered into negotiations with Russia. 
This led to the invasion of Afghanistan by a 
large British force in 1838 and the establishment 
of Shah Shujah as king. Dost Muhammad was 
sent to India a prisoner of the British govern¬ 
ment. In November 1841 Sir Alexander Burns 
and his suite were assassinated and a few days 
later Sir Willianl MacNaghten shared the same 
fate. In January 1842 the British army retreated 
to India and was completely annihilated, with 
the exception of Dr. Bryden, who was brought 
in half dead to Jalalabad on 13 Jan. 1842, the 
sole survivor of an army of 5,000 men and 12,- 
coo camp followers. In April two British forces 
were sent to avenge the massacre. A column 
under General Pollock by way of the Khybar 
Pass and another column under General Nott by 
way of the Bolan Pass. The British evacuated 
Afghanistan in October 1842 leaving Shah Shu¬ 
jah ruler of the country. Shah Shujah was as¬ 
sassinated, and the British having released Dost 
Muhammad from prison, he was restored to the 
throne. During the mutiny of the natKe army 
in India in 1857 Amir Dost Muhammad proved 
a valuable ally to the British. The British gov¬ 
ernment engaged in war with Persia in behalf 
of the ruler of Afghanistan and eventually re¬ 
stored the province of Herat to Afghan rule. 

Dost Muhammad died June 1863 and was 
succeeded by his son Shir Ali. Consequent on 
the nomination of Shir Ali, who was not the 
eldest son of the deceased Amir, a rebellion 
broke out and for a time Afzal Khan and Azim 
Khan, the elder sons of the Dost, reismed con¬ 
jointly as Amirs. Eventually Shir Ali became 
firmly established on the Afghan throne and in 
March 1869 visited Lord Mayo, viceroy of 
India, at Umballa. 

Amir Shir Ali Kahn being suspected of in¬ 
trigues with Russia a British force commanded 
by General Donald Stewart invaded Afghanis¬ 
tan in 1878. On the death of Shir Ali February 
1879 he was succeeded by his eldest son, Yakub 
Khan. A treaty with Amir Yakub Khan and the 
British government was signed at Gandamak bv 
Colonel Cavagnari representing the English 


A FORTIORI —AFRICA 


government and the Amir in May 1879. By this 
treaty an extension of the British frontier was 
secured, and the residence of a British envoy in 
the City of Kabul was sanctioned. In accord¬ 
ance with this treaty Sir Louis Cavagnari pro¬ 
ceeded to Kabul accompanied by his secretary, 
Mr. Jenkins, Dr. Ambrose Kelly, and Lieut. 
Hamilton. On September 4 the troops of the 
Amir demanded payment and attacked the Brit¬ 
ish embassy, killing Cavagnari and his three 
companions. 

As a result of this outrage a third Afghan 
war began on 6 Sept. 1879, and an expedition 
under the command of General Roberts marched 
to Kabul arriving September 28. The murderers 
of the British embassy were executed, and Amir 
Yakub Khan was deported to India. Afghan¬ 
istan for a few months was under British mili¬ 
tary rule, but in July i88oAbdur Rahman Khan, 
the eldest son of Afzul Khan, who was the 
eldest son of Amir Dost Muhammad Khan, was 
recognized as Amir at a durbar in which the 
British government was represented by Sir 
Lepel Griffin. On 27 July 1880 occurred the 
“disaster® of Maiwand when the British force 
under the command of Gen. Burrows was totally 
defeated by Sardar Ayub Khan, a brother of the 
late Amir Shir Ali. Gen. Roberts made his 
celebrated march for the relief of Kandahar, 
leaving Kabul 8 Aug. 1880, and arriving at Kan¬ 
dahar August 31, he totally defeating Ayub 
Khan on September 1. On 30 Sept. 1881 the 
British evacuated Kandahar and Amir Abdur 
Rahman took possession of the province. In 
1883 the Amir was granted a subsidy of 12 lakhs 
of rupees. In 1885 Amir Abdur Rahman at¬ 
tended a conference with Lord Dufferin, vice¬ 
roy of India, at Rawul, Pindi, and received the 
British decoration of G C. M. G. Numerous 
boundary commissions were held during the 
years 1887 and 1888 in which the frontiers both 
on British territory and also those of the Rus¬ 
sians were clearly defined. A final agreement 
was reached by negotiations carried on by Sir 
Mortimer Durand in Kabul 1893 and the sub¬ 
sidy granted to the Amir was increased by six 
lakhs of rupees. In 1894 the Amir was invited 
to England by Queen Victoria, but being unable 
to leave his country he sent his second son, 
Sadar Nasr Ullah Khan. On 1 Oct. 1901 the 
Amir died, and was succeeded by his eldest 
son, Habib Ullah Khan, who in a treaty with the 
British assumed the position of the independent 
sovereign of Afghanistan and is now honored 
with the title of (( His Majesty® in all treaty 
documents. In January 1907 Amir Habib Ullah 
visited Calcutta to meet Lord Minto, the Vice¬ 
roy of India. The Amir’s eldest son and heir is 
Sardar Inayat Ullah Khan, who was born 1888 

Antiquities .— In the Koh-i-Daman north of 
Kabul are the sites of several ancient cities of 
the Buddhist period, among them Beghram, 
which has furnished a number of valuable coins. 
In the valley of Jalalabad there are numerous 
ruins. In the valley of Tarnak are the ruins of 
Ulan Robat, supposed to be ancient Arachosia. 
There are remains of great cities in various 
parts of the land which have not been examined. 
The city of Ghazni and the ancient city of Balkh 
afford a fine field for the antiquarian. The well 
known ruins in the Peshawar valley are de¬ 
scribed in an account of that city. (See Pesh¬ 
awar) 


Bibliography .— Bellew, various works on the 
Afghan people; Curzon, ( The Pamirs and the 
Source of the Oxus> ; Mrs. Kate Daly, ( Eight 
Years Among the Afghans*; Elphmstone, ( Cau- 
booP ; Ferrier, ( History of the Afghans > ; Gray, 
<My Residence at the Court of the Amir'; 
Hamilton, ‘Afghanistan* ; Holdich, ( The Indian 
Borderland>; Yate, ( Northern Afghanistan.* 

Thomas P. Hughes, 
Government Examiner in Pushto 1870-84. 

A Fortiori, an argument derived from what 
is stronger; an argument more potent than that 
which has just before been employed. When in 
Euclid it is reasoned, that much more than is 
the angle B D C greater than the angle B C D, 
the use of the words much more implies that 
the a fortiori argument is used. 

Africa, third in size of the five continents, 
with a continental area of 11,500,000 sq. m. and 
islands of 239,000 more, has the Mediterranean 
N., the Atlantic W., the Red Sea and Indian 
Ocean E., the Antarctic Ocean S.; and lies 
nearly due S. of Europe and S.W. of Asia It 
extends from lat. 37 0 20' N. to 34 0 51' S., and 
Ion. 17 0 32' W. to 51 0 16' E., being nearly equal 
in length and breadth from its extreme points: 
from Cape Blanco in Tunis to Cape Agulhas 
in Cape Colony is nearly 5,000 m.; from Cape 
Verde in Senegal to Cape Guardafui in Somali¬ 
land about 4,600. The N. section, however, has 
an average breadth nearly double that of the S., 
owing to the great N. projection of the upper 
part, the W. coast taking a sudden inward turn 
and facing S. for nearly 20° of longitude, form¬ 
ing the Gulf of Guinea. 

General Topography .— From its junction 
with Asia at the Isthmus of Suez, the N. coast 
runs W. by a little N. to the Strait of Gibraltar, 
its nearest approach to Europe, whose Mediter¬ 
ranean shore it faces, and whence for many 
centuries it derived its principal civilization. 
The chief indentation is that forming the Gulfs 
of Cabes and Sidra. From the Isthmus S. the 
coast runs somewhat S.E. parallel to Arabia, 
separated by the long narrow expense of the 
Red Sea; further S. it projects well to the E., 
overlapping the S. coast of Arabia and again 
running nearly parallel to it, the two forming 
the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb and the Gulf of 
Aden. From the terminus of this projection at 
Cape Guardafui, the coast trends S.W. with 
slight undulations to the S. extremity of the 
continent. About midway, separated from the 
mainland by the Mozambique Channel, 250 m. 
wide, lies the great island of Madagascar. Save 
those named, Africa has no great indentations, 
and the coast line is very small relatively to its 
size: about 16,000 m., a fifth less than that of 
Europe absolutely, and between one fourth and 
one fifth as great relatively. The S. extremity 
presents to the Southern Ocean a coast line of 
nearly 400 m. excluding indentations, com¬ 
pendiously known as “the Cape,® first doubled 
by Bartholomew Diaz and Vasco da Gama Its 
principal indentations are Algoa Bay and False 
Bay. 1 he islands belonging to Africa are not 
numerous, and except Madagascar none of them 
large. In the Atlantic Ocean there are Ma¬ 
deira, the Canaries, the Cape Verde Islands, the 
Bissagos, the islands off the coast of Guinea, 
Fernando Po. St. Thomas, Annobon, etc., Ascen- 



^ ° Kon ia 

■jAJulia * 


Alliens 


Gibraltar 
< Br.)~ 
1 . . ^ 


C.Mntupan 


Op If of Gabes 


Crete 


Seirulft ®Hamaseus 

;.fJi'rirs;111*111 \ 

IWt^SuiclH £»i:ati Sea \ 


Madeira«Porto Santo 
( l\>rt.)OFunchal 
Dezerta; 


GEKIPA j 

/ ' 11 1 

' ti, / '^5 Wargla 


Benghazi 


Majadoi 


TaSiW't 


Mizda 


Snlvnges 


°Golea' 


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Population of places is indicated by 
different lettering, thus; 
200,000 and over. 

100,000 to 200,000 
50,000 to 100,000. 

10,000 to 60,000. 

Smaller towns .. 


Lourcnco Marquez 
’Dvlagoa Bay 


C. St. Marie 


eAnjjra Pcquena\ 


CAIRO 


Spanish 


_Fez 

_Cnpe Town 


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Portuguese 


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Independent 


‘4’nstown 


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4V 1 ioncitnde 8^ 


C. Agulhas ^-4*, 


Longitude 


Greenwich 



English 




French 




German 









































































































































' 



















































. 

- 




















































































AFRICA 


sion Island, St. Helena, and Tristan d’Acunha; 
in the Indian Ocean, Sokotra, Zanzibar, Comoro 
Isles, Madagascar, Mauritius, Reunion, with 
their dependencies; and some small islands in 
the Southern Ocean. 

Northern Africa .— The interior of Africa 
forms two great divisions nearly corresponding 
with the external diversity of form already in¬ 
dicated. The N. section has its greatest exten¬ 
sion from E. to W., the S. from N. to S. The 
N. division lies for the most part above the sixth 
degree of N. latitude, extending from the Atlan¬ 
tic on the W. to the Somali coast and the Red 
Sea on the E. Its principal feature is the Sa¬ 
hara or Great Desert, which is inclosed on the 
N. by the elevated plateau of Barbary and that 
of Barca, on the E. by the Nile valley, on the 
W. by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the S. by the 
Niger and the countries of the Sudan. The N. 
coast region (plateau of Barbary) is traversed 
by the Atlas system and its continuations, rising 
to the height of 13,000 ft. or even more. Ex¬ 
clusive of the mountains it has an elevation of 
from 1,500 to 3,000 ft. From Barca, where 
the former level prevails, it descends gradually 
toward Egypt. The character of the desert, 
though sufficiently inhospitable, is much less 
uniformly monotonous than till recent researches 
it was commonly reputed to be. Instead of an 
undeviating sandy plain irregularly interspersed 
with speck-like oases it contains elevated pla¬ 
teaux and even mountains with more or less 
permanent streams, and habitable valleys which 
lose themselves in the vast low-lying tracts of 
sand with which the more elevated regions al¬ 
ternate. The desert itself is furrowed with 
wadis (dry river-beds) radiating in all direc¬ 
tions ; while under the sand collections of water 
have been found, which by means of artesian 
wells have been turned to account by the French 
in their dependency Algeria. A considerable 
nomadic population is thinly scattered over the 
habitable parts of the desert, and in the more 
favored regions there are settled communities. 
(See Sahara.) To the S. of the Sahara, and 
separating it from the plateau of southern 
Africa, a belt of pastoral or steppe country ex¬ 
tends across Africa. This region has received 
the general name of the Sudan, and includes 
the countries on the Niger, around Lake Tchad, 
and E. to the elevated region of Abyssinia. 

Southern Africa .— From Lake Tchad the 
country begins to rise till below the 10th degree 
of N. latitude, where the edge of the ele¬ 
vated plateau of high or southern Africa begins. 
This division of the continent is, as far as 
known, completely surrounded, at a distance of 
50 to 300 miles from the coast (which is 
usually low but rising inland), by what look like 
ranges of mountains varying in breadth and 
height; but which are really the escarpment .of 
a table-land, or series of table-lands, of consid¬ 
erable elevation and great diversity of surface 
and direction, having hollows filled with great 
lakes rivaling those of America in extent, and 
terraces over which the rivers break themselves 
in falls and rapids. The S. division has, like 
the N., a desert region —the Kalahari desert — 
but it is of small extent compared to the 
Sahara. In some respects it resembles the Sa¬ 
hara, but possesses more vegetation. The moun¬ 
tains which inclose the S. table-land are mostly 
much higher on the E. than on the W.; and the 


slope of the land and the flow of the principal 
rivers, with the exception of the Zambesi, i> 
from E. to W. The E. edge of the plateau 
reaches its highest elevation and greatest ex¬ 
tent in the mountainous country of Abyssinia, 
with heights of 10,000 to 14,000 or 16,000 ft. 
From this the system extends N. in detached 
ranges or occasional elevations between the val¬ 
ley of the Nile and the Red Sea, with gradually 
diminishing height to the very delta of the Nile. 
The E. edge of the Abyssinian plateau presents 
a steep unbroken line of 7,000 ft. in height for 
several hundred miles. This line of elevation 
extends S. toward Lakes Rudolf and Stefanie, 
and thence in a narrow belt and at a lower 
average level to the N.E. of the Victoria Ny- 
anza; it then proceeds in a S. direction to 
Kilima-Njaro, beyond which the plateau merges 
into the Pare Mts. in the neighborhood of 
the Pangani River. Immediately to the S. of 
Lake Rudolf, Mount Nyiro rises to a height of 
10,000 ft.; Mount Elgon, to the N.E. of Victoria 
Nyanza, 14,100 ft.; Mount Kenia, 18,370 ft.; 
Kilima-Njaro, 19,600 ft.; Mount Meru, to the 
W. of Kilima-Njaro, 14,000 ft. The general 
level of the plateau between Mount Kenia and 
the lake is from 5,oco to 7,000 ft. To the W. of 
Victoria Nyanza, between Lakes Albert and Al¬ 
bert Edward, Mount Ruwenzori rises to a height 
of 18,000 ft., and the active volcanic Kirunga 
Mts., S. of Lake Albert Edward, to 13,000 ft. 
All these mountains are volcanic in origin, and 
between Kilima-Njaro and the lake signs of 
volcanic activity are still visible. The central 
plateau reaches its greatest average height, over 
4,000 ft., in the region embracing the Lakes 
Victoria, Tanganyika, and Nyassa; it forms 
a broad belt reaching close to the E. coast, and 
in an equally broad belt extends from Lake 
Nyassa to the W. coast. Above this are numer¬ 
ous detached heights, like the Rubeho Mts., 
W. of Zanzibar, the Livingstone Mts. around 
the N. of Lake Nyassa, and the Mlanje heights 
S. of that lake; Mount Mlanje being 9,680 ft. 
S. of the Zambesi occur the Mashona and 
Matoppo highlands, rising in places to from 5,000 
to 7,000 ft. Immediately to the S. of the Middle 
Limpopo a series of mountains begins which, 
under various names — Zoutpansberg, Libombo, 
Drakensberg, Compassberg, Schneeberg, etc.— 
extends along the E. and S. coast, and N. to 
some distance beyond Cape Town. In Natal 
these rise to 10,000 and 12,000 ft., and in Cape 
Colony to 7,000 and 8,000 ft.; the interior pla¬ 
teau averaging about 4.000 ft., but falling to a 
lower level in the Kalahari desert. Between the 
Orange River and the Kunene, and the latter 
river and the Kongo, the escarpment continues, 
rising in places to 6,000 and 8,000 ft. The gen¬ 
eral level lowers considerably as the Kongo is 
reached. The low coast region extends some 
distance into the interior along this part of the 
W. coast, the descent from the interior plateau 
giving rise to the cataracts which so seriously 
interrupt navigation on the lower Kongo. On 
both sides of the middle Kongo extends a con¬ 
siderable area which sinks from the generally 
high level of the interior to an average of only 
about 1,000 ft. From the Kongo and Kameruns 
the general level of the coast plateau is broken 
by the Crystal and other mountains rising to 
3,000 and 4.000 ft., culminating in the Kameruns 
Peak, a volcanic mountain rising to 13,000 ft. 


AFRICA 


On the S. of the Benue, in the Atlantika group, 
and between the Benue and the Niger, we find 
a broken mountain group with heights of from 
6.000 to 10,000 ft.; while in the interior N. of the 
Gulf of Guinea there is a broad plateau, begin¬ 
ning at various distances from the coast, ex¬ 
tending across the upper Niger, and rising to 
2,000 and 3,000 ft., with irregular ranges rising 
at places to from 5,000 to 7,000 ft. The Kong 
Mts., in the region where the Niger has its 
sources, as a range do not exist. As the middle 
Niger is approached the general level lowers to 
that of the Sahara, while N. the low coast region 
extends far into the interior till the Atlas is 
reached. 

Rivers .— The Nile is the only great river of 
Africa w'hich flows to the Mediterranean. It is 
now known to receive its waters primarily from 
the country drained by the great lakes, the Vic¬ 
toria Nyanza, the Albert Nyanza, and the Albert 
Edward Nyanza, and especially from the Vic¬ 
toria Nyanza, which itself receives numerous 
streams. The Victoria Nile connects the Vic¬ 
toria and the Albert Nyanza; and on leaving 
the latter the river flows in a winding course, 
of which the direction is almost due N., without 
further lake expansion, to the Mediterranean. 
In descending from the lake elevations (of the 
Victoria 3,900, of the Albert Edward 3,200 ft., 
the latter connected by the Semliki River with 
the Albert 2,300 ft.) it makes, both between the 
lakes and in its subsequent course, numerous 
falls. Those in upper Egypt are known as the 
Cataracts. Between lat. 5 0 and io° N., under 
the name of Bahr-el-Jebel, it receives numerous 
tributaries, mostly from the country to the S. 
and W.; the principal on the left bank being the 
Bahr-el-Ghazal, on the right the Sobat. After 
this it takes the name of the White Nile, and 
receives through the Bahr-el-Azrek and Atbara, 
or Blue Nile and Black River, the drainage of 
Abyssinia. The Atbara brings the mud which 
forms so precious a deposit in Egypt. After 
this the Nile flows for 1,200 m. to the sea with¬ 
out receiving a tributary. Altogether it drains 
an area of more than 1,000,000 sq. m. The 
Indian Ocean receives numerous African riv¬ 
ers, most of which are short, being the drainage 
merely of the external slopes of the escarpment 
of the interior plateau. Among the most 
considerable rivers on this coast are the Jub, 
which is formed by several streams rising in the 
border slopes near Abyssinia, is navigable with 
difficulty to Bardera, and enters the ocean at the 
equator; the Webi Shebeli, formed by streams 
rising on the S.E. slopes of Abyssinia, and los¬ 
ing itself in the sands on the coast near the 
mouth of the Jub; the Tana from Mount Kenia 
discharging at Witu; the Sabaki S. of the Tana; 
the Rufiji or Lufiji; the Rovuma, which flows 
from the mountains E. of Lake Nyassa; the 
Beira; and the Limpopo or Crocodile, which 
enters the ocean N. of Delagoa Bay. The only 
great river flowing from a distant point of the 
interior which breaks the mountain barrier of 
the E. is the Zambezi, which has its embouchure 
between the Beira and Rovuma. It is the fourth 
in size of the continent. It drains a large part 
of the great tract of pastoral country S. of the 
equatorial region. Several streams coming from 
the swampy plateau on the borders of Lunda 
and the Garenganze country unite to form the 
Zambezi, the principal being the Liba from the 


S.W. edge of the Garenganze country. In it? 
middle course it is joined by the Kafue and 
Loangwe from the N. and the Shire from Lake 
Nyassa, and by the Chobe and some smaller 
streams from the S. Below the Chobe are the 
Victoria Falls, one of the greatest cataracts in 
the world; from which the river flows in a semi¬ 
circular course to the ocean, breaking through 
the Lupata Mts., and discharging by several 
mouths, the most navigable of which is the 
Chinde. The river is navigable by vessels of 
some size to the Karoabassa Rapids beyond the 
Shire, but above that only by boats and canoes. 
The drainage area of the Zambezi is 514,000 
sq. m. 

Of the Atlantic rivers, the Senegal, Gambia, 
and Niger have their origin in the mountains 
near the coast of Senegambia. The Senegal 
flows in a N. and W. direction, its volume vary¬ 
ing much according to the season. In the rainy 
season it is navigable for 500 to 700 m., in 
the dry season for about a fourth of that dis¬ 
tance. The Gambia takes a winding course to 
the W., and is navigable for about 400 m., nearly 
its whole extent. The greatest of these rivers, 

• the Niger, rising in the inner slope of the same 
mountains, flows N.E. to Timbuktu, whence 
it turns first E. and afterward S.E., receiving 
the Sokoto, to its junction with the Benue, which 
comes from the mountains S. of Lake Tchad. 
The upper part of the Niger is called the Joliba, 
and is flanked by several great swampy lakes; 
it afterward acquires the name of Quorra or 
Kawarra. In the N. part of its course it 
touches on the great desert. It is navigable for 
light vessels above Timbuktu. Between the 
Sokoto and the Benue it is interrupted by shoals 
and rocks to below Boussa. From the junction 
it flows due S. to the ocean, where it forms 
a wide alluvial delta, and enters by a 
number of mouths, the most distant of which 
are 200 m. apart. The main channel is called 
the Nun. The drainage area of the Niger is 
810.000 sq. m. The Kongo, the second in extent 
of basin and the greatest in volume of the Afri¬ 
can rivers, flows from different slopes of the 
same watersheds as the Zambezi. Its identifica¬ 
tion with the Lualaba, the great stream discov¬ 
ered by Livingstone in the centre of the con¬ 
tinent, was established by Stanley in 1876-7, this 
enterprising traveler having descended the river 
to the Atlantic from a point in the interior W. of 
Tanganyika. The Lukuga, the outlet of Lake 
Tanganyika, discovered by Cameron, is a tribu¬ 
tary of the Lualaba. T he Chambeze, which rises 
in the mountains between Lakes Nyassa and 
Tanganyika, is the remotest source of the Kongo 
system.. It falls into Lake Bangweolo, from 
which it issues under the name Luapula, and 
flows N. to Lake Mweru; from the N. side of 
this lake issues the Lualaba, which passes 
through a magnificent series of lake-like expan¬ 
sions and receives numerous tributaries. Below 
Stanley Falls it receives the Lomami, and above 
Stanley Pool the Kwa, which is formed by the 
junction of the Kasai-Sankuru system with the 
Lukuallu or Kwango. Other tributaries come 
from the S., and in the N. it is fed by the Uban- 
gi, which, under the name of the Welle-Makua, 
comes from the water-parting between the Nile 
and Kongo systems. The total length of the 
Kongo is about 3,000 m., and its drainage area 
1,450,000 sq. m. Unlike most of the African 




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-D A M A*K A L 
Mtdbiatako 

>oS*J T, II 3 

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yimbiwLUL — V ” (, Hdya n l 


I o Many amt 
' Many tv i ^ 

\ Gwatalala 


z<sy 

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L.Ngami ( 

Hvl.brIVJ LubaloMts. ( 

Kumoduli L. 

° Ghansie 

- r.Gnn thlat „ l 

, . NamkuaM5\^^^^^//Idmkrmom 

Gobabis I j S Chaioani *'.* p'fcy 

Umab/Desert 

Kalahari 

_ i[ \ _ SKBBLE’S COUNTRY 

TT^ U ANA L A 

Lehatuaw “Luthla 

. \ I Desert 

I Jvfcidi o Khokmi0 

. ° BATHOEN’S COCNTKY f 

l Kempt 


Okuviirvna 


Umiuaze 


[inhubi mbi 
K^Cblluana L 
**£~fMoromone ft. 


Alike vaJ 


,lIuao 


Matscruku 
Marofototra Pt.*_/ 


Monarch Reef 
K H A M A ’ S 
ta> Morralamx 

COUNTRY 
B a ni aoev Jt 




Mt.DurlssaX 

(XCroee' 


K itombojr 

31AUA (i ASC A It 

af 

pEteerie 


Bazaruto I. 


~J Haklu £, 

Nikiiltsio 


.tjtv'rf'K**' 1 Oiyi/iiinieita^ 

saobis /} Khowae 


n C.S.Sebaatian 

shenisa 

Burra Falsa 


Omarunn 
•V«'uA op,nnili/\ 
Wolfish Bay 
{British) [\ 

Sandwich Mar A 


Kanis 


Falachwe 


PisaigJKoi 


C. Amber 


Maugwato o 
(Shoe hong) 


'A ntutnboka 


V'iddezia 


Rehobotho 


TROPIQ OF 


TROPIC OF CAPRICORN 


CAPRICORN 


KosheJ 

ataxixij. Burra 

luhaniuaue^/ 

j /'C.CorrienteB 


Conception B. 


Lcydsdorp 


36^® ™\ l 
'I*iet Potgietere 


Wjr"*fVrr 


ypf/ema 


Molopotoli 


Rust 

Nylstroom 


ci Mariep 


Mukn mbi'Pjiflhapallata 


N A MlA Q l)A\. 

y . Gar as 


Mogul 


Miihnnant 

Maid, 


jluiiiuUsa 


Rossenkal ° 


Mata mini 


Mnkopm , 


dAudranuimdaza 

faimrauo j, 


Spencer Bay l 

Mervury I. ] 

„ (Br.) \ 

Hottentot Bay' ' 

lchmboe 1 . 

p f Br.)\ 
™‘guln !A 
(Be .) | Z 31 
.Angra Bcquena\ 
Possrs.don |l. :J 

Pr.of (TaieiAujr v 
PlumpuddiDf I. 

( Br.) 

Angras Juntas' 
ltuast iw Is. 
(Br.) 


Ra mat hlal 
Pit sal 


Vuheru* 


rja ( 'I jBirrberbm 

Icl&rg ismelo 
's^Standeriun i ^ 

tPjPto Belief y 

\ »mi k kem troom ^ _ 

' f Charlestown Pang 1 
•O i I v*, x V- 


MONTSIOA’S COU - mXK*Y= 


J Antsbliifii 


Velngoa Bay 
.oureuco Marques 
djMarne ni 


If'mnr, 


Morukumne 


Sofia / 11 

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O Maroa 

* -V, O X* jLx 

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tQcfanb 


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\ 4v<> 


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l l'im _B EC HJIA N%JL AND/ 

'urumun R \N^. V 

\fTaungifi, 

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Lukeng 


[Koei Ik 


C.St. Andrew 
< Vi sxegnii 
’ Ambalabaoi 


Mvwobis o G Fttgo^ 

I loam us Haras \ J 

Mu.'yyi 

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\ r 

Stolzen/els 1$. 


, MJ,aboX urovoa l' ( 
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Anibougol 


lewcastle 


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J KIVKlOi- 

Mtftux Sources ■' 

I OA’sNV 

itciny^* Cathkln'*°*rt 

iLadybrand Peak *'• __ 

BASDJ OV W//twfc*. 

• (I.eru PlelermurUibura^ 

L A N DJ X) » / w /iiM i4n.|o 

, 'T^ifiloh ^rUp>'Cliide*daU: 
ojmithjldd f l f l ualand^ 


/^Ste.Marie L 

«. Pierre 


i Sidfcrbieri 


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Alaotr 


■ hrietiana 


Daniel's Knilj 


\ / Brifi- 

7’<i infjo/iom iwLMIra h 


o/Fenoarivo 
I Mu fni mho 
j Marofototra 


.Lucia Buy 


H'amibad‘ 
!"« G fie 


LAN liyCmvoloei 

® J^vmblatuzi. 


^amlth* 


Kheiif 


) KaunlsgLcoko 

barren a ) 


.IjulrOjutHtt 


Grlq uatown 


/cpJacobedal 

t p L 

I'aureemUh\ 


Port Nollothi 


Ncn hart 


Tugela R. 


Great 

Bushman 


A?tdrauouandriana ^ 
'"^3 — > 'Imeriua 

T»iafaj\«on> 


Antranokoditrxa 


C^Uopelown' 
Orange Rioe 


yVerulam 

Du rbaii 


df'iliiwunna J "** J , 

J * YAiidovovi 

t A \ Tl X .4NAI i IV O 

A "m^ tr f t J patomaml 

gf ' ,lfo o ofHrvbe I 


’Wepencr' 


Mafaidrauoh, 

Soahaufi 

Soaranot 

Taiguboninoj 


irtS’ataL 


iring'Kontein. 


cBouxsdorp 

c Gtuisdal 

Kamies 

Berg 


Mondcklip Bin 


tlsbury 


\* jOe 
l>'.-la r XSS.CoJesbtrg; 


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war re* 


O^Allwal North 
{Durghersdorp 'x 

KS> r9 *L,„„ 


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AFKTCA 


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Cedar 

i B*rg ~ a t 

iuetberg * 

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*•'***« M 
8 t.Martina l*t. IfjT 


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1st London 


t K a 

/ 0 PhAlbert ^ 

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r V-^roti/on' 

Bwellen*tant\ 


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Mafmeabury 

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Simon's ToivnlfC 
Cape of Good Hope y 
Fa\** 


v J f Mamma no 
^\vhnboh ipeno 
Mahanuminn 


SCALE OF MILES 


UninnioiH 


.jfj Mm 

'^Sakar ah 
VohimaZina 


Fi here nan 


Population of places is indicated by 
different lettering, thus: 

60,000 and over. 

20,000 to 00,000.. 

10,000 to 20,000.. 

1,000 to 10,000.. 

Smaller Places 


Uuiondale 


jA infinity 

htngaindrano 


’Otollenb 

Strand 


TidleaA 

Si.Augu«t~in\ 

23 

Bchelukdfi 


'toll lira mho 


TROPIC OF CAPRICORN 


JMauambondro 

into L , 

j'Sumlravinany 

1 yMaromaiigai 
y /Manambatu 


Pretoria 

Harding 


Malavay 


MADAGASCAR 

SAME SCALE AS MAIN MAP 


Ambato 


A MosiXi 


o/C.Itn pe rlna 
'FJ. Dauphin. 


Railroads 


Jfoibolyy 


,—' Andrakiua 
vanambovo 


Copyright , 1904, by The Americana Company. I 

n 


/Longitude 


Greenwich 


Longitude East from Greenwich 





















































































































AFRICA 


rivers, the mouth of the Kongo forms an estuary. 
It is estimated to pour into the ocean a larger 
body of water than the Mississippi. The Kwan¬ 
za rises in the Mossamba Mts., and curves 
N.W. to the ocean. Like most African rivers, 
its upper course is interrupted by cataracts, and 
its mouth closed by a bar. The Kunene rises on 
the opposite side of the same watershed, and 
flows S.W. to the Atlantic. From it S. to the 
Orange River follows a dry belt, through which 
no considerable river flows to the sea. The 
Orange, though it rises near the E. coast, and 
flows nearly across the S. part of the continent, 
passes for the greater part of its course through 
a desert region, receiving no tributaries, and is 
a shallow stream. Its headwaters, the Vaal and 
the Nu Gariep, rise on opposite slopes of the 
Drakenberg Mts., and flow to their junction 
round opposite sides of the Orange River 
Colony. The Great Fish River, which drains 
Great Namaqualand, enters the Orange River 
near the termination of its course. 

The rivers which reach the ocean do not ac¬ 
count for the whole drainage of Africa. There 
are two great and numerous smaller tracts from 
which no large river reaches the sea. The two 
great areas of internal drainage correspond with 
the two great deserts. That of the N. desert 
is estimated at 4,000,000 sq. m. As already in¬ 
dicated, it is furrowed with water-courses in 
every direction, which lose themselves in the 
sand. The Bahr-el-Ghazal, which is usually 
dry, but intermittently flows out of Lake Tchad, 
terminates in a salt lagoon on the border of the 
desert to the N. of the lake. In the S. the 
Zuga or Botletle, which forms the outlet of 
Lake Ngami, in the Kalahari desert, loses itself 
in salt lagoons at greater or less distance, ac¬ 
cording to the supply of water. A region of 
inland drainage, with salt lagoons, also exists 
between the Victoria Nyanza and the coast range 
of mountains. In the low coast land E. of 
Abyssinia the Hawash River loses itself in the 
sands before reaching the sea; and the Webi, 
as already stated, which flows S. from the So¬ 
mali Peninsula to near the equator, likewise 
terminates in a salt lagoon on the border of the 
ocean. The Omo flows into the N. end of Lake 
Rudolf. 

Lakes .— The only lake of considerable ex¬ 
tent N. of lat. 5 ° N. is Lake Tchad, an enormous 
flooded swamp. Lake Tana in Central Abys¬ 
sinia, the salt Lake Asal in the E., and Lakes 
Dembel and Abayo in Gallaland, are compara¬ 
tively small. Between 5° N. and 15 0 S. is a 
series of lakes forming one of the most striking 
features of the continent. Almost in a line, be¬ 
ginning in the S., are Lakes Nyassa, Tan¬ 
ganyika, Lifu, Albert Edward, Albert, all lying 
in more or less elongated rifts or gorges. The 
series is continued by Lakes Rudolf (salt) and 
Stefanie in the N.E., and, according to some 
authorities, by the ancient lake now the Red 
Sea, and by the Dead Sea in Palestine. The 
great Victoria Nyanza, which touches the equa¬ 
tor on the north, is of a different type, as are 
Lake Bangweolo (another flooded swamp) on 
the S. of Tanganyika, and Lake Mweru in the 
N. of Bangweolo. Lake Rikwa or Leopold, be¬ 
tween Nyassa and Tanganyika, is partly of the 
rift type, while Lake Ngami in the Kalahari re¬ 
gion is a swamp which sometimes dries up. Lake 
Leopold II. and Lake Malumba are attached to 


the lower Kongo. Lake Dilolo is in the swampy 
region forming part of the watershed between 
the Kongo and the Zambezi. There are nu¬ 
merous salt lagoons in the N. portion of the 
Sahara. 

Climate .— The climate of Africa is mainly 
influenced by the fact that, except the countries 
on the N. and S. coasts, it lies almost entirely 
within the tropics. The equator, as already ob¬ 
served, cuts it nearly through the middle, so 
that it belongs in latitudinal, though unequally in 
longitudinal extension, to the N. and S. tropics. 
It is the only continent which extends unbroken 
from the N. to the S. tropics, and is consequent¬ 
ly the hottest of all. The two sections N. and 
S. of the equator have, as has already been ob¬ 
served, in some respects a very considerable 
resemblance in their general features, the chief 
modifying circumstances being the greater ele¬ 
vation and the smaller longitudinal extension of 
the southern division, which, by bringing it more 
within the influences of the ocean, tends to mod¬ 
ify its climate. 

In the belt immediately under the equator, 
both N. and S., vegetation is intense and rain 
abundant. For about io° N. and S. we find 
true tropical forests, mainly to the W. of the 
great lakes, on the middle and upper Kongo and 
its affluents, and along a belt of the W. coast in 
the Niger region. To the E. of the great lakes, 
where the rainfall is not so abundant, are con¬ 
siderable areas of poor steppe and scrub country, 
and generally over the tropical region the trees 
are scattered and the country more park-like 
than forestal. Animal life, from herds of 
elephants to innumerable swarms of insects, 
abounds in these luxuriant regions. To the 
N. and S. of the equatorial belt, as the rainfall 
diminishes, the forest region is succeeded by 
open pastoral and agricultural country. This 
pastoral belt extends, in the N., across the 
Sudan, from Senegambia to Abyssinia; on the 
S., from Angola and Benguela to the Zambezi. 
This is followed by the rainless regions of the 
Sahara on the N. and the Kalahari desert on 
the S., extending beyond the tropics, and border¬ 
ing on the agricultural and pastoral countries 
of the N. and S. coasts, which lie entirely in the 
temperate zone. 

The winds and rains in Africa are chiefly 
produced by the successive exposure of the va¬ 
rious intertropical belts to the vertical rays of 
the sun. The monsoons of the Indian Ocean 
exercise the principal modifying influence. From 
March to September the S.W. monsoon blows 
from Africa to Asia, and during the remaining 
months the N.E. monsoon blows toward the 
African coast. The indraught of air charged 
with moisture, at the seasons when the sun is 
overhead, produces the rainy seasons within the 
tropics, and as the incessant rarefaction of the 
air by heat continually draws in fresh supplies s 
the rainfall is on the whole abundant, varying 
from 50 to 100 inches in the region between io° 
N. and the Tropic of Capricorn. In a patch on 
the Gulf of Guinea the 100 inches is exceeded, 
though in Somaliland there are almost rainless 
patches. Near the tropics, to which the sun 
comes only once a year, there is only a single 
rainy season, while in the central part of the 
zone, which the sun traverses twice in his pas¬ 
sage between the tropics, there are two distinct 
rainy seasons, a greater and a less, according as 


AFRICA 


the wind is in a direction which brings more or 
iess moisture, except in some places in the in¬ 
terior, where the two rainy seasons are so pro¬ 
tracted as to blend into one, lasting, as in the 
Manyuema country, from September to July, or 
in some other parts even longer. The rainy 
season usually begins soon after the sun has 
reached his zenith, but on the E. coast the mon¬ 
soon charged with the moisture of the Indian 
Ocean brings it earlier. In the deserts, as al¬ 
ready observed, there is hardly any rain; and 
this applies also to Egypt, which but for the 
Nile would be no better than the Sahara. The 
chief cause of the rainlessness of the deserts is 
the direction of the winds, which causes the 
chief moisture-bearing currents to pass, before 
reaching them, over hot and thirsty regions 
which deprive them of their moisture; and espe¬ 
cially the mountain screens which intercept the 
moisture of the winds both from N.E. and S.W. 
Another cause is the want of elevated regions to 
attract the moisture actually contained in the 
atmosphere, as in the higher regions of the 
desert periodical rains do occur. The high 
mountains of the E. plateau and the intervening 
tropical regions deprive the N.E. monsoon of all 
its moisture before it reaches the Kalahari Des¬ 
ert. Hence the apparently anomalous circum¬ 
stance that the greatest heat is found after the 
equatorial region is passed. The rapid radiation 
of heat in the desert causes a very great fall of 
temperature after the sun is down, so that some¬ 
times frosts are generated, and this in some mea¬ 
sure supplies the want of rain by condensing the 
moisture in dew. In the desert, too, scorching 
winds are generated, those of the N. afflicting 
Egypt and the countries on the Mediterranean 
coast. The hottest part of the Sahara is in 
Nubia, where the Arabs say the soil is like a 
fire and the wind like a flame. The coasts of 
tropical Africa, especially the W. coast, where 
colonial settlements have been formed, have 
been found to have a deadly climate for for¬ 
eigners. 

Geology, Minerals .— The geology of Africa 
is still very little known. Very ancient crystal¬ 
line rocks are found rising into mountain ranges 
and sometimes spread over large areas. Most 
of the rocks that overlie them belong to the 
older formations, so that the continent as a 
whole is supposed to be of very ancient date. 
The sands which cover so large an area are be¬ 
lieved to be mainly of aeolian origin, and not to 
have been formed by the action of water. The 
porous clay found so abundantly in west Africa 
is of comparatively recent date. The region 
around Tanganyika is of Jurassic oriein. 
Around the great lakes are abundant evidences 
of enormous volcanic activity at no very remote 
date; and, as already mentioned, active volcanoes 
are not unknown. Tanganyika, according to re¬ 
cent views, may at one period have been con¬ 
nected with the sea. Salt is abundant, though 
often scarce from want of communication and 
working organization. Gold is found in abun¬ 
dance in southern Africa from the Transvaal 
region to the Zambezi, and a number of very 
productive mines have been opened in the Trans¬ 
vaal. Diamonds have been found in large num¬ 
bers, and in apparently inexhaustible supply, on 
the Vaal River and its tributaries. In the south¬ 
ern central district, particularly the country of 
Katanga, iron and copper are found, and arc 


worked in some districts in the countries bor¬ 
dering on the Lualaba. Copper is also found in 
Loanda, iron in Angola, and lead, tin, iron, and 
copper in Great Namaqualand; iron, copper, and 
coal are found in Natal. 

Vegetation .— The centre of Africa possesses, 
as already mentioned, an exuberant tropical 
vegetation. The open pastoral belt at the ex¬ 
tremities of the tropics is distinguished by a 
rich and varied flora. A special characteristic of 
the vegetation of the southern extremity of Afri¬ 
ca is the remarkable variety, size, and beauty of 
the heaths, some of which grow to 12 or 15 feet 
and form miniature forests. Cycadacese and 
bulbous and orchidaceous plants, aloes, and other 
succulent plants, also abound. The baobab or 
monkey-bread tree, first discovered by Adanson 
in Senegal, is found from the Sudan to Lake 
Ngami, and palms of one variety or another are 
diffused over almost every part of Africa. The 
date palm is the special characteristic of the des¬ 
ert, to which it is peculiarly adapted, and there 
it forms the principal means of subsistence. 
It is also cultivated as a garden plant in the 
northern coast regions. This district as well 
as Egypt has an ancient celebrity for its fertility 
in grain. Wheat and maize are cultivated* fruit 
trees also abound, and groves of oranges and 
olives distinguish the landscape. The castor oil 
plant, the fig tree, the dwarf palm, and the lotus, 
formerly an important article of food, are here 
characteristic forms. The common oak, the 
cork oak, and the pine form the staple, and the 
cypress, myrtle, arbutus, and fragrant tree 
heaths the ornaments of the woods. The pas¬ 
toral tropical belt presents a different order of 
vegetation. Besides the baobab, the cabbage 
palm, the oil palm, the wax palm, the shea butter 
tree, the cotton tree, the African oak, and the 
mangrove here prevail; rice and maize are culti¬ 
vated ; the principal fruits are the banana, papaw, 
custard apple, lemon, orange, and tamarind. 
India-rubber plants are found in various forms, 
as trees and as climbing plants, in abundance 
both in east and west tropical Africa. The preva¬ 
lent plants of this district are also found in the 
fertile parts of Nubia. To the northeast of this 
region frankincense, myrrh, cinnamon, and cassia 
abound. The coffee plant is a native of the 
southern Abyssinian region, and also of western 
tropical Africa, where it forms thick woods. 
This plant is supposed to have been transported 
from Africa to Arabia. Abyssinia, though coffee 
and spices are native products, possesses gener¬ 
ally, from its elevation, the vegetation of a tem¬ 
perate region. The swamps of the tropical re¬ 
gion abound with papyrus. The cassava, yam, 
pigeon-pea, and ground-nut are cultivated as 
bread plants. 

Animals .— The fauna of Africa is extensive 
and varied, and numerous species of mammals 
are peculiar to the continent. According to a 
scientific view of the geographical distribution of 
animals, the north of Africa belongs to the Medi¬ 
terranean sub-region, while the rest of the con¬ 
tinent forms the Ethiopian region. Africa 
possesses numerous species of the order Quad- 
rumana (apes and monkeys), all of which 
are peculiar to it. They abound especially in 
the tropics. The most remarkable are the chim¬ 
panzee and the gorilla. The lion is the typical 
carnivore of Africa. Latterly he has been driven 
from the coast settlements to the interior, where 




.SUEZ CANAL 
fcSuez 


UBUH OtSW 


Assuan' 


OASES OF Kl 1 FRA 


iawaki: 


FRENCH 

Timbuktu 


\ene, 


Omdurman 


KHARTU 


,L. Chad 


Fashocla 


ASABA 


Princes l.u 
(Port.) 


St.Thomas I.o 


Annobon I.> 
(Span ) 

GUINEA 


ENT 


j. GERIVfAt 

I^'eASi 

X AFRil 


XABINDAT 

(PORT.) 


BRITISH 1 


Henguel 


ZA.VEF.7.1, 


"chinde./A 


'Salts) 


;eira 


* Bulmvayo,- ^ 


J ^ PALAPVE. 

bechuanaJ^ 

' MUMS W - " ~{Wr% 
land pr . e ' to #_- 

Johatm e3 '^^^ 

.... . , 


LVALFISH BAY 
-(BR.)- 


A_WlNDHOEK 

Africa 


Inhairibaiia 


Lourenqo Marques 


Angra Pequeha 


ietermaritzburg 


good : 

* i cape coy 


Cape Town 


y *abeth 


CapeTerde 

t-iJs.^PORT.) 

-ft." ST LOU,S . 
.« 'S c. Verde 


SoKOTRA I. 

. ^(Bk.) 

ZC.GUARD AFUI 


Azores 


(Port.) 


Strait of GibraltaCo, ,,e 

C. 


Madeira Is. 

/ <=3.'(P0RT.y* 

l 

Canary Is. 

(Span.) & s 


/ y ^ / 

Rio de oho/CPrioi Tropic of Cancer 

-- 


/ c. 

Blanco 


. Yekde^ SENE Gn<YXr 
& AM B ;A a . Wte .w^ R.f\£ 
BATHURSTXi^-^f^ '■ 
)0 V-;(^^fe NEA ^ 

s.o'- S, 

KONA* R TftERRfflSi 


Freetown Wleone « 
/ >* 


cv v 6?oo -o ° I; T Cakame 

jn 0500 y I A Hernando Po l . S ) r . ^ 

# 13000 f t A^ rrrr , n „ (SPAN.) & Z 


Ny' ' / 

^ -.•Aladisha'^- 

i Ar fMarafloxol 


Equator 




A/ \/ l3 0 ° o/ ‘' "X 


f-njaro 

[ 

f* Mombasa 

T Zanzibar' 

% Qar-es-Salam 


yAscension I. 
(Br.) 


Comoro Is.,C,V V_ 


Mozambique 

Moianga 


St. Helena 
(Br.) 


W ^ g (FR.) 


Tropic of Capricorn 


C. Ste. Marie 


AFRICA 

{Political') 


Scale. 

400 600 


(^^^^00__^^00_^^00_^^00_j^000 

S 40 Statute Miles to one inch 
Capitals of Countries A Other Cities* 
Comparative Area 


Kansas 

S 2 ,oSo sq.m. 


longitude East from 20° Greenwich 


Longitude West 20" from Greenwich 


Seychelles 

Is- a': I Bb ‘> 

Amir ante Is. 

(Br.).” 


'amatave 

NTANANARIVO 

.Mauritius I*/) 

Reunion ORo (bR.) 
Or 0 Bourbon 1 . 

'O~0 - - 


Copyright , iqoj, by Rand , McNally & Company 



























































































































































































































AFRICA 


he still reigns king of the forest. There are 
three varieties, the Barbary, Senegal, and Cape 
lions. 1 he leopard and panther rank next to 
the lion among the carnivora. Hyenas of more 
than one species, and jackals, are found all over 
Africa. Elephants in large herds abound in the 
forests of the tropical regions, and their tusks 
form a leading article of commerce. These are 
larger and heavier than those of Asiatic ele¬ 
phants. The elephant is not a domestic animal 
in Africa as it is in Asia. The rhinoceros is 
found, like the elephant, in Middle and Southern 
Africa. Hippopotami abound in many of the 
large rivers and the lakes. The zebra and 
quagga were numerous in central and south¬ 
ern Africa, but the latter is said to be now en¬ 
tirely extinct. Of antelopes, the most numerous 
and characteristic of the ruminating animals of 
Africa, at least 50 species are considered pecu¬ 
liar to this continent, of which 23 used to occur 
in Cape Colony. The giraffe is found in the in¬ 
terior and is exclusively an African animal. 
Several species of wild buffaloes roam in the 
interior, and the Asiatic buffalo has been natu¬ 
ralized in the north. The camel, common in the 
north as a beast of burden, has no doubt been 
introduced from Asia. The horse and the ass 
are highly developed in the Barbary States. The 
cattle of Abyssinia and Bornu have horns of im¬ 
mense size but extremely light. In Barbary and 
the Cape of Good Hope the sheep are broad¬ 
tailed; in Egypt and Nubia they are long-legged 
and short-tailed. Goats are in some parts more 
numerous than sheep, especially in the Sudan 
and in Abyssinia. Dogs are numerous, but cats 
rare, in Egypt and Barbary. The former in the 
northern towns serve as scavengers. Bears and 
foxes are found only in the north. The birds of 
northern Africa are almost identical with those 
of the south of Europe and the Asiatic countries 
bordering on the Mediterranean. Many of the 
African birds are famed for the brilliancy of 
their plumage, such as the sun-birds, bee-eaters, 
rollers, plaintain-eaters, parrots, and kingfishers. 
The ostrich is found nearly all over Africa, but 
especially in the desert. A remarkable bird of 
southern Africa is the secretary-bird or serpent- 
eater, which renders great service to the inhabit¬ 
ants by killing serpents. Another peculiar bird 
of South Africa is the little honey-guide (q.v.), 
which points out the nests of bees. The whale¬ 
headed stork, remarkable for its enormous beak, 
may also be mentioned. Owls, falcons, eagles, 
and vultures are numerous. Water-fowl are 
abundant on the lakes and rivers, and there are 
many species of quails and partridges. One 
species of gallinaceous bird, the guinea-fowl, 
has been domesticated in other countries. Rep¬ 
tiles, owing to the dryness of the climate, are 
comparatively few. The largest is the crocodile, 
which abounds in the great rivers and tropical 
lakes. There are several species of venomous 
serpents, including the horned viper and the 
African cobra. The chameleon is common. 
The rivers and coasts abound with fish of 
numerous species, and some of them of the 
most brilliant coloring. Insects are numerous. 
Among the more troublesome species are the 
locust, tsetse, and white ant. 

Inhabitants, Civilization, etc .— There is a 
marked distinction between the races in the north 
and east of the great desert and those in 
central Sudan and the rest of Africa and the 


south. The main elements of the population of 
north Africa, including Egypt and Abyssinia, 
are Hamitic and Semitic, but in the north the 
Hamite Berbers are mingled with peoples of the 
same race as those of prehistoric southern Eu¬ 
rope, and other types of various origins, and in 
the east and southeast with peoples of the negro 
type. The Semitic Arabs are found all over the 
northern region, and even in the western Sahara 
and central Sudan, and far down the east coast 
as traders. The Somalis and Gallas are mainly 
Hamitic. In central Sudan and the whole of 
the country between the desert and the Gulf of 
Guinea the population is pure negro — people of 
the black, flat- or broad-nosed, thick-lipped type, 
with narrow heads, woolly hair, high cheek¬ 
bones, and prognathous jaws. Scattered among 
them are peoples of a probably Hamitic stock. 
Nearly the whole of the narrow southern section 
of Africa is inhabited by what are known as the 
Bantu races, of which the Zulu or Kaffir may be 
taken as the type. The languages of the Bantu 
peoples are all of the same structure, even 
though the physical type vary, some resembling 
the true negro, and others having prominent 
noses and comparatively thin lips. The Bush¬ 
men of southern Africa are of a different type 
from the Bantu, probably the remains of an abo¬ 
riginal population, while the Hottentots are ap¬ 
parently a mixture of Bushmen and Kaffirs. 
Scattered over central Africa, mainly in the for¬ 
est regions, are pygmy tribes, who are generally 
supposed to be the remains of an aboriginal 
population. The bulk of the inhabitants of 
Madagascar are of Malay affinities. The total 
population is estimated at about 150,000,000. 

As regards religion, a great proportion of the 
inhabitants are heathens of the lowest type. 
Mohammedanism possesses a large number of 
adherents in northern Africa and is rapidly 
spreading in the Sudan. Christianity prevails 
chiefly among the Copts of Egypt, the Abys- 
sinians, and the natives of Madagascar, the lat¬ 
ter having been converted in recent times. Else¬ 
where the labors of the missionaries have 
been attended with promising success. Over 
a great part of the continent, however, civiliza¬ 
tion is at a low ebb, and in the Kongo region 
cannibalism is extensively prevalent. Yet in 
various regions the natives who have not come 
in contact with a higher civilization show con¬ 
siderable skill in agriculture and various me¬ 
chanical arts, as in weaving and metal-working. 
Among articles exported from Africa are gold 
and diamonds, palm oil, ivory, wool, ostrich 
feathers, esparto, cotton, caoutchouc, etc. See 
paragraph Commercial Conditions at end of this 
article. 

Languages .— The languages spoken on the 
continent may be divided into two great classes, 
those native to Africa and those brought in 
from outside: the former including the three 
great divisions of Negroid, Hottentot-Bushman, 
and Hamitic, the latter Aryan, Malay, and Se¬ 
mitic; and the latter again into the pure lan¬ 
guages or patois of recent immigrants or trad¬ 
ers, and those which have become naturalized 
by time and change into virtually native tongues 
themselves. 

The first division of the extra-African 
tongues comprises: (1) Pure English in South 
Africa and Liberia, pure French in Algeria and 
the scattered trading settlements elsewhere. (2) 


AFRICA 


Four «creole» dialects: the Mediterranean 
«lingua franca® or trade jargon; the English 
creole or West African Kru-English; the Cape 
Verde Islands Portuguese creole; and the Boer 
and Hottentot Dutch creole. The last three are 
European in stock, but with much African 
phonic, inflectional, and syntactical mixture and 
influence. The second division includes the 
Malay or Malagasy of Madagascar, and the Se¬ 
mitic tongues of the northeast. These last are 
(i) Pure Arabic (the Latin of Africa, the uni¬ 
versal language of social intercourse and trade 
wherever Mohammedanism prevails), including 
the Egyptian, Sudani, Maghreb, and Muscat dia¬ 
lects ; (2) mixed, as the Abyssinian dialects, 
derived from the ancient Geez (q.v.), Tigre and 
Tigrina, Amharic (originally of southern Abyssi¬ 
nia, but now the chief tongue of the country), 
Harari of the Galla country, Gurague, etc. All 
these were brought in by Semitic invaders. 

The native African stocks are classed in Eng¬ 
lish books mainly according to the system 
adopted from Friedrich Muller by R. N. Cust 
in his (Modern Languages of Africa) ; later 
German Africanists prefer that of Lepsius, the 
chief difference being on the relations of Bantu 
and Negro or Nigritic. 

1. Negroid. This has three main divisions: 
(1) Bantu, a pure language. This immense 
group occupies, with enclaves of Hottentot- 
Bushman and Pygmy, the whole vast triangle 
from the Kamerun west and Zanzibar east down 
to the Cape, or pretty much all Africa south of 
the equator. All its components (for which see 
Bantu) have one grammar though different 
vocabularies; the greatest and perhaps purest 
representatives of it are the Zulus or Kaffirs, 
and their neighbors the Se-chuana. (2) Ni¬ 
gritic, Negro, or Sudan-Negro, between the Sa¬ 
hara and the equator. Ethnologically, the races 
speaking this group of tongues are the purest 
types of the Negro stock; but linguistically, 
they are only classed together from the utter im¬ 
possibility of grouping them with any others, 
though Lepsius thinks them degenerated Bantu, 
— a conclusion scouted by others, the affinities 
being very faint. They are many and to all 
appearance totally unrelated, so diverse and pe¬ 
culiar are the idioms; some, however, think they 
show marked characteristics in common. They 
doubtless represent the oldest races on the con¬ 
tinent, wandering in small hostile bands and 
changing their dialects almost from generation 
to generation, like all such petty camps with un¬ 
fixed traditions and no general intercourse; and 
may well have scores or hundreds of «lan¬ 
guages » among them with no traceable con¬ 
nection. (3) The Nuba-Fulah or Ful; some¬ 
times called the Nilotic, from its main seat in 
the Nile valley from Nubia to the Albert 
Nyanza, and with isolated tribes farther out, as 
the Barea and Kunama on the northern border of 
Abyssinia, and the Masai and Oigob southwest. 
Others dispute the inclusion of the Fulah, con¬ 
sidering it a tongue by itself; perhaps a mon¬ 
grel, more likely a family as above, which has 
picked up some Hamitic words. The Dinka, 
Bari, and Shilluk are its chief families along 
the Nile, the Lur or Shuli and Madi being the 
last to the south; west of the valley it shades 
into the Nigritic chaos. 

2. The Hottentot-Bushman. This is the lan¬ 
guage of the dwarf tribes, and its relations to 


others or itself are vigorously debated. Muller 
thought it represented two ethnological and lin¬ 
guistic divisions. Lepsius thinks it one, Bantu 
in race and Hamitic in language ; but his con¬ 
clusions are not accepted. Besides the main 
stock in southern Africa, this group includes the 
Pygmy dialects in central Africa: it is denied 
that they have kept their original languages, but 
this is true of many others, and the ethnological 
and linguistic problems have no necessary rela- 
tion. 

3. Hamitic. This includes (1) the Libyan 
or Berber dialects spoken across north Africa 
from the Canaries to Egypt — probably changed 
scores of times from top to bottom; (2) the 
ancient Egyptian, with the four dialects of its 
descendant Coptic (extinct save as the ritual 
language of the Coptic Church) ; (3) the non- 
Semitic or Kushite Abyssinian dialects (for¬ 
merly called Punic, sometimes Ethiopic, which 
was more generally applied to Geez) : as Bi- 
shari (see Bisharin), the ancient Bedja, be¬ 
tween Egypt and Abyssinia; Danakil (q.v.) or 
Dankali, native name Afar, between Abyssinia, 
Massowa, and Obok; Somali and Galla, in their 
countries; Agau (through Abyssinia, the users 
believed to be its aborigines, with dialects as 
Chamir, Quara, etc.) ; Saho, between Abyssinia 
and Adulis Bay; Kaffa, Kullo, etc., in the high¬ 
lands south of Abyssinia. The Fulah group (see 
above) and the Haussas in Sokoto have 
some Hamitic admixture. These Hamite tribes 
are much mixed, geographically or more in¬ 
timately, with Semitic and Negro tribes or ele¬ 
ments. 

«Equatorial» is a name given in 1889 by 
Muller to a group of Negro tribes S. of Darfur, 
of which he wished to make a new family: the 
Nyam-Nyam and Monbuttu were the chief. All 
are of a lighter color than the typical Negro, 
and their languages are more distinctive still. 
As above said, it is probable that many such 
groups can be segregated on the best of grounds. 

Systems of Writing .— Africa has four liv¬ 
ing systems (not counting the fossil Coptic 
or the European used by those races), and has 
had four now represented only by inscriptions 
or papyri. The latter are: (1) Ancient Egyp¬ 
tian, passing from hieroglyphics (a mixture of 
ideograms and syllables) through the cursive 
hieratic to the more cursive demotic, the or¬ 
dinary script of business life.' A few of the 
demotic characters are preserved in the ritual 
Coptic. (2) Ancient Phoenician, the ancestor of 
all Western alphabets. (3) Ancient Ethiopian, 
used for the native tongue around Napata and 
Meroe. It was cursive and borrowed, but it is 
not known from whence, nor what language it 
represents. (4) Ancient Libyan or Numidian, 
borrowed from southern Arabia and read from 
the bottom up. There are many inscriptions 
in it in Algeria and Tunis, some of which have 
been deciphered; the first was the celebrated 
bilingual inscription of Takka. The living sys¬ 
tems are practically those of the Hamites and 
Semites, the others being mostly below the grade 
of civilization which uses such things; and both 
the former use Semitic systems. The four are: 

1. The only one developed in a Negro tribe, 
and with one exception the only one actually in¬ 
vented and popularly used within historic times: 
that of the Vei, on the west coast near Cape Mt., 
devised about 1834 by Dcalu Bukere, a native 



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AFRICA 


with a rough knowledge of European printing. 
It was not an alphabetic system, but a syl¬ 
labary, with complicated characters like hiero¬ 
glyphics. It was later used for Mohammedan 
missionary work, but is being supplanted by the 
European system, the Christian missionaries re¬ 
fusing to employ it. 

2. That of the Touaregs or Saharan Ber¬ 
bers, called tifinaghen. It seems to be a de¬ 
scendant of the ancient Libyan, to which it is 
similar in reading from the bottom up. 

3. The Arabic, used by all who wish to 
write the great language of Mohammedan 
Africa, the general medium of social and busi¬ 
ness communication. It is also widely used to 
write other African languages: by the Berbers 
.and Suahelis for Libyan; by the people of Shoa 
for Amharic, and those of Harar for Harari; by 
the Malays of Madagascar; and by the Kaffirs. 

4. The Amharic, used largely in and around 
Abyssinia; it is an extension and modification 
of the ancient Geez or Ethiopic, which there¬ 
fore we have not classed as dead, any more than 
the Greek and Roman alphabets can be so called. 
It is written from left to right like the Euro¬ 
pean languages, the other Semitic systems being 
the reverse; and the vowels are indicated by 
modifications of the consonants or marks added 
to them, making it a semi-syllabic rather than 
pure alphabetic system. It was borrowed from 
southern Arabia, and can be traced back to the 
4th century on the monuments at Axum, the 
ancient capital of Abyssinia. 

Political Divisions .— By recent arrangements, 
mainly since 1884, great areas in Africa have 
been allotted to Great Britain, France, Germany, 
Portugal, Belgium, and Italy, as coming within 
their respective spheres of influence, in addition 
to colonial possessions proper. The areas 
claimed by the various European powers in 
Africa may be roughly estimated as follows: 
France, 3,500,000 square miles; Great Britain, 
2,600,000 square miles; Germany, 1,000,000 
square miles; Portugal, 825,000 square miles; 
Kongo Free State, 900,000 square miles; Italy, 
180,000 square miles; Spain, 154,000 square 
miles. See paragraph on Colonies under these 
various countries. Egypt, like Tripoli, is nom¬ 
inally under Turkey, but it is actually under 
British suzerainty. The Kongo Free State is 
under the king of Belgium. Abyssinia and 
Morocco are the chief native African and inde¬ 
pendent states. The former independent Boer 
republics, the Orange Free State and the South 
African Republic, since the Transvaal war 1899- 
1902, have been incorporated with the British 
empire under the name of the Orange River and 
Transvaal Colonies. In 1903 Great Britain 
also annexed Kano and Sokoto. 

History of Discovery .— Although in Egypt 
and along the Mediterranean coast (see Car¬ 
thage and Egypt) Africa was the seat of re¬ 
mote and comparatively high states of civiliza¬ 
tion, up to the middle of the 19th century the 
whole of central Africa was a blank; it is now 
at least as well known as South America. The 
civilized nations of the ancient world aproached 
Africa from the Mediterranean and the Red 
Sea; there is reason to believe that till the in¬ 
troduction of the camel in the 7th century a.d. 
the desert was an insuperable barrier between 
the Mediterranean countries and central Sudan. 

The name Africa is mythologically associated 


with’ Afer, a son of the Libyan Hercules; but 
this is only an eponym. It is certainly Phoe¬ 
nician, and probably meant <( nomadic,” a term 
applied by the Carthaginians to the tribes around. 
It was the name given by the Romans at first 
only to a small district of Africa in the immediate 
neighborhood of Carthage, and nearly corre¬ 
sponding with the Roman province formed on 
the destruction of Carthage. The Greeks called 
Africa Libya, and the Romans often used the 
same name. The first African exploring expe¬ 
dition on record is that mentioned by. Herodotus 
as having been sent by Pharaoh Necho about 
the end of the 7th century b.c. to circumnavigate 
the continent. The navigators, who were Phoe¬ 
nicians, were absent three years, and according 
to report they accomplished their object. The 
story has been the subject of much controversy, 
and was for long generally discredited, but re¬ 
cent authorities of weight have pronounced in 
its favor. The next important voyage recorded 
is that of Hanno, a Carthaginian, down the west 
coast, probably 50 or 100 years later. He passed 
a river with crocodiles and river-horses, and 
probably reached the coast of Upper Guinea. 
Herodotus also mentions some young men of 
the tribe of the Nasamones (living near the Gulf 
of Sidra) crossing the desert in a westerly direc¬ 
tion, and coming to a great river where they saw 
crocodiles and black men, but it is doubtful if 
this could have been the Niger. There is no 
evidence that the Egyptians knew the Nile be¬ 
yond the site of Khartum, though they may have 
sent ships as far as the coast of Somaliland by 
the Red Sea. Nero sent an expedition up the 
Nile which seems to have penetrated up the 
White Nile; and remains of Roman origin have 
been found some distance into the Sahara. 
From the navigators and traders that frequented 
the east coast of Africa, Ptolemy may have 
learned that the Nile issued from two great lakes 
about the equator. Mohammedanism was car¬ 
ried into north Africa in the 7th century and 
very rapidly spread to the Atlantic. By the 10th 
century the Arabs had crossed the desert, and 
between this and the 14th century Arab travelers 
visited central Sudan, the Niger, and other 
regions, and till comparatively recently they 
were the great authorities on much of central 
Africa. 

The first impulse to a more complete ex¬ 
ploration of Africa was given by the Portuguese 
prince known as Henry the Navigator, who in 
the early part of the 15th century sent out a 
series of expeditions along the west coast. These 
were continued after his death, so that in i486 
Bartolomeu Diaz doubled the Cape and in 
1497 Vasco da Gama sailed up the east coast as 
far as Mombasa, and thence to India. Thus for 
the first time the main outline of the African 
coast was laid down. Settlements were planted 
on the east and west coasts by Portuguese, 
French, English, Dutch, and Brandenburgers, 
but there is no authentic information that any 
European penetrated into the interior. Maps of 
the 16th to the 18th century were covered with 
lakes and rivers, but these were swept away as 
unauthentic by D’Anville in the middle of the 
18th century, and the interior left a blank. An 
association for the exploration of inner Africa 
was formed in London in 1788. Additions were 
made to geography under its auspices by Mungo 
Park, Hornemann, Burckhardt, and others. 


AFRICA 


Modern African exploration may be said to 
begin with Mungo Park, who reached the upper 
course of the Niger or Joliba, and whose efforts 
to explore the river to its mouth cost him his 
life (1795-1805). Dr. Lacerda, a Portuguese, 
about the same time reached the capital of Ca- 
zembe, west of Lake Bangweolo, where he died. 
Hornemann, who traveled for the same society 
as Park, perished in the desert after sending 
home accounts of Bornu and the neighboring 
states. In 1802-6 two Portuguese traders 
crossed the continent from Angola, through Ca- 
zembe’s dominions, to the Portuguese posses¬ 
sions on the Zambezi. 

In 1816 Captain Tuckey, in command of a 
British expedition, sailed up the Kongo, which 
he took to be the mouth of the Niger, for 280 
miles. About the same time Major Peddie, 
and after his death Captain Campbell, led a 
party up the Senegal through the Fula or Fella- 
tah territory, returning to Kakundy on the 
Nune-z. In 1817 Mr. Bowditch explored the 
country of the Ashantis. In 1818 a French 
traveler, Gaspard Theodore Mollien, discovered 
the sources of the Senegal, Gambia, and Rio 
Grande. In 1819 Ritchie and Lyon traveled 
from Tripoli to Murzuk, and in 1821 Major 
Laing made some important journeys in the 
Mandingo district of western Africa. In 1822-4 
extensive explorations were made in north¬ 
ern and western Africa by Major Denham, Capt. 
Clapperton, and Dr. Oudney, the last of whom 
died on the way. The travelers proceeded from 
Tripoli by Murzuk to Lake Tchad. While 
Denham examined the south and west coasts of 
the lake, Clapperton proceeded west through 
Bornu to Sokoto, the capital of the Feiiahtah 
country, on the Sokoto, an affluent of the Niger. 
Impressed with the importance of establishing 
political and commercial intercourse with this 
district, Clapperton organized another expedi¬ 
tion for the purpose of reaching Sokoto from 
the west coast. Setting out from Badagry, on 
the east of Cape Coast Castle, 7 Dec. 1825, and 
passing through the kingdom of Yoruba he 
reached the Niger at Bussa. Here he crossed 
the river and traversed the kingdom of Nupe 
to Kano, capital of the Haussa country, which 
he had previously visited, and from thence pro¬ 
ceeded to Sokoto, in the neighborhood of which, 
after a short residence, he died. His servant, 
Richard Lander, returned to Kano and at¬ 
tempted to proceed south through the kingdom 
of Zegzeg, but was compelled by the natives to 
return to Darroro, from which he reached the 
coast. 

W. Allen, a naval officer, about this time 
accompanied a mercantile expedition up the 
"Niger, which he surveyed for a certain distance, 
and in another expedition in 1848 the same of- 
ificer revised and corrected his survey. Maj. 
Laing in 1826 crossed the desert from Tripoli 
to Timbuctoo, but he was killed on his return, 
and his papers lost. Rene Caillie, after living 
for some years on the Senegal coast learning the 
language and initiating himself into the re¬ 
ligion and manners of the Arabs, made in 1827-8 
a journey to Timbuctoo, and thence through 
the great desert to Morocco. Richard Lander, 
accompanied by his brother, leaving Badagry 
for Bussa in March 1830, ascended the river 
Niger to Yauri, and descending from thence 
reached the mouth called the Nun in November. 


In 1832 he traced other mouths of the river up 
to the main stream; and the identity of the great 
river which passes under various names in dif¬ 
ferent parts of its course was thus established. 

In the south, Livingstone, who was stationed 
as a missionary at Kolobeng in 1849, passed 
through the desert of Kalahari, reached the Zuga 
or Botletle, and after a circuitous route discov¬ 
ered its source in Lake Ngami. In 1851 he went 
north again, proceeding from the Zuga in a more 
easterly direction. In lat. 17 0 25' S., and between 
Ion. 24 0 30' and 26° 50' E., he came upon nu¬ 
merous rivers flowing north, which were re¬ 
ported to be affluents of a larger river, the 
Zambezi. 

In 1848 and 1849 Krapf and Rebmann, mis¬ 
sionaries stationed near Mombasa, saw the 
Kilima-Njaro and the Kenia Mountains. In 
1851 Francis Galton, starting from Walfisch 
Bay, made an extensive survey of the Damara 
and Ovampo countries, in which he found high 
pastoral and agricultural table-lands. An expe¬ 
dition under the patronage of the British gov¬ 
ernment started from Tripoli in 1850 to visit 
the Sahara and the regions around Lake Tchad. 
Richardson, the originator of the expedition, 
was joined by two Germans, Drs. Overweg and 
Barth. In crossing the desert from Murzuk to 
Ghat they found some interesting sculptures. 
From Ghat to Air they found the country 
wholly desert and uninhabited. On reaching 
Lake Tchad Richardson went to Kuka, capital 
of Bornu, Barth to Kano, Overweg to the na¬ 
tive states of Mariadi and Guber. Barth and 
Overweg met again at Kuka in April 1851, but 
in the meantime Richardson had died. Over¬ 
weg explored the lake, and Barth proceeded on 
another journey south to Massena, in the king¬ 
dom of Bagirmi. On his return the death of 
Overweg left him to prosecute the enterprise 
alone. He proceeded to Timbuctoo via Kano, 
and after collecting much information about the 
Niger and its tributaries, over a great part of 
the course of which he traveled on his return 
to Kuka, he reached Tripoli in August 1855. 
Dr. Vogel, who was sent to join Barth, was put 
to death at Wadai, and his papers were lost. 

Dr. Livingstone began another journey from 
Kolobeng on 15 Jan. 1853. After staying a 
month at Linyante, capital of the Makololo, he 
proceeded down the Chobe to Sesheke, and 
thence ascended the Leambye '(Zambezi) to the 
junction of the Liba. After returning to Lin¬ 
yante, and taking with him a party of Makololo, 
he again set out n Nov. 1853, reached the Liba 
27 December, and proceeded to Lake Dilolo, 
where he found the watershed of the streams 
which flow north and south (feeders of the Kon¬ 
go or the Zambezi) at a level of 4,000 feet above 
the sea. On his return journey he was con¬ 
firmed in the belief that an elevated plateau here 
crosses the country and forms the watershed 
of the whole continent. He next crossed the 
Cassabi river, and on 4 April he reached the 
banks of the Kwango, both these rivers being 
affluents of the Kongo. Crossing the Kwanza, 
he reached Loanda on 31 May. On 20 September 
he set out on his return journey, and following 
pretty nearly the route by which he had gone 
arrived at Linyante. Starting from this place 
on 3 Nov. 1855, be reached the Zambezi, and 
proceeding down the river, and visiting its falls, 
called by him the Victoria Falls, arrived at 



MARIBOU STORK (Leptoplilus crumenifer ) AFRICAN JABIROU (Myctena senegalcnsis) 










AFRICA 


Kilimane at its mouth on 20 May 1856, and 
sailed for England. Thus was accomplished by 
Dr, Livingstone the remarkable feat of crossing 
the entire continent from sea to sea — the first 
time, so far as is known, that this was done by 
any European. In 1858 Livingstone returned 
to resume his exploration of the Zambezi re¬ 
gions. _ Entering the Congone mouth of the 
river in May, he ascended its tributary, the 
Shire, to Murchison Cataracts, visited Lake 
Shirwa and Lake Nyassa, traveled on or near 
the Zambezi to Victoria Falls, established the 
identity of the Leambye and the Zambezi, sailed 
up the Shire to Lake Nyassa, also sailed 156 
miles up the Rovuma River, and returned to 
England in 1864. 

Between 1856 and 1865 Paul du Chaillu trav¬ 
eled extensively on the west coast, in the neigh¬ 
borhood of the river Ogowe (or Ogobai). In 
1861-2 Major (afterward Sir) R. F. Burton also 
traveled on the west coast. He ascended the 
Kamerun Mountains and confirmed some of 
the observations of Du Chaillu. A French ex¬ 
pedition visited the delta of the Ogowe in 1864. 
Since then that river has been very fully ex¬ 
plored, the principal expeditions having been 
those of Walker, 1866, 1873; Lieut. Aymos, 
1867-8; the Frenchmen Compiegne and Marche, 
1872-4; Dr. O. Lenz, 1876; and another French 
expedition under Savorgnan de Brazza, 1876, 
who took possession of a large stretch of terri¬ 
tory for France. This territory now forms 
part of French Kongo, which had been traversed 
by various Frenchmen, including Brazza, Mizon, 
Le Maistre, Monteil, and others. 

In 1866 Livingstone entered on his last great 
series of explorations, the main object of which 
was to settle the position of the watersheds in 
the interior of the continent south of the equator, 
and to discover the source of the Nile. Landing 
at the mouth of the Rovuma he proceeded south¬ 
west round the south end of Lake Nyassa, and 
then traveling north reached the south end of 
Lake Tanganyika (discovered by Speke and 
Burton in 1858). He afterward visited Lakes 
Mweru and Bangweolo in the basin of the 
Chambeze, the name given to a headwater of the 
Kongo. In 1869 he reached Ujiji, on the Tan¬ 
ganyika, and crossed the lake, making extensive 
journeys in the Manyuema country, and reached 
the Lualaba or upper Kongo, but could not ex¬ 
plore it for want of boats. Henry M. Stanley, 
who had been specially sent by the proprietor of 
the New York Herald to search for Livingstone, 
met him at Ujiji on his return from the Man¬ 
yuema country, relieved his necessities, and ex¬ 
amined along with him the northern end of Lake 
Tanganyika. Livingstone afterward started on 
a fresh journey (in 1872) to determine the 
course of the Lualaba, intending to travel round 
the south side of Lake Bangweolo; but after suf¬ 
fering much from illness he died on the shore of 
this lake on 1 May 1873. 

In 1872 the Royal Geographical Society or¬ 
ganized two expeditions to go in search of Liv¬ 
ingstone. The one, under Lieut. Grandy, sailed 
some distance up the Kongo; the . other, under 
Lieut. Cameron, started from Zanzibar for Tan¬ 
ganyika. On ascertaining the death of Living¬ 
stone he proceeded to Lake Tanganyika, where 
he secured Livingstone’s map and sent it to 
Zanzibar. He ascertained the height of the 
lake; found an outlet, the Lukuga, on the west 


side; traversed the Manyuema country; reached 
Nyangwe, Livingstone’s farthest point on the 
Lualaba; proceeded south up the east side of the 
valley of Lomane to Kilemba in the Urua coun¬ 
try ; and reached Benguela, on the Atlantic 
coast, 4 Nov. 1875. The identity of the Kongo 
and Lualaba was at last settled by Stanley, who, 
between October 1876 and August 1877, de¬ 
scended from Nyangwe on the latter river to 
the mouth of the former. After helping to es¬ 
tablish the Kongo Free State (1879-85) Stanley 
proceeded in 1887 with an expedition to relieve 
Emin Pasha, governor of Egypt’s equatorial 
province. Following the Kongo and its tribu¬ 
tary the Aruwimi, Stanley hewed his way 
through a vast forest, arrived at the Albert 
Nyanza, met Emin there, returned for his rear¬ 
guard and stores, and at last brought Emin and 
his followers to Bagamoyo, on the east coast, in 
1889. He also discovered Lake Albert Edward 
and the lofty mountain of Ruwenzori, on the 
Semliki, between that lake and Lake Albert. 
The Portuguese Maj. Serpa Pinto journeyed 
from Benguela to Natal in 1878-9; the Germans 
Wissmann and Pogge crossed from St. Paul 
de Loanda to Zanzibar in 1881-23 in 1879-80 
(after the death of his leader, Keitii Johnston), 
Joseph Thomson crossed from the east coast 
by the north of Lake Nyassa to the east of Tan¬ 
ganyika, and back to Zanzibar; again in 1883-4 
he explored the Masai country between the 
coast and Lake Victoria; Capello and Ivens 
went from Angola to Mozambique by way of 
Bangweolo in 1884-5. 

One of the most interesting problems con¬ 
nected with African geography was the tracing 
of the source of the Nile. Among the first of 
the famous explorers in this direction was 
James Bruce, who in 1770 reached the source of 
the Blue Nile or Bahr-el-Azrek, and imagined 
himself to have solved the great problem. But 
the real source of the Nile remained long un¬ 
known, the great lakes connected with its ori¬ 
gin being hardly dreamed of till' comparatively 
recent times. In 1858 Burton and Speke, cross¬ 
ing from Zanzibar, discovered Lake Tangan¬ 
yika, and the same year Speke also reached the 
Victoria Nyanza, but did not ascertain that it 
gave rise to the Nile. Speke and Grant in 1862 
reached the place where the Nile leaves the lake 
and followed part of its course to Karuma Falls. 
At Gondokoro they met Sir Samuel Baker, who 
proceeded to investigate the unexplored part, 
but did not fully succeed in his object. Baker 
in 1871-3 returned to the scene of his explora¬ 
tions as the commander of an Egyptian force, 
and took possession of the country in the name 
of the Khedive, but added little to his previous 
geographical discoveries. He was succeeded in 
his command by Col. Gordon, one of whose 
officers, Col. Long, more fully traced the Nile 
between Karuma Falls and the Victoria Lake; 
while another, M. Gessi, first actually traced the 
Nile up to its outflow from the Albert Nyanza 

( i 8 7 6 )- . rAp . f t 

Since 1883 the exploration of Africa has been 
carried out by a multitude of explorers. In the 
north the French have pushed south from Al¬ 
geria, and French explorers, among whom M. 
Foureau is prominent, have added greatly to 
our knowledge of the Sahara. Dr. Junker de¬ 
voted several years to exploring the country be¬ 
tween the basin of the Nile and the Kongo. Mr. 


AFRICA 


Stanley in his great journey across Africa in 
1876 added largely to our knowledge of Lake 
Victoria, and of Uganda, the country between 
Victoria and Lake Albert. Since the British oc¬ 
cupation of Uganda, Col. Lugard and many 
other officers have mapped the country be¬ 
tween the coast and the lakes, Uganda it¬ 
self, and the country to the west. Italian 
and British explorers have added to our 
knowledge of Abyssinia and of the desert 
between the Nile and the Red Sea. Lakes Ru¬ 
dolf and Stefanie have been discovered and ex¬ 
plored by Count Teleki and Lieut. Von Hohnel 
from the south, while James, Donaldson Smith, 
Cavendish, Robecchi, Bottego, and others have 
explored Somaliland and ascertained that the 
Omo flows into Lake Rudolf. Gregory has in¬ 
vestigated Mount Kenia; Meyer has ascended 
Kilima-Njaro; Baumann and other German ex¬ 
plorers have visited the region to the west 
and south of that mountain, round by the 
south of Lake Victoria, and on to Lake 
Albert Edward. In 1894 Count Gotzen crossed 
from east to west, discovered Lake Kivu 
to the south of Lake Albert Edward, and 
a lofty active volcano near its shores, com¬ 
ing out by the Kongo. Many other Germans 
have been busy in German East Africa, while 
in British Central Africa, Johnston, Sharpe, 
Joseph Thomson, and others have filled in many 
blanks, and British naval officers have charted 
Lake Nyassa. 

The unique distinction of being the first 
white man to traverse Africa from south to north 
on foot fell to the lot of an undergraduate of Cam¬ 
bridge University, Ewart Scott Grogan, who in 
February, 1898, started from Cape Town with 
one white companion and a few servants, and 
eighteen months later reached Cairo, having 
traveled the greater part of the distance with 
only the servants, as his white friend left him 
before the journey was half done. Mr. Grogan 
brought back a mass of ethnological informa¬ 
tion, having carefully investigated and described 
the various tribes with which he came in con¬ 
tact, and cleared up a number of disputed geo¬ 
graphical points. See ( From Cape to Cairo. > 
London, 1900. 

Several German explorers have also trav¬ 
ersed and mapped Damaraland and Namaqua- 
land; Lugard has explored the Uganda region: 
Gibbons and others have traversed the Barotse 
country. The officials of the Kongo Free State 
have laid open the courses of the numerous riv¬ 
ers that feed the main stream; Hinde found the 
Lukuga flowing into the Lualaba; Grenfell and 
others established the connection of the Ubangi 
or Mobangi tributary on the north, with the 
Makua-Welle higher up, which had been ex¬ 
plored by Junker and others. Under the 
auspices of the Royal Niger Company Joseph 
Thomson and others further explored the Ni¬ 
ger; while the Benue and its tributaries and the 
German sphere in the south have been actively 
explored by British, French, and German trav¬ 
elers. 

All these three nationalities, moreover, have 
been busy in the vast area between the Guinea 
coast and the great bend of the Niger. Prom¬ 
inent among them was Binger, who contributed 
more than any single individual to our know¬ 
ledge of this region. The French occupation of 
Timbuctoo has led to the navigation and ex¬ 


ploration of the upper and middle river by gun¬ 
boats; while a French expedition followed the 
river from Timbuctoo to its mouth. Monteil 
crossed from Senegal to Lake Tchad and 
traversed the desert to Tripoli. French expedi¬ 
tions have crossed from the Kongo to the Nilc ; 
and all the river systems are now mapped in their 
main features. It may indeed be said that the 
pioneer exploration of Africa has been com¬ 
pleted, the most important blank being the re¬ 
gion lying between Somaliland and the upper 
Nile. What remains to be done is the filling 
up of the meshes between the vast network of 
explorers’ routes, and this is a task which can¬ 
not be completed for many years. 

Commercial Conditions .—Necessarily in so 
large an area with so many tribes and peoples 
who keep no accounts of their transactions, a 
considerable amount of commerce must pass 
without being recorded in any way, yet the 
annual commerce of Africa, of which statistics 
are available, amounts to over $700,000,000. The 
total imports at the ports where records are kept 
amounted in the latest year for which figures 
are at hand to $429,461,000, and the exports to 
$263,907,000. The principal imports were dis¬ 
tributed as follows : Into British territory, $157,- 
575,000; French territory, $92,004,000; Turkish 
territory, $77,787,000; Portuguese territory, $20,- 
795,000; German territory, $8,336,000, and into 
the Kongo Free State, $4,722,000. Of the ex¬ 
ports a large share, especially those from the 
south, is gold and diamonds; in the tropical 
region ivory, rubber, palm nuts, and gums, 
and in the north a fair share of the ex¬ 
ports are products of agriculture, cotton, coffee, 
cacao, spices, dates, etc. The export figures of 
recent years are less than those of former years, 
owing to the hostilities in South Africa, which 
have both reduced production and increased 
local consumption. 

Railroad development in Africa has been 
rapid in the past few years and seems but the 
beginning of a great system which must con¬ 
tribute to the rapid development, civilization, and 
enlightenment of the <( Dark Continent.^ Already 
railroads run north from Cape Colony about 
1,500 miles, and south from Cairo about 1,200 
miles, thus completing 2,700 miles of the pro¬ 
posed « Cape to Cairo » railroad, while the in¬ 
termediate distance is about 3,000 miles. At the 
north numerous lines skirt the Mediterranean 
coast, especially in the French territory of Al¬ 
geria and in Tunis, aggregating about 2,500 
miles; while the Egyptian railroads are, includ¬ 
ing those under construction, about 1,500 miles in 
length. Those of Cape Colony are over 3,000 
miles in length, and those of Portuguese East 
Africa and the Transvaal are another 1,000 miles 
in length. 

Including all of the railroads now con¬ 
structed or under actual construction, the total 
length of African railways is nearly 12,500 miles, 
or half the distance around the earth. In 1903 
the construction of a railroad from Khartum to 
Suakin was begun. A large proportion of the 
railways thus far constructed are owned by the 
several colonies or states which they traverse, 
about 2,000 miles of the Cape Colony system 
and nearly all of that of Egypt belonging to the 
state. 

That the gold and diamond mines of South 
Africa have been and are still wonderfully 


AFRICAN ART 



1. Horn Comb. 

2. Battle Axe. 

3. Woman’s Girdle. 


4. Club and Dagger. 

5. Head Ornament. 
6-7. Fetich Figures 


8. Woman’s Sandal. 

9. Woman’s Head-Dress. 

10. Basketry. 









































































































































































































AFRICAN INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION — AFTER-DAMP 


profitable is beyond question. The Kimberley 
diamond mines, about 600 miles from Cape 
Town, now supply 98 per cent of the diamonds 
of commerce, though their existence was un¬ 
known prior to 1867, and the mines have thus 
been in operation but about 30 years. It is es¬ 
timated that $350,000,000 worth of roueh dia¬ 
monds, worth double that sum after cutting, 
have been produced from the Kimberley mines 
since their opening in 1868-9, and this enormous 
production would have been greatly increased 
but for the fact that the owners of the various 
mines there formed an agreement to limit the 
output so as not to materially exceed the world’s 
annual consumption. 

Equally wonderful and promising are the 
great Witwatersrand gold fields of South Africa, 
better known as the Johannesburg mines. Gold 
was discovered there in 1883, and in 1884 the 
value of the gold product was about $50,000. It 
increased with startling rapidity, the product of 
1888 being about $5,000,000; that of 1890, $10,- 
000,000; 1892, over $20,000,000; 1895, over $40,- 
000,000; and 1897 and 1898, about $55,000,000. 
Work in these mines was practically suspended 
during the Boer war. 

The gold production of the «Rand» since 
1884 has been over $300,000,000, and careful sur¬ 
veys of the field by experts show beyond ques¬ 
tion that the « gold in sight» probably amounts 
to $3,500,000,000, while the large number of 
mines in adjacent territory, particularly those of 
Rhodesia, whose output was valued at over $4,- 
500,000 in 1901, gives promise of additional sup¬ 
plies, so that it seems probable that South 
Africa will for many years continue to be as it 
is now, the largest gold-producing field of the 
v/orld. 

Bibliography: Archeology and Ethnology. 
— Deniker, ( Races of Man ) ; South African 
Native Races Committee, ( Natives of South 
Africa, Their Economic and Social Condition.* 

Fauna. — Smith, ( Illustrations of the Zool¬ 
ogy of South Africa.* 

Geology. — Thomson, '< Notes on the Geology 
of East Central Africa.) 

Historical. — British Empire Series, ( British 
Africa ) ; Brown, ( The Story of Africa and Its 
Explorers* ; Greswell, ( Geography of Africa 
South of the Zambesi* ; Johnston, ( History of 
the Colonization of Africa by Alien Races * ; 
Stanford, ( Compendium of Geography and 
Travel ) ; White, ( The Development of Africa.* 

Languages. — Bleek, ( Comparative Grammar 
of South African Languages * ; Cust, ( Sketch of 
the Modern Languages of Africa.* 

Travels — Burton, ( First Footsteps in East 
Africa * ; Cameron, ( Across Africa * ; Grogan, 
< From the Cape to Cairo * ; Holub, < Seven 
Years in South Africa»; Livingston, < Mission¬ 
ary Travels and Researches in South Africa*; 
Loyd, ( In Dwarf Land and Cannibal Country * ; 
Peters, < New Light on Dark Africa * ; Stanley, 
( In Darkest Africa. ) 

African International Association, an as¬ 
sociation formed in 1876 at Brussels for the 
purpose of establishing scientific stations in 
east Africa; the outcome of King Leopold’s 
first Brussels conference of explorers and geog¬ 
raphers to devise means for opening up Africa 
to civilization. At a second one the next year, 
after Stanley’s discoveries of the immensity and 


prospective commercial importance of the Kon¬ 
go basin, the Association planned to extend its 
operations there. But the territory was too vast 
and rich for any great nation to forego its share 
or let others lock up; finally all (the United 
States being a party) agreed to leave it to an 
international conference at Berlin. This opened 
17 Nov. 1884 (Prince Bismarck chairman) and 
closed 26 Feb. 1885. The result was the crea¬ 
tion of the Kongo Free State (q.v.), comprising 
the basins of the Kongo and its affluents, with 
the king of Belgium as sovereign: to be forever 
neutral, with perfectly free trade and transpor¬ 
tation for citizens of any country whatever, no 
monopolies or concessions of any kind for its 
trade to be granted by powers adjoining, all 
of whom bound themselves to suppress sla¬ 
very. 

African Slave Trade, see Negro, The. 

African War, The, in Roman history, 
Caesar’s campaign against the Pompeians who 
after Pharsalia kept up the war in Africa, and 
were crushed at Thapsus, 46 b.c. The history of 
it printed as Caesar’s is not his, and the author is 
unknown. 

Afridis, af-re'dez, a tribe of Afghans or 
Pathans on the northwest Indian border near 
the Khyber Pass, who after many years of the 
customary border raids were dignified into al¬ 
most a great power by the ill-advised policy of 
the Indian government in sending out an im¬ 
posing army against them in place of the usual 
small punitive expeditions. The tribe sent their 
women into the English camp to be cared for 
and protected, fought for some months in their 
mountains till the planting season was come, 
then submitted and promised an indemnity, hav¬ 
ing enjoyed the highest glory and felicity their 
natures could appreciate. Holdich ( < Anthro¬ 
pological Institute > for 1899) thinks they repre¬ 
sent the early Aryan type, wild but shrewd and 
civilizable. 

Afrikander («Taal » Dutch for African), 
a native South African; commonly used for the 
Dutch stock alone. 

Afrikander Bond or Bund, an association 
of white natives of South Africa to make na¬ 
tive influence paramount there and ultimately 
secure its independence; formed in 1879, but 
thus named in 1880. The Cape Colony wing 
supported Cecil Rhodes till after the Jameson 
Raid in 1895, which it considered as fostered by 
him with objects exactly contrary to its own. 
It carried the elections in 1898, and while ad¬ 
vising Kruger to grant concessions to the Out- 
landers for safety’s sake, its sympathies were 
hostile to them; in the ensuing war it was a 
heavy handicap to the English, seeming likely 
at one time to add Cape Colony to the revolt; 
indeed, it held a convention, 6 Dec. 1900, at 
Worcester, C. C., condemning the war and Eng. 
lish policy, insisting on the recognition of the 
South African Republic, and censuring the pol¬ 
icy of the High Commissioner. The success of 
the British and the annexation of the territory 
to the empire of Great Britain brought about 
a dissolution of the organization. 

After-damp, the gaseous product formed 
by an explosion of fire-damp (q.v.) in a coal 
mine. It consists largely of nitrogen from the 


AFTERGLOW — AFTER-IMAGE 


air, and carbon dioxide formed by the explosive 
combustion of the hydrocarbon gas given off by 
the coal. It seldom contains sufficient free oxy¬ 
gen to support respiration. Hence its danger to 
the miners. 

Afterglow, a display of brilliant colors 
in the western sky after sunset. The colors are 
usually various shades of red. although yellows 
and grays are sometimes visible. Afterglows 
follow volcanic eruptions of explosive character 
and are generally ascribed to the presence of mi¬ 
nute dust particles in the air. The eruption of 
Krakatoa in 1883 was accompanied by most gor¬ 
geous afterglows which were observed through¬ 
out the world and persisted for several years. 
Similar effects were seen over a much smaller 
area after the outbursts of Mont Pelee and La 
Soufriere in May 1902. The name foreglow is 
given to such' displays in the eastern sky before 
sunrise. 

After-image, After-sensation, and After¬ 
percept are the terms used to denote the di¬ 
rect after-effects of the stimulation of a sense 
organ. These after-effects occur in almost all 
of the sense departments. A brief stimulation of 
the sense organ gives a primary sensation, then 
a pause of a fraction of a second, followed 
by a secondary sensation of the same quality as 
the primary sensation. After-images of touch 
follow after brief contact. They do not appear 
under ordinary circumstances, but may be ob¬ 
served if special conditions are produced; for 
example, a gentle tap of a point of a needle 
will be followed by a pause, then an after-sen¬ 
sation which differs from the primary sensation 
in that it seems to be produced from within the 
body, not from without. The effects of a tem¬ 
perature stimulus may persist for a time in the 
same quality as the primary sensation. After¬ 
taste and after-smell have been observed, but 
have not been studied. Auditory after-sensa¬ 
tions, analogous to after-sensations of touch, are 
very weak and of brief duration. 

After-images of vision are stronger and more 
permanent, consequently have been given much 
more attention by experimentalists. It has been 
found that after the retina has been stimulated 
by light for one second, or less, the primary 
image disappears quickly; an interval of less 
than two seconds is then followed by a posi¬ 
tive after-image, that is, an after-image of the 
same quality as the primary image. 

A stimulus of longer duration is followed im¬ 
mediately by the positive after-image, and this 
image may itself be followed by a negative 
after-image, that is, an image which differs very 
much in brightness from the primary image, or 
is of a different color. With some observers a 
brief stimulus is followed immediately by a nega¬ 
tive after-image, which fades away quickly to 
be followed after an interval by a more perma¬ 
nent positive after-image. Several images may 
succeed each other immediately or be separated 
by an interval of time. A stimulus of still 
greater duration is followed directly by a nega¬ 
tive after-image. In such cases the after-image 
is usually of a color that is complementary to 
the color of the primary image, especially if ob¬ 
served with closed eyes or if projected upon — 
that is, seen while looking at — a gray back¬ 
ground. The duration of the after-image varies 
with the intensity, duration, and area of the 


stimulus. The results of experiments, under con¬ 
ditions such that the intensity of the light does 
not vary, have not as yet shown that any one color 
has more power to produce after-images than 
any other color. The greater the angular dis¬ 
tance of the portion of the retina stimulated, 
from the fovea, the less distinct and the less 
durable is the after-image. There seems to be 
no after-image at an angular distance of 45 0 or 
more from the fovea. The explanation for this 
fact may be physiological, or psychological, or 
both; that is, it may be due to the fact that the 
periphery of the retina is more easily fatigued 
than the fovea, or it may be due to lack of abil¬ 
ity to attend to those portions of the retina 
which are not customarily attended to. When 
an object occupies the attention, the eye is so 
directed toward it that the image falls over the 
fovea; the mind does not ordinarily attend to 
images that are not over or very near the 
fovea. 

A blow on the head may cause the after¬ 
image to become less intense or to cease en¬ 
tirely. Electrical stimulation of the eye and 
optic nerve will change the character of the 
after-image and shorten the time of its duration. 
General fatigue will shorten the duration of the 
after-image; for example, it has been found 
that an after-image lasts about 30 per cent 
longer in the morning than in the evening. The 
distraction of attention in any manner has its 
effect on the course of the after-image; w’hen 
the attention is directed wholly upon the after¬ 
image the duration is one third longer than 
when the attention is not concentrated upon it. 

If one eye only be stimulated, an after-image 
may appear in the unstimulated eye. Four hy¬ 
potheses have been offered to explain this trans¬ 
fer of the image from one eye to the other: (1) 
The appearance is a phenomenon of binocular 
contrast. When one eye is stimulated by a 
bright colored light, and the other eye is stimu¬ 
lated by a very little gray light or is protected 
from all light, the contrasted color may be seen 
in the unstimulated eye during the time of 
stimulation, and this may leave an after-image 
in that eye. (2) A second hypothesis is that the 
eyes are accustomed to function together, and 
whatever affects one retina affects the other 
also. This may be considered as a modified 
form of the first hypothesis.. (3) Another hy¬ 
pothesis is that the after-image has its seat in 
the centres in the brain, not in the end organ 
or retina, and that it may be seen in whichever 
eye is open. This hypothesis seems to be over¬ 
thrown by the fact that an electrical stimulation 
of the optic nerve produces a sensation like that 
produced by a flash of light, but no after¬ 
image follows. Another fact difficult for this 
hypothesis to explain is that if one eye be 
stimulated the after-image appears in the other 
eye only in case that eye be well darkened. (4) A 
fourth hypothesis is that the transfer of the after¬ 
image is not real but only apparent. In support 
of this hypothesis it has been found that when 
« that portion of the right eye which corresponds 
to the blind spot of the left eye was stimulated,® 
(Franz) there was an apparent transfer of the 
image to the left eye; also if the unstimulated 
eye be disturbed or interfered with during the 
course of the after-image no change in the 
image may be observed, whereas if the stimulat¬ 
ed eye be interfered with the image disappears. 



Lizard (Agama co’.onorum). Beetle (Ateuchus sacer) 


Horned Viper (Cerastes cornusus) 





































AFZELIUS — AGAMEMNON 


(Fechner, <Elemente der Psycho-physik > ; 
b. I. Franz, < After-Images,> Psych. Rev., 
Monograph Supplement, Vol. III., No. 2, 1899; 
E. B. Titchener, <Ueber binocular Wirkungen 
monocular ReizeP See Eye; Vision. 

Afzelius, Arvid August, af-tsa'li-oos, ar'- 
ved ow-goost', Swedish scholar and author: b. 
I / 85 j d. 1871; pastor at Enkoping 1821-71; 
specially, esteemed for his researches in Old 
Norse history and literature. He wrote poetical 
(Romances); translated the Elder Edda, and 
with Geijer edited a famous collection of Swed¬ 
ish folk-songs (3 vols. 1814-17). 

. A z> the. chemical symbol for the element 
silver. It is an abbreviation of argentum, the 
Latin name for silver. 

Agades, a'ga-dez, a town of Africa, near 
the middle of the Sahara, capital of the oasis 
kingdom of Ai'r or Asben; at one time a seat 
of great traffic, probably containing 60,000 in¬ 
habitants. In 1903 it had a population of about 
6,000. 

Agag, a-gag, (1) in Jewish history, a king 
of the Amalekites saved by Saul out of the 
slaughter of his people, and hewn in pieces by 
Samuel before Yahwe’s altar: evidently a sur¬ 
vival of human sacrifice. (2) A character in 
Dryden’s < Absalom and Achitophel,) represent¬ 
ing Sir Edmund Berry Godfrey, the London 
magistrate found murdered shortly after taking 
Titus Oates’ deposition concerning the imagi¬ 
nary « Popish Plot.» 

A'gai, Adolf, a-goy, a Hungarian hu¬ 
morist : b. 1836. He edited the chief Hungarian 
comic paper, Borzsem Janko (John Peppercorn), 
and wrote for it brilliant sketches of society, 
character drawings of national types, etc., of a 
high order of wit and humor. 

Agalmatolite, ag-al-mat'6-lit (from the 
Greek words agalma, image, and lithos, stone), 
a soft, massive stone, grayish or greenish in 
general hue, and often yellow, brown, and red, 
or streaked with those colors. It is soft enough 
to be cut with a knife, and it takes a good polish. 
The Chinese use it for carving images, notably 
small pagodas and grotesque figures of animals 
and men; ingenious advantage often being 
taken of its varied colors for the production of 
odd effects. The hardness of the Chinese va¬ 
riety is mostly from 2.0 to 2.5, and its specific 
gravity about 2.8. It is not a definite mineral, 
some specimens being silicious pinite, while 
others are referable to pyrophyllite and stea¬ 
tite. 

Agama (Caribbean name), a genus of 
lizards, typical of the large and important family 
Agamidce, which is distributed over all Africa 
(except Madagascar), Arabia, Asia south of the 
Caucasus and Himalayan mountains, the Ma¬ 
layan Islands, and Australia. None are found 
in the New World. They are closely related to 
the iguanas, and are characterized by acrodont 
dentition (that is, the teeth surmount ridges of 
the jaw), a broad and short tongue, and the ab¬ 
sence of bony tubercles ( osteoderms ) in the 
skin, but large and numerous spines are often 
present. They may have brilliant colors, but 
many are dull, desert-inhabiting species. Some 
have parachutes, as the flying dragon, and others 
defensive appendages, as the frilled lizard. 
Prominent examples are the dragons, bloodsuck¬ 
ers, false chameleons, frilled lizards, spiny-tailed 


desert lizards, dabs, molochs, and related forms 
elsewhere described under their own names. 
The family contains about 200 species arranged 
in about 30 genera, and is most numerous in the 
region from India to Australia. 

Agamemnon, in the Iliad, is the Greek 
« great king» or « king of kings,)) the overlord 
of Greece both north and south of the Gulf 
of Corinth; the royal seat is at Mycenae in the 
Peloponnesus. He is represented as a rather 
weak man, presiding over a turbulent assembly 
of practically independent feudal chiefs, who 
will not openly defy him because he is conse¬ 
crated to his position by Zeus, but who are 
entirely independent as regards their individual 
districts, though bound to follow him to war 
when ordered. His character is of course purely 
the invention of the poet, and its relation to that 
of Achilles and other chiefs is curiously like 
that of Charlemagne to Roland and the peers in 
the chansons; the dashing noble being the real 
hero, and the monarch slurred as rather petty, 
unjust, and capricious, king by grace rather than 
special merit. But the position is not fictitious: 
archaeology has proved that Mycenae was really 
the seat of a wealthy and powerful monarchy, 
probably about 1500 b.c. and somewhat after, as 
well as that several Troys flourished and per¬ 
ished ; and these proofs that the basis of the 
story was traditional and not mythical naturally 
tempt the sanguine to hope for further points of 
truth, which research tends steadily to justify. 
As to the character of the monarchy, later theo¬ 
rists take the reverse view from the earlier. 
Grote held that the account in Homer showed 
the germ of a developing constitutionalism, the 
criticising commons who were becoming a thorn 
in the monarch’s flesh being satirized and cari¬ 
catured in Thersites, and the king only an Aryan 
chief elected by his equals; Mahaffy thinks 
it the decay of a monarchy of the Oriental type, 
the feudal anarchy indicating break-down in¬ 
stead of growth. In the legend he is the son of 
Atreus (q.v.), and brother of Menelaus, king 
of Sparta, whose wrong in the seduction and 
carrying away of his wife Helen (q.v.) by Paris, 
son of Priam, king of Troy, he avenges by a 
levy of all the Greeks to make war on Troy, 
when its king Priam will not give up Paris or 
make him give up Helen. (See Helen; Iliad; 
Troy.) The sacrifice of his daughter Iphigenia 
(q.v.), to secure a passage from Aulis, is a later 
fiction, and recalls Jephthah and his daughter 
curiously. His quarrel with Achilles is the 
theme of the Iliad. When Troy was sacked, he 
received Priam’s prophetess-daughter Cassandra 
(q.v.) among his share of the spoils. Returning 
home after 10 years’ absence, he was murdered 
by his cousin ZEgisthus, son of Thyestes (see 
Atreus), aided by Agamemnon’s wife Clytem- 
nestra (q.v.) with whom he had been living 
in adultery for a short time previously; and his 
son Orestes on growing up avenges him by kill¬ 
ing his mother, his sister Electra abetting. In 
Homer, the motive for Agamemnon’s murder is 
simply that of any adulterous pair in ridding 
themselves of an inconvenient husband; in ^Es- 
chylus’ •< Agamemnon,) Clytemnestra slays him 
with her own hand, professedly in revenge for 
his sacrifice of Iphigenia, obviously sharpened 
by jealousy of Cassandra, and throwing the ulti¬ 
mate responsibility on Nemesis, who is pursuing 
the house of Atreus. 


AGAMENTICUS — AGASSIZ 


Agamenticus, Mount, a noted landmark 
in York co., Maine, near which one of the earli¬ 
est settlements in this territory was made in 
1631. It is a few miles back from the shore 
and rises to the height of 673 feet. 

Agamogenesis. See Parthenogenesis. 

Agana, ag-an'ya, the principal town of 
Guam, the largest of the Ladrone Islands, 1,500 
m. E. of Luzon, Philippines, and 1,300 m. S. 
of Yokohama. The Ladrone, or Marianne, 
group belonged to Spain; but, as a result of the 
war between the United States and Spain in 
1898, the former took possession of the island 
of Guam, and in 1899 established a naval station 
and seat of administration at Agana, with Capt. 
Richard P. Leary, U. S. N., as first governor. 
The town contains the usual public buildings of 
a military station, and a college. 

Aganippe, -nip'e, a fountain on Mount 
Helicon, in Greece, sacred to the Muses, which 
had the property of inspiring with poetic fire 
whoever drank of it. 

Agape, ag'a-pe (Gr. agape, love), in eccle¬ 
siastical history, the love-feast or feast of charity, 
in use among the primitive Christians, when a 
liberal contribution was made by the rich to feed 
the poor. During the first three centuries love- 
feasts were held in the churches without scandal, 
but in after-times the heathen began to tax 
them with impurity, and they were condemned 
at the Council of Carthage in 397. Some modern 
sects, as the Wesleyans, Sandemanians, Mora¬ 
vians, etc., have attempted to revive this feast. 

Agapemone, ag-a-pem'o-ne (lit. «the abode 
of love»), the name of a singular conven¬ 
tual establishment which has existed at Spaxton, 
near Bridgewater, Somersetshire, since 1859, the 
originator of it being a certain Henry James 
Prince, at one time a clergyman of the Church 
of England, who called himself the Witness of 
the First Resurrection. The life spent by the 
inmates appears to be a sort of religious epicure¬ 
anism. Some of the proceedings of the inmates 
of the « Abode of Love » have resulted in appli¬ 
cations to the courts of law, where parties lor- 
merly members of the society have returned to 
the world and sought to regain their rights from 
Prince and his followers, and such cases have 
caused some scandal; but the sect has been 
scarcely heard of for some years. 

Ag'aphite, a name given to the turquois 
(q.v.) by Fischer, in 1806, in compliment to the 
naturalist Agaphi. It is no longer in general 
use. 

Agar-agar, ii'gar-a'gar, also known as 
Bengal isinglass. A dried seaweed or vegetable 
gum obtained from Singapore. It is almost 
completely soluble in water, dissolving to a 
tasteless and odorless mass. It is much used as 
a culture medium in bacteriology. 

Agar'ic (Agaricus), a genus of fungi, char¬ 
acterized by having a fleshy cap or pileus and a 
number of radiating plates or gills on which are 
produced the naked spores. The majority of this 
species are furnished with stems, but some are 
attached to the objects on which they grow by 
their pileus. Over a thousand species are known, 
and are arranged in five sections according as the 
color of their spores is white, pink, brown, pur¬ 
ple, or black. Many of the species are edible, 
like the common mushroom ( A . campestris ), 


and supply a delicious article of food, while 
others are deleterious and even poisonous. See 
Fungi; Mushrooms. 

Agaricic Acid, ag-ar-is'ik, a substance 
having the formula CieHsoOs, which is obtained 
from certain species of mushrooms by extraction 
with ether or strong alcohol. It is also soluble 
in hot glacial acetic acid and oil of turpentine. 
It crystallizes in flat, four-sided plates, and also 
in prisms, according to the solvent from which 
it is deposited, and melts at about 290° F. It 
dissolves in boiling water, but crystallizes out 
again upon cooling. A similar substance, known 
as agaricin, is obtained from the fly-agaric by 
extraction with alcohol, and Jahns states that 
it is identical with agaricic acid. Several salts 
of agaricic acid are known. See Agaric Resin. 

Agaric Mineral, ag'a-rik, or a-gar'ik. (1) 
A soft, white variety of calcite, breaking easily 
in the fingers, and occurring in caverns and in 
the clefts of rocks, in regions where the ground 
water contains much lime. (2) A variety of 
silicate of magnesium, found in Tuscany, and 
also known as mountain-milk or rock-milk. 
Bricks made from it will float in water; hence 
it is supposed that this is the material from 
which the ancients made their floating bricks. 

Agaric Resin, a red resinous substance, 
obtained from certain mushrooms, together with 
agaricic acid (q.v.).. by extraction with alcohol 
or ether. It melts at 194 0 F. It is insoluble in 
water, but dissolves in absolute alcohol, ether, 
wood alcohol, chloroform, and alkalies. 

Agassiz, Alexander, ag'as-s! (1835), son of 
Louis: b. Neuchatel, Switzerland, but taken to 
America in 1848 and educated at Harvard Col¬ 
lege, from which he was graduated in 1855. In 
1859-60 he made biological studies along the 
coast of California and Mexico with the United 
States coast survey. Later he became wealthy 
through investment in coal and copper mines, to 
which he w'Us led by scientific knowledge and ex¬ 
perience. On his father’s death he was appointed 
curator of the Museum of Comparative Zoology 
at Harvard, but resigned in 1885 on account of 
ill health. In 1896 he was made an officer of the 
Legion of Honor. He belongs to many scientific 
associations, has done much important work in 
marine dredging and the zoology of the deep sea, 
as well as on other subjects. His most important 
publications are < North American Acalephse > 
(1865); (Marine Animals of Massachusetts 
Bay) (with Elizabeth Agassiz, 1871); (Revi¬ 
sion of the Echini) (1872); (North American 
Starfishes) (1877) ; and (Report on the Echini 
of the Challenger Expedition) (1881). 

Agassiz, Louis (1807-73), a naturalist: b. 
28 May at Motier, Canton Fribourg, Switzerland, 
but during the latter part of his life identified 
with the advancement of science in the United 
States. From childhood he showed a strong 
bent toward zoology, and, after a preparatory 
training at Lausanne, studied medicine and 
natural history at Zurich, Heidelberg, and Mu¬ 
nich, taking a degree in philosophy at Heidelberg 
and graduating in medicine at Munich, 1830. 
After this he went to Paris and worked under 
Cuvier until 1832, when he was called to Neu¬ 
chatel as professor of natural history, and re¬ 
mained there until 1846, when invited to give a 
series of lectures in the Lowell Institute course 
at Boston. The success of these lectures and 



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LOUIS AGASSIZ 





















































































































































































AGASSIZ — AGATHARCHIDES 


liis desire to study the natural history and geol- 
'Ogy of America determined his permanent re¬ 
moval to the United States; in 1848 he was given 
the chair of natural history in the Lawrence 
Scientific School of Harvard University. With 
the interval of three years (1851-54) as profes¬ 
sor in the medical college at Charleston, S. C., 
he continued his connection with Harvard until 
his death. His enthusiasm, eloquence, and clear¬ 
ness of thought made him a pre-eminent teacher, 
but in his later years he was relieved from the 
regular duties of the school. 

His first great work, < Recherches sur les 
Poissons Fossiles> (5 vols., 311 plates, 1833-42), 
was accomplished during his professorship at 
Neuchatel. This was followed by < Fossil Fishes 
of the Old Red Sandstone of the British Isles ,» 
written after making several visits to England, 
and by the < Nomenclatoris Zoologicus Index > 
(Soliduri, 1842-46), which, revised and brought 
up to date by Scudder, was re-issued in 1882 as 
Bulletin No. 19 of the U. S. National Museum. 
During this same period he had studied both 
living and fossil echinoderms, and had spent 
many summers in observing glacial action. The 
most eminent European biologists, botanists, and 
geologists were among his friends, and he came 
to America with the.hope not only of advancing 
science by his own researches, but of waking a 
deeper interest than American students had yet 
shown in the natural sciences. His first wife 
had died in Europe; he remarried in America, 
and became so engrossed with the work he had 
undertaken as to refuse the most flattering 
offers of positions in Europe. In constant de¬ 
mand, and traveling widely as a lecturer as 
long as his health permitted, he was nevertheless 
constantly forwarding his original work. In 
1848 he made a geological and biological survey 
of the northern and eastern shores of Lake 
Superior; in 1850-51 he studied the coral reefs 
of Florida; later he visited Brazil and the coasts 
of California. 

His zeal was untiring, even after his health 
failed; besides working through all his later 
life on his great series, < Contributions to the 
Natural History of the United States,> which he 
had planned on so large a scale that the four 
quarto volumes completed were but a beginning, 
he directed constant efforts toward the estab¬ 
lishment of the Museum of Comparative Zoology 
at Harvard, giving more attention to it than to 
any other of his later interests. The plans for 
it were perfected in 1858, and through his in¬ 
fluence the original endowment was supplement¬ 
ed by generous appropriations; he gave his own 
valuable collections to it, and his time and 
money as well; before his death the opportunities 
which he had created there had attracted a 
group of young men who were to become the 
foremost American biologists. The founding 
of a summer school where zoology could be 
studied out of doors was another of his projects, 
and this he accomplished on the island of Peni- 
kese, Buzzard’s Bay, in 1873, just before his 
death. 

Among his more important American publi¬ 
cations are < Methods of Study in Natural His¬ 
tory ); < Geological Sketches ); < The Structure 
of Animal Life>;«A Journey to Brazil); and 
< An Essay in Classification > (the first volume 
of his unfinished (Contributions)). The amount 
and scope of his work, together with his great 

VOl. I—11 


gift of awakening interest in the natural sciences 
and advancing new views without rousing the 
opposition of the dogmatic, gave him rank as the 
most influential of American naturalists, al¬ 
though many of his opinions and theories have 
been superseded by the Darwinian idea of evo¬ 
lution, which he opposed. He died 14 Dec. 1873, 
and was buried in Mount Auburn Cemetery, 
where his monument is a boulder from the Aar 
glacier in Switzerland. ( (Life and Correspond¬ 
ence of Agassiz,) Boston, 1886.) 

Agassiz, Mount, a remarkable extinct 
volcano situated in Arizona about 70 m. north¬ 
east of Prescott. It has an altitude of more than 
10,000 feet above the sea, and belongs to the 
ranges of the Rocky Mountains. As a place of 
resort it has numerous attractions,— grand 
scenery, elevation, and proximity to the Colo¬ 
rado Canon. 

Agassiz Association, an organization for 
the promotion of nature study among youth. 
The society was established in 1875, and in 
1902 had a membership of more than 12,000. 
The headquarters are at Pittsfield, Mass. The 
official publication is ( The American Boy,* and 
the badge is a Swiss cross. 

Agate, a variety of chalcedony, or crypto- 
crystalline quartz, distinguished by its banded or 
clouded appearance or by the presence of visible 
impurities. ^Achates® was the Greek name of a 
river in Sicily near which, according to Pliny, 
agates were first found; but the name was 
earlier used by Theophrastus in his treatise ( On 
Stones, } published about 315 B. c., while agate is 
mentioned in Exodus xxviii. 17 as one of the 
precious stones in the breastplate of the high 
priest. Its history, therefore, extends over a 
period of at least 3,400 years. 

The method of formation of banded agates 
has been carefully studied by numerous in¬ 
vestigators. M. F. Heddle (see < Nature, ) Vol. 
29, p. 419) assumes the existence of a cavity in 
a trap rock, which is lined during its solidifica¬ 
tion with a thin layer of green celadonite or 
delessite. The rock subsequently rots, and its 
feldspar is decomposed by water containing car¬ 
bonic acid, which thus becomes highly charged 
with silica. This is transfused into the cavity, 
coagulates and is deposited on its walls. The 
banded structure is due to the intermittent depo¬ 
sition of successive layers of silica from the 
highly siliceous solution. It was long supposed 
that after the earlier layers were deposited fresh 
supplies of the solution passed inward through a 
hole called the (< inlet of infiltration.® This canal 
is often distinctly seen in agates, but the weight 
of evidence now seems to favor the hypothesis 
that the external solution supplies the silica by 
osmosis (q.v.). The internal solution becomes 
less dense as it is relieved of silica by its depo¬ 
sition on the walls of the cavity, and it is then 
replaced by the denser external solution which 
passes through the layers of agate already 
formed. If the conditions remain unchanged 
the process continues until the entire cavity is 
filled, but agates are not infrequently found with 
a cavity in the centre, or with crystallized quartz 
(often amethystine) lining the interior. Such 
distinctly crystallized portions may be succeeded 
by further deposits of the cryptocrystalline chal¬ 
cedony. The successive layers often differ 


AGATE-SHELL — AGATHARCHIDES 


much in density, hardness, color, and transpar¬ 
ency. Sir D. Brewster has shown that some of 
the layers are so exceedingly thin that it would 
take 55,760 to measure an inch. (Philos. Mag. 
(3) XXII., p. 213). . These layers are deposited 
all around the cavities, following all of their 
irregularities. The beauty of agates is thus 
greatly enhanced by the extreme delicacy of 
their banding. Sometimes these bands concen¬ 
trically encircle a dark spot, forming a (( bull’s 
eye agate,® or again they parallel a cavity with 
sharp angles, as in the <( fortification agate.® 
Other agates show horizontal layers, suggesting 
the query as to whether the silica had settled 
upon the floor of the cavity from a solution at 
rest. Such agates are known as onyx (q.v.), 
or if the colors are red and white, as sardonyx 
(q.v.). In clouded agates there is no distinct 
banded structure, but the colors shade gradually 
from one into another. 

The natural colors of agates vary greatly, 
being usually gray or either red or brown. The 
colors are due to the presence of organic im¬ 
purities or to the oxides of iron, manganese, or 
titanium. Nearly all the agates now offered for 
sale are, however, artificially colored. The suc¬ 
cess of the process is due to the varying degrees 
of porosity of the different layers of agate, some 
of which readily absorb the fluid in which the 
stones are immersed, while others are impervi¬ 
ous to it. The black and white agates are pre¬ 
pared by soaking the stones for several days in 
a warm syrup of honey and water, then immers¬ 
ing them in sulphuric acid, which carbonizes the 
honey absorbed by certain of the layers, making 
them dark brown or black. The red, or car- 
nelian agates are produced by a process of 
<( burning.® A grayish stone is heated in an oven 
for several weeks, at first gently, then it is 
moistened with sulphuric acid and the tempera¬ 
ture is gradually raised to redness. Blue, or 
^sapphire® agates are produced by steeping the 
stones first in a solution of a ferric salt and then 
in postassium ferrocyanide, thus depositing 
Prussian blue in the more porous layers. A 
green agate is secured by the aid of chromic 
acid or a nickel salt, while hydrochloric acid 
yields a yellow agate. The red and the black 
are much the most popular. 

For over four centuries the headquarters of 
the agate industry has been in the valley between 
Idar and Oberstein, some forty miles from 
Bingen on the Rhine. There are probably 150 
agate mills working an average of three to five 
stones each in this little valley. These are 
chiefly operated by water-wheels 10 to 18 feet in 
diameter, abundant power being secured from 
the rapid mountain streams of the neighborhood. 
The millstones are of red sandstone, each about 
five feet in diameter, and rotate in a vertical 
plane, making about three revolutions per sec¬ 
ond. The workmen lie stretched in an almost 
horizontal position upon a low wooden grinding 
stool fitted fi> the chest and abdomen, leaving 
the limbs free. The hands are engaged in hold¬ 
ing and grinding the agate, while the feet are 
firmly pressed against short stakes screwed into 
the floor, the reaction enabling the grinder to 
press the. agate with much force against the 
moving millstone. During the process the agates 
glow most beautifully with a bright red phos¬ 
phorescence. After having been ground the 
agates are polished with tripoli on cylinders of 


wood or a metal disc (see Pop. Sci. Rev., New 
Series, Vol. I., p. 23). 

Moss-agate or <( Mocha-stone® is a variety of 
chalcedony through which are scattered black or 
brown masses, more or less resembling moss. 
These impurities are usually one of the man¬ 
ganese oxides. In the Chinese moss-agate they 
appear as thin matted filaments of a green color, 
which are often artificially colored. Beautiful 
dendrites are sometimes found in chalcedony. 
The name dendritic-agate or tree-agate is given 
to these highly prized forms (see illustration 
under Mineralogy). Moss-agates abound at 
many localities in the United States, especially 
in Wyoming. 

In the (< melaphyre® of the hills around Idar, 
agates of considerable beauty are found. For¬ 
merly they were extensively quarried there, but 
since 1827 the lapidaries of Idar have secured 
their supplies largely from Uruguay and Brazil, 
which countries have long furnished nearly the 
entire commercial supply, though Scotch agates 
are marketed to some extent. Small banded 
agates of much beauty abound on the shores of 
Lake Superior; large and fine specimens occur 
plentifully in western Texas. Agates abound in 
many other regions, while very many localities 
yield choice agates sparingly. Most of the pol¬ 
ished agate specimens and novelties of the tour¬ 
ist resorts, though often purporting to be of 
local origin, come from Brazil or Uruguay and 
are polished in Germany. 

Agate is used in making burnishers and agate 
mortars and pestles, and, owing to its hardness, 
for the knife edges of balances. It is worked 
up as a decorative stone into vases, dishes, ash 
trays, paper weights, paper cutters, etc., and is 
mounted as a semi-precious stone in a great 
variety of objects, such as jewel boxes, glove or 
shoe buttoners, watch charms, letter openers, and 
scarf pins. Every boy is familiar with agate 
marbles, but the cheaper grades of these are 
only glass. From the earliest times the black 
and white banded agate (see Onyx) and the 
red and white (see Sardonyx) have been used 
for. seal rings and for carving cameos. The 
ancients also regarded agate as a charm against 
the intoxication of love. 

See also Ruskin, ( On Banded and Brecciated 
Concretions ) in Geological Magazine, 1867 to 
1870; ( Ethics of Dust , y p. 190; <The Vale of 
ldar,> by S. Weisse in Blackwood’s Magazine, 
Vol. 148, pp. 75 and 208. 

George Letchworth English, 
Mineralogist, New York City. 

Agate-shell, or Agate-snail, a land-snail 
of the carnivorous genus Achatina of the fam¬ 
ily Helicidce. They are abundant in tropical 
Africa; the largest of all land-snails are found 
among them, and many species have brightly 
colored shells. 

Agatha, St., a lady of Palermo, martyr¬ 
ed by Quintilian, the pro-consul of Sicily, in 
the persecution of Decius, because she would 
not perform idolatrous worship or submit to 
his impure desires. 

Agatharchides, ag-a-thar'ki-dez, or Aga- 
tharcides, ag-a-thar'si-dez, a Greek writer on 
geography: b. at Cnidos in Asia Minor; lived 
250 B.c. and wrote numerous works; among 
them, one on the Erythraean Sea, of which some 
extracts have been preserved. He is the earliest 
extant writer who attributes the annual rise of 



AGATES 


3 . 


1, 4, 5. Carnelian Agate or 
Onyx Agate 6. 

2. Moss Agate 


Sard Agate 
Bull’s Eye Agate 














AGATHIAS — AGE 


the Nile to the periodical rains in the upper 
regions of that river. 

Agathias, a-ga'thi-as, a Greek poet and 
historian, about 536-581. He collected a < Cycle > 
of contemporary poems, in which were a few of 
his own compositions. We have still 101 of his 
< Epigrams,* and the whole of his < History > of 
the years 553“558. 

Agathocles, ag-ath'6-klez, a Syracusan of 
low extraction, who became ruler of a great part 
of Sicily. He was remarkable for beauty, 
strength, and capacity for enduring labor. In 
*he outset of life he belonged to a band of 
ir obbers; afterward he served as a private sol¬ 
dier, rose to the greatest honors, and made him¬ 
self master of Syracuse. He conquered the 
greater part of Sicily, 317 b.c. Being defeated 
at Himera by the Carthaginians, he carried the 
war into Africa, where for four years he ex¬ 
tended his conquests over his enemy. He after¬ 
ward passed into Italy and made himself master 
of Crotona. In his 72d year he was poisoned 
by his grandson Archagathus, 289 b.c., after a 
reign of 28 years of great prosperity mingled 
with the deepest adversity. His son-in-law, 
Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, inherited his influence 
in Sicily and southern Italy. 

Agathon, ag'a-thon, a Greek tragic poet 
(448-402 b.c. ). He was a close friend of Eurip¬ 
ides and of Plato; and the famous < Symposium> 
of Plato immortalizes the banquet given on the 
occasion of Agathon’s dramatic triumph, 416 b.c. 

Agave, ag-a've, daughter of Cadmus and 
Hermione, married Echion, by whom she had 
Pentheus, who was torn to pieces by the Baccha¬ 
nals. She is said to have killed her husband 
while celebrating the orgies of Bacchus. She 
received divine honors after death. 

Agave, a genus of remarkable and beau¬ 
tiful herbaceous plants, of the natural order 
Aviaryllidacecu, having a tubular perianth with 
6-partite limb, and triangular many-seeded cap¬ 
sule. They resemble aloes in their growth and 
general appearance, and the best-known species, 
Agave aniericana, is properly known as the 
American aloe. This is a large plant, the leaves 
of which are thick, fleshy, and spinous at the 
edge, and the stem branched and of great height. 
The flowers have the tube of the corolla nar¬ 
rowed in the middle, the stamens longer than the 
corolla, and the style longer than the stamens. 
This magnificent native of North America is 
by no means an uncommon plant in English gar¬ 
dens, but is seldom seen there in flower. There 
is indeed a notion, but an erroneous one, that 
the American aloe does not bloom until it is 
100 years old. The fact is that the time of 
flowering depends almost wholly on the rapidity 
of its growth. In hot countries it will flower 
in a few years, but in colder climates, the growth 
being slower, it is necessarily longer in arriving 
at maturity. The stem, which bears the blos¬ 
soms, rises from the centre of the leaves, and 
when the plant is in a vigorous state it frequent¬ 
ly exceeds the height of 20 feet. Branches issue 
from every side, and in such a manner as to 
form a kind of pyramid, composed of greenish- 
yellow flowers, which stand erect and are seen 
in thick clusters at every joint. When in full 
flower its appearance is extremely splendid; and 
if the season be favorable, and the plant be 
sheltered from the cold in autumn, a succession 


of blossoms will sometimes be produced for 
nearly three months. In the warmer parts of 
Europe the American aloe is cultivated as an 
object of considerable utility. They are frequent¬ 
ly set out in rows as fences for inclosures, par¬ 
ticularly in Spain, Portugal, and Italy. In some 
parts the leaves are employed for scouring pew¬ 
ter, kitchen utensils, and floors. The juice of 
these leaves is made into cakes, which are used 
for washing, and will make lather with salt 
water as well as with fresh. The sap when fer¬ 
mented yields a beverage resembling cider, called 
by the Mexicans pulque. The leaves are used for 
feeding cattle; the fibres of the leaves (called 
pita, sisal hemp, or henequen ) are formed into 
thread, cord, and ropes; slices of the withered 
flower-stem are used as razor-strops. 

Agde, ag-da, a seaport of southern France, 
dept. He'rault. It possesses a remarkable 
cathedral dating from the Middle Ages, since 
when the town has been the seat of a bishopric. 
Pop. (1902) about 8,000. 

Age, any period of time attributed to 
something as the whole, or part, of its duration; 
as the age of man, the several ages of the world, 
the golden age. 

In Law, the time of competence to do cer¬ 
tain acts. In the male sex 14 is the age when 
partial discretion is supposed to be reached, while 
21 is the period of full age. Under 7 no boy can 
be capitally punished; from 7 to 14 it is doubtful 
if he can; at 14 he may. At 12 a girl can con¬ 
tract a binding marriage; at 21 she is of full 
age. In mediaeval times, when a girl reached 7, 
by feudal custom or law a lord might distrain 
his tenants for aid to marry, or, rather, betroth 
her; at 9 she was dowable; at 12 she could 
confirm any consent to marriage which she had 
previously given; at 14 she could take the man¬ 
agement of her lands into her own hands; at 16 
she ceased, as is still the law in England, to be 
under the control of her guardian; and at 21 she 
might alienate lands and tenements belonging to 
her in her own right. In the United States at 
25 years of age a man may be a representative in 
Congress; at 30 a senator; and at 35 he may be 
chosen President. The age of serving in the 
militia is from 18 to 45 inclusive. 

In England no one can be chosen a member 
of Parliament under 21 years of age, nor be 
ordained a priest under the age of 24, nor made a 
bishop until he has become 30 years of age. 
The age of serving in the militia is from 16 to 
45 years. The sovereignty of the realm is as¬ 
sumed at 18; though the law recognizes no mi¬ 
nority in the heir to the throne. 

In French Law, a person must have attained 
the age of 40 to be a member of the legislative 
body; 25 to be a judge of a tribunal de premiere 
instance; 27 to be its president, or to be judge 
or clerk of a cour royale; 25 to be a justice of 
the peace; 30 to be judge of a tribunal of com¬ 
merce, and 35 to be its president; 25 to be a 
notary public; 30 to be a juror. At 21 both 
males and females are capable of performing all 
the acts of civil life. 

Ages of the World. —We find the ages of 
the world mentioned by the earliest of the Greek 
poets. Hesiod speaks of five distinct ages: (1) 
The Golden or Saturnian Age, when Saturn 
ruled the earth. The people were free from the 
restraint of laws; they had neither ships nor 


AGEN —AGE OF CHIVALRY 


weapons, wars nor soldiers; the fertile fields 
needed no cultivation, and perpetual spring 
blessed the earth. (2) The Silver Age, which 
he describes as licentious and wicked. (3) The 
Brazen Age, violent, savage, and warlike. (4) 
The Heroic Age, which seemed an approxima¬ 
tion to a better state of things. (5) The Iron 
Age, when justice and honor had left the earth. 
The poet supposed this to be the age in which 
he himself lived. The idea of ages of the world 
is interwoven with the religious sentiments of 
various nations. We find examples of it in the 
thousand years of the Millenarians, and in the 
four yugas or ages of the Hindus. The first, 
or Krita Yuga, a kind of Golden Age, lasted, 
according to their tradition, 4,000 divine years, 
each equal to 360 solar years, and, adding its 
fore and after «twilight,® 1,728,000 solar years 
in all; men then lived 400 years, and were all 
giants; then the god Brahma was born. In the 
second period, the Treta Yuga, which lasted 
3,000 divine and 1,296,000 solar years in all, men 
lived only 300 years, and vice began to creep into 
the world. During the third age, or Dwapara 
Yuga, which lasted 2,000 divine and 864,000 
solar years, men lived only 200 years, owing to 
the increase of vice. The last age, the Kali 
Yuga, that in which we now live, is to last for 
1,000 divine or 432,000 solar years, and the life 
of man is sunk to one fourth of its original 
duration. 

Age of Animals .—The duration of life in 
animals is generally between seven and eight 
times the period which elapses from birth till 
they become adult; but this rule, besides being 
vague and indefinite, is quite useless in practice, 
because it affords no scale of gradation which 
would enable us to ascertain the precise age of 
individuals, the only inquiry of real importance 
or of practical application to the interests of so¬ 
ciety. More certain and scientific principles are 
derived from observing the growth and decay 
of the teeth. See Cattle; Horse. 

In Archeology .—The Danish and Swedish 
antiquaries and naturalists, MM. Nilson, Steen- 
strup, Forchamber, Thomsen, Worsaae, and 
others, have divided the period during which 
man has existed on the earth into three — the 
Age of Stone, the Age of Bronze, and the Age 
of Iron. During the first-mentioned of these he 
is supposed to- have had only stone for weapons, 
etc. Sir John Lubbock divides this into two — 
the palaeolithic, or older, and the neolithic, or 
newer stone period. At the commencement of 
the age of bronze that composite metal became 
known and began to be manufactured into 
weapons and other instruments; while, when the 
age of iron came in, bronze began gradually to 
be superseded by iron. See Lvell’s < Antiquity 
of Man,> and Lubbock’s < Prehistoric Times.> 

In Physiology .— If the word age be used to 
denote one of the stages of human life, then 
physiology clearly distinguishes six of these: 
viz., the periods of infancy, of childhood, of 
boyhood or girlhood, of adolescence, of man¬ 
hood or womanhood, and of old age. The pe¬ 
riod of infancy terminates at 2, when the first 
dentition is completed; that of childhood at 7 
or 8, when the second dentition is finished; that 
of boyhood or girlhood at the commencement of 
puberty, in temperate climates from the 14th to 
the 16th year in the male, and from the 12th 
to the 14th in the female; that of adolescence 


extends to the 24th year in the male and the 
20th in the female; that of manhood or woman¬ 
hood stretches on till the advent of old age, 
which comes sooner or later, according to the 
original strength of the constitution in each 
individual case and the habits which have neen 
acquired during life. The precise time of hu¬ 
man existence similarly varies. See Longevity. 

In Geology .— See Geology. 

Agen, a-zhan, one of the oldest towns in 
France, capital of dept. Lot-et-Garonne, on the 
Garonne, 74 m. S.E. of Bordeaux. A fine stone 
bridge of eleven arches spans the river here, and 
the aqueduct bridge of the Canal Lateral is an¬ 
other striking structure. The town has been an 
episcopal see with a cathedral since the reign of 
Clovis, prior to which it was a Roman station. It 
commands an extensive agricultural trade, ow¬ 
ing to its position between Bordeaux and Tou¬ 
louse. Pop. 1903, 23,000. 

Agent, in !aw, one person who acts for 
another, called the principal. If a person acts 
as agent without authority, the subsequent rati¬ 
fication of the act will make it binding on the 
principal just as if he had originally directed it. 
When an agent acts within the scope of his 
employment he may bind his principal, and the 
principal is liable for any fraudulent acts or 
wrong-doings of the agent so acting. If the 
agent, having power to bind his principal, does 
so expressly, he is not liable; but if he exceeds 
his authority he becomes personally responsible. 
1 he agent is bound to obey the instructions of 
the principal, and if, in violating them, he binds 
his principal to a third person, he is personally 
liable to make compensation. He cannot deal 
in his principal’s affairs to his own profit. The 
right on the part of an agent to act is called his 
authority or power. The authority or power 
must in some instances be exercised in the name 
of the principal, and the act done is for his bene¬ 
fit alone. As a general rule, an agent cannot 
delegate his authority without special authority 
from his principal, consequently an agent cannot 
create a sub-agent without special permission. 
Any person may act as agent whom the principal 
wishes to appoint. So broad is this rule that 
married women and infants, who are incapable 
of acting in their own behalf, may act as agents, 
for the appointment takes away the legal insuf¬ 
ficiency and permits them to bind their princi¬ 
pals when they could not bind themselves. The 
mode of appointment depends upon the nature 
of the agency. By a rule of law the evidence of 
appointment must be of as high a nature as 
the thing to be done. Thus, to execute a writing 
under seal, the appointment must be under seal. 
When the authority or power is coupled with 
an interest, or when it is given for a valuable 
consideration, or when it is a part of a security.. 
then, unless there is a special agreement that 
it shall be revocable, it cannot be revoked. 
Death, insanity, bankruptcy, the extinction of 
the subject-matter of the agency, or the execu¬ 
tion of the trust, will usually terminate the 
agency unless the authority is coupled with an 
interest. Upon the law of agency is based to 
a large degree the law of partnership. 

Age of Chivalry, The, or The Legends of 
King Arthur, by Thomas Bulfinch, was oub- 
lished in 1858. More than 20 years after, an en¬ 
larged edition appeared under the editorship of 


AGE OF FABLE —AGINCOURT 


Edward Everett Hale. In Part First the legends 
of King Arthur and his knights are considered. 
Part Second deals with the Mabinogion, or an¬ 
cient prose tales of the Welsh; Part Third with 
the knights of English history, King Richard, 
Robin Hood, and the Black Prince. From the 
time of its first publication the popularity of the 
book has been great. No more sympathetic and 
fitting- introduction could be found to the legends 
of chivalry. 

Age of Fable, The, or The Beauties of 
Mythology, by Thomas Bulfinch, was pub¬ 
lished in 1855, and republished in 1882 under 
the editorship of Edward Everett Hale. It 
has become a standard work upon mythology, 
by reason of its full and extensive treatment of 
the Greek and Roman myths. 

Age of Reason, The, by Thomas Paine, 
was first published in a complete edition 25 Oct. 
1795. In 1793 the First Part appeared, but no 
copy bearing that date can be found. Part First 
consists of an inquiry into the bases of Chris¬ 
tianity, its theology, its miracles, its claims of 
revelation. The process is destructive and revo¬ 
lutionary. In Part Second the author makes 
critical examination of the Old and New Testa¬ 
ment, to support the conclusions and inferences 
of Part First. Yet the work is not wholly 
negative. « The Word of God is the creation 
we behold.» 

Ageratum, a-ger'a-tum, a genus of plants 
of the natural order Composite2 (belonging to 
the Eupatorium tribe of the order), natives of the 
warmer parts of America. One species, A. 
mexicanum, is an annual plant of flower borders 
and has densely clustered capitula of lavender- 
blue flowers. Several others are also grown in 
gardens, some of them with purple, white, or 
pale blue flowers. One of these, A. conyzoides, 
has sky-blue or gray-blue flowers and flower- 
heads almost conical in form. This species, with 
A. littorale, grows wild in southern Georgia, 
and in Florida. 

Agesila'us, a king of Sparta: b. 442 
b.c., and elevated to the throne after the death 
of his brother Agis II., in 398. Called by the 
Ionians to their assistance against Artaxerxes, 
he commenced his glorious career by defeating 
the Persians and defending Sparta against the 
united attack of Thebes, Corinth, etc. In a sub¬ 
sequent war with Thebes he had to contend 
against Pelopidas and Epaminondas, the great¬ 
est generals of those times. His prudence, how¬ 
ever, saved Sparta without the hazard of a 
battle. He delivered it anew at the age of 80 
years, though it was actually in the hands of 
Epaminondas. In the spring of 361 he crossed 
over to Egypt with a body of Lacedaemonian 
mercenaries, and there, after displaying much of 
his former ability, he died while preparing for 
his voyage home, in the winter of 361-360. 
Though small and insignificant in person he 
was a noble prince and almost adored by his 
soldiers. 

Agglomerate, in geology, a name applied 
to a rock consisting of angular fragments of 
other rocks, united or bound together by a 
matrix of similar materials but of finer texture. 
The rock is of volcanic origin, but the fragments 
may be either volcanic or sedimentary, having 
been ejected from some volcano. 


Agglutinate Languages, languages in 

which the modifying suffixes are as it were glued 
or. to the root, both it and the suffixes retaining 
a kind of distinctive independence and individ- 
uality, as in the Turkish and other Turanian 
tongues. (See Max Muller’s < Lectures on the 
Science of Languages ) 

Agglutination. See Immunity. 

Aggregation, States of, an expression 
sometimes used to signify, collectively, the va¬ 
rious physical states in which matter can exist. 
For ordinary purposes it is sufficient to distin¬ 
guish two fundamentally different states of ag¬ 
gregation, the solid and fluid; fluids being fur¬ 
ther subdivided into liquids and gases. A solid 
body may be defined as one that is capable of 
resisting a considerable shearing-stress. It is 
important to note, however, that a true solid 
does not yield continuously to a small deforming 
force; it resists deformation, and its resistance 
increases as the deformation increases. A fluid, 
on the contrary, is a body having almost no 
shearing-strength, and offering very little re¬ 
sistance to forces that tend to change its shape. 
A fluid yields continuously to a deforming force, 
and a force that will deform it at all will deform 
it indefinitely, so long as it is allowed to act. 
Considering the subdivision of fluids into gases 
and liquids, it may be said that a gas is a fluid 
that presses continuously and in every direction 
on the walls of the vessel containing it, and 
which follows them indefinitely if they retreat. 
A gas, if left to itself, tends to expand infinitely 
in every direction. A liquid may be defined as 
a fluid which does not follow the walls of the 
containing vessel if they retreat, and which has 
no tendency to sudden and indefinite expansion 
when freed from all restraint. 

These distinctions between the various states 
of aggregation in which matter occurs are to a 
certain extent arbitrary, elastic, indefinite, and 
inexact. For example, certain kinds of pitch 
resist the action of deforming forces that are 
applied for a short time only, and are brittle 
enough to fracture, like glass, under the influ¬ 
ence of a sudden stress; yet they yield slowly 
but continuously to very small deforming forces, 
when those forces act for a long time. A body 
of this sort, strictly speaking, is neither a solid 
nor a liquid, and to include it in a general classi¬ 
fication we should have to have a « semi-solid » 
division. The distinction between liquids and 
gases is even more artificial than that between 
solids and liquids; for a liquid may be made 
to pass into its vapor in such a manner that it 
is impossible to state at what moment it ceases 
to be a liquid. Thus, if water is heated under 
a sufficiently great pressure up to 700° F., and 
is then allowed to expand by a sufficient amount 
at this temperature, and is finally cooled at con¬ 
stant volume, we shall find, at the end of this 
operation, that it has been entirely transformed 
into steam, although we cannot say at what stage 
the transformation took place. See Critical 
Point; Equilibrium ( Chemical ); Molecular 
Theory; Thermodynamics; Matter. 

Agincourt, aj'in-kort, or Azincourt, 

a-zhan-koor, France, a village, dept. Pas-de-Ca- 
lais, famous for a battle fought there 25 Oct. 
1415. Henry V., king of England, eager to con¬ 
quer France, landed at Harfleur, took the place 
by storm, and wished to march through Picardy 


AGIS —AGNEW 


to Calais, in order to fix his winter quarters in 
its neighborhood. With a powerful force the 
Dauphin advanced against him. Henry V. re¬ 
treated to the Somme. The French followed to 
harass his retreat and to defend the passage 
from Abbeville to St. Quentin, which he gained 
only through the inattention of the enemy. The 
English, however, being destitute of everything 
and reduced by sickness, Henry asked for peace 
on disadvantageous terms. The French refused 
his proposals, and succeeded in throwing them¬ 
selves between Calais and the English. These 
latter consisted of 2,000 men-at-arms and 12,000 
archers, and were arranged in order of battle 
between two hills, with the archers on the wings. 
Stakes, of which every man carried one, were 
fixed in front of them. The French, command¬ 
ed by the Constable d’Albret, numbered 50,000 
troops, of whom 8,000 were men-at-arms; but 
other estimates make the French strength much 
greater. They arranged themselves in two divi¬ 
sions, with the men-at-arms, of whom 2,000 
were mounted, in front. The English first put 
themselves in motion. The French horse in¬ 
stantly hastened to meet them, but were received 
with such a shower of arrows by the archers 
that they fell back on the first division, and 
threw it into confusion. The light-armed Eng¬ 
lish archers seized their clubs and battle-axes 
and broke through the ranks of the French 
knights, who could hardly move on account of 
their heavy coats of mail and the closeness of 
their array. The English horse rushed to assist 
the archers; the first French division retreated; 
the second could not sustain the charge of the 
victors; and the whole French army was soon 
entirely routed. The victorious army, in the 
pursuit of the flying enemy, took 14,000 prison¬ 
ers in addition to those previously captured; 
10,000 Frenchmen lay dead on the battle-field. 
Among them was the Constable of France, with 
six dukes and princes. Five princes, among 
whom were the Dukes of Orleans and Bourbon, 
were taken prisoners. The English lost 1,600 
men killed; among them the Duke of York, 
Henry’s uncle, whom the Duke d’Alengon slew 
at his side while pressing toward the king. 
D’Alengon had dashed the crown from Henry’s 
head, and lifted his hand for a more effectual 
blow, when the king’s attendants surrounded 
him and he fell covered with wounds. 

Agis, a'jis, the name of four Spartan kings. 
Agis I., son of Eurysthenes, founder of the 
family Agidae, and reputed conqueror of Helos. 
Agis II., son of Archidamus II., and reigned 
either in 427 or 426 b.c. to 400 or 399 b.c. He 
was active in the Peloponnesian war; invaded 
Attica several times; and conquered the Atheni¬ 
ans at Mantinea in 418 b.c. Agis III., son of 
Archidamus III., reigned in 338-1 b.c. He en¬ 
deavored to overthrow the Macedonian power in 
Europe, but was routed and killed in a battle 
with Antipater in 331 b.c. The most important 
of the four kings was Agis IV., who succeeded 
to the throne in 244 b.c., and reigned four years. 
He attempted a reform of the abuses which had 
crept into the state — his plan comprehending 
a redistribution of the land, a division of wealth, 
and the cancelling of all debts. Opposed by his 
colleague, Leonidas, advantage was taken of his 
absence in an expedition against the zEtolians 
to depose him. Agis at first took sanctuary in a 


temple, but he was entrapped and hurriedly 
executed by his rivals. 

Aglossa, a-glos'sa (Gr. a, priv.; glossa , 
tongue), a group of the order Anura Hoads and 
frogs) containing only two living families, the 
South American Pipidce and the African Xeno- 
pidco, and characterized by the lack of any 
tongue and the union of the eustachian tubes 
into one opening far back in the palate. The 
pipa toads and South African plathandlers are 
typical examples. The group is interesting for 
its antiquity and primitive relationships. 

Agnadello, an-ya-del'lo, North Italy,^ a 
village 10 m. E. of Lodi, near which Louis XII. 
of France completely defeated the Venetians, 
on 14 May 1509, and the Duke of Vendome 
gained a victory over Prince Eugene in 1705. 

Agnano, an-ya'no, till 1870, a small lake, 
3 m. W. of Naples, about 60 ft. in depth, and 
without visible outlet. As it was supposed to 
cause malaria it has been drained. The sur¬ 
rounding country is volcanic and mountainous. 
On the right lies the Grotta del Cane, where the 
carbonic acid is dense enough to kill dogs, and 
on the left are found the sulphurous vapor baths 
of San Germano, which are valuable for gout 
and blood disorders. 

Agnes, Saint, a saint who, according to the 
received account, because she steadfastly refused 
to marry the son of the prefect of Rome and 
adhered to her religion in spite of repeated 
temptations and threats, suffered martyrdom 
during the persecution of the Christians in the 
reign of the Emperor Diocletian, 303 a.d. She 
was first led to the stake, but as the flames did 
not injure her she was beheaded. Her festival 
is celebrated on the 21st of January. Domen- 
ichino painted a picture representing her at the 
moment of her execution. 

Agnesi, a-nya'se, Maria Gaetana, a learn¬ 
ed Italian lady: b. in Milan in 1718. In her 
9th year she was able to speak Latin, in her 
nth Greek; she then studied the Oriental lan¬ 
guages, and next geometry and philosophy, 
mathematics having latterly engaged her chief 
attention. She was appointed, in 1750, professor 
of mathematics in the University of Bologna, 
ultimately took the veil, and died in 1799. Her 
sister, Maria Theresa, composed several canta¬ 
tas and three operas. 

Agnes of Sorrento, a romance by Har¬ 
riet Beecher Stowe. The scene is laid in central 
Italy during the papacy of Alexander VI. (1492- 
1503). Agnes is the daughter of a Roman 
prince who secretly marries and then deserts 
a girl of humble parentage. The young mother 
dies of grief, and Elsie, the grandmother, takes 
Agnes to Sorrento, where she lives by selling 
oranges in the streets. Her beauty and her 
purity attract to her many lovers, worthy and 
unworthy, and involve her in many romantic 
and dramatic incidents. 

Agnew, Cornelius Rea, an American phy¬ 
sician : b. New York 8 Aug. 1830; d. 8 April 
1888. Professor of diseases of the eye and ear 
in New York College of Physicians and Sur¬ 
geons. He was a graduate of Columbia College, 
and later studied in Europe; was surgeon-gen¬ 
eral of the State of New York at the beginning 
of the Civil War, when he became medical di¬ 
rector of the New York State Volunteer Hospi- 


AGNEW —AGRARIAN LAWS 


tal. As member of the United States Sanitary- 
Commission he contributed largely to its suc¬ 
cess. In 1868 he founded the Brooklyn Eye and 
Ear Hospital. He was interested in the public 
schools of New York; became founder of the 
Columbia College School of Mines, and in 1874 
one of the trustees of the college. His writings 
are chiefly monographs on diseases of the eye 
and ear. 

Agnew, David Hayes, an American sur¬ 
geon and medical writer: b. 24 Nov. 1818; d. 22 
March 1892; for many years professor of sur¬ 
gery at the University of Pennsylvania. He was 
also the operator in several important cases, 
notably that of President Garfield. He pub¬ 
lished ( Practical Anatomy ) (1867) ; ( Anatomy 
and Its Relation to Medicine and Surgery 5 ; 
< Principles and Practice of Surgery 5 (1878) ; 
etc. 

Agno, ag'nd, an important river in the 
N.W. part of Luzon, Philippine Islands. It is 
about 90 m. in length, describing a circuitous 
course, parallel with a range of coast mountains, 
and emptying into Lingayen Gulf. The town 
of Lingayen is at the mouth of the river, which 
is accessible by railway from Manila. 

Agnosticism (Gr. (( unknowing 55 ), a school 
of thought which holds that man can know noth¬ 
ing of ultimate realities, or whether they exist; 
since, his only means of knowledge being 
through comparison of phenomena, the absolute 
could only be cognized by his senses on assum¬ 
ing phenomenal traits, and would then be 
grasped as a phenomenon and not as absolute, 
the knowledge of which is therefore a contradic¬ 
tion in terms. We cannot know anything out¬ 
side our own mental processes and the existence 
of other minds; in popular phrase, we cannot 
get behind the looking-glass. This does not, 
however, deny the absolute any more than af¬ 
firm it; and most agnostics (as Clifford, one of 
the greatest) consider the diversity of phenom¬ 
ena as probably indicating a diversity in their 
causes. The agnostic position involves refusal 
to accept ^evidences 55 of the origins of the uni¬ 
verse, of unseen powers, of a future life, or in 
general the metaphysical bases of religion, save 
as more or less probable inferences. The cur¬ 
rent idea that it involves rejection of these be¬ 
liefs, however, is entirely wrong: the agnostic 
does not admit that either the affirmative or the 
negative of them can be a subject of knowledge, 
and regards the atheist as less intellectually re¬ 
spectable than the devotee. In point of fact, 
Prof. Huxley, the inventor of the term, thought 
the existence of beings higher than man rather 
probable than otherwise, and the government of 
the universe by a ^divine syndicate 55 of great 
spiritual essences quite logical. The greatest of 
modern agnostics was Herbert Spencer. The 
theory is practically that of the Pyrrhonist or 
Skeptical school of Greek philosophers. 

Agnus Dei. See Sacramentals. 

Agosta, or Augusta, a seaport on the 
S.E. coast of Sicily, in the province of Svracuse, 
and 12 m. N.N.W. of the city of that name. It 
was a place of some importance before the earth¬ 
quake of 1693, which buried a third of the in¬ 
habitants in its ruins, and at the same time by 
supposed sulphurous vapors which issued from 
the ground, ignited the powder magazine, and 
blew up the citadel. It was off this port that 


De Ruyter, the famous Dutch admiral, in com~ 
mand of the united Dutch and Spanish fleet, 22 
April 1676, was defeated by the French under 
Duquesne, and received his death wound. Pop. 
about 12,500. 

Agra, a'gra, India, a city in the Northwest 
Provinces, on the right bank of the Jumna, 841 
miles by rail from Calcutta. It is a well-built 
and handsome town and has various interesting 
structures, among which are the imperial palace, 
a mass of buildings erected by several emperors ; 
the Moti Masjid or Pearl Mosque (both within 
the old and extensive fort) ; the mosque called 
the Jama Masjid (a cenotaph of white marble) ; 
and above all, the Taj Mahal, a mausoleum of 
the 17th century, built by the Emperor Shah 
Jehan to his favorite queen, of white marble, 
adorned throughout with exquisite mosaics. 
There are several Protestant and Roman Cath¬ 
olic churches, a government college, and three 
other colleges or high schools, besides a med¬ 
ical college. Agra has a trade in grain, sugar, 
etc., and some manufactures, including beautiful 
inlaid mosaics. It was founded in 1566 by the 
Emperor Akbar, and was a residence of the fol¬ 
lowing emperors for over a century. Pop. 
168,662. The Agra division has an area of 
10,139 square miles, and a pop. of 4,767759- 

Agrarian Laws, enactments framed at dif¬ 
ferent times by the Romans to regulate the pub¬ 
lic domain. In the first epoch of the growth of 
Rome, before the city had extended beyond the 
Palatine Hill, the whole soil of the state was 
undivided public property, and from the state, 
consisting exclusively of citizens, every citizen 
received a share for his private use. In prin¬ 
ciple all the land was therefore undivided public 
property, and the citizen could only acquire pos¬ 
session as tenant at will of the state. In course 
of time, however, the descendants of the original 
founders, or the patricians, transformed these 
primitive concessions into an absolute right 
called in the Roman law de jure quiritio. Dur¬ 
ing the entire existence of the republic the 
principle was recognized that all lands and per¬ 
sonal property acquired by conquest were ac¬ 
quired for the state, and could only become the 
property of individuals through the cession ,to 
them of the rights of the state. As conquest in¬ 
creased the public property, and the class of ple¬ 
beians was formed, the Roman government gave 
them an interest in the public domain as private 
property on condition of their paying a tribute 
and undertaking other public services. The pa¬ 
tricians, however, always preserved their an¬ 
cient right of receiving in possession and using 
portions of the public property on paying to the 
public treasury a tithe of its product. From the 
earliest period of Roman history lands thus held 
could pass as an inheritance to children, and 
were even sold under this uncertain tenure, 
while the state always reserved the power to re¬ 
sume possession. Spurius Cassius, a patrician, 
on becoming consul in the early period of the 
republic, caused a law to be enacted that some 
portion of the public lands, long before con¬ 
quered, but occupied by the Roman nobles, 
should be surrendered to the state and assigned 
to the needy citizens. The law remained a dead 
letter because of the resistance of the patricians, 
who not only prevented any new divisions of the 
public lands, but by violence or usury acquired 


AGRARIAN PARTY — AGRICOLA 


those of the plebeians. The keeping of large 
flocks of cattle practically ruined the common 
pasture lands, and in fact excluded the small 
farmers from them. This caused the publica¬ 
tion, in 367 b.c., of the Licinian law, so called 
from Licinius Stoto, its originator. For a brief 
period this law was put in force, after which 
it was neglected for nearly 200 years, when 
it was renewed by Tiberius Gracchus with some 
additions and modifications in favor of the 
patricians. The attempt to execute these laws 
caused the death of the two Gracchi (133 and 
121 b.c. ). Not one of the Agrarian laws was 
ever executed, and it is said by the ablest writers 
that they had none of that leveling and con¬ 
fiscatory character which has been so often at¬ 
tributed to them. It is believed by able writers 
that none of the laws aimed at the equal divi¬ 
sion of real estate owned by individuals in their 
own absolute right, or intended any limitation 
upon the ownership of land. The most promi¬ 
nent advocates of the Agrarian laws, Cassius, 
Licinius, and the Gracchi, all belonged to the 
class which would have been injured by their 
operation had they led to an undue interference 
with the right of private property. 

Agrarian Party, a political organization 
in Germany, representing the interests of the 
landlords (in political life). The first steps to¬ 
ward the formation of the party were taken by 
an assembly called together at Breslau, in May 
1869, by M. A. Niendorf (d. 1878), and Eisner 
von Gronow, but the theory on which the party 
was based had already been formulated by 
Johann Karl Rodbertus. The organ of the party 
was Die Deutsche Landeszeitung, edited by 
Niendorf. In February 1876 a constitutional as¬ 
sembly of agrarian reformers was opened, and 
adopted the official name of <( Steuer und Wirt- 
schaftreformer.® Their programme was espe¬ 
cially devoted to the abolition of taxes on land, 
buildings, and trades. At first especial emphasis 
was laid on free trade, but this object fell more 
and more into the background after 1879. Since 
that date they have sought to limit the importa¬ 
tion of food stuffs, and have opposed several 
commercial treaties supported by the govern¬ 
ment ; they have also opposed the emperor’s 
project for a canal system, and have been hostile 
to his navy policy. As the Agrarians dominate 
the Conservatives in the Reichstag they have 
frequently obtained important concessions in 
commercial matters and forced the government 
to turn to the Radicals for support for its 
measures. 

Agreement, a mutual bargain, contract, or 
covenant. Agreements may be either express or 
implied. Express agreements are those openly 
stated and avowed by the parties at the time 
of their making. Implied agreements are those 
which the law supposes the parties to have 
made although the terms were not openly ex¬ 
pressed. 

There must be an agreement by the parties, 
a definite offer made by one party and accepted 
by the other, and they must assent to the same 
thing in the same sense. The assent must be 
mutual and obligatory, and there must be a 
request on one side and an assent on the other. 
The assent must be broad enough to cover the 
whole proposition. It must be exactly equal to 
its extent and provision, and it must not qualify 


them by any new matter, and even a slight quali¬ 
fication destroys the assent. The agreement 
must be based upon a sufficient consideration 
(q.v.), and as against third persons this consid¬ 
eration must be good or valuable. It need not 
be adequate provided it has some real value. If 
the consideration is impossible, or illegal either 
in whole or in part, the agreement will be void. 
The agreement may be to do anything permitted 
by the law, as to sell and buy real estate or 
personal property. The evidence of the sale of 
real estate, however, must be by deed, and 
sealed. In many instances agreements in regard 
to personal property must be reduced to writing. 
See Contracts. 

Agric'ola, Cneius Julius, lived from a.d. 37 
to 93, and was a Roman general and governor 
in Britain, the greater part of which he brought 
under the dominion of Rome. His life (which 
extended through the reigns of the nine em¬ 
perors from Caligula to Domitian) has been ex¬ 
cellently written by his son-in-law, Tacitus, who- 
holds him up as an example of virtue. Agricola 
was born at Forum Julii (now Frejus in 
Provence), and was the son of Julius Grae- 
cinus, a senator put to death under Calig¬ 
ula. He served his first campaign in Brit¬ 
ain in 60, and after serving in Asia Minor 
and again in Britain, and governing Aqui- 
tania as praetor for three years, he was raised 
to the consulship in 77, and the next year 
went to Britain as governor. Agricola was the 
twelfth Roman general who had been in Britain, 
but was the only one who effectually subdued it; 
partly by his consummate military skill, partly 
by his policy in reconciling the Britons to the 
Roman yoke, and by teaching them the arts aqd 
luxuries of civilization. In his fourth campaign 
he built a chain of forts between the Forth and 
Clyde to help to keep in check the peoples to the 
north of this. His seventh and last campaign 
(a.d. 84) was marked by the total defeat of the 
Caledonians under Galgacus, at some place 
called by Tacitus Mons Grampius or Graupius. 
In this campaign his fleet sailed northward from 
the coast of Fife round Britain to the Trutu- 
lensian harbor (supposed to be Sandwich), thus 
for the first time proving that the country was 
an island. His death was either caused or has¬ 
tened by the minions of the jealous tyrant Domi¬ 
tian. 

Agricola, Johann, German reformer: b. 
1492; d. 1526. He was one of the most active 
among those who propagated the doctrines of 
Luther. He studied at Wittenberg and Leipsic; 
was afterward rector and preacher in Eisleben, 
his native city, and in 1526, at the Diet of Spires,, 
was chaplain of the Elector John of Saxony. 
He subsequently became chaplain to Count Al¬ 
bert of Mansfield, and took a part in the de¬ 
livery of the Confession of Augsburg, and in 
the signing of the articles of Schmalkalden. 
When professor at Wittenberg, whither he went 
in 1537, he stirred up the Antinomian contro¬ 
versy with Luther and Melanchthon. He after¬ 
ward lived at Berlin, where he died after a life 
of controversy. Besides his theological works 
he composed a work explaining the common 
German proverbs. Its patriotic spirit, strict 
morality, and pithy style, place it among the 
first German prose compositions of the time, by 
the side of Luther’s translations of the Bible. 


AGRICOLA — AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY 


Agricola, Rudolphus, the foremost scholar 
of the (( New Learning,® in Germany: b. 23 
Aug. 1443, near Groningen, in Friesland; d. 
28 Oct. 1485. His real name, Roelof Huys- 
mann (husbandman), he Latinized into Agric¬ 
ola ; and from his native place he was also 
called Frisius, or Rudolf of Groningen. From 
Groningen he passed to Louvain, then to Paris, 
and then to Italy,* where, during the years 1473- 
80, he attended the lectures of the most cele¬ 
brated men of his age, and where he entered into 
a close friendship with Dalberg, afterward Bishop 
of Worms. On his return home he endeavored, 
in connection with several of his former co¬ 
disciples and friends, to promote a taste for lit¬ 
erature and eloquence. Several cities of Hol¬ 
land vainly strove with each other to obtain his 
presence, but not even the brilliant overtures 
made to him by the Emperor Maximilian, to 
whose court he had repaired in connection with 
affairs of the town of Groningen, could induce 
him to renounce his independence. At length 
yielding (1483) to the solicitations of Dalberg, 
he established himself in the Palatinate, where 
he sojourned alternately at Heidelberg and 
Worms, dividing his time between private stud¬ 
ies and public lectures, and enjoying high popu¬ 
larity. He distinguished himself also as a mu¬ 
sician and painter. With Dalberg he revisited 
Italy (1484), and shortly after his return died 
at Heidelberg. Most of his works were col¬ 
lected by Alard of Amsterdam (2 vols. Cologne, 
1539). 

Agric'olite, a mineral having the same 
composition as eulytite, but crystallizing in the 
monoclinic system. It also occurs in globular 
forms, with a radiated structure, and the 
crystals, when they occur, are indistinct. The 
species needs further examination. 

Agricultural Ant, a remarkable species of 
ant ( Mynnica molefaciens ) that cultivates 
fields of grass around its hill, allowing only one 
kind of grass ( Aristida ) to grow in a field; it 
harvests the seeds and stores them away as 
food. The fields may be as large as 15 feet 
across; roads are laid out from the hill to the 
outer margin of the plantation, so that the crop 
may not be trampled, and any weeds which ap¬ 
pear among the grass blades are at once cut off. 
These colonies are often found in large grain 
fields, which they injure in proportion to their 
numbers. 

Agricultural Chemistry is the science 
upon which scientific agriculture is built; the 
chemistry of the atmosphere, of the soil, of ma¬ 
nures, of plants, and of animals, describe and 
explain in large part the phenomena of plant 
growth and of the transformation of plants into 
animal products. The basic facts which the 
investigations of agricultural chemists have re¬ 
vealed, and which serve as the foundation upon 
which the facts derived from further investiga¬ 
tion must rest, may be stated as follows: 

Sources of Plant Food.— The atmosphere 
and the soil are the two sources from which 
plants obtain their food, ff he atmosphere sup¬ 
plies the plant, either directly or indirectly, with 
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen; the 
carbon mainly directly in the form of carbon- 
dioxid, the hydrogen and oxygen indirectly in 
the form of water in the soil, which is ab¬ 
sorbed by the roots of plants, and nitrogen 


mainly indirectly in the form of nitrates in the 
soil, which is also taken up by the roots of 
plants. The soil is the only source of the min¬ 
eral elements used by the plant, and those es¬ 
sential for its growth are potassium, magnesium, 
calcium, iron, chlorine, sodium, phosphorus, and 
sulphur, though others may be present in the 
plant as accidental salts; as, for example, silicon, 
manganese, boron, etc. These mineral elements 
are obtained from the soil by means of the 
plant roots. 

Constituents of Manures. —While plants~re- 
quire and use a relatively large number of 
chemical elements for their perfect development, 
those essential in manures are limited to four, 
namely, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and 
calcium, for the reason that these are contained 
in the soil in relatively small amounts, and are 
required bjr plants in relatively large amounts. 
Exhaustion of soil means the exhaustion of one 
or more of these four constituents, which mea¬ 
sure the potential fertility, and a direct manure 
is a substance which contains one or two, or all 
of these. 

The Composition of Plants. — In all normal 
plant growths there are four distinct classes of 
substances, namely, albuminoids, fats, carbohy¬ 
drates and mineral salts, each of which as a class 
exercises a special function in the nutrition of 
animals. The varying proportions of these sub¬ 
stances in the different plants also determine the 
value of any plant as a source of any specific 
substance for commercial purposes; as, for ex¬ 
ample, sugar or oil. 

The Composition of Animals. —The animal 
body consists of three classes of substances, 
namely, nitrogenous matter, fatty matter, and 
mineral salts; these are derived from, and are 
similar in character to, the same classes of sub¬ 
stances in plants. These statements of the basic 
principles of plant growth and use clearly indi¬ 
cate the important role that agricultural chemis¬ 
try may exercise in the many directions in which 
it may be applied in the development of scientific 
farm practice. It indicates the broad field of 
agricultural chemistry; and agricultural chem¬ 
ists, because of the many important special lines 
of inquiry, are classified as soil chemists, fer¬ 
tilizer chemists, food chemists, sugar chemists, 
agricultural industrial chemists, etc., according 
as they give special attention to any one of these 
particular branches. 

Methods of Analysis. —The application of 
chemistry in these various directions, has in 
recent years been accompanied by a development 
in analytical and research methods, both in the 
devising of new apparatus and new methods for 
the analyses of new materials, and in the im¬ 
provement of the apparatus and the methods al¬ 
ready in use. 

The Association of Official Agricultural 
Chemists, organized in 1880, which at first in¬ 
cluded only the American chemists engaged in 
the official analytical control of commercial fer¬ 
tilizers, gave the initial impetus to a movement 
which has been largely responsible for the pro¬ 
gress of agricultural chemistry in this country. 
This organization has gradually broadened its 
work, and now includes, as members, analysts 
and specialists in all the various lines of agricul¬ 
tural chemical work. To this association is re¬ 
ported annually the investigations that have 
been made by its members in the testing of new 


AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY 


and in the improvement of old analytical meth¬ 
ods. The good results of such work are particu¬ 
larly noticeable in the adoption of uniform meth¬ 
ods in the different laboratories, either new, or 
modifications of those standard methods devised 
by the earlier investigators. The crude appara¬ 
tus and the tedious methods of 25 years ago, 
which are still in use in many foreign labora¬ 
tories, have in this country been supplanted by 
those which ensure not only greater accuracy, 
but greater rapidity of execution. These im¬ 
provements have made it possible for the chem¬ 
ists to perform the large number of analyses 
now required in the official control of commercial 
fertilizers, of commercial foodstuffs, and of 
dairy products. 

The Study of the Sources of Nitrogen to 
Plants. — The most important contribution made 
to science by agricultural chemists in recent 
years has been in the study of the sources of 
nitrogen to plants. The experiments of Berthe- 
lot, Helriegel, Wilfarth, and others in Europe, 
and of Atwater in America, have modified the 
views originally held in reference to this subject. 
That the chief source of nitrogen to plants is 
mainly directly from the soil in the form of 
nitrates is not disputed, but the experiments 
referred to have shown that the leguminous 
plants, such as peas and beans, have the power 
of obtaining the free nitrogen of the air, and 
thus both soil and air contribute to their supply 
of this element. It has been shown that this 
absorption of free nitrogen is not performed 
directly, but the fixation is the result of the joint 
action of certain micro-organisms present in the 
soil and in the plant itself; that this fixation is 
connected with the formation of tubercles on the 
roots of this class of plants, and that these may 
be the home of the fixing organisms, which are 
not present in all soils. In other words, the fact 
has been established that these plants do obtain 
their nitrogen from the air, a source inaccessible 
to other classes of plants, though the exact meth¬ 
od and the complete phenomena involved in its 
appropriation are not yet understood; these 
points are matters under investigation at the 
present time. 

Denitrification. — Denitrification, or loss of 
nitrogen from soils and manures by the reduc¬ 
tion of the nitrates and the setting free of the 
nitrogen, is another rather new though closely 
related phase of the nitrogen question which is 
receiving the attention of agricultural chemists. 
Denitrification is also due to organisms contained 
in manures and in soils, and the question in¬ 
volves the study not only of the organisms 
themselves, but of their food and the conditions 
which favor or retard their growth. The experi¬ 
ments conducted thus far both in Europe and in 
America indicate that good conditions of soil 
management do not favor the activity of these 
organisms, and that losses due to denitrification 
are greatest where drainage, cultivation, and 
management are neglected. 

Chemical Investigation of Soils. — Chemical 
investigations have shown that the active fer¬ 
tility of soils depends both upon the amount 
of the essential constituents present, and the 
mutual reactions of the various classes of 
substances which constitute their bulk. Chem¬ 
ical studies have been directed toward separating 
these substances, and to the discovery of their 
relations to each other. The combined study of 


the influence of the chemical and physical prop¬ 
erties of soils in encouraging changes in the 
chemical form of the constituents, and in their 
absorptive and retentive power for both water 
and plant-food, has resulted in showing the 
adaptation of certain classes of soils to specific 
crops, and has made it possible to indicate 
clearly the line of profitable culture. 

Further important results of studies in recent 
years have had their origin in the discovery that 
micro-organisms living in the soil exert a de¬ 
cided influence in changing its chemical charac* 
ter, and in contributing to active fertility. It 
has been established that, other things being 
equal, soils are fertile in proportion as the physi¬ 
cal and chemical conditions are favorable for the 
growth and development of those living forces. 
This fact has encouraged the chemical study of 
the various classes of soil substances as sources 
of supply of food for these lower organisms, 
and the knowledge gained has contributed ma¬ 
terially to the development of methods of soil 
improvement. 

Farm Manures. —The question of the func¬ 
tion of natural agencies in promoting fertility is 
closely related to that of manures, fertilizers, and 
soil amendments. Chemical studies of the char¬ 
acter and value of farm manures as sources of 
plant food, of the source of loss of the valuable 
constituents, especially nitrogen, contained in 
them, and the methods of preservation and use 
of the various materials, have established the 
important facts that practically 80 per cent of the 
fertility elements contained in food are found in 
the manure, and that more than one half of the 
nitrogen and practically all of the potash con¬ 
tained are in soluble forms. These constituents 
are readily available as food to plants, com¬ 
paring favorably with best artificial supplies, 
but are liable to suffer great loss, the former by 
fermentation and leaching, and the latter by 
leaching. This may be prevented by proper 
care and the use of preservatives. 

Fertilizers. — As to the artificial supplies of 
plant-food, chemical studies have been mainly 
directed toward the determination of the avail¬ 
ability of the different constituent elements con¬ 
tained in the various sources of supply. Nitro¬ 
gen, for example, shows varying degrees of 
availability: with nitrate at 100 per cent as a 
basis, the range is from 80 per cent in dried 
blood to as low as 2 per cent for leather. These 
wide variations in agricultural value are not 
accompanied by variations in commercial value, 
hence studies have been made of chemical meth¬ 
ods for the determination of the availability of 
nitrogenous substances in mixed fertilizers, in 
which it is otherwise impossible to detect their 
source, and such progress has been made as tc 
enable chemists by the use of these methods to 
indicate the relative value of the materials used. 
Much' study has also been given to the question 
of the relative availability of the phosphoric acid 
as found in the various raw and manufactured 
supplies, and positive information can now be 
given as to the best sources of supply for specific 
crops and for special kinds of soil. 

Time, Marl, and Other Soil Amendments .— 
The purpose of the use of these materials is 
mainly to supply the plant indirectly with its 
needed constituents, and careful investigations 
have shown that lime, for example, while not 
usually a deficient constituent, performs very 


AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY 


important functions in the improvement of soil: 
first, in correcting acidity, and thus making the 
soil a better medium for the growth and develop¬ 
ment of soil organisms; second, in acting chem¬ 
ically on organic matter and on phosphatic and 
potash compounds in the soil, and setting free 
their constituent elements; and third, in chan¬ 
ging and improving the physical character of 
soils. Notable studies along this line have 
been carried out in this country, particularly by 
Wheeler in Rhode Island, and the results of 
such investigations have done much to promote 
the growth of leguminous crops, which add to 
the soil humus-forming material containing 
nitrogen; the humus exerting an important func¬ 
tion in increasing the absorptive and retentive 
powers of soils. 

The Composition and Nutritive Value of 
Plants. — Recent chemical investigations have 
also resulted in securing more definite informa¬ 
tion concerning the approximate composition of 
plants. It is now possible to classify clearly 
the nutritive substances contained in any speci¬ 
fic crop, and to determine the composition of the 
various chemical substances in the same group. 
In the group albuminoids, for example, methods 
of analysis have been developed which enable 
a separation of the various nitrogenous bodies 
contained in it, and which show their relative 
nutritive value. Very important studies of 
this group have been carried out by Osborne in 
Connecticut: those in the use of the respira¬ 
tion apparatus, in the studies of human nutrition, 
by Atwater, and of animal nutrition, by Armsby, 
have already contributed materially to our sum 
of knowledge concerning the energy value of 
various nutritious bodies. These results have 
their application in the utilization of wastes and 
in the selection and preparation of rations and 
of dietaries, furnishing a rational basis for the 
selection, combination, and preparation of 
foods. 

The Chemical Improvement of Plants. —The 
improvement of plants, not only for use directly 
as food, but as sources of supply of specific com¬ 
pounds for special manufacture, has been very 
marked in recent years. The chemical study of 
the sugar-beet, of sugar-cane, and of sorghum, 
has resulted in the development of varieties 
which are much richer in sugar, than formerly, 
and poorer in non-sugars, the substances which 
interfere with the extraction and crystallization 
of the sugar. So also the chemical study of 
maize, combined with the selection of seed, has 
enabled the building up of varieties which pos¬ 
sess a larger than normal proportion of either 
carbohydrates, the fats, or the nitrogenous mat¬ 
ter, thus improving this most useful plant for 
the purpose of the manufacture of starch or as 
a source of oil, or for use as food for live stock. 
The increase in the gluten content of wheat for 
the flour manufacturer, the improvement of bar¬ 
ley for the brewer, are also the direct result of 
chemical supervision in the growth of these 
plants. 

The Chemistry of Dairy Products — The 
agricultural chemist has also been active in the 
study of the composition and character of the 
milk of different dairy breeds as sources of 
food supply, as well as the processes involved 
in the manufacture of butter and cheese. Quick 
and accurate methods for determining the per¬ 
centage of the important constituent fat have 


been developed, and valuable results have been 
secured in the study of the changes that take 
place in the manufacture of cheese. The most 
important recent discovery is that of Russeil 
and Babcock of Wisconsin, that enzymes cause 
the breaking down of the nitrogenous bodies of 
the milk, and that they, together with bacteria, 
are factors to be considered in the curing of 
cheese. 

History. — As a science it was born only a 
century and a quarter ago. The composition of 
the soil was then unknown, and its relation to 
plant-growth, with the true function of fertil¬ 
izers, a matter of crude and blundering empirics. 
It is interesting to note that Lavoisier, who 
did so much to create the general science, for¬ 
mulated also its agricultural application with 
striking accuracy, saying that the components of 
plants « in the last analysis are drawn from the 
air and the mineral kingdom. On the other 
hand, fermentation, putrefaction, and combus¬ 
tion continually restore to these the principles 
borrowed from them by plants and animals.» 
Sir Humphry Davy, following Lavoisier’s indi¬ 
cations with zeal, was the first great chemist to 
make agricultural chemistry a special study and 
write upon it, delivering a course of lectures 
before the British Board of Agriculture about 
1800, and embodying them in a volume. Many 
of his hypotheses were erroneous, but he greatly 
advanced the science. 

As early as 1807 Count Rumford observed 
that plants deprived of carbonic acid die ; and 
soon afterward Ingenhousz proved that they 
absorb it only under the influence of sunlight. 
These facts led to the great generalization, the 
basis of scientific agricultural chemistry, that 
plants live mainly on inorganic matter. 

During the second quarter of the century 
the distinguished French chemist Boussingault 
devoted himself almost wholly to agriculture, 
publishing many papers on it, his < Rural 
Economy) (1844) giving him a European 
reputation; and the second De Saussure (d. 
1845) wrote 36 valuable papers on vegetable 
physiology, collected as < Chemical Researches 
on Vegetation.) But the great era in the sci¬ 
ence was made by Justus von Liebig, who pub¬ 
lished in 1840 a famous work entitled < Organic 
Chemistry in its Relation to Agriculture, > 
translated into several languages and of enor¬ 
mous influence. He had great gifts of exposi¬ 
tion ; and he established in the popular mind the 
theory of the plants’ almost entire dependence 
on mineral food, hitherto held only by a few 
men of science. Further, his researches found¬ 
ed artificial fertilization — that is, the use of 
chemically-prepared fertilizers; and showed how 
to make the phosphoric acid in mineral phos¬ 
phates available by treatment with sulphuric 
acid. He also demonstrated the value of potash 
as plant food. He taught that the nitrogen 
was absorbed solely as ammonia: a view much 
modified by later researches. 

The publication of his experiments made a 
profound impression, and paved the way for 
the establishment of experiment stations (q.v.), 
and in the United States led to the formation of 
the Agricultural Division of the Patent Office, 
since developed into the Department of Agri¬ 
culture. 

The work of Pasteur showed that fermen¬ 
tation was due to living organisms, thus revo- 


AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES 


lutionizing the whole theory of organic decay. 
One important practical application of this dis¬ 
covery was the possibility of preserving food by 
heat sterilization. 

Liebig’s theory of nitrogen assimilation by 
plants was fully demolished only by the dis¬ 
coveries of a few years ago, consequent on 
Pasteur’s, that the proteid matter furnishing the 
bulk of nitrogenous plant foods is changed by 
ferments successively into ammonia, nitrous 
acid, and nitric acid, in which form it is directly 
assimilated. 

As the nitrogenous foods are far the most 
expensive of all essential manures this discovery 
is vital to agricultural progress. The Chilean 
and other South American stores of nitrates 
are not inexhaustible, and hence every means 
of increasing the nitrates in the soil is of the 
first importance. A promising method is to 
convert atmospheric nitrogen into nitric acid 
by electricity; electric storms do this in trivial 
quantities, as detectible in rain-water, but the 
marvelous recent growth of electrical inven¬ 
tion now accomplishes it by dynamos. 

In the development of agricultural colleges 
and experiment stations chemistry has always 
been the leading science: of the present di¬ 
rectors of United States stations 21 were pro¬ 
fessional chemists when appointed; in Europe 
the proportion is even greater. 

In the valuable feature of scientific bulletins 
from the experiment stations, Prof. F. H. Storer 
of Bussey Institute led the way. But perhaps 
the most successful popularizer of the science 
since Liebig was Samuel William Johnson, 
appointed agricultural and analytical chemist 
at Yale in 1857, whose books, < How Plants 
Grow) and < How Plants Feed,) have been 
more universally read in this country than any 
other agricultural works. Another powerful 
early worker was E. W. Hilgard of the Univer¬ 
sity of California, whose work on soils is a 
classic. At Cornell, from its opening to the 
present, George C. Caldwell has held the chair 
of agricultural chemistry with distinction. 
Others of note are C. A. Goessmann of the 
Massachusetts Agricultural College, and the 
late R. C. Kedzie of the University of Michi¬ 
gan. These pioneers are worthy of remem¬ 
brance for laying broad and deep the founda¬ 
tions of future agricultural progress. 

The Association of Official Agricultural 
Chemists is by act of 1902 the adviser of the 
secretary of agriculture in fixing United States 
food standards. 

This science has been important in develop¬ 
ing the great manufacturing industries de¬ 
pendent on agricultural products, as of cane 
and beet sugar, starch, beer, wine, and distilled 
liquors. The fertilizer industry, opening up 
vast new stores of plant food,— as the vast 
phosphate deposits of the United States, the 
deposits of Stassfurt, Germany, and the nitrate 
beds of Chile,— is wholly created by agricul¬ 
tural chemistry. It also labors to increase the 
value of crops for given purposes without in¬ 
creasing their draft on the soil by studying the 
environing conditions which modify its chemical 
composition, and investigates the nutritive value 
of the plant foods so as to produce the most 
economical results from the raw material. It 
teaches the best methods of utilizing such foods 


and of conserving them for the future, develops 
new staple crops, and opens up new avenues of 
prosperity. 

Bibliography. — Armsby, (Manual of Cattle 
Feeding >; Blyth, < Foods, Composition and 
Analysis); Greiner, (Practical Farm Chemis¬ 
try^ S. W. Johnson, (How Crops Feed,-) 
and (How Crops Grow-); Lloyd, (Science 
of Agriculture > ; H. Richmond, ( Dairy Chem¬ 
istry >; S. Riedeal, ( Sewage ); Storer, < Ag¬ 
riculture in Some of Its Relations with 
Chemistry) (3 vols.) ; United States De¬ 
partment of Agriculture, publications of the 
Bureaus of Soils, Chemistry, and Plant Indus¬ 
try; The Office of Experiment Stations, ( Food 
and Nutrition of Man,) and the publications of 
the American Experiment Stations; Voorhees, 

< Fertilizers ) ; Wahnschaffe, < Scientific Exam¬ 
ination of Soils ) ; Warrington, < Chemistry of 
the Farm > ; Wiley, < Principles and Practice of 

Agricultural Analysis ) (3 vols.). 

E. B. Voorhees, 

Director New Jersey Agriculhiral Experiment 

Station. 

Agricultural Colleges. As a result of 
national and State co-operation, which enables 
the ordinary farmer to profit from the experi¬ 
ments of widely separated individuals interested 
in scientific farming, the United States stands 
foremost in the matter of agricultural develop¬ 
ment. Our Department of Agriculture renders 
the greatest service imaginable to the country; 
but its facilities are greatly improved by the 
co-operation of the different State agricultural 
institutions, while the farmers of each section 
can rely upon their special State colleges to sup¬ 
plement the work of the national institution. 

The Massachusetts Agricultural College is 
one of the foremost representatives of the typ¬ 
ical institution devoted to practical agricultural 
education, and its work and studies are devoted 
chiefly to the training of students in modern 
scientific farming. The work is conducted both 
in the class-room and on an experimental farm. 
The institution is located on a farm of 40a 
acres at Amherst, and its buildings and land 
are valued at $315,000. Its annual income from 
the State and United States amounts to 
$45,000, and it is provided with a permanent en¬ 
dowment fund of over $350,000. There are 
buildings for nearly every imaginable specialty 
pertaining to agriculture — a chemical labora¬ 
tory, botanical laboratory, plant-house, cream¬ 
ery and dairy laboratory, veterinary buildings, 
barns, museum, library, and entomological lab¬ 
oratory and insectary. 

Instruction is given by a corps of 18 profes¬ 
sors and assistants in chemistry, botany, agri¬ 
culture, horticulture, zoology, veterinary science, 
mathematics, civil engineering, and similar stud¬ 
ies. Practical work on the farm is a part of 
the course, and the students cultivate the whole 
farm, experimental orchard, and nursery. There 
are 100 acres devoted to orchards, vineyards, and 
the cultivation of small fruits; 150 acres under 
cultivation with field crops, and nearly as many 
more allotted to grass and hay for the 100 head 
of cattle which are kept on the farm. Consid¬ 
erably over 1,000 men have been educated at the 
Massachusetts Agricultural College. A recent 
census of them showed that nearly 400 are 


AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES 


to-day engaged in agricultural pursuits; more 
than a score are instructors in other similar 
institutions; and others have drifted into a 
variety of callings. The effect of the college 
on the agriculture of the country must prove 
of immeasurable value if a similar propor¬ 
tion of its graduates adopt farming for their 
life s work, and perform their labors in a 
scientific manner, as they were taught to do 
at the institution. 

The State agricultural and mechanical col¬ 
leges which have sprung up in most of the 
leading agricultural States of the East and West, 
and in many parts of the South, in recent years, 
have in view the training of young men for 
scientific and practical agriculture, and also for 
mechanical and manufacturing arts and sciences. 
They are endowed by the State, and also by 
private individuals. They are for the most part 
under the control of the State Board of Agri¬ 
culture, the governor, and other State officers; 
but the president and faculty of each institu¬ 
tion practically have all the liberty they de¬ 
mand in carrying out the work according to 
well-defined policies. Some of these State agri¬ 
cultural colleges are remarkably well equipped 
and endowed for the work they have in hand. 
Thus, the Iowa State College of Agriculture has 
15 buildings, which have been erected by the 
State at a total cost of $500,000. There are 
nearly 1,000 acres of land attached to the insti¬ 
tution. A corps of 55 professors and nearly 
600 students is engaged in study and work. All 
kinds of crops raised in Iowa are cultivated 
on the farm, and cattle, horses, and poultry are 
kept by the students. Experiments are con¬ 
stantly being carried on by the professors and 
students in agriculture, horticulture, chemistry, 
and general farming, apd the results of these 
experiments are published in bulletins and pa¬ 
pers for the benefit of the world. 

The Pennsylvania State college, called the 
Agricultural College of Pennsylvania, is even 
broader in its educational aims than the Iowa 
college. Almost all studies from agriculture, 
chemistry, physics, engineering, mining, and 
mathematics up to philosophy, general literature, 
and languages are taught there. In recent years 
this college has steadily broadened as a high- 
grade technical, scientific, and classical, institu¬ 
tion. Nevertheless agriculture, in all its wide 
fields of application, is one of the chief studies 
emphasized at the college. A correspondence 
course has in late years been organized for the 
purpose of instructing students on farms who 
cannot attend the college, but who wish to avail 
themselves of the researches and facts obtained 
at it. Forestry is one of the most useful 
branches of work carried on at this college; and 
it not only trains young men to appreciate the 
value of cultivating orchards and woods, but also 
turns out practical foresters, capable of taking 
charge of large forests and converting them 
into profitable possessions, without destroying 
and denuding them of trees. 

The Michigan State. Agricultural College is 
another institution which, for more than 40 
years, has endeavored to help the farmers m 
their struggle to wrest from the soil a .fair 
compensation for their labors. The .01 lgmal 
idea of this college was to perfect in their 
studies all graduates of the common schools who 
wished to possess a complete practical and theo¬ 
retic knowledge of the arts and sciences vTiich 


bore directly upon agricultural and kindred pur¬ 
suits. Economic zoology, meteorology, physics, 
veterinary science, entomology, bacteriology, 
chemistry, geology, and agriculture and horticul¬ 
ture are a few of the studies pursued. Post¬ 
graduates can pursue advanced studies in the 
sciences, and in the library of 20,000 volumes 
they can find nearly all the literature of value 
pertaining to their particular studies. There 
are some 676 acres of land attached to the col¬ 
lege, 230 acres of which are devoted to field 
crops, 45 to woodland, 114 to orchards and 
garden, 47 to experimental fields, and 240 to for¬ 
est. There is a fine arboretum, a botanic gar¬ 
den, a grass-garden, and a weed-garden, where 
100 or more noxious weeds are grown to show 
their destructive possibilities to the students. 
There are some 450 students at the college, and 
more than half of them take the full agricul¬ 
tural course. 

The South has a good institution of this class 
in the Mississippi Agricultural and Mechanical 
College, with a faculty of some 24 members, and 
a student membership of nearly 400. The col¬ 
lege is under the management of a board of 
trustees, with the governor of the State an 
ex officio member. The students who attend 
this college are paid eight cents per hour for 
their work in the fields or orchards, which 
enables them to pay for a part of their living 
while studying. 

The Kansas State College, with its 300 acres 
of land, buildings valued at $350,000, and a fac¬ 
ulty of 45 professors and assistants, has become 
an important factor in the middle West in 
developing the agricultural possibilities. Agri¬ 
culture, engineering, and general and household 
economics are taught to the students. There is 
a dairy, blacksmith-shop, foundry, machine-shop, 
printing-office, and woodwork and painting shop 
connected with the college, where practical work 
can be followed by the students. 

With agriculture as our leading industry, 
many of the large universities have in recent 
years established an agricultural course and 
experimental farms for work in the regular col¬ 
lege course. When this subject is mentioned, 
one turns instinctively toward Cornell Univer¬ 
sity, with its admirable agricultural and forestry 
departments; toward the Ohio State University, 
with its buildings and equipments aggregating 
nearly $3,000,000 and with an income of $350,000; 
or toward the University of Wisconsin, or the 
University of California. These typical univer¬ 
sities, which have given agriculture and horti¬ 
culture a prominent place in their curriculums, 
send forth annually hundreds of students to 
teach practical farming to new communities 
which may still labor under the disadvantage of 
old methods and ideas of agricultural produc¬ 
tion. The Ohio State University at Columbus 
has over i,ooq students, and a corps of 78 pro¬ 
fessors and assistants; but it aims to give a sci¬ 
entific and classical education to both young 
men and women. It is divided into six colleges, 
with one devoted to agriculture and domestic 
science, and another to veterinary science. Stu¬ 
dents pursuing other studies can take courses in 
these departments, and there are also, oppor¬ 
tunities for graduate studies in the science of 
agriculture. There is a well-stocked farm of 
200 acres connected with the university, a dairy 
department, a large laboratory for student work 


AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 


in soils and crops, and a veterinary laboratory 
and operating building. 

In the University of Wisconsin, with its 
membership rapidly approaching 2,000, and a 
corps of over 130 professors and assistants, 
there is a college of agriculture, which gives ex¬ 
cellent courses in dairying, veterinary science, 
experimental farm work, entomology, scientific 
plant investigation, and general horticulture and 
agriculture. There are cheese factories, cream¬ 
eries, and dairies on the farm, with large green¬ 
houses for raising plants, extensive barns for 
cattle, and bacteriological laboratories. The col¬ 
lege co-operates with the 60 or more State insti¬ 
tutes of the farmers in supplying literature and 
lecturers, and thus becomes an essential part 
of the State’s chief industry. 

Like the two former, the agricultural college 
of Cornell University, in New York, has become 
one of the greatest factors in stimulating and 
broadening the farming interests of the State 
and indirectly of the whole country, while it has 
contributed largely to the establishment of agri¬ 
culture on a firmer and higher scientific basis 
than ever before in its history. 

Agricultural Education. The earliest farm¬ 
ers in America had to contend with innumerable 
and great obstacles; with the wildness of nature, 
the attacks of Indians and wild beasts upon 
their stock, the difficulty of obtaining farming 
implements and seeds, and with conditions of 
climate and soil, very different from those of 
the old countries whence they derived all their 
methods. The colonial farmer was compelled to 
use the crudest methods. He cut down, heaped 
and burned the small trees and undergrowth, 
and belted the large ones. He scratched the sur¬ 
face a little with a home-made plow, and culti¬ 
vated his corn and tobacco with a wooden hoe. 
He harvested the crop that nature gave him in 
a careless manner and used it wastefully. He 
cultivated the same field until it was worn out, 
when he cleared another and moved his family 
near to it. So long as land was so abundant, 
no attention was paid to the conservation of 
fertility of the soil. America was such a vast 
and fertile country that it took the people over 
a century to find out that there was any limit 
to its productiveness. These conditions were 
quite sufficient to explain the slow progress 
made in agriculture during the 1st century or 
more after the settlement of America. 

It was not until the close of the 18th cen¬ 
tury that the attention of practical men com¬ 
menced to be directed to the discoveries of sci¬ 
ence, and hopes were excited that immediate 
benefits would accrue from them to agriculture 
as they had to the other arts. Lavoisier’s dis¬ 
coveries and teachings had aroused the hope 
that chemistry could do a great deal to promote 
the advancement of farming. Americans com¬ 
menced to appreciate their disadvantages as 
compared with British and continental farmers, 
and to seek better implements and methods for 
their work. The newly awakened interest in 
agriculture was marked first by the formation 
of agricultural societies. George Washington 
was one of the best technically educated men in 
America in his day, and was especially interested 
in everything pertaining to agriculture. His 
various State papers show that he not only 
knew the needs of the country, but that he fully 
realized that schools for the education of the 


people and societies for the distribution of know¬ 
ledge were necessary for the safety of the re¬ 
public. A few extracts will recall his strong 
opinions on this subject. In his first annual 
message to Congress (8 Jan. 1790) he expressed 
the hope that the “advancement of agriculture, 
commerce, and manufactures, by all proper 
means, will not, I trust, need recommendation,® 
and adds, <( Nor am I less persuaded that you 
will agree with me in the opinion that there is 
nothing which can better deserve your patronage 
than the promotion of science and literature. 

. . . Whether this desirable object will be 

best promoted by affording aids to seminaries 
already established, or by the institution of a 
national university, or by any other expedients, 
will be well worthy of a place in the deliberations 
of the legislature.® Notice how agriculture and a 
national university for the promotion of sci¬ 
ence and arts were always associated in Wash¬ 
ington’s mind. He mentions the advancement 
of agriculture and the establishment of a 
national university in the same connection in 
his first message. He discusses them together 
in many of his writings during eight years, and 
finally in his eighth annual message, he says, 
<( It will not be doubted that with reference 
either to individual or national welfare agricul¬ 
ture is of primary importance. In proportion 
as nations advance in population and other cir¬ 
cumstances of maturity, this truth becomes more 
apparent, and renders the cultivation of the soil 
more and more an object of public patronage. 
Institutions for promoting it grow up, supported 
by the public purse; and to what object can it 
be dedicated with greater propriety? ... I 
have heretofore proposed to the consideration of 
Congress the expediency of establishing a 
national university and also a military acad¬ 
emy. The desirableness of both these institu¬ 
tions has so constantly increased with every 
new view I have taken of the subject that I 
cannot omit the opportunity of once for all call¬ 
ing your attention to them.® With marvelous 
foresight Washington urged the necessity for 
scientific research and education in America, 
and he planned at the same time for institutions 
to discover and collect knowledge, and societies 
to disseminate it. He saw also that agriculture 
was to be the chief industry in the country, and 
that it would need the assistance of science. 
Thus he appears to have associated plans for 
the advancement of agriculture with those for 
a national university. Congress promptly estab¬ 
lished the military academy, and some years 
later the naval academy and the department of 
agriculture. But it has not yet established the 
national university, which was the chief agency 
in Washington’s mind for the development of 
all the sciences and arts of peace. 

Agricultural Societies and Fairs .— The first 
society for the promotion of agriculture in the 
United States was organized at Philadelphia on 
1 March 1785; and on the 4th of July following 
George Washington and Benjamin Franklin 
were elected members. A similar society was 
incorporated in South Carolina in the same year, 
which proposed, among other things, to estab¬ 
lish an experimental farm — the first suggestion 
of the kind in our history. The New York 
society for the promotion of agriculture, arts, 
and manufactures, which had been organized on 
26 Feb. 1791, published its first small volume of 
transactions in 1792. The Massachusetts So- 


AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 


ciety for the Promotion of Agriculture was 
established 7 March 1792, and commenced, in 
} 797 > the publication of bulletins. The Soci- 
iety for. Promoting Agriculture in the State of 
Connecticut was organized in 1794, and pub¬ 
lished its first volume of proceedings in 1802. 
Washington was evidently familiar with the 
work of these agricultural societies; but his 
knowledge of such agencies was not limited to 
his own country. In Great Britain, the Bath 
and the West of England Agricultural socie¬ 
ties had been established. Sir John Sinclair, 
the <( inventor of statistics® and president of the 
Highland Society, had established, in 1791, the 
British Wool Society and the Sheep Fair at New- 
halls Inn. After agitating the subject for a 
number of years, Sinclair secured the establish¬ 
ment of the Royal Board of Agriculture, and was 
appointed its first president in 1793. Washing¬ 
ton’s correspondence with Sir John Sinclair 
shows that he had the benefit of all the infor¬ 
mation to be obtained from the father of the 
British board of agriculture. Agricultural socie¬ 
ties naturally led to the establishment of fairs 
and exhibitions. A member of the Massachu¬ 
setts Society suggested first in 1801 that agri¬ 
cultural fairs should be held regularly at Cam¬ 
bridge spring and fall, and premiums be given 
for farm products. No action appears, how¬ 
ever, to have been taken with regard to this 
suggestion. Dr. Thornton, the first commis¬ 
sioner of patents at Washington, suggested in 
1804 that the sale of agricultural products and 
of cattle would be promoted by the holding of 
fairs on market days, as in England. As a re¬ 
sult of this suggestion we learn from the Na¬ 
tional Intelligence^ of that year that fairs were 
held <( in the mall on the south side of the 
Tiber.® The first fair proved such a success 
that the citizens raised an appropriation of $50 
for premiums for the next one, which was held 
in April 1805. The third fair, held in Novem¬ 
ber 1805, appears to have been the last. Gov. 
Edward Winslow, of Massachusetts, is said to 
have brought to Plymouth, in the ship Charity, 
in 1694, (< the first neat cattle that came into 
New England.® It was appropriate that his 
descendant, Elkanah Watson, of Plymouth, 
should import the first pair of Spanish Merino 
sheep into Massachusetts, and should then give 
notice of an exhibition of them at Pittsfield. This 
small exhibit led to a larger enterprise _ and the 
establishment of stock shows in America. An 
invitation was published by Watson and some 
20 other persons calling an exhibition of stock at 
the same place on 1 October. 1 his cattle show 
was so successful that it became a permanent 
institution in Massachusetts. A number of pub¬ 
lic-spirited citizens of Maryland, V irginia, and 
the District of Columbia had in the meantime 
formed, in 1809, the Columbian Agricultural So¬ 
ciety, which was for many years actively 
engaged in the work of educating the farmer 
through the agency of fairs. From these begin¬ 
nings agricultural societies have spread all 
over our country, and agricultural fairs have 
become a potent agency for the dissemination 
of valuable information with regard to new 
crops, implements, stock, and improvement in 
agriculture generally. Nearly all of the States 
have now either boards of agriculture or com¬ 
missioners or secretaries of agriculture in 
charge of the farming interests. Their work 
varies, but usually includes the collection of 


agricultural statistics, the preparation of weather 
and crop reports and the oversight of the stock 
interests, and frequently also the inspection and 
analysis of fertilizers and mixed cattle feeds, 
the testing and examination of dairy and other 
food products. Some of the State boards con¬ 
duct the agricultural colleges, hold fairs, give 
premiums for fine stock, and hold farmers’ insti¬ 
tutes. The boards, commissioners, and socie¬ 
ties all publish reports and bulletins and many 
of them accomplish a great deal of admirable 
educational work. The Patrons of Husbandry 
(Grange) and National Farmers’ Alliance, or¬ 
ganizations with many subordinate branches and 
local societies, have exerted great influence espe¬ 
cially in educating the farmers and their families. 
The Farmers’ National Congress meets once a 
year for the discussion of questions of general in¬ 
terest. For the stock interests, we have in this 
country a national live stock association, 5 
national dairy unions, and 56 State dairy asso¬ 
ciations. There are 14 cattle breeders asso¬ 
ciations representing the interests of as many 
different important breeds, 18 horse breeders 
associations, 29 sheep breeders associations, 17 
associations of swine breeders, etc. Nearly all 
of the States protect their stock from diseases 
through the agency of sanitary boards or veter¬ 
inarians under the direction of the State boards 
or commissioners. There is a national league 
for good roads that is doing much to educate 
public opinion. Ten States have forestry com¬ 
missions or provide for forest protection and 
improvement in some way. There are besides 
18 forestry associations which are doing much 
educational work. Eleven national or inter¬ 
state, and 54 State horticultural and kindred 
societies are at work. (For the names of these 
societies and the addresses of their officers, see 
the Year-book of the United States Department 
of Agriculture for 1898.) 

Agricultural Schools .— The origin and de¬ 
velopment of agricultural schools in America 
was a part of a general educational movement 
against the old classical college and in favor of 
scientific and technical education. Perhaps the 
demand for agricultural education was the first 
one to be heard; but it had its origin in the 
same causes which gave rise to the demand for 
the application of science to all the arts and 
professions in life. 

As the great universities of Europe grew out 
of monastic and cathedral schools, so our first 
American colleges were all the children of the 
churches. The preachers were in the early days 
almost the only learned men, and therefore the 
only teachers. In the case of the rural schools 
the preacher was both school director and teacher. 
The institutions for higher education were also 
founded and controlled by the associations and 
presbyteries of the different denominations, and 
the most learned of their clergy became the 
instructors. Naturally enough, as their founders 
and teachers were all preachers, these early col¬ 
leges were devoted almost exclusively to the 
cultivation of theology, classics, and philosophy. 
Their parson-teachers taught what they held to 
be the only thing worth learning, and they were 
right in putting character and culture above 
everything else. Their methods produced a race 
of preachers, teachers, lawyers, statesmen, and 
soldiers scarcely equaled and never surpassed 
in any country. But a new and rapidly growing 
country like America needed engineers, chem- 


AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 


ists, miners, and manufacturers, and an ambi¬ 
tious and intelligent people were not slow to 
make their wants heard. Some of the physical 
sciences, notably chemistry and geology, had 
already made great progress, and had revolu¬ 
tionized some of the arts. The popular writ¬ 
ings of great scientific men, notably Liebig’s 
< Letters ) on chemistry, were eagerly read, and 
people everywhere cherished bright hopes of 
the benefits to be derived from the application 
of science to the industries of life, and espe¬ 
cially to agriculture. Discovery and invention 
were already doing much to develop the 
material resources of the world and to change 
the occupations of men. Steam was beginning 
to be used for the purpose of transportation, 
chemistry was being applied in working iron, 
in dyeing fabrics, and in many other arts. Great 
railroads were to be built, but with the excep¬ 
tion of the military academy at West Point, 
there was no school to train the engineers to 
survey them. Mines of coal and iron were to 
be opened, but miners had to be imported to open 
them. Factories needed to be built, but engi¬ 
neers had to be brought over from England or 
Holland to build them. Iron works and many 
other important industries were calling loudly 
for chemists, who had to be obtained from 
Germany or France. These influences, but more 
especially the need of scientific knowledge in a 
rapidly developing country, produced a profound 
effect on the theories and practice of education; 
and thus a vigorous demand arose for the sci¬ 
ences and their applications to the arts of life. 
The old college was not meeting the new de¬ 
mands ; but what the new college was to be, and 
what its methods, no one knew for a long time. 

Columbia College, in the city of New York, 
appointed, in 1792, Samuel L. Mitchell ^pro¬ 
fessor of natural history, chemistry, and agricul¬ 
ture.® The records of the college do not show 
what instruction he gave in agricultural science, 
if any, but Prof. Mitchell, so far as we know, 
was, by title at least, the first professor of agri¬ 
culture in America. The Philadelphia Society 
for the Promotion of Agriculture, of which 
Washington was an honorary member, appointed 
a committee on 21 Jan. 1794 to (( prepare a plan 
for establishing the State Society for the Pro¬ 
motion of Agriculture, connecting with it the 
education of youth in the knowledge of that 
most important art.® This committee made a 
report offering several alternative propositions 
for promoting agricultural education. One sug¬ 
gestion made was (< the endowment of professor¬ 
ships to be annexed to the University of Penn¬ 
sylvania and the College of Carlisle, and other 
seminaries of learning, for the purpose of teach¬ 
ing the chemical, philosophical, and elementary 
arts of the theory of agriculture.® Another 
suggestion was to use the common school sys¬ 
tem of the State to educate the farmer in his 
business, (( the county schoolmasters being made 
secretaries of the county societies, and the 
school-houses the places of meeting and the 
repositories of their transactions, models, etc. 
The legislature may enjoin on these school¬ 
masters the combination of the subject of agri¬ 
culture with other parts of education.® This is, 
so far as we know, the first formal effort made 
in the United States to present the claims of 
agricultural education to a legislature and to 
incorporate instruction in agriculture in the com¬ 
mon schools. 


United States Department of Agriculture.— 
The war with England, the expansion of terri¬ 
tory, the rapid development of manufacturing, 
and many other causes, contributed to retard 
the progress of agricultural education for sev¬ 
eral decades after the beginning of the cen¬ 
tury. The agitation continued, but little was 
accomplished until after 1840. 

Upon the motion of Elkanah Watson, the 
Berkshire Agricultural Society of Massachu¬ 
setts presented in 1817 a memorial to Congress 
praying for <( the establishment of a national 
board of agriculture in accordance with the 
original suggestion of President Washington.® 
The bill reported in the House of Representa¬ 
tives was promptly defeated by a large vote. It 
was well known that President Madison was 
opposed to it on constitutional grounds. Others 
based their opposition on the indifference of 
the farmers of the country and the idea that 
such a board was not needed. The only strik¬ 
ing event in the agricultural history of the coun¬ 
try during the next decade was the agitation of 
silk culture, commonly called the (( Morus multi- 
caulis® craze from the variety of the mulberry 
tree which was introduced everywhere to supply 
food for the silk worm. Congress responded to 
the popular demand for information on this sub¬ 
ject by ordering the preparation and publication 
of a manual of silk culture, which was done. 

The United States Department of Agricul¬ 
ture grew finally out of the recommendation of 
President Washington for a national board of 
agriculture, but more immediately out of the 
seed distribution originated in the Department 
of State during the presidency of John Quincy 
Adams. The patent office was first in the hands 
of the Department of State, and the seeds col¬ 
lected by consuls in various parts of the world 
were turned over to it, as the scientific branch 
of the government for distribution. So it came 
about that when on 4 July 1836, the patent office 
was made a separate bureau and Henry L. 
Ellsworth, a practical farmer of Connecticut, 
was appointed commissioner, he found it one of 
his duties to distribute seeds and plants. It 
was a congenial duty and one for which he was 
well qualified both by education and experience. 
During his travels over the country as Indian 
commissioner, Mr. Ellsworth had been deeply 
impressed with the agricultural possibilities of 
the western prairies and also with the great 
ignorance and destitution of the settlers upon 
them. He believed that what they needed was 
better implements and seeds adapted to the cli¬ 
mate and soils. So deeply impressed was he 
with the necessities of these people that, without 
the authority of Congress and outside of busi¬ 
ness hours, he collected seeds and plants, which 
he distributed to farmers in all sections of the 
country, but especially to those in the far West, 
using the postal franks of members of Con¬ 
gress for this purpose. This was the beginning 
of the seed distribution by the United States 
government, which has since grown to such 
colossal proportions. Thus also was born the 
United States Department of Agriculture. In 
his first annual report Mr. Ellsworth begged 
earnestly for an appropriation to continue and 
enlarge this distribution of seeds and one was 
made during the last days of the Twenty-fifth 
Congress which provided $1,000 from the patent 
office^ fund <( for the purpose of collecting and 
distributing seeds, prosecuting agricultural in- 


AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 


Vestigations, and procuring agricultural statis¬ 
tics.- 0 With^ the exception of the years 1840, 
1841, and 1846 Congress made a small appro¬ 
priation for this purpose each year from the 
patent office fund. The first separate appro¬ 
priation for agriculture, made in the year 1854, 
was $ 35 '°°o, and it has never been less than 
that sum. An agent was authorized also at 
this time to ^investigate and report upon the 
habits of insects, injurious and beneficial to 
vegetation, 0 and a botanical garden was estab¬ 
lished. 1 he same year arrangements were made 
with the Smithsonian Institution for collecting 
meteorological statistics. The present United 
States Department of Agriculture was established 
by an act of Congress, approved by President 
Lincoln on 15 May 1862. This act was chiefly 
due to the strong plea made by Commissioner 
of Patents David P. Holloway, of Indiana. It 
is remarkable that the other great act for the 
promotion of agriculture in America, known as 
the land-grant act establishing colleges of agri¬ 
culture and mechanic arts, was passed by the 
same Congress and approved by President Lin¬ 
coln on 2 July of the same year, both in the 
midst of the terrors of the Civil War. The act 
of 15 May 1862 did not establish an independ¬ 
ent department of the government. Its chief 
officer was styled simply ^commissioner of 
agriculture. 0 He did not become a member of 
the Cabinet until 11 Feb. 1889, when President 
Cleveland approved another act of Congress 
making the Department of Agriculture an execu¬ 
tive department. 

Agricultural Colleges .— The demand for sci¬ 
entific and technical education did not cease as 
the years passed by, but grew louder and louder 
with the development of the country. The his¬ 
tory of the agitation in New York may be taken 
as an illustration. In 1819 there was published 
anonymously at Albany a pamphlet on (( the 
necessity of establishing an agricultural college, 0 
which has been commonly attributed to that 
active and intelligent man, Simeon De Witt, 
Surveyor-general of New York. He proposed 
the establishment of an institution to be called 
the agricultural college of the State of New 
York, to be endowed by the State and conducted 
under State authority. The < Transactions ) of the 
New York Agricultural Society for 1822 contain 
allusions to the same subjects, and the matter 
was never allowed to drop entirely out of sight. 
About 1825 a private agricultural college or 
school was undertaken in Columbia County. 
This was the period (1830 to 1850) of the agita¬ 
tion for the so-called <( manual labor schools, 0 
and many of the schools of the time took that 
form. The Oneida Institute was one of the 
first of these schools, and it is said to have had 
a course of instruction in practical agriculture. 
These were not manual training schools or tech¬ 
nical schools in the modern sense, but schools 
having farms attached where the students could 
support themselves by manual labor while pur¬ 
suing their studies. This plan, which was re¬ 
ceived with much popular favor for a time and 
led to the establishment of numerous schools, 
was soon found to be impracticable and aban¬ 
doned. The demand in New York for agricul¬ 
tural education grew steadily, and by 1838 peti¬ 
tions bearing 6,000 signatures were presented to 
the legislature demanding State aid in behalf of 
agricultural schools. The committee to whom 
the petitions were referred deplored in strong 

Vol. 1 — 12 


language (( that there is no school, no seminary; 
no department of any school in which the sci¬ 
ence of agriculture is taught, 0 and recom¬ 
mended very strongly the establishment of a 
school of agriculture. No action was taken at 
this time, but the matter came up in a different 
form at each succeeding session of the legisla¬ 
ture, and appears to have grown steadily in 
favor. The State Agricultural Society helped 
greatly to advance the interests of the cause, and 
in 1844 appointed a committee of which Gov. 
Seward, Lieut.-Gov. Dickinson, and James S. 
Wadsworth, were members, to promote <( the 
introduction of agricultural studies in the schools 
of the State, 0 and also (( for the purpose of 
selecting books for family and school libraries. 0 
It was resolved at the same time, <( That this 
society regards the establishment of an agricul¬ 
tural institute and pattern farm in this State, 
where shall be taught thoroughly and alike the 
science, the practice, and the profits of good 
husbandry, as an object of great importance. 0 
This committee co-operated with the associa¬ 
tion of school superintendents, with the result 
that that body adopted, in June 1844, a resolution 
drawn by Prof. Potter, of Union College, set¬ 
ting forth the opinion that <( the time has arrived 
when the elements and scientific principles of 
agriculture should be taught in all schools. 0 
Still the State took no action. However, 
numerous private agricultural schools were 
established. 

Gov. Hamilton Fish first recommended, in 
January 1849, in his annual message to the legis¬ 
lature, the establishment of a State agricultural 
college. During the following session of the 
legislature Prof. Johnson, the great agricultural 
chemist of Scotland, was invited to Albany and 
delivered a course of lectures under the aus¬ 
pices of the New York Agricultural Society. 
The same year this society established a chemical 
laboratory at Albany for the analysis of manures, 
fertilizers, etc. Still nothing was done about 
the school. Prof. William H. Brewer writes: 
<( In 1850 Mr. John Delafield, a graduate of 
Columbia College, where he may have received 
instruction from Prof. Mitchell, was living on 
one of the best farms of the State, in the town 
of Fayette, Seneca County. He was at one 
time president of the New York State Agricul¬ 
tural Society, and originated and carried out an 
agricultural survey of Seneca County. He took 
a deep interest in the cause of agricultural edu¬ 
cation, and owing to his action and energy on 
15 April 1853, the State passed an act estab¬ 
lishing an agricultural college. This act cre¬ 
ated a board of 10 trustees, of which Mr. Dela¬ 
field was president, but appropriated no money. 
The college was to be located on Mr. Delafield’s 
farm in the town of Fayette, but as he died 22 
October of the same year nothing more was done 
about building a college there. 0 The Rev. 
Amos Brown, principal of Ovid Academy, who 
was to become later the chief assistant of Sen¬ 
ator Morrill in securing the passage of the land- 
grant act establishing agricultural colleges, 
appears to have gotten his inspiration and in¬ 
formation from Mr. Delafield. He afterward 
became president of the People’s College near 
Havana, N. Y., and after the passage of the 
Morrill Act in 1862 secured an act from the 
legislature of New York, giving the whole of 
its share of the land-grant to this college. But 
that institution failed to comply with the condi- 


AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 


tions of the law, and the land-grant of the State 
of New York was turned over to Cornell Uni¬ 
versity, which thus became the agricultural col¬ 
lege of the State. This narrative has been intro¬ 
duced to show the growth of the idea which led 
to the establishment of Cornell University, prob¬ 
ably our greatest agricultural institution. See 
Cornell University. 

The first agricultural college to be actually 
established and put in operation was that of the 
State of Michigan. Article 13, section n of the 
constitution of the State of Michigan adopted in 
1850, says: <( The legislature shall encourage the 
promotion of intellectual, scientific, and agri¬ 
cultural improvement; and shall as soon as prac¬ 
ticable, provide for the establishment of an agri¬ 
cultural school.® This was the first State 
constitution to provide for the establishment of 
an agricultural school. It is noteworthy, also, that 
it was the first one to provide that all instruc¬ 
tion in the district schools should be conducted 
in the English language. The act establishing 
the State Agricultural College of Michigan was 
passed on 12 Feb. 1855. The college was 
located upon a farm of some 500 acres, situated 
about four miles east of the city of Lansing; 
buildings were erected, and the college was 
formally opened in May 1847. 

The legislature of Maryland incorporated the 
next agricultural college in 1856, which was, 
however, in part a private institution. Some 
500 citizens of Maryland, and of the District of 
Columbia, together with a few from adjacent 
States, subscribed to a certain amount of stock, 
which the legislature required should be pro¬ 
vided. The stockholders elected a board of trus¬ 
tees, and this body located the college upon the 
estate of Charles B. Calvert, situated in Prince 
George County, about nine miles east of the city 
of Washington. The institution was opened for 
students in September 1859, when Prof. Joseph 
Henry of the Smithsonian Institution, delivered 
the oration. 

Marshall P. Wilder first urged the impor¬ 
tance of establishing an agricultural college in 
Massachusetts, in an address before the Norfolk 
Agricultural Society made in 1849. The State 
Senate of Massachusetts passed a bill in 1850 
establishing such a school, but it failed in the 
House. A committee was appointed to investi¬ 
gate the matter, and they sent Prof. Hitchcock 
to the continent of Europe to visit agricultural 
schools. His report was transmitted to the legis¬ 
lature by the governor in the following year, 
with the result that the Massachusetts Board of 
Agriculture was established in 1852. Mr. Wilder 
kept up the agitation, however, and finally in 
1856 succeeded in obtaining from the legislature 
a charter of the Massachusetts School of Agri¬ 
culture. The Massachusetts Agricultural Col¬ 
lege was not regularly opened, however, until 
1867. The general assembly of the State of 
Pennsylvania incorporated the Farmers’ High 
School, now the State College, in 1854. The act 
provided that people of different sections of the 
State might offer land and property and thereby 
secure its location in their midst. Funds for 
building and equipment were provided from the 
State treasury. The State Agricultural Society 
made certain donations, and the college was 
opened for students in the winter of 1859. These 
were the leading agricultural schools established 
before the passage of the Land-grant Act in 
1862. 


Closely related to these agricultural schools 
were the scientific schools established at Yale 
and Harvard between 1840 and 1850, in response 
to the same demand for a new education. John 
P. Norton was appointed professor of agricul¬ 
tural chemistry, vegetable and animal physiology 
at Yale College, New Haven, Conn., in 1846. 
Thus was begun the Sheffield Scientific School, 
which was more of an agricultural institution 
than any of the other schools of that time. Prof. 
Norton began his lectures in 1847, and for some 
years wrote voluminously for agricultural jour¬ 
nals. He also prepared and published his first 
work, ( The Elements of Agriculture. J Among' 
his first students in the course in agricultural 
chemistry was the distinguished Prof. W. H. 
Brewer, of the Sheffield Scientific School at 
Yale. The Lawrence Scientific School at Har¬ 
vard, established about the same time, was 
founded upon an endowment of $40,000, given 
by the Lawrences, who, being interested in fac¬ 
tories, caused this school to direct its attention 
more to the applications of chemistry to man- 
factures. Francis Wayland, president of Brown 
University, became greatly interested at this 
time in scientific and technical education, and 
took a prominent part in the discussion of the 
reforms needed to adapt the institutions of 
America to the requirements of the time. In 
his little book on the ( Present Collegiate Sys¬ 
tem of the United States, } he argued earnestly 
in favor of the introduction of scientific sub¬ 
jects into the college curriculum and the adop¬ 
tion of a system of electives. A science hall 
and a museum of geology were erected at Brown 
in 1840; but means failed to support the scien¬ 
tific work, and Dr. Wayland was constrained to 
resign in 1855, when the old classical course was 
re-established. These changes were all parts 
of a general movement for the modification of 
the classical curriculum, and the introduction of 
scientific and technical study. Wherever this 
was done the sciences pertaining to agriculture 
were sure to be introduced. The next great 
movement in agricultural education began with 
the Land-grant Colleges. See Colleges, Land- 
grant. 

Requirements for Admission .— The require¬ 
ments for admission to the agricultural col¬ 
leges vary in the different States in accord¬ 
ance with the school systems. and the other 
opportunities for preparation. The Western and 
Southern agricultural colleges usually take the 
students from what is known in this country as 
the eighth or. ninth grade of the public school 
course. A majority of the institutions require for 
admission either certificates from the preparatory 
schools or examinations in the more important 
subjects. The average standard of admission 
to the agricultural colleges is presented in the 
report of the Committee on Entrance Require¬ 
ments made to the association of colleges at 
the meeting in November 1896. They recom¬ 
mended the following (Rep. of Bureau of Edu¬ 
cation, 1896-7, p. 429) : 

(< The committee holds that it is advisable, as 
a beginning, to determine the requirements in a 
few subjects upon which it is possible for all 
the colleges to agree, and to recommend others, 
which although too high at present for adoption 
by some of these institutions, may yet serve 
as a. standard or goal toward which effort may 
be directed. 


AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 


w As a standard series of entrance require¬ 
ments, to be adopted as soon as possible, we 
recommend the following: (i) Physical geogra¬ 
phy; (2) United States history; (3) arithmetic, 
including the metric system; (4) algebra to 
quadratics; (5) English grammar and composi¬ 
tion, together with English requirements of the 
New England Association; (6) plane geometry; 
( 7 ) or >e foreign language; (8) one of the natural 
sciences; (9) ancient, general, or English his¬ 
tory.® 

Many of the universities have a much higher 
standard of admission, some of them requiring a 
preparation fairly comparable with that for 
students entering the literary and scientific 
courses. Candidates for admission at Cornell, 
for example, must be at least 16 years of age 
and pass an examination in English, geography, 
physiology, and hygiene, history of the United 
States and England, Greece or Rome, plane 
geometry, elementary algebra, and at least two 
of the following subjects: Greek, Latin, French, 
German, and advanced mathematics. 

Courses of Study .— The courses of study in 
the separate colleges for agriculture and 
mechanic arts are not essentially different from 
those of the agricultural departments of the 
State universities, with the exception that in 
most cases the work of the separate colleges 
begins a little earlier and is not so much differ¬ 
entiated as that in the universities. Many of 
the separate agricultural colleges have, however, 
quite as high requirements for admission as any 
of the State universities, and do as high a grade 
of work as the best of them. On the whole, it 
appears that practical agriculture occupies the 
highest place in the separate colleges, though 
more research in the sciences pertaining to agri¬ 
culture is being carried on in the universities. 
In universities in which departments of agricul¬ 
ture are maintained, it may be said in general 
that the tendency is to make the four years’ 
course in agriculture correspond in scope and 
thoroughness with those in philosophy, sciences, 
and engineering. As more means are obtained, 
instruction in agriculture is divided among an 
increasing number of specialists, who are pro¬ 
vided with separate buildings, laboratories, and 
shops. It is characteristic of American State 
universities that they are seeing more clearly 
that agriculture and manufacturing are impor¬ 
tant human interests which may rightfully 
claim the best efforts of the greatest scientific 
intellects for their advancement, and that on 
the basis of agricultural sciences may be built 
a system of instruction in literature, mathe¬ 
matics, and technology which is as well or bet¬ 
ter adapted to produce scholars, investigators, 
and leaders in civilization as was the old philo¬ 
sophical or the pure science course. The courses 
of study in agriculture are variously, arranged. 
Nearly all these institutions maintain a four 
years’ course, which is made up usually of two 
years of preparatory sciences and general cul¬ 
ture studies, followed by two years of more 
advanced scientific and technical agricultural 
work, largely elective. At present there is little 
demand in our country for the all-around agri¬ 
cultural expert, and few colleges attempt to edu¬ 
cate them. Such an expert cannot be trained in 
four years, if at all. At present the. agricul¬ 
tural colleges content themselves with giv¬ 
ing their students a fair general knowledge 
of the sciences underlying agriculture, horti¬ 


culture, and the animal industry, with opportuni¬ 
ties to acquire experience in some one line of 
practical work. The arrangement of this four 
years’ course differs a good deal in different 
institutions, but the standard for it is laid in the 
reports adopted by the association of American 
agricultural colleges at its meetings in 1896-7. 

The course of study presents the largest 
problem now before the faculties of our col¬ 
leges. The present courses and methods have 
been criticised for their lack of (( pedagogical 
form,® for the (( confusion of studies,® and espe¬ 
cially for lack of <( orderly sequence in the 
progress of instruction® which has made the 
classical education and to a certain degree 
the scientific and engineering courses of our in¬ 
stitutes of technology processes commanding the 
respect of scholars the world over. These critics 
are in error when they speak of agriculture as 
an independent science, and propose to formu¬ 
late the instruction in it as they would that in 
chemistry or in biology. The fact is, agricul¬ 
ture is not a science but an art, and what we 
are attempting to do in these colleges is to carry 
out the injunction of the Act of Congress of 
1862 and <( teach the sciences (chemistry, physics, 
geology, biology, vegetable physiology, etc., each 
including numerous branches), related thereto.® 
For this reason the course of study in agricul¬ 
ture with good <( pedagogical form® must be 
made up of a course in chemistry and agricul¬ 
tural chemistry, a course in vegetable physiology, 
a course in the physiology of animals, a course 
in soil physics, etc.— many distinct courses. 
When the student has mastered all these it 
would seem to be possible, if he stays at the 
college long enough, to teach him in good (( peda- 
gogical form,® some of their applications in agri¬ 
culture. As Prof. Jordan, director of the Maine 
agricultural experiment station, has well said: 
(( The real and important need of which the 
farmer is* conscious is for a knowledge of con¬ 
ditions and not for methods or for skill in 
manipulation. When he clearly understands the 
reasons for that which goes on about him, the 
right method will appear. The difficulties lie 
with explanations, not with mechanical pro¬ 
cesses. And besides, agriculture is not a busi¬ 
ness involving such delicate and intricate 
mechanical operations that attendance upon a 
college would be justified in order to learn 
them, although the modern dairy, the forcing 
house, and the fruit garden do require skill. 
The spraying of fruit with fungicides and insec¬ 
ticides illustrates how readily the necessary 
manipulation was acquired when the reasons for 
these operations became evident. It is the ex¬ 
planation of phenomena, then, which the ex¬ 
tended course of study should give in order 
that the farmer may know how to adapt him¬ 
self to the varying and complex conditions which 
he meets in his work.® 

This is the real problem and one which the 
colleges and universities are working out with 
marked success. Perhaps the colleges and uni¬ 
versities having departments of agriculture are 
doing more immediate good to the largest num¬ 
ber of persons through their short courses and 
their special schools for dairying, horticulture, 
etc., than through the long course. These short 
courses are designed to meet the wants of young 
farmers who desire practical, helpful instruction 
in agriculture after leaving the high schools 
and before taking up their chosen vocations. 


AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 


A number of the colleges maintain courses in 
agriculture of 12 weeks beginning the first of 
January of each year. They usually include 
lectures on feeds and feeding, breeds of live 
stock, elementary agricultural chemistry, physics 
of soils, meteorology, elements of vegetable 
physiology, the chief facts of veterinary science, 
dairying, horticulture, and some of the leading 
facts of bacteriology. Courses are selected from 
these to meet the needs of special classes of 
students from different districts. Laboratory 
practice is usually given in soil physics, stock 
judging, dairying, vegetable physiology, and prac¬ 
tical horticulture. Other short courses are limited 
to the chemistry and bacteriology of milk and 
practical dairying, or to plant propagation, graft¬ 
ing, pruning, and practical horticulture. These 
courses are more largely attended than the four 
years’ course. The tendency at present seems 
to be to split up the four years’ course into 
special courses or to distribute among the dif¬ 
ferent short courses students who cannot attend 
the institution more than a few months at a 
time. It is encouraging to note that such stu¬ 
dents frequently return winter after winter for 
additional training. 

Expenses of Students .— The expenses of 
students in the agricultural colleges of the 
United States vary with the location and 
advantages offered. The tuition is uniformly 
free to all students pursuing the agricultural 
courses. It is customary to charge small fees 
to cover the actual expenses of material used in 
the laboratories and shops. Students pay their 
own board and personal expenses. Some insti¬ 
tutions give free lodgings, though a majority 
charge only the actual cost of the maintenance 
of the buildings, fuel, lights, etc. Many institu¬ 
tions have special funds with which to pay for 
student labor, which usually takes the form of 
a fixed allowance for work regularly performed. 
The total college expenses of a student will vary 
from $150 for a session of nine months at a 
Western or Southern college, located in the 
country, to $400 or $500 at a university in one 
of the Eastern States. More assistance and 
more opportunities for self-support are offered 
agricultural students than any others in our 
institutions. The tendency everywhere is to in¬ 
crease these opportunities and to reduce the ex¬ 
pense of the students of agriculture, while all 
the facilities provided them are constantly 
improved. 

Extension Work in Agriculture .— The farm¬ 
ers’ institute is to the adult farmer what the 
agricultural school is to his son. They were 
the outgrowth in part of the public meetings of 
agricultural societies and State boards of agri¬ 
culture, and in part of the extension work of 
colleges and universities. The object of these 
institutes is to bring the workers in the agricul¬ 
tural sciences and the practical agriculturists 
together for the discussion of questions of 
mutual interest. Through such discussion the 
farmer gets the benefit of the information which 
the scientist has obtained in the course of his 
investigations, and the scientist learns what the 
farmer’s needs and difficulties are. The results 
of the practical tests made by the farmer of the 
scientist’s theories are also brought out. By 
such conferences both classes of workers have 
their opinions and experiences broadened. Insti¬ 
tutes in the United States are carried on under 
all conceivable auspices; most commonly, how¬ 


ever, by the State commissioners, the State 
boards of agriculture, or the agricultural col¬ 
leges. In some States there is an independent 
organization with a secretary of institutes in 
charge. Some States make special appropria¬ 
tions for institutes, others merely allow a limited 
amount of the funds appropriated for the board 
of agriculture or college to be used for this 
purpose. Subjects connected with good roads, 
public education, and the interests of the home 
and farm are also discussed frequently. Those 
connected with sectarian religion or partisan 
politics should be carefully excluded, but almost 
any other topic of interest to the local community 
may properly find its place on the programme of 
a farmers’ institute. In States where institutes 
have beeen carefully planned and systematically 
conducted by competent persons they have be¬ 
come exceedingly popular, with the result that 
large appropriations are being made for them 
each year. Something like the farmers’ institute 
is now held in almost all the States in the Union. 

Closely related to the farmers’ institute are 
the various other methods of agricultural college 
extension work, such as co-operative field experi¬ 
ments, correspondence courses in agricultural 
sciences, reading circles for farmers, and itiner¬ 
ant agricultural schools. Co-operative field 
experiments were inaugurated soon after the 
establishment of the colleges for agriculture. 
The college or station makes plans and supplies 
the fertilizers or gives prescriptions for the 
same, with full directions as to methods of 
carrying out the experiments. The farmers re¬ 
port upon blanks prepared for the purpose, and 
the different results are compared and pub¬ 
lished. A great deal of good has been accom¬ 
plished in this way, especially in educating 
farmers as to the proper method of ^sing 
chemical manures. Similar methods have been 
used in testing seeds of field and garden crops, 
and in testing insecticide and fungicide materials 
and methods. Such co-operative experiments 
have done much to promote the study of scien¬ 
tific agriculture in the States, and especially to 
develop habits of observation among the younger 
farmers, who are always the ones to take hold 
of this work. 

Instruction by correspondence and by courses 
of home reading in agriculture have been well 
developed under the direction ' of the State 
College of Pennsylvania. The main features 
of the plan are, <( first, a carefully prepared 
course of reading designed to cover the most 
important branches of agricultural science and 
practice; second, a reduction of the price upon 
the books needed; third, personal advice and 
assistance through correspondence; fourth, ex¬ 
aminations upon the subjects read, with certifi¬ 
cates and diplomas for those attaining a certain 
grade of excellence.^ (( This course has attracted 
great attention at home and received numerous 
applications from farmer students, many of 
whom have done excellent work, completed the 
prescribed courses, and received certificates.* 
The courses have now been extended to include 
five subjects, with five books in each one; 
namely, crop production, animal production, hor¬ 
ticulture, dairying, and domestic economy. A 
supplemental list of 15 books is suggested from 
which students may select reading matter to 
form additional courses if they desire. The full 
course consists of the thorough study of to 
books, followed by an examination. Lessons are 


AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 


provided from the various books, and sent the 
students free of cost, in the form of printed slips. 

I hey give suggestions for study, observation, 
and experiment, with references to the books 
recommended. Each lesson is accompanied by 
an examination paper covering the particular 
subject. lhe students are expected to file 
answers to all these questions and discuss them 
before they receive the second lesson. 

1 he itinerant agricultural school, a still later 
scheme, has been best developed in the State 
of New York, under the so-called Nixon Bill, 
<( for the purpose of horticultural experiments, 
investigation, instruction, and information in New* 
York.® This bill placed the sum of $35,000 
under the control of the college of agriculture 
ac Cornell University for the two years 
1899-1900, and has enabled it to inaugurate a 
number of most interesting and promising ex¬ 
periments in promotion of agricultural know¬ 
ledge, especially of nature study in the com¬ 
mon schools. The itinerant agricultural school 
is one only of the plans now being tested by 
this institution. The meetings of these schools 
last two or more days. 

Agriculture in the Common Schools .— From 
the earliest time it has been the idea of the 
friends of agricultural education that instruction 
in this subject should be given in the common 
schools. The subject has been presented to the 
legislatures of many of the States, and by some 
it has been required to be taught. Any real 
instruction in agriculture must be based upon 
a knowledge of chemistry, geology, and the 
physiology of plants and animals. Such a know¬ 
ledge cannot be given to young children, and the 
old-fashioned school teacher, trained to study 
books, and not things, could give no instruction 
in nature or science. The whole system of edu¬ 
cation had to be revolutionized to prepare the 
way for the study of agriculture in the schools. 
Since the introduction of the natural method 
great progress has been made. Agricultural 
colleges have trained the professors, who, in 
normal schools have taught the teachers, who 
in turn have introduced the new methods in the 
common schools. The following extract relating 
to the Cornell attempt to introduce nature teach¬ 
ing into the rural schools is from ( Popular Edu¬ 
cation for the Farmer,> by A. C. True, Ph.D. 

There is every reason to believe that the plan of 
“ nature teaching,” as proposed by Cornell University, 
may prove a grand success and be a very great benefit 
to farmers’ children. The element of education which 
is at present most lacking in our common schools is 
the training of the powers of observation. The chil¬ 
dren need above all things else to be taught to ob¬ 
serve carefully and correctly and to state their ob¬ 
servations in clear terse language. The ordinary 
child, whether <?n the farm or in town, actually sees 
comparatively little in the world about him. The 
wonders of the trees and plants in park or meadow, 
of birds and insects flying, about the house, float like 
shadowy visions before his eyes. “ Seeing, he sees 
not.” He needs a teacher who can open his eyes and 
fix his mind on the realities among which his daily 
life is passed. This accurate observation of natural 
objects and facts is the only foundation on which sci¬ 
entific attainments can rest. The scientist is chiefly 
a man who sees better than his fellow men. But it 
is also a great help in practical life. Many farmers 
acquire much of this power by their own unaided 
efforts. And these are the very men who most regret 
that they did not have in early life the help of a 
trained teacher. The farmer’s child lives where he 
has the best opportunity for such training. It would 
benefit him in the practice of his art, and it would 
add an interest to his life which would do much to 
wean him from a desire to leave the farm for the 
turmoil and uncertain struggles of the town. With 
proper provision for the training of teachers in normal 


and other schools, it would be entirely feasible to 
have this nature teaching in all our common schools 
within a few years. It is such teaching that the 
child mind craves. With it the school becomes a de¬ 
lightful place and the teacher an angel of light. 

Thus far only a few attempts have been made in 
this country to provide agricultural instruction of the 
high school grade. It is true that some of the agri¬ 
cultural colleges receive students directly from the 
common schools, but the constant tendency is to raise 
the grade of instruction in these institutions to a col¬ 
lege basis and, under any conditions, they very im¬ 
perfectly perform the duties of secondary schools of 
agriculture. The University of Minnesota has in re¬ 
cent years maintained a school of agriculture in which 
instruction in agriculture of a lower grade than that 

f iven in the college of agriculture has been success- 
ully imparted. This school has proved quite popular. 
Some 300 students were in attendance last year, and 
it has been found desirable to offer courses for girls 
as well as. boys. The State of Alabama has re¬ 
cently provided for the maintenance of a school of 
agriculture of secondary grade in each of the nine con¬ 
gressional districts of the State. 

The establishment of such special schools of agri¬ 
culture of high school grade is greatly to be com¬ 
mended. One of the best effects of such schools at 
the present time is to show the people what distinc¬ 
tions should be drawn between colleges and high schools 
for agricultural education. By the separation of these 
grades of instruction the colleges will be enabled to do 
their work more efficiently, and better opportunities 
will be secured for those students whose previous 
training only fits them for high-school work in agri¬ 
culture. But it is not believed that these special agri¬ 
cultural high schools will fully meet the needs of our 
farmers for agricultural instruction of this grade. 
Any school so distant from the farmer’s home as to 
necessitate long journeys and residence at the school 
for two or more years must necessarily be too ex¬ 
pensive for most of the farmers’ children, especially 
after they have reached an age when their services 
may be more or less utilized on the farm. What is 
needed is courses in agriculture in numerous schools 
to which farmers’ children resort, near their homes, 
to “ finish ” their education after they are through 
with the common schools. 

Research in the sciences related to agricul¬ 
ture was always prominent in the minds of the 
advocates of agricultural education. After the 
agricultural colleges were firmly established, and 
the work of instruction was well under way, it 
became evident that the department of research 
in these institutions needed a special endowment 
and to be placed under a somewhat separate 
management. The funds provided were not suf¬ 
ficient for the purposes of instruction, and re¬ 
search and experiment were in danger of being 
neglected at the colleges so thronged were they 
with the young people who came to secure the 
benefits of this free tuition. 

Several of the land-grant colleges early at¬ 
tempted to establish separate departments for 
scientific research and practical experiments on 
the plan of the German experiment stations. The 
act establishing the agricultural college of 
Maryland, passed in 1856, contained a section 
requiring the college to establish a model farm 
and conduct (( a series of experiments upon the 
cultivation of cereals and other plants adapted 
to the latitude and climate of the State of Mary¬ 
land, and keep a careful record of the kind of 
soil upon which they were undertaken, the sys¬ 
tem of cultivation adopted, the state of the at¬ 
mosphere, and all other particulars which may 
be necessary to a fair and complete understand¬ 
ing of the results of said experiments.® This 
work was commenced in 1858 and continued two 
or three years only, when the Civil War stopped 
all the operations of the college. When Connec¬ 
ticut established her agricultural school in con¬ 
nection with the Sheffield Scientific School of 
Yale College, Samuel W. Johnson was appointed 
professor of agricultural chemistry, and experi¬ 
mental work was commenced. <( To the influence of 


AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 


the professors and pupils trained in this school, 
more than to any other single cause, is due the 
recognition of the importance of the establishment 
of agricultural experiment stations.® In 1870 
the trustees for the Massachusetts society for 
promoting agriculture granted to Harvard Col¬ 
lege a sum of money <( for the support of a labora¬ 
tory and for experiments in agricultural chemis¬ 
try to be conducted upon the Bussey estate.® 
A school of agriculture and horticulture had been 
founded upon the bequest of Benjamin Bussey. 
The work of the new institution commenced in 
1871. The experiments consisted of field tests 
of fertilizers and chemical analysis of commer¬ 
cial manures. The first report was published in 
December 1871. Other interesting and valuable 
work was done the next few years, but the 
commercial crisis of 1873 crippled the institution 
financially, and it has since been able to make 
comparatively few original investigations. 

At a meeting of the State Board of Agri¬ 
culture of Connecticut on 17 Dec. 1873 Prof. 
S. W. Johnson of New Haven, and Prof. 
W. O. Atwater of Wesleyan University, urged 
the establishment of an agricultural experiment 
station <( after the European pattern.® The result 
of this movement was that the State of Con¬ 
necticut made, in 1877, an appropriation of $5,000 
<( to promote agriculture by scientific investiga¬ 
tion and experiment.'® This station was first 
connected with the chemical laboratory of Wes¬ 
leyan University, at Middletown, which had been 
established by Orange Judd and was in charge of 
Prof. Atwater, but after two years it was reor¬ 
ganized under the direct control of the State 
and permanently loxated in the neighborhood 
of New Haven. The State of North Carolina 
established an agricultural experiment and fer¬ 
tilizer control station in connection with the 
State University at Chapel Hill, on 12 March 
1877. The Cornell University experiment sta¬ 
tion was organized by the faculty of that insti¬ 
tution in February 1879 without any special 
appropriation. The New Jersey station was 
organized in 1880. The Tennessee experiment 
station in 1882. From these beginnings the 
experiment stations multiplied in the States 
until 1887, when Congress passed the Experi¬ 
ment Station Act, known as the (< Hatch Act,® 
there were 17 stations already in existence. 

The stations were also authorized to publish 
annual reports of their operations, and (< bulletins 
or reports of progress® at least once in three 
months, which should be sent to <( each news¬ 
paper in the State, and such individuals actively 
engaged in farming as may request the same.® 
The franking privilege was given for station 
publications. In the annual appropriation bill 
for the Department of Agriculture for the 
fiscal year ending 30 June 1889, Congress estab¬ 
lished the office of experiment stations as a 
branch of the Department of Agriculture. It 
compiles and publishes the results of their 
work, and aids them in many ways. 

The work of the American Agricultural Ex¬ 
periment Station supplements that of the col¬ 
leges in many most important ways. It is fully 
described in the admirable publications issued by 
the office of experiment stations of the United 
States Department of Agriculture, to which the 
reader is referred for fuller information. See 
Agricultural Experiment Station. 


Consult: < Reports and Year Book of the 
United States Department of Agriculture.* 

Charles W. Dabney, 

President of the University of Cincinnati, Cin¬ 
cinnati, Ohio. 

Agricultural Experiment Station. An in¬ 
stitution for scientific research in agriculture. 
The modern agricultural experiment station 
owes its origin chiefly to the work of Boussin- 
gault and Liebig, born respectively in 1802 and 
1803, although the earlier work of Sir Hum¬ 
phrey Davy, De Saussure and others had pre¬ 
pared the way for that of these great chemists. 
During the third decade of the century Bous- 
singault established and for a few years main¬ 
tained a chemical laboratory on his farm, and 
there began the combination of field experiment 
with laboratory investigation which character¬ 
izes the experiment station of to-day. 

In 1837 a young Englishman, John Bennett 
Lawes (q.v.), began making experiments in 
the use of bone superphosphate on his ancestral 
estate at Rothamsted, near St. Albans, Hert¬ 
fordshire, about 25 miles northeast from Lon¬ 
don. The success of these experiments led 
him to engage in the manufacture of super¬ 
phosphate and also stimulated a desire for fur¬ 
ther investigation, and after some years of 
preliminary work, in 1843 he associated with 
himself Dr. Joseph Henry Gilbert, a young 
chemist and a recent pupil of Liebig, and the 
two entered upon a systematic line of research 
which has been continued without material 
change of original plan until the present day. 
For more than half a century these two men 
worked together; both received the well earned 
honor of knighthood, and before his death, 
which occurred in 1900, Sir John Lawes made 
provision for the permanent continuance of the 
work, under what is now known as the <( Lawes 
Agricultural Trust.® 

The feature of the work of Lawes and Gil¬ 
bert which distinguished it from anything that 
had previously been undertaken, except the 
work of Boussingault, was the combination of 
systematic and long continued field and feeding 
experiments with parallel investigations con¬ 
ducted in the chemical laboratory, in which the 
principal agricultural plants adapted to the 
English climate are grown both continuously on 
the same land and in various 'rotations, the 
composition of the crops and of the soils upon 
which they are grown being determined from 
time to time, and in which large numbers of 
animals have been fed over long periods and 
under such conditions that it was possible to 
determine the chemical elements consumed in 
the food and the proportion of each utilized by 
the animal. Extensive detours have also been 
made into other fields of chemical research, 
especially that of the assimilation of nitrogen 
by plants. For many years several general as¬ 
sistants have been employed, including chem¬ 
ists, botanists, computers and other help. The 
entire expense of this work has been met by 
the originator, except that a chemical labora¬ 
tory was presented to him some years ago in 
recognition of the value of his work. 

In 1851 a small company of Saxon farmers, 
organized as the Agricultural Society of Leip- 
sic, incited by the revelations of Liebig and 
Boussingault (q.v.), who were then in the 
full zenith of their work, employed a young 


AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 


chemist, Emil von Wolff, and started him in 
the experimental study of agricultural prob¬ 
lems, especially those related to the feeding of 
animals. In a few years the government was 
induced to assume the cost of this work, and 
thus was established at Moeckern, near Leipsic, 
the first public agricultural experiment station 
in the world. 

In the United States attempts at experimental 
research in agriculture were undertaken at the 
Agricultural High School, afterwards State 
College, of Pennsylvania; at the Michigan Agri¬ 
cultural College, and at the Maryland Agricul¬ 
tural College, all established between 1854 and 
1858, and later several of the institutions organ¬ 
ized under the National Agricultural College 
act of 2 July 1862, undertook some investiga¬ 
tions of this character. 

The first regularly organized agricultural 
experiment station in America was established 
at Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn., in 
i 875 > under the directorship of Dr. W. O. 
Atwater, a young chemist who had become en¬ 
thused with the idea while studying in Ger¬ 
many. For the inauguration of this work 
private initiative was necessary; Mr. Orange 
Judd, then editor and proprietor of the Amer¬ 
ican Agriculturist,> contributed $1,000 on con¬ 
dition that the State should appropriate $2,800 
for the support of the station for two years. 
This offer was accepted and work was be¬ 
gun in October of that year. In 1877 at the 
expiration of this period the State assumed the 
entire support of the station, and it wa. re¬ 
moved to New Haven. 

Similar stations were established by North 
Carolina in 1877; by New Jersey in 1880; by 
New York and Ohio in 1882; and by Massa¬ 
chusetts in 1883. During this period also sev¬ 
eral of the agricultural colleges organized 
'their research work on a more definite basis, 
and by 1887 there were 17 stations in operation 
in 14 States. 

In 1883 a bill was introduced in the House 
of Representatives of the National Congress 
by C. C. Carpenter, of Iowa, providing for 
the establishment of experiment stations in 
•connection with the colleges of agriculture, but 
it was not voted upon. In the next Congress 
Mr. Cullen, of Illinois, introduced a bill pro¬ 
viding for a grant of $15,000 annually to each 
State and Territory for this purpose. This bill 
was re-introduced in the following Congress 
by William H. Hatch, of Missouri, and after 
being so amended as to authorize States, in 
which experiment stations independent of the 
-agricultural colleges had been previously es¬ 
tablished, to use the grant in support of such 
independent stations — a proviso applying to 
the five stations above mentioned—the bill 
became a law on 2 March 1887. 

Under this law experiment stations have been 
•established in every State and Territory in the 
United States, 50 such stations being enumer- 
• ated in 1904 — the fund being divided between 
two stations each in Connecticut and New 
York; while additional stations have been es¬ 
tablished under State or territorial support in 
Alabama, Hawaii, Louisiana and Missouri, and 
in several of the States substations or test 
farms have been established under State sup¬ 
port, but as adjuncts to the regular stations. 
In addition to these the National Government 


has established stations in Alaska, Hawaii and 
Porto Rico. 

In 1904 the stations organized under the act 
of 1887, commonly known as the “Hatch Act,® 
had a total income of $1,508,820.25, of which 
$ 7 i 9 > 999-67 was received from the National 
Government, the remainder, $788,820.58, coming 
from State appropriations, fees, sales of pro¬ 
duce and other sources. The stations em¬ 
ployed that year 795 persons in the work of 
administration and research, and published 393 
annual reports and bulletins, which were sent to 
nearly 700,000 addresses. 

The following are among the principal sub¬ 
jects under investigation by the American sta¬ 
tions: (1) The soil: its physics, chemistry, and 

biology; including tillage, drainage, irrigation 
and the maintenance of fertility by crop rota¬ 
tion and the use of manures and fertilizers. 
(2) The plant: its physiology, chemistry, nutri¬ 
tion and pathology; the introduction of new 
varieties; improvement in productiveness by 
selection and breeding; the control of fungous 
and bacterial diseases and injurious insects; 
the various phases of forestry. (3) Animals: 
the special adaptations of the various breeds; 
the chemistry of animal foods and the econom¬ 
ics of feeding; dairying and its manifold prob¬ 
lems ; the control of animal diseases. 

In addition to the work above outlined, 
several States have laid upon the stations cer¬ 
tain lines of police work, such as the inspection 
of fertilizers, seeds, drugs, foods and anima.1 
feeding stuffs for the prevention of adultera¬ 
tion ; that of live stock to prevent communica¬ 
tion of animal diseases, and that of orchards 
and nurseries for the control of insect pests 
and fungous diseases; but such work is not 
scientific research; it frequently interferes ma¬ 
terially with the conduct of such research, and 
is more properly an executive function of the 
state government. In some States it is so rec¬ 
ognized. 

Under the provisions of the Hatch Act the 
stations are governed under the laws of their 
respective States, the National Government ex¬ 
ercising no control except to make sure, 
through annual financial reports from the sta¬ 
tions and through personal visits by officers of 
the Office of Experiment Stations of the De¬ 
partment of Agriculture, that the money appro¬ 
priated by Congress is being expended for the 
purpose designated in the national law. 

The stations, in connection with the colleges 
of agriculture, have organized an “Association 
of American Agricultural Colleges and Experi¬ 
ment Stations,® which meets annually at some 
point in the United States for the discussion of 
matters pertaining to their work, and the Office 
of Experiment Stations publishes a monthly 
journal, the Experiment Station Record,* in 
which notices or summaries are given, not only 
of the publications of the American stations, 
but also of the scientific agricultural publica¬ 
tions of the world. 

While this work has been thus extending in 
the United States it has also spread over most 
of the civilized world, 728 such institutions 
being enumerated in other countries in a bul¬ 
letin of the Office of Experiment Stations, pub¬ 
lished in 1904. The only countries in which 
experiment stations were not found in that year 
were Greece, China, Turkey, Russia, Afghanis- 


AGRICULTURE 


tan, Beluchistan, Mexico, Central America, Bo¬ 
livia, Colombia, Ecuador, Patagonia, Peru, Uru¬ 
guay, and Venezuela. 

The European stations as a rule are con¬ 
fined to single lines of investigation, and very 
often to inspection work merely, whereas the 
American station generally embraces several 
co-ordinate departments, each with a chief and 
one or more assistants and helpers, all working 
under the general supervision of a single di¬ 
rector. Many of the European stations would 
be classed as substations in America. Another 
point of difference is that in Europe the sta¬ 
tions are very generally limited to laboratory 
work, whereas in America, England and the 
English colonies the laboratories are generally 
used as adjuncts to field investigation. 

The rapid extension of this work through¬ 
out the world and the large and constantly 
increasing sums of money devoted to it are 
sufficient evidence that it has obtained and holds 
the confidence of the people; but this position 
has been attained rather through the gradual 
substitution by the stations’ investigations of 
demonstrated facts for the theories which had 
previously held sway in agriculture than by 
epoch-making discoveries, although a few of 
these also are to be placed to the credit of 
these institutions. 

It was the Rothamsted Station which dem¬ 
onstrated that leguminous plants do not absorb 
and fix the free air nitrogen of the air through 
their foliage, a demonstration which cleared the 
way for the solution of a mystery which had 
puzzled the student of plant growth for many 
years, and Dr. S. M. Babcock, of the Wisconsin 
Station, perfected a method of determining the 
fat in milk, which has been adopted throughout 
the world, and for which a medal was voted to 
him by the legislature of his State; but it is 
the patient, plodding work, by which a body of 
exact knowledge in agriculture is being slowly 
accumulated, which has been the chief factor 
in winning confidence and support. 

On 15 Feb. 1906 a bill, introduced by H. 
C. Adams of Wisconsin, passed the House of 
Representatives by a unanimous vote, increas¬ 
ing the national allotment to the experiment 
stations by $5,000 for each State for 1906, this 
amount to be increased by $2,000 annually until 
the total shall reach $15,000, at which amount 
it is to remain, thus making the total appro¬ 
priations for this purpose from the general 
government $30,000 annually for each station. 

Charles E. Thorne, 

Director Agricultural Experiment Station, 

Wooster, Ohio. 

Agricultural Machinery. See American 
Farm Implements. 

Agriculture, in its strict signification, is 
the art of cultivating the earth for the purpose 
of causing it to produce more abundantly roots, 
plants, and seeds suitable for the sustenance or 
service of man, and for the support of the ani¬ 
mals domesticated in his service. It was the 
first and has always been the most extensively 
practised of the arts. 

In its accepted meaning, however, agriculture 
not only includes the tillage of the soil and the 
cultivation of crops, but also the rearing and 
feeding of all kinds of farm live stock, and in 
some instances the manufacture of the products 


of the farm into such forms as may be more con¬ 
venient or more valuable for use or for sale. 
The manufacture of butter and that of cheese 
constitute recognized branches of the art of 
agriculture. The distinction between arable agri¬ 
culture, which includes the cultivation of the 
ground and the growth of crops, and pastoral 
agriculture, which comprises merely the feed¬ 
ing and management of the flocks and herds of 
the farm, has been observed since the earliest 
times: <( Abel was a keeper of sheep, but Cain 
was a tiller of the ground.® In modern times,, 
and probably in some degree at all times within 
the historical period, the practice of arable agri¬ 
culture has been commonly associated in greater 
or less degree with the keeping and tending of 
live stock; but over immense tracts of the 
world’s surface that are unfitted for arable cul¬ 
tivation the practice of pastoral agriculture still 
prevails, as the ancient days, wholly unmixed 
with the plodding labors of the husbandman. 

All the great nations of antiquity which had 
attained to any degree of civilization, the Chi¬ 
nese, the Assyrians and Babylonians, the Phoeni¬ 
cians, and the Egyptians, appear to have held the 
art of husbandry in high esteem, and numerous 
references to agriculture and its practices are 
found scattered throughout all ancient literature. 

The agricultural practices of Palestine are 
the subject of repeated allusions in the books 
of both the Old and New Testaments, and 
among the Greeks agriculture was described by 
such authors as Hesiod and Xenophon. The 
Romans attained very high perfection in agri¬ 
culture, and the Latin literature devoted to 
this subject alone appears to have been extensive. 
Its authors include, among others, the names of 
Columella, who wrote a complete treatise on 
agriculture in 12 books, Vergil, whose ( Geor- 
gics ) constitute the most famous of the classical 
poems on agriculture, as well as Varro, Pliny, 
and others. 

It was in all probability during the Roman 
occupation that agriculture in Britain first at¬ 
tained the position of an art, but during the 
disturbed period of the Anglo-Saxon conquest 
its practice fell into inevitable neglect, and the 
Roman principles of culture were forgotten 
through disuse. When society became more set¬ 
tled, agriculture again revived, especially after 
the introduction of Christianity among the 
Anglo-Saxons. Under the feudal system intro¬ 
duced by the Normans, agriculture was long 
neglected in favor of war and the chase, crops 
were sacrificed to game, and laborers were 
starved that nobles might have sport. For sev¬ 
eral centuries agriculture made no progress, and 
its English literature did not commence till 
nearly 500 years after the battle of Senlac. This 
literature began with Sir Anthony Fitzherbert’s 
( Book of Husbandry,> published in 1525, which 
was followed half a century later by Tusser’s- 
metrical ( Five Hundred Points of Good Hus¬ 
bandry^ 

About the middle of the 17th century the 
field cultivation of clover and of turnips was 
introduced into England by Sir Richard Weston 
and gradually extended. Blith’s ( English Im¬ 
proved was published in 1649, and the ( Legacy 
or Discourse on Husbandry, ) by Hartlib, a fol¬ 
lower of Cromwell, and a friend of Milton, in 
1650. By the end of the century a number of 
other works on agriculture had been produced. 



TWENTY-FOUR DOUBLE-ROW CULTIVATORS IN OPERATION 







































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* 


. 











AGRICULTURE 


In the succeeding century still greater pro¬ 
gress was made, of which the first steps were 
due to Jethro Tull, a gentleman of Berkshire, 
and to Lord Townshend. In Tull’s < Horse- 
Hoeing Husbandry,) published in 1731, was first 
advocated the system of sowing crops in drills 
or rows so wide that cultivation could be car¬ 
ried on between them. To Townshend belongs 
the credit of the introduction of the Norfolk 
or four-course rotation, which is still widely 
practised, and which has formed the basis of all 
the rotations of crops since adopted on light 
and medium land. The next great name is that 
of Robert Bakewell (1725-94), who discovered 
the method of improving live stock by judicious 
mating and selection. He formed the new 
Leicester sheep, which surpassed all pre-existing 
breeds in early maturity and fattening pro¬ 
pensity, and thus exemplified the principles by 
which all breeds of farm live stock have since 
been improved. His methods were soon after 
applied with like success to the Southdown, the 
Cheviot, and other breeds. Bakewell’s Leices¬ 
ter were also extensively used to improve other 
sheep breeds by crossing. The same principles, 
applied in the end of the century to cattle by the 
brothers Colling, produced from the native Tees- 
water or Durham the Shorthorn, which has be¬ 
come celebrated as one of the valuable breeds. 
The improved Shorthorn has been even more 
extensively used in the improvement of other 
breeds of cattle than the Leicester in sheep. 
Herefords were subjected to similar selective 
treatment by Tomkins. 

Other notable events of the 18th century were 
the rapid extension of the cultivation of the po¬ 
tato, which only attained a position of im¬ 
portance among field crops in England about 
the middle, and in Scotland in the latter half 
of the century. In this period were also founded 
the leading agricultural societies, which have ex¬ 
ercised such a powerful influence in the educa¬ 
tion of farmers and the advancement of agri¬ 
culture. These included the Highland and 
Agricultural Society of Scotland, founded in 
1774; the Bath and West of England Agricul¬ 
tural Society, founded three years later; and 
the Smithfield Club, founded in 1793. In the 
same year there was established, chiefly through 
the exertions of the celebrated Sir John Sinclair, 
the first Board of Agriculture, which continued 
till 1816. Sir John Sinclair was its first presi¬ 
dent, and its first secretary was the famous 
Arthur Young, whose graphic descriptions of 
agricultural practices at home and abroad con¬ 
tributed in no slight degree to .the general im¬ 
provement of agriculture. 

The history of American agriculture is a 
continuation of that of Europe so far as the 
methods and implements of the home-land were 
introduced by colonists in the New World, and 
with the exception of the raising of cotton and 
tobacco by the people of the Southern seaboard 
the early agriculture of the country was nothing 
more than the production of food for home or 
near-by consumption. Even so late as the begin¬ 
ning of the 18th century very little progress had 
been made, the old ways still holding their own. 
The development of agriculture in Great Britain 
and Europe, as outlined above, had its echo in 
America, but really substantial advance was not 
made until the wonderful achievements of the 
next century accomplished more for the world s 


benefit in decades than had been gained before 
in centuries. In considering the causes that 
produced this astonishing advancement and 
turned an industry into a science we will find 
in the last analysis that the prime agency was 
the improvement in the means and methods of 
transportation. The general adoption of power 
propulsion made it possible to market crops from 
lands that were otherwise outside the pale of 
cultivation, so the great fertile plains of the 
Mississippi and its tributaries, and the vast areas 
of Australia, Russia, and South America were 
added to the food-producing regions of the 
world. The possibility of marketing the prod¬ 
ucts of these remote lands created a demand for 
machinery to make good the lack of laborers; 
then as the good soils became exhausted, or the 
pressure of demand necessitated additional 
supplies from cultivated land, the problems pre¬ 
sented were solved by the labors of scientists, 
who brought chemistry to the aid of the tiller, 
and agriculture ceased to be a haphazard means 
of livelihood, becoming, even, almost independ¬ 
ent of the vagaries of the seasons. The impor¬ 
tance to the farmer of the application of power 
to the labors of the farm is shown by the state¬ 
ment of an official of the Department of Agri¬ 
culture, who states that the amount of human 
labor necessary to produce a bushel of wheat 
was reduced in 66 years from three hours and 
three minutes to an average of about ten min¬ 
utes, while the cost of that labor fell from 
cents to 2>V2 cents a bushel. 

The improvement in every line of human en¬ 
deavor that comes through competition has not 
failed in agriculture, and it is no longer an ac¬ 
ceptable reason for raising certain crops on a 
farm that they always have been raised there. 
The successful agriculturist looks upon his farm 
as a business plant, and strives in every possible 
way to get from that plant the maximum of 
product, fitting his crops to the peculiarities of 
the soil, or, if need be, fitting the soil to the 
requirements of the crops his market demands. 
Even the smallest farmer has the world for his 
market, for the apples raised on the hillside's of 
Vermont are sold in the markets of New Or¬ 
leans, London, and Paris, and the small fruits 
and vegetables of the southern States are found 
in the far north at midwinter. The farmer has 
come to realize the value of such modern aids 
to business as the advertising pages of the news¬ 
papers, and it is no rare thing to find an up- 
country producer offering his products through 
the medium of the great metropolitan dailies. 
So agriculture has awakened with a start, and 
in great leaps and bounds placed herself in the 
front ranks of the century’s progress. 

The division of labor in agriculture has, as 
in other productive occupations, become a fea¬ 
ture of the age. Although the farmer should 
still be somewhat of an « all-around man,® he no 
longer requires to be a plow-wright, farm-imple¬ 
ment maker, harness-maker, woodman, etc., but 
may devote his entire attention to the more im¬ 
mediate demands of his vocation. 

But farming itself has come very extensively 
under the influence of this division of labor, and 
each successful husbandman devotes his atten¬ 
tion to a particular branch rather than attempt 
the cultivation of every farm product needed for 
home consumption. One is a wool-grower, an¬ 
other breeds horses or raises beef, or devotes 


AGRICULTURE 


his attention to dairying, or market gardening, 
or fruit growing, or some other specialty. Often 
a single crop, as tobacco, onions, potatoes, or 
wheat, receives his principal efforts. 

Among a great variety of new and improved 
methods in tillage and soil improvements belong¬ 
ing to the century, tile drainage and sub-surface 
irrigation by means of pipes are instances of 
marked advance over old practices. 

Ensilage, for forage has been a long stride in 
the economical preparation and conservation of 
cattle food. By its means not only is it possible 
to furnish farm animals with a palatable and 
succulent food at all seasons, but an important 
saving of forage, and of labor in securing it, 
is effected. The introduction of silage as a cat¬ 
tle food marks the dawn of an intensive hus¬ 
bandry hitherto unknown, making it possible to 
increase greatly the number of animals kept on 
a given area, and correspondingly to increase 
the food supply for the human family. 

The winter feeding of farm animals is no 
longer the task of a century ago, but has be¬ 
come a simple problem. Indeed, so easy has 
winter feeding become, that pasturage, the bless¬ 
ing of our fathers, has by comparison become 
difficult, and feeders are becoming keenly alive 
to the needs of a better system of summer feed¬ 
ing than pasturage alone affords. 

Ever since the patriarch Jacob outwitted his 
father-in-law in the division of their flocks and 
herds by the use of « peeled rods,» the art of 
breeding has been more or less faithfully pur¬ 
sued. If we may judge of the results, however, 
this century has witnessed more progress in 
many directions than the 3,000 years preceding. 

Practically all the improved breeds of swine 
belong to the more recent period. Sheep have 
undergone a marked transition in fleshing prop¬ 
erties, and certain breeds have made no less con¬ 
spicuous gains in the quality of their fleece. A 
sheep producing 52 pounds of wool in 13 
months was unheard of a generation ago. 

The beef breeds of cattle would hardly rec¬ 
ognize their ancestors of a century ago as of 
the same race, while dairy cows of that time 
would forget their cud in contemplation of a 
Pieterje II., with a record of over 30,000 pounds 
of milk in a single year. 

As instances of remarkable development in 
horses within the century may be mentioned the 
American trotter and the Kentucky gaited sad¬ 
dler. In the former instance the unnatural trot 
and pace, by selection, breeding, development, 
and training, have acquired the speed of a mile 
in 2 minutes 2^4 seconds and 1 minute 59J4 
seconds, respectively, with a long list of per¬ 
formers of miles faster than 2:10. The per¬ 
fection of a breed of horses taking each of five 
different gaits at a word from their riders, 
which every Kentucky gaited saddler must do, 
is another monument to the agricultural skill of 
the age. 

In the diversity of talents used by husband¬ 
men, those of the chemist play an important 
role. Evidence of this is found in the Wolff- 
Lehmann and other feeding standards. By pa¬ 
tient study extending over a long period of time 
and a large number of animals, tables have been 
arranged showing the food requirements of all 
common domestic animals in all ordinary condi¬ 
tions of use. The chemical composition of feed¬ 
ing stuffs has been accurately determined. The 


percentages of nutrients — albuminoids, fat, and 
carbohydrates (starch, sugar, fibre, etc.)—di¬ 
gested by animals have been worked out and re¬ 
corded. Numerous tests have been made to 
determine the most advantageous amounts and 
proportions of these nutrients for each of the 
various purposes for which animals are kept. 

These results, compiled, arranged, and pub¬ 
lished, give the feeder information of inesti¬ 
mable value in the profitable pursuit of his voca¬ 
tion. These studies and investigations have not 
only proved of great advantage in feeding 
animals, but have resulted at the same time in 
the discovery of principles of human nutrition 
having an important bearing on man’s subsist¬ 
ence. 

Great strides have been made in methods of 
preventing and overcoming animal diseases, de¬ 
serving of far more extended mention than it is 
possible here to make. The discoveries of Dr. 
Koch, resulting in the preparation of tuberculin 
as a diagnostic for consumption in cattle; the 
inoculation of cattle, rendering them immune 
from Texas fever heretofore considered fatal to 
all improved breeds; the successful potassium 
iodide treatment for milk fever; and a host of 
other discoveries,— have marked the century in 
veterinary achievements. 

The occupation of the drover has passed 
away with the advent of railroad transportation 
of farm animals. While this belongs to the sub¬ 
ject of commerce, it is of incalculable impor¬ 
tance to agriculture as well. A very large share 
of the developments of husbandry may be 
ascribed to the opening up of the country by the 
grand facilities for transportation that now an¬ 
nihilate both time and space. Interstate and 
transoceanic traffic in live stock have recently 
been greatly improved by mechanical and scien¬ 
tific efforts until our cattle travel with a degree 
of safety and comfort not experienced by our 
human ancestors of a century gone. 

It is said that among the early town records 
of Hadley, Mass., is an entry to the effect that 
the cows gave so little milk through the winter 
that the babies had to take cider as a substitute. 
Could the mothers of those babies go to Had¬ 
ley now and observe the methods whereby win¬ 
ter has become the principal dairy season in the 
region, would they not feel that their lives were 
lived too soon? 

Contrast the tedious and laborious setting of 
milk in shallow crocks for two days, then re¬ 
moving the cream with a piece of perforated 
tin, allowing it to sour in the kitchen, acquiring 
the aroma of boiled dinners in transit, churning 
with a dash churn and kneading by hand, with 
the new process of converting fresh milk into 
« butter for breakfast in a minute and a half.» 

Co-operative butter- and cheese-making has 
transferred this work from the kitchen of the 
busy housewife to the factory of the expert, to 
the great advantage of the product and satisfac¬ 
tion of the wearied housewife. 

Perhaps the most interesting achievement of 
all is the discovery of organic ferments which 
ripen or sour cream in butter-making, and the 
study of the specific effects of each of more 
than a hundred different species of these organ¬ 
isms upon the quality of butter. A practical 
side of this study is found in the present prac¬ 
tice of selecting pure cultures of bacteria for 
cream-ripening, thus avoiding those forms pro- 



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A COMBINED STEAM HARVESTER AT WORK IN THE FIELD. 

'I lie greatest of all agricultural machines, which heads the grain, threshes it clean, and lays it in bags in piles on the ground. 














































AGRICULTURE 


ducing bad flavors and other undesirable quali¬ 
ties. 

In several large establishments milk is now 
being modified by changing the proportions of 
its constituents to make it closely resemble 
human milk, and for other specific purposes in 
the feeding of infants, and it has even been 
made without the intervention of the cow. 

During the past 40 years agricultural col¬ 
leges have sprung up in each of the United 
States, doing work calculated to make the 20th- 
century agriculture far superior to that of the 
past. 

Hand in hand with this educational work, 
investigations have been extended into all the 
varied fields of husbandry. Insects are yielding 
up their life’s history, revealing facts suggestive 
of methods of protecting our interests against 
their ravages. Microscopic organisms reveal a 
power in nature till now undreamed of, disclos¬ 
ing among their numbers our warm friends and 
our most deadly foes. It has become possible to 
measure in heat and motion the energy in every 
pound of food fed to our animals. The calori¬ 
meter faithfully measures every gram of gas 
exhaled from balance between the intake and 
outgo, and notes the expenditure of energy in 
every movement of body or limb. Even the ec¬ 
centricities of the weather are not allowed to 
pass unnoted. Forecasts of storm advise the 
haymaker to be on his guard, and frosts are not 
allowed to spring upon the ungathered crop un¬ 
announced. 

Under their specific names the reader will 
find statistics for each crop, and further informa¬ 
tion on the general subject may be found under 
the titles Agricultural Chemistry ; Agricul¬ 
tural Experiment Stations; Drainage; Irri¬ 
gation, etc. 

Bibliography. — From the beginning of the 
19th century interest in agriculture has called 
forth a very large number of works, both gen¬ 
eral and special, and also a long list of period¬ 
icals, some of which are devoted to individual 
products of the farm. 

The following list of mainly American and 
British writings has been selected as representa¬ 
tives of the general subject and its main 
branches. Important specific works are men¬ 
tioned under the particular subjects of which 
they treat: 

General .— Allen, < New American Farm 
Book); Bailey, (Principles of Agriculture); 
Brooks, (Agriculture); Emerson and Flint, 
< Manual of Agriculture J ; Fairchild, ( Rural 
Wealth and Welfare); King, ( Physics of Agri¬ 
culture); Loudon, < Encyclopaedia of Agri¬ 
culture ); Mortimer, < The Whole Art of 
Husbandry >; Morton’s < A Cyclopaedia of Agri¬ 
culture) and (Handbook of the Farm >; Periam, 
(The American Encyclopaedia of Agriculture); 
Roberts, (The Farmstead); Tull, (Horse- 
Hoeing Husbandry); Voorhees, (First Princi¬ 
ples of Agriculture); Wilcox and Smith, 
(Farmers’ Cyclopaedia of Agriculture); Young, 
(Annals of Agriculture.) 

(A History of Agriculture and Prices in Eng¬ 
land from 1259 to 1793,) by James E. Thorold 
Rogers (8 vols., 1866-98), is a work of immense 
research and monumental significance, undertak¬ 
ing to recover aspects of the history of the people 
of England which contemporary records of prices 
give the means of knowing. It sheds light not 


merely on agriculture, but on politics, political 
economy, etc., even education, and revolutionizes 
some accepted views. 

Crops. — Flint, < Grasses and Forage >; Shaw, 
(Forage Crops Other Than Grasses,) and 

< Soiling Crops and the Silo.) For bibliography 
on individual crops see specific titles. 

Drainage and Irrigation. — King, < Irriga¬ 
tion and Drainage); Miles, (Land Drainage); 
Waring’s (Drainage for Profit and Drainage 
for Health); (Report of the Massachusetts 

Drainage Commission ); and < Sewerage and 
Drainage); Wilcox, (Irrigation Farming.) 

Flowers, Fruits, Vegetables, etc. — Bailey’s 
(Evolution of Our Native Fruits); (Principles 
of Fruit Growing); and Principles of Vegetable 
Growing); Bailey and Miller, (Cyclopedia of 
American Horticulture); (Barry’s Fruit Gar¬ 
den); Cara, (Bush Fruits); Fuller’s (The 
Nut Culturist,) and (The Small Fruit Cul- 
turist'); Harcourt, ( Florida Fruits and How to 
Raise Them); Henderson’s (Gardening for 
Profit,) and < Practical Floriculture >; Lode- 
man, (The Spraying of Plants); Nicholls, (A 
Text-Book of Tropical Gardening); Oemler, 
(Truck Farming in the South) ; Thomas, 

( American Fruit Culturist >; Waugh’s •< Fruit 
Harvesting, Storing, Marketing, etc.,) and ( Sys¬ 
tematic Pomology); Wickson, (California 
Fruits.) 

Historical. —Daubeny, < Lectures on Roman 
Husbandry); Flint, (One Plundred Years’ Pro¬ 
gress); Hoskyns, (Short Inquiry into the His¬ 
tory of Agriculture >; Prothen, < The Pioneers 
and Progress of English Farming); Rawlinson, 
( Ancient Egypt } ; Rogers, ( History of Agricul¬ 
ture and Prices in England ); Stephens, < Book 
of the Farm.) 

Live-Stock and Dairy. — Aikman, (Milk, Its 
Nature and Composition); Craig, (Judging 
Live-Stock >; Curtis, < Horses, Cattle, Sheep, 
and Swine); Decker, (Cheese-Making); Felch, 
(Poultry Culture); Henry, (Feeds and Feed¬ 
ing); Jordan, (Feeding of Animals); Miles, 
(Stock-Breeding); Robinson, (Poultry Craft); 
Shaw’s ( Animal Breeding,* and ( Study of 
Breeds); Stewart’s (Feeding Animals,) and 
(Shepherd’s Manual); Wallace’s (Farming In¬ 
dustries of Cape Colony >; < Farm Live-Stock 
of Great Britain); (India in 1887); and (The 
Rural Economy and Agriculture of Australia 
and West Zealand >; Wing, < Milk, Its Prod¬ 
ucts); Wright’s (New Poultry Book,) and 
( Practical Poultry Keeper.) 

Manures. — Aikman, < Manures and the 
Principles of Manuring); Griffith, (Treatise on 
Manures); Harlan, (Farming with Green Ma¬ 
nures); Harris, (Talks on Manures); Sempers, 
(Manures: How to Make and How to Use 
Them.) 

Soil. — King, < The Soil >; Roberts, < The 
Fertility of the Land.) 

Periodicals. — < American Gardening,)' New 
York; (Farm and Fireside,) Springfield, Ohio; 

< Farm and Home,) Springfield, Mass.; < Farm¬ 
er’s Advocate,) London, Ont.; < Farmers’ Re¬ 
view,) Chicago; < Farm Journal,) Philadelphia; 
(Florists’ Exchange,) New York; (Michigan 
Farmer,) Detroit; (Practical Farmer,) Phila¬ 
delphia. 

Agriculture, Department of, an executive 
department of the United States, whose head 
is a member of the Cabinet with the title sec- 


AGRICULTURE 


retary of agriculture. It was formed early in 
1889 under President Cleveland, the first sec¬ 
retary being Norman J. Colman, of Missouri; 
he was succeeded in the same year, under Presi¬ 
dent Harrison, by Jeremiah M. Rusk, of Wis¬ 
consin ; in 1893 President Cleveland in his sec¬ 
ond term appointed J. Sterling Morton, of Ne¬ 
braska ; in 1897 President McKinley appointed 
James Wilson, of Iowa, who still holds it 
(1902). Its germ was a distribution of seeds to 
farmers by the Commissioner of Patents in 
1836, enlarged by Congress in 1839 to include 
the prosecution of agricultural investigations 
and collection of agricultural statistics; in 1854 
a special appropriation was made and an ento¬ 
mologist employed; in 1855 a chemist and bota¬ 
nist were added and a propagating garden be¬ 
gun. In 1862 the Agricultural Bureau was es¬ 
tablished separate from the Patent Office, and 
President Lincoln appointed Isaac Newton, of 
Pennsylvania, Commissioner of Agriculture; the 
last Commissioner was Mr. Colman, the first 
Secretary. The Department’s quarters in 
Washington are in a large park near the 
Washington Monument. Its functions are ex¬ 
pressed by statute as: «To acquire and dif¬ 

fuse among the people of the United States 
useful information on subjects connected with 
agriculture in the most general and compre¬ 
hensive sense of that word, and to procure, 
propagate, and distribute among the people 
new and valuable seeds and plants»; but sci¬ 
entific and administrative duties have been 
heaped upon it till it has become not only an 
enormous workshop and museum of every class 
of scientific research relating to plant and ani¬ 
mal life and that of agricultural animals, but an 
establishment of practical services in trade and 
commerce, quarantine, statistics, tree-planting, 
road-making, irrigation, insecticides, and almost 
everything that can affect the interests of those 
engaged in raising and marketing all articles 
that grow from the ground or living things that 
feed on them. Even the Weather Bureau was 
transferred to it, in 1891, from the War De¬ 
partment. Its publication department is im¬ 
mense, and includes a < Year-Book,) regular 

< Farmers’ Bulletins,) and a monthly list of pub¬ 
lications, all sent free to applicants or obtainable 
through members of Congress. The periodicals, 

< Experiment Station Record,) < Monthly 
Weather Review,) and < Crop Reporter,) also 
works of more special character, are given free 
to scientific institutions and collaborators of the 
department, libraries, colleges, and experiment 
stations, and sold by the Superintendent of 
Documents. Its cost is about $4,500,000 a year, 
of which about $700,000 goes to the agricultural 
experiment stations. The detailed statement be¬ 
low will give a full conspectus of its activities. 

Organization, Subdivisions, and Functions of 
the Department, 1902. 

Office of the Secretary. — Supervision of pub¬ 
lic business relating to the agricultural industry 
and management of department subdivisions; 
advisory supervision over government agricul¬ 
tural experiment stations; control of quaran¬ 
tine stations for imported cattle and of interstate 
cattle quarantine, including inspection of cattle 
ships; also carrying into effect the interstate 
game laws and those on importation of noxious 
animals, with authority to control that of other 
animals. 


The Weather Bureau. — Records daily exist¬ 
ing atmospheric conditions and formulates there¬ 
from— for distribution — forecasts of probable 
weather during the succeeding 48 hours. It 
maintains a central office in Washington, and 
about 180 subordinate stations in the United 
States and West Indies. It also receives daily 
telegraphic reports of observations in Canada,. 
Mexico, the Azores, and the western coast of 
Europe. 

The Bureau of Animal Industry. — Investi¬ 
gates the nature and prevention of communicable 
diseases dangerous to live stock, and takes mea¬ 
sures for their extirpation; inspects live stock 
and their food products in interstate and foreign, 
commerce, also the transport vessels for export¬ 
ed and quarantine stations for imported animals; 
disseminates information on our dairy interests 
and their foreign markets; and reports on our 
animal industries and means of improving them. 

The Bureau of Chemistry. — Studies the 
chemical problems of agriculture: soils, fertiliz¬ 
ers, and irrigation waters; agricultural products 
and industries; insecticides and fungicides; foods 
of man and beast; raw materials, products, and 
processes of agricultural-chemical industries; 
chemical relations which modify the results of 
environment — as soil, latitude, altitude, and me¬ 
teorological conditions — on agricultural prod¬ 
ucts ; inspects food products imported or for 
export; and examines quality of materials used 
in road construction. The chemical problems of 
other departments are turned over to it. 

The Bureau of Plant Industry. — Studies 
plant life in relation to agriculture, including 
vegetable, pathological and physiological, bo¬ 
tanical, pomological, grass and forage plant in¬ 
vestigations and experiments; has charge of 
experimental gardens and grounds, the Arling¬ 
ton experimental farm, Congressional seed dis¬ 
tribution, seed and plant introduction, .and tea- 
culture experiments. 

The Office of Experiment Stations .— Super¬ 
vises the expenditures of those in the United 
States, manages those in Alaska, Hawaii, and 
Porto Rico, and prepares publications chiefly 
based on their results, including the monthly 
<' Experiment Station Record ); conducts rela¬ 
tions with American and foreign institutions for 
agricultural education and research; and super¬ 
vises special investigations ordered by Congress, 
in co-operation with the agricultural colleges 
and experiment stations. 

The Bureau of Forestry. — Prepares and ex¬ 
ecutes plans for conservative lumbering of wood¬ 
lands, public or private; investigates trees and 
methods for planting, and gives practical assist¬ 
ance to tree-planters; studies commercially val¬ 
uable trees for their special uses in forestry, and 
the relations between forests and fire, grazing, 
lumbering, stream flow, and irrigation; main¬ 
tains a photographic laboratory and collection 
and a library. 

The Bureau of Soils. — Studies physical and 
chemical properties of soils, and materials and 
methods of artificial fertilization, with their in¬ 
fluence on the original soils; classifies and maps, 
soils m agricultural districts to show the dis¬ 
tribution of soil types for adaptability to certain 
crops and their management; investigates alkali 
problems and their relations to irrigation and 
seepage waters ; reclamation of abandoned lands ; 
studies tobacco soils and methods of cultivation 




AGRIGENTUM — AGRIMONY 


-and curing - , introduction of improved varieties, 
and methods of exporting tobacco. 

The Division of Statistics. — Collects and di¬ 
gests statistics of agricultural production; area 
annually sown to each of the leading crops, their 
condition on the first day of each month, the 
quantitative results at close of the crop year, and 
estimated farm value i December. Supplemen- 
tarily it collects periodical information on minor 
crops of importance, meadows and pastures, 
and the principal foreign crops. The stock of 
corn, wheat, and oats on United States farms 
at certain regular fixed dates is estimated, with 
the proportion shipped out of the county where 
grown; the number and value, by species, of 
animals on United States farms at the beginning 
of each year, and the annual losses from disease 
and exposure; also the annual clip of wool and 
average weight of fleeces, by States and Terri¬ 
tories.. It computes the world's production of 
the chief crops, by countries, and prices of prin¬ 
cipal agricultural products in various United 
States markets. 

The Division of Publications. — This is the 
publishing house of the Department. It has gen¬ 
eral charge and assignment of expenditures un¬ 
der the appropriation for printing and distribut¬ 
ing agricultural documents, preparation and 
distribution of the < Year-Book,) (Farmers’ 
Bulletins,) and other bulletins, reports, and cir¬ 
culars ; supervises the Department’s printing and 
binding in the Government Printing Office; pre¬ 
pares the drawings for illustrations; and pre¬ 
pares and distributes official information and 
advance notices to agricultural writers. 

The Division of Entomology. — Studies the 
entire field of insect life in its relation to hu¬ 
manity; primarily, insects injurious directly to 
man, to agriculture and horticulture, and to 
stored products; the geographic distribution of 
such insects, and their relations to climate. It 
■conducts field and laboratory experiments with 
different classes of remedies, and reports there¬ 
on. It also studies beneficial insects — both 
those which are the source of industries, like the 
honey-bee, the silkworm, and the fig-fertilizing 
insect and those indirectly beneficial by preying 
•on injurious ones. It makes large collections 
of insects and of insecticidal machinery and 
chemicals. 

The Division of Biological Survey. — Studies 
the geographic distribution of animals and 
plants, and maps the natural life zones of the 
country; also investigates the economic rela¬ 
tions of birds and mammals, recommends mea¬ 
sures for the preservation of beneficial and the 
•destruction of injurious species, and carries into 
effect the Federal laws concerning the importa¬ 
tion of wild birds and other wild animals, and 
the interstate game laws. 

The Office of Public Road Inquiries. — Inves¬ 
tigates the United States system of road manage¬ 
ment, and the best methods of road-making and 
maintenance; experiments on best methods of 
road-building, and analyzes chemical and phys¬ 
ical qualities of road materials; co-operates with 
agricultural colleges, experiment stations, and 
local authorities, in building short sections of 
road as object lessons, etc. 

The Section of Foreign Markets. — Has for 
object the extension of our agricultural export 
trade. It studies foreign conditions of demand 


and supply (using chiefly foreign official statis¬ 
tics of production), and imports and exports, 
supplemented by details obtained from consular 
reports, trade journals, and other sources. In 
cases of special importance a representative of 
the office is sent to obtain by personal investiga¬ 
tion the information needed. 

The Division of Accounts and Disbursements. 
— Audits and pays all accounts and adjusts 
claims against the Department; decides questions 
involving the expenditure of public funds; pre¬ 
pares advertisements, schedules, and contract^ 
for annual supplies, leases, agreements, letters of 
authority, and all letters to the Treasury Depart¬ 
ment and Department of Justice; issues requisi¬ 
tions for the purchase of supplies, and requests 
for transportation; prepares the annual estimates 
of appropriations; etc. 

The Library. — The librarian purchases books 
and periodicals, supervises their arrangement 
and cataloguing, and has charge of the prepa¬ 
ration of catalogues, indexes, bibliographies, 
and similar publications. 

Agrigentum, ag-ri-jen'tum, a town in Sicily, 
of which this was the Roman name, the Greek 
name having been Akragas and the modern 
Italian name being Girgenti. It is thought to 
have been founded by Dorian colonists about 
582 b.c. Its situation on the southern shore 
of the island was peculiarly strong and impos¬ 
ing, standing as it did on a bare and precipitous 
rock about 1,000 feet above the level of the sea. 
During the Greek period Agragas rose to a 
position of great wealth and importance, and 
was adorned with splendid temples and public 
buildings. Among Sicilian towns it was second 
only to Syracuse. In 406 b.c. the city received 
a blow from which its dignity and power never 
recovered, in its capture by the Carthaginians. 
Under the Roman dominion we do not hear 
much of the town, which, however, seems to 
have been always prosperous, having mines as 
well as the most fertile territory. The town 
is celebrated in Greek history as the birthplace 
of the famous philosopher Empedocles, and the 
celebrated and almost legendary tyrant Phalaris 
was ruler there,— in what capacity is not clearly 
recorded. In the history of fine art Akragas 
was famous as the centre of a school of sculp¬ 
ture and refined architecture. We still have 
vestiges of this in the extraordinary group of 
temples, that dedicated to Hera Lacinia; that 
called (( Temple of Concord,® a remarkably well- 
preserved monument of the Doric style; that 
called (( Temple of Hercules,® much ruined; 
and, finally, the gigantic Temple of Zeus, a 
building wholly unique in Grecian art as hav¬ 
ing columns engaged in the walls of the cellar 
and a great interior evidently treated as a pub¬ 
lic hall, and differing in this way from all other 
Flellenic temples. 

Ag'rimony (Agrimonia), a genus of plants 
belonging to the natural order Rosacea:, distin¬ 
guished from the other genera of the same tribe 
(Rosecc) by having but two carpels enclosed in 
the deep tube of the calyx, from 7 to 20 stamens, 
and small notched petals. A. cupatoria, or com¬ 
mon agrimony, is an erect, hairy, herbaceous 
plant found on the borders of fields and woods, 
by the wayside, etc., probably escaped from 
gardens, as it is not a native of the United 
States. 


AGUASCALIENTES — AGUSTITE 


Aguascalientes, Mexico, capital of the 

State of the name. (See Mexico— Ihe States 
of.) On the line of the Mexican Central rail¬ 
road, 860 miles south of El Paso, Texas, 364 
miles north of the City of Mexico and 415 
miles northwest of Tampico, on the Gulf of 
Mexico. Elevation ,6,106 feet above the sea. It 
is especially noted for its hot springs (the name 
Aguascalientes signifies hot waters), which have 
been highly prized ever since their discovery. 
Here are located the principal shops and one of 
the division headquarters of the Mexican Cen¬ 
tral railway, the result of which has been the 
establishment of a considerable colony of Amer¬ 
icans. Here, also, is located one of the greatest 
silver-copper smelting plants in the world, em¬ 
ploying a great number of men and adding ma¬ 
terially to the business prosperity of the com¬ 
munity. In the city and its immediate vicinity 
are several woolen factories, a flouring mill, a 
starch factory and other important manufactur¬ 
ing enterprises. Perhaps the most notable 
special industry, and for which the place has 
become really famous in domestic circles, is the 
making of drawnwork table cloths, napkins, 
doillies, handkerchiefs, dress trimmings and ac¬ 
cessories of every description, in which a con¬ 
siderable part of the female population is 
employed. Imposing church edifices and 
beautiful parks or plazas greet the eye on every 
side. The cause of education,— both primary 
and advanced,— has long received great atten¬ 
tion in Aguascalientes. The educational insti¬ 
tutions are most creditable, not only in numbers 
and capacity but in the thoroughness and pro¬ 
gressiveness of the professors and teachers by 
whom they are conducted. The local financial 
institution,— the Bank of Aguascalientes,— has 
a capital of $600,000. The National Bank and 
the Bank of London and Mexico maintain 
branches here, and there is an agency of the 
Bank of Zacatecas. The library of the Institute 
of Sciences containss over 4,000 volumes. As a 
place of residence the city has long been a prime 
favorite. Pop. (1906), 39,000. 

Aguilera, Ventura Ruiz, a-ge-la'rii, ven- 
too' ra roo'eth, lyric poet, (< the Spanish Beran- 
ger® : b. Salamanca, 2 Nov. 1829; d. Madrid, 

1 July 1881. After a medical course at home he 
became a Madrid journalist (1843) and an im¬ 
portant official under Liberal governments; later 
a director of the Madrid Archaeological Mu¬ 
seum. His bold incisive editorials endeavored 
to instil fervid national patrotism into the 
masses, an aim also of his poems like (( National 
Echoes® and <( Satires.® His (( Elegies ® (1862) 
were masterpieces translated into nearly all Eu¬ 
ropean languages. He wrote also < The Book of 
the Fatherland > (1869); ( A Christmas Leg¬ 
end } (1872): ( The Modern Arcadia^ collec¬ 
tions of novelettes, etc. 

Aguinaldo, a'ge-nal-do, Emilio, the leader 
of the insurgents in the Phillippine insurrection 
of 1896, and their chief in the Spanish-American 
war of 1898: b. in Imus, 1870. A Chinese 
mestizo, of Chinese and Tagalog parentage. His 
father was a planter and he received his early 
education at the College of St. Jean de Lateran 
and the University of St. Tomas in Manila. 
Later he became the protege of a Jesuit priest, 
and was for a time a student in the medical de¬ 


partment of the Pontifical University of Manila. 
In 1888 he had some trouble with the authorities 
and went to Hong-kong. Young Aguinaldo 
there became interested in military affairs and 
gained a knowledge of warfare. He learned 
something of the English, French, and Chinese 
languages, together with various native tongues. 
He achieved a reputation for intelligence, ability, 
shrewdness, and diplomacy, and had a personal 
magnetism which gave him influence among his 
countrymen. On the outbreak of the rebellion 
against Spanish authority in 1896 Aguinaldo 
became a commanding figure with the iusurgents.l 
He was at the head of the diplomatic party, 
which succeeded in making terms with the Span¬ 
ish government, the latter paying a large sum 
to the Philippine leaders to lay down their arms. 
Aguinaldo quarreled with his associates in Hong_ 
kong over the division of this money, and went 
to Singapore, where he came in contact with the 
United States consul shortly before the break¬ 
ing out of the war between the United States, 
and Spain. On the representations of the consul 
Commodore Dewey telegraphed to have Agui¬ 
naldo sent to him. The insurgent leader ar¬ 
rived at Cavite shortly after the battle of Manila 
Bay. Aguinaldo was given opportunity to or¬ 
ganize the Filipinos against the Spanish author¬ 
ity; but no promises were made to him and the 
insurgents were never officially recognized by 
the Americans. Friction early arose and the 
Americans protested against the cruel treatment 
of Spanish prisoners by the Filipinos. The 
strain became serious at the capture of Manila, 
the insurgents claiming the right to sack the city, 
which the Americans denied. On 12 June 1898 
Aguinaldo organized a so-called Filipino Repub¬ 
lic, with himself as president, but very soon 
proclaimed himself dictator. He protested 
against the Spanish-American treaty of peace, 
which ceded the Philippine Islands to the United 
States, and claimed the independence of the 
islands. He organized an extensive conspiracy 
among the native population of Manila, and or¬ 
dered the complete massacre of the Americans, 
together with the entire European population of 
the city, while yet at peace with them. The 
plot was discovered in time and failed. The in¬ 
tention of Aguinaldo to oppose by force the 
American occupation had been growing increas¬ 
ingly evident, and on the evening of 4 Feb. 1899 
his forces attacked the American lines in the 
suburbs of Manila. The news of this overt ac¬ 
tion caused the prompt ratification of the Span¬ 
ish-American treaty by the United States Senate. 
Aguinaldo made a determined resistance to the 
Americans, and the rainy season soon prevented 
the latter from following up their uniform suc¬ 
cesses in the open field; but early in 1900 the 
organized insurrection, which was chiefly con¬ 
fined to the Tagalog nationality, was broken up, 
Aguinaldo driven into hiding, and his corre¬ 
spondence, order books, etc., were captured bv 
Gen. Funston, who captured Aguinaldo himself 
at Palawan, Luzon, 23 March 1901. On 2 April 
he took the oath of allegiance. 

Agulhas, a-gool'yas, Cape, the most S. 
point of Africa, lies about 100 m. E. S. E. of the 
Cape^of Good Hope, in lat. 34 0 49' S.; Ion. 20" 
o 40 E. The point is very dangerous for 
ships; fogs are frequent, the currents are uncer¬ 
tain, and there are many rocks to seaward. 


AGUTI —AIKEN 


Aguti, a-goo'ti (Fr. through Sp. from the 
native name), a gregarious South American and 
West Indian rodent,— any species of the genus 
Dasyproctidce. Agutis are destructive to crops, 
particularly to sugar-cane; they are forest- 
dwellers, living in holes, but they come out into 
the fields, usually at night, to feed. In some 
regions they are considered edible; in Brazil a 
species, the «pampas hare,» is hunted as game, 
and the others are hunted with a view to saving 
the crops. About the size of a rabbit, they more 
resemble squirrels, for their legs are long and 
thin, their ears short and round, their claws 
hoof-like, and tail stumpy. The tail and the 
hinder part of the body are covered with the 
long stiff hairs from which the genus is named. 
The spelling of the name is varied to acouchi, 
acouchy, agouti, agouty, and aguchi; in Guiana 
and the West Indies a species is called « achou- 
chy » or « achuchi.» The same name has been 
applied to a species of cavy (q.v.). 

Ahab, king of Israel 875-853 (?) b.c., son 
and successor of Omri (1 Kings xvi.-xxii.). He 
found his kingdom in extreme peril: whole 
districts in the north had been swallowed up 
by the growing Syrian kingdom with capital at 
Damascus, which menaced its very life; and 
Moab and Edom were possessions only to be 
held down by force, with Syria constantly incit¬ 
ing them to revolt. He proved a prince of great 
energy and ability: twice he drove back Ben- 
hadad of Damascus, and he held down Moab 
with a strong hand, crushing a wholesale insur¬ 
rection, as proved by the inscription on the 
Moabite Stone (q.v.) ; he made the kingdom of 
Judah an ally and perhaps a vassal, and 
gained at least the neutrality and perhaps 
some of the resources of the kingdom of Tyre 
by marrying the Princess Jezebel. Unfortu¬ 
nately this involved letting her establish the wor¬ 
ship of the Tyrian Baal, called Melkart, and 
made the extremists of the Yahwe priesthood 
his irreconcilable enemies and defamers. Yet 
he was no deserter of Yahwe, but merely a cool 
politician, who felt that his first duty to his 
country and even to its national religion was 
to save it from absorption in Syria, which would 
end Israel and the Yahwe cult at once; and 400 
priests of Yahwe prophesied before him previous 
to his last campaign. His entire internal policy 
has been blackened by the affair of Naboth’s 
vineyard, and Jezebel is a name of execration. 
Certainly the judicial murder was a great crime, 
but it shows at least that even an Oriental 
monarch 2,750 years ago could not expropriate 
an obstinate holder by sheer violence; defiance 
of royal orders was not as safe to let go for a 
precedent then as now; and more than one king 
has had his hand forced by his queen. Nor in 
fact did these things prejudice the larger in¬ 
terests of his reign. In 854 we find him strange¬ 
ly allied with his old enemy Ben-hadad against 
Shalmaneser (q.v.) of Assyria, though one would 
suppose he would gladly have seen Ben-hadad 
crushed, and Assyria was no immediate danger: 
possibly he was menaced from other quarters and 
dared not refuse. At any rate, Shalmaneser in¬ 
flicted a crushing defeat on the allies at Karkar 
near the Orontes in 854. and Ahab recovered 
liberty of action if he had lost it; for the next 
year he engaged in a new campaign against 
Ben-hadad, in alliance with Jehoshaphat, king of 
Judah, and was killed in battle. The Biblical 


narrative is taken from two opposed sources: 
one embodying the popular tradition of Ahab as 
a brave, capable, and popular king, the other 
the priestly view of him as a bad man and 
monarch. His contest with Elijah (1 Kings 
xvii.-xix.) is a picturesque rendering of the 
latter. 

Ahasue'rus, Scripture history, a king of 
Persia, the husband of Esther, to whom the 
Scriptures ascribe a singular deliverance of the 
Jews from extirpation, which they commemorate 
to this day by an annual feast, that of Purim, 
preceded by what is called the fast of Esther. 
Different opinions have been entertained as to 
which of the kings of Persia mentioned in other 
historical books may be the Ahasuerus of the 
Bible. He is probably the same as Xerxes. 
Ahasuerus is also a Scripture name for Cam- 
byses, the son of Cyrus (Ezra iv. 6), and for 
Astyages, king of the Medes (Dan. ix. 1). The 
word Ahasuerus is merely the Latin form of the 
Hebrew Ashashverosh, and is believed by some 
to be a transcription of the Persian Khshayar- 
sha ( (( venerable king®), and this name may be 
reasonably supposed to have been originally an 
appellative, so that its application by foreigners, 
like the Jews, to different royal personages is 
explained. 

Ahaz, the 12th king of Judah, succeeded 
his father Jotham, 742 b.c. Forsaking his fa¬ 
ther’s religion, he gave himself up so completely 
to idolatry that he is said to have caused his 
own son to pass through the fire to Moloch, and 
plundered the temple to obtain presents for 
Tiglath-pileser, king of Assyria, whose assist¬ 
ance he desired to obtain. His powerful ally 
freed him from his most formidable foes by in¬ 
vading Syria, taking Damascus, killing Rezin, 
the king, transporting the inhabitants to Kir, 
thus putting an end to the Syrian kingdom of 
Damascus, and by stripping Israel of the whole 
country east of the Jordan. 

Aiken, S. C., city and county-seat of 
Aiken co., on the Southern Railroad, 17 m. 
N.E. of Augusta, Ga., and 120 m. N.W. of 
Charleston. It is one of the most picturesque 
and attractive towns in the United States, be¬ 
ing located at an elevation of 600 feet above 
the sea, in the midst of numerous pine forests. 
The dryness of the atmosphere and the com¬ 
parative mildness of the climate have combined 
to make Aiken the most noted health resort 
in the South. The town is the centre of a 
large and important agricultural district. There 
is located here the Aiken Institute for white 
students; the Schofield Normal and Instruct¬ 
ive School and Immanuel Training School for 
colored youth, and several private schools, and 
academies for both sexes. Many Northern 
families of wealth and culture have winter 
homes here. Aiken was first incorporated in 
1835, and is governed by charter, secured in 
1890 and revised in 1897, which provides for a 
mayor elected every two years, and a city coun¬ 
cil composed of the mayor and six aldermen. 
The town officials are elected annually at town 
meetings. The water supply and sewerage sys¬ 
tem are controlled by the town. There are two 
national banks here, numerous large hotels, a 
number of manufactories, and several news¬ 
papers. Pop. (1890) 2,362; (1900) 3,414. 

Aikinite. See Needle Ore. 


AINSWORTH —AIR 


Ainsworth, Frederick Grayton, American 
soldier: b. Woodstock, Vt., n Sept. 1852. He 
was appointed first lieutenant and assistant sur¬ 
geon, U. S. A., in 1874; major and surgeon 
1891; colonel and chief of Record and Pension 
Office in 1892, where he introduced the index- 
record card system by which 50,000,000 cards 
made the military and medical record of any 
soldier at once accessible. In 1899 he was ap¬ 
pointed brigadier-general, and made editor of 
the (( Official War Records.^ 

Ainsworth, William Harrison, an Eng¬ 
lish novelist: b. 4 Feb. 1805; d. 3 Jan. 1882. He 
was the son of a Manchester solicitor. He 
wrote < Rookwood ) (1834) ; ( Jack Sheppard-* 
(1839) ; and about 40 other novels, including 
( Guy Fawkes, J ( Tower of London,-* ( Windsor 
Castle,> ( Lancashire Witches, ) ( Flitch of 
Bacon,> etc. 

Ainus. See Japan. 

Air, the gaseous substance that envelops 
the earth and forms its atmosphere. (See At¬ 
mosphere.) It consists almost entirely of the 
gases oxygen and nitrogen, which are merely 
mixed and not chemically combined; but in 
addition it contains many other substances in 
small amounts, among which are water-vapor, 
carbon-dioxid, nitric acid, ammonia, ozone, 
argon, neon, and organic matter, as well as dust, 
germs, and other solid particles held in suspen¬ 
sion. In certain localities other components may 
occur. Near the sea, for example, salt can al¬ 
ways be detected in it, and over the land it con¬ 
tains sulphates in small amounts. The quantity 
of water-vapor present in air varies greatly with 
time and place, and in all analyses and state¬ 
ments of its composition the water-vapor is sup¬ 
posed to have been removed first. The quantity 
of carbon-dioxid is subject to considerable va¬ 
riation also. It is very constant in the open 
country, where it constitutes about 0.043 P er 
cent (by weight) of the air; in cities the per¬ 
centage is higher, rising to 0.07 and occasionally 
to 0.10. In crowded rooms, especially where 
artificial lights are burning, the quantity of 
carbon-dioxid present may be even greater than 
this. In country air the percentage of carbon- 
dioxid is subject to a diurnal change amounting 
to about one-eighth of its total amount, more 
being present at night than in the daytime. 
This is undoubtedly due to the fact that plants 
absorb the gas by day and exhale it during the 
night. The proportion of nitrogen and oxygen 
in air is subject to variation also, though within 
much narrower limits. In general, 100 volumes 
of air contain about 21 volumes of oxygen and 
79 of nitrogen. Regnault analyzed air collected 
in different parts of the world, and found that 
the volume-percentage of oxygen in the air of 
Europe varied from 20.903 to 21.0 per cent. The 
average of 17 samples collected from over the 
arctic seas gave 20.91 per cent. Regnault was 
of the opinion that sea air contains slightly 
less oxygen than land air; but Lewy considered 
that no distinct difference could be proved ex¬ 
cept in the tropics, where sea air exhibited a 
slight diurnal variation. Argon constitutes about 
1 per cent of air, and neon about 0.001 per cent. 
The nitric acid present in the air is so small in 
amount that it can be detected only in rainwater, 
by which it is dissolved and brought down. It 


is very likely formed partly by the direct com¬ 
bination of oxygen and nitrogen under the in¬ 
fluence of electric discharges, and partly by the 
action of ozone upon ammonia. The quantity 
present is greatest in summer and least in winter. 
The ammonia of the air occurs partly as car¬ 
bonate and partly as nitrate. Its amount is 
exceedingly variable, ranging from 0.1 to 135*0 
parts (calculated as carbonate) in 1,000,000 parts 
of air, the average amount being perhaps 6. 
The amount present decreases. during a heavy 
rain, but within a few hours it returns to the 
normal amount' again. No ozone can be de¬ 
tected in city air, and air over marshes and in 
malarial regions contains very little of it. Nor¬ 
mal country air contains not more than one 
volume of this gas to 700,000 of air. It is more 
abundant in summer than in winter, and is most 
noticeable during thunderstorms and heavy 
winds. In the laboratory ozone is produced by 
the action of electric discharges upon oxygen, 
and it is probably produced in the air in the 
same way. Hydrogen peroxid has been de¬ 
tected in the air, and some authorities consider 
that it may be present in greater abundance than 
ozone, and that it may sometimes be mistaken 
for ozone. (For further information on the 
composition of the air, see Angus Smith’s < Air 
and RainJ) According to Regnault, one cubic 
centimeter of air that has been freed from 
water-vapor, carbon-dioxid, and ammonia, weighs 
0.0012932 gramme when the air is at the tem¬ 
perature o° C., and under a barometric pressure 
of 760 millimeters of mercury at Paris (lat. 48° 
50' N.), and at a height of 60 metres above the 
sea. In English equivalents this means that at or¬ 
dinary atmospheric pressure and at the tempera¬ 
ture of melting ice (32 0 F.) a cubic foot of air 
weighs 0.080681 pound; « ordinary atmospheric 
pressure,)) signifying the pressure that would 
be exerted by a weight of 14.7 pounds, rest¬ 
ing upon a base one inch square at sea level 
in the latitude of Washington. When a mass of 
air, originally at atmospheric pressure and at 
the freezing-point (32 0 F.), is heated to the 
boiling-point (212 0 F.) without changing its 
volume, its pressure becomes 1.36728 atmo¬ 
spheres according to Balfour Stewart, or 
1.36706 according to Wiebe and Bottcher. The 
average of these is 1.36717, which agrees well 
with the value 1.36719 as given independently 
by Morley and Miller. The older estimates of 
Regnault and Magnus are probably too small. 
The specific heat of air (the pressure being kept 
constant) is 0.2375 according to Regnault, and 
0.2389 according to Wiedemann. The specific 
heat (the volume being kept constant) is 0.1715 
according to Joly’s direct measurement with the 
s-team calorimeter. Air cannot be liquefied by 
any pressure whatever so long as its temnerature 
is higher than about 220° F. below zero 
(-I40°C.) ; but if it be first cooled to a tem¬ 
perature slightly below this it condenses to a 
liquid upon the application of a pressure of 39 
atmospheres. (See Critical Point.) If it be 
cooled to a temperature materially lower than 
220° F. below zero, it can be liquefied by a 
correspondingly smaller pressure. Liquid air is 
opalescent at first, probably from particles of 
solid carbon-dioxid held in suspension. These 
can be separated by filtration, or they will rise 
to the surface in a short time, leaving the clear, 
transparent air beneath. When liquid air is ex- 


AIR —AIR-BRAKE 


posed in a glass vessel it absorbs heat rapidly 
from surrounding objects, and boils actively 
until it has entirely evaporated. The nitrogen 
that it contains evaporates faster than the 
oxygen, however, and the liquid remaining in 
the vessel becomes increasingly rich in oxygen 
until toward the last it consists almost entirely 
of that gas. Liquid air may be frozen to a 
clear, transparent solid by surrounding it with 
liquid oxygen and then forcing the evaporation 
by means of an air-pump. Liquid air is of great 
interest to the physicist for many reasons; but 
its importance in the arts has been grossly ex¬ 
aggerated. In particular, the project that is put 
forth from time to time, to utilize liquid air for 
running a motor that shall condense more liquid 
air than it consumes, is impossible of realiza¬ 
tion, because although such an action would 
not necessarily imply perpetual motion it would 
violate the second law of thermodynamics. (See 
Thermodynamics.) If liquid air is confined and 
allowed to become warm through the absorption 
of heat from its surroundings its expansion 
gradually generates an enormous pressure. 
This fact, together with the safety with which 
liquid air can be handled, has led to its use to a 
limited degree for blasting in tunnels and mines, 
where the presence of the irrespirable products 
of combustion of ordinary explosives is objec¬ 
tionable ; but even this application has been 
discontinued, owing to certain grave and ap¬ 
parently insuperable practical difficulties that 
were encountered. See Liquid Air. 

The scientific study of the air has been 
much stimulated in recent years by the establish¬ 
ment of the Hodgkins Fund. In October 1891 
Mr. Thomas George Hodgkins of Setauket, 
N. Y., made a donation to the Smithsonian In¬ 
stitution, the income from a part of which was 
to be devoted to the <( increase and diffusion of 
more exact knowledge in regard to the nature 
and properties of atmospheric air in connection 
with the welfare of man.® The first prize of 
$10,000 from thjs fund was awarded on 6 Aug. 
1895 to Lord Rayleigh of London, and Prof. 
William Ramsay of University College, London, 
for their discovery of the previously unknown 
element argon in the atmosphere. (See Argon.) 
A prize of $1,000 was also awarded at the same 
time to Dr. Henry de Varigny of Paris, for his 
( L’Air et la Vie 1 * ( (( Air and Life®), which 
was considered to be the best treatise upon 
atmospheric air, its properties, and relation¬ 
ships. Further information concerning the 
Hodgkins Fund may be had from the Smith¬ 
sonian Institution, Washington, D. C. (For 
information concerning dust and germs, see 
Tyndall’s ( Fragments of Science,* and Dr. T. 
Mitchell Prudden’s ( Dust and Its Dangers .0 

Dephlogisticcited Air, in the old chemistry, 
was air that had been deprived pf phlogiston 
(q.v.) ; in modern terminology it is called oxy¬ 
gen. Fixed air was Dr. Black’s name for 
carbon-dioxid, suggested by the fact that cer¬ 
tain alkaline substances can (( fix® this gas, or 
combine with it to produce a solid substance. 

The word (( air® also occurs as an element 
in a host of compound words. The significance 
of many of these is evident, but some few call 
for special mention, and they will be found below 
in their respective order. 

A. D. Risteen, Ph.D., 

Editorial Staff, c Encyclopedia Americana .* 
voi: 1—13 


Air, in music (in Italian, aria), means a con¬ 
tinuous melody in which some lyric subject or 
passion is expressed. . The lyric melody of a 
single voice, accompanied by instruments, is its 
proper form of composition. Many of the Italian 
airs of the present, together with too great a 
proportion of the popular music of the day, are 
destitute of meaning and character. The song¬ 
writers of Germany strive to construct their 
airs in direct conformity to the meaning of the 
words. Air is also the name often given to 
the upper or most prominent part in a concerted 
piece, and is thus equivalent to treble, soprano, 
etc. Arietta signifies a short, less elaborate air 
than aria, and is designed to express a more 
simple and transient emotion. 

Air-bath, an apparatus designed for dry¬ 
ing substances by exposing them to air of any 
desired temperature. 

Air Beds and Cushions, often used by the 
sick and invalids, are composed of india-rubber, 
or of cloth made air-tight by a solution of india- 
rubber, and when required for use filled with 
air, which thus supplies the place of the usual 
stuffing materials. They tend to prevent bed¬ 
sores from continuous lying in one position. 
They are also cheap and easily transported, as 
the bed or cushion when not in use can be 
packed in small compass to be again inflated 
with air when wanted. 

Air-bladder. See Fish. 

Air-blast, a stream of air, issuing from a 
nozzle or other aperture under pressure. Such 
blasts are used for throwing sand or other ab¬ 
rasive material against a body that is to be 
eroded or polished; for forcing the fires of 
forges or furnaces, and for burning out the im¬ 
purities in pig iron in the manufacture of Besse¬ 
mer steel; for removing dust from grinding- 
machines and saws; for cleansing woven fabrics; 
and for multitudes of other purposes. 

Air-box, a flue or other form of conduit 
conveying air to or from a furnace or into a 
mine for ventilation. 

Air Brake, a mechanical apparatus, by which 
the expansive force of compressed air is em¬ 
ployed to stop or control the speed of railroad 
trains. The air brake, in its present perfected 
and efficient form, not only represents the result 
of the remarkable progress of railroad opera¬ 
tion during the last quarter of the 19th century, 
but has also contributed in no small degree to 
the character of the development of railroad 
practice. The air brake has developed into its 
present form through a series of stages, each of 
which was dictated by the occurrence of new 
conditions; and the modification of the air brake 
to meet such conditions has, in each case, enlarged 
the field of progress in railroad transportation. 
The original conception, and practically every 
succeeding improvement, of the air brake has 
been due to the quick perception and ingenuity of 
George Westinghouse, so that a review of the 
development of the Westinghouse air brake 
forms practically the history of the art. In the 
course of its development, the air brake has be¬ 
come known in four different forms — the 
straight air brake, the automatic air brake, the 
quick-action automatic air brake, and the high¬ 
speed air brake — each fulfilling the require¬ 
ments of its day and forming the foundation of 
the structure of the next succeeding form. 


AIR BRAKE 


The Straight Air Brake .— The straight air 
brake was the earliest and simplest form and 
was introduced by Mr. Westinghouse about the 
year 1869. An air compressor was attached to 
and operated by steam from the locomotive, and 
compressed atmospheric air into a storage reser¬ 
voir, also located upon the locomotive. A line 
of ordinary gas or water pipe, commonly called 
the train pipe, extended from the reservoir 
through the engineer’s cab and back underneath 
the tender and each of the cars of the train. 
Between the cars, the train pipe was connected, 
by means of rubber hose and suitable couplings, 
so as to form a continuous line throughout the 
length of the train. Near the centre of each 
car was placed an air cylinder, called the brake 
cylinder, which was connected by means of a 
short branch pipe with the train pipe. The 
brake cylinder contained a piston with a stem 
which was connected, through a system of levers 
and rods, with the brake shoes which were to 
be applied to the car wheels to check the mo¬ 
tion of the train. In the cab, and within reach 
of the engineer, an operating valve, consisting 
of a three-way cock, was placed in the line of 
the train pipe. By means of this valve, the engi¬ 
neer could permit air to flow from the reser¬ 
voir into the train pipe and connected brake 
cylinders, thereby forcing out the pistons and 
applying the brake shoes to the wheels. When 
sufficient air pressure to meet the requirements 
of the occasion had thus been admitted to the 
brake cylinders, the engineer could move the 
handle of his operating valve into such a posi¬ 
tion as to cut off further flow of air from the 
reservoir and to retain within the brake cylin¬ 
ders so much air pressure as had already been 
applied. By moving the handle of the operat¬ 
ing valve into still another position, the engi¬ 
neer could cause the air already accumulated in 
the train pipe and brake cylinders to be dis¬ 
charged, through the operating valve, into the 
atmosphere, thereby releasing the pressure of the 
brake shoes upon the car wheels. 

Control of the Air Pressure .— By means of 
this apparatus, the degree of air pressure in the 
brake cylinders, and, consequently, the pressure 
of the brake shoes upon the wheels, could be 
varied by the engineer from such a moderate 
application as would be required for checking the 
speed of the train upon descending grades or in 
bringing the train gently to a stop at stations, to 
the most powerful application required when 
an immediate stop of the train is demanded. 
This form of air brake came into quite exten¬ 
sive use upon the comparatively short passenger 
trains of that period. As the length of the 
trains became increased, however, it was found 
that a serious loss of time occurred in the oper¬ 
ation of applying the brakes, because of the fact 
that all the compressed air for operating the 
brake cylinders of the different cars must travel 
back throughout the length of the train pipe 
from the storage reservoir to the brake cylin¬ 
ders, which operation was seriously retarded 
through the frictional resistance presented by 
the walls of the train pipe to the rapid passage 
of such a considerable quantity of compressed 
air. Also, in the case of the accidental detach¬ 
ment of a portion of the train while in motion, 
the brakes upon the detached cars were no longer 
capable of being applied by the engineer. Again, 
if the rubber coupling hose burst, or if any 


other portion of the apparatus became ruptured, 
the escape of the compressed air at such a 
point prevented the effective application of the 
brakes, and the control of the train was thereby 
lost. 

The Automatic Air Brake.— The automatic 
air brake, introduced by Mr. Westinghouse in 
1876, was designed to remedy the defects of the 
earlier system and to meet the advancing re¬ 
quirements of the time. The apparatus con¬ 
sisted of that already employed in the straight 
air-brake system, with the addition upon each 
vehicle of a storage reservoir, of sufficient capa¬ 
city to supply the brake cylinder upon that vehi¬ 
cle, and a valve mechanism, called a triple valve, 
operated by variations in the air pressure in the 
train pipe, to control the operation of the brake 
cylinder. This triple valve was placed in the 
branch pipe leading from the train pipe to the 
brake cylinder, and was also supplied with a 
pipe leading to the new storage reservoir. It 
was called a triple valve because it performed 
the three functions of (1) permitting air to flow 
from the train pipe into the storage reservoir, 
for the purpose of charging the latter with air 
pressure; (2) causing the compressed air to 
flow from the reservoir into the brake cylinder, 
for the purpose of applying the brakes, and (3) 
permitting the compressed air to escape from 
the brake cylinder to the atmosphere, to remove 
the pressure from the brake cylinders and 
thereby release the brakes. The storage reser¬ 
voir upon the locomotive became thereafter 
known as the main reservoir, and those upon the 
individual cars became known as auxiliary reser¬ 
voirs. The characteristic feature of the auto¬ 
matic air brake is the triple valve, under the 
immediate control of which are all the opera¬ 
tions of the brakes upon individual cars. 

The triple valve, with the parts in their nor¬ 
mal positions when the brakes are not applied, is 
illustrated, in section, in Fig. 1. The location of 
the several connections for the-branch pipes to 
the train pipe, the auxiliary reservoir and the 
brake cylinder are indicated. A piston a is 
adapted to move backward and forward in a 
piston chamber, from which the piston stem b 
extends forward into a somewhat smaller valve 
chamber, containing a slide valve c, which is 
loosely confined between two shoulders upon 
the piston stem. Within the slide valve c, there 
is a small poppet valve d, called the graduating 
valve, which is secured by a pin to the piston 
stem b. When compressed air is admitted into 
the train pipe from the main reservoir by the 



Fig. 1. —Triple Valve. Brake Released. 

engineer, it enters the triple-valve structure 
through the passageways leading to the left of 
the piston a, where its pressure forces the pis¬ 
ton and its accompanying parts into the posi¬ 
tions shown in Fig. 1, if they were not already 



























AIR BRAKE 


in those positions. In this position of the piston, 
the small feed grooves h and i permit the com¬ 
pressed air to gradually pass from the train 
pipe, around, the piston, into the valve chamber, 
and thence into the auxiliary reservoir, which 
thus becomes ultimately charged with the same 
pressure of air that exists in the train pipe. The 
brake apparatus is now in operating condition. 

fo apply the brakes, the engineer discharges 
a portion of the air contained in the train pipe, 
through his operating valve, whereby the air 
pressure L; the train pipe and the chamber at the 
left, of the piston a is more or less reduced. 
Owing to the inability of the compressed air in 
the auxiliary reservoir to pass rapidly out 
through the small feed grooves i and h, the 
superior pressure remaining in the auxiliary 
reservoir and valve chamber forces the piston a 
to the left, thereby first cutting off communica¬ 
tion between the auxiliary reservoir and the 
train pipe through the feed groove h, and simul¬ 
taneously withdrawing the graduating valve d 
from its seat in the slide valve. The shoulder 
at the end of the piston stem b then comes into 
contact with the end of the slide valve c, which 
subsequently accompanies the piston in its pro¬ 
gress toward the left, until the latter is finally 
arrested by coming into contact with the stem j, 
which is supported in the position shown by a 
spring called the graduating spring. The posi¬ 
tions of the parts are then as shown in Fig. 2. 

Compressed air from the auxiliary reservoir 
now passes through a transverse port e in the 
slide valve, the passageway uncovered by 
the removal of the graduating valve d and the 
passageway f and connecting pipe to the brake 
cylinder, where it forces out the brake-cylinder 
piston and causes the brake shoes to be applied 
to the wheels. The discharge of air from the 
auxiliary reservoir into the brake cylinder neces¬ 
sarily results in reducing the air pressure in the 
auxiliary reservoir and valve chamber of the 
triple valve, and such discharge and reduction of 
air pressure continues until the pressure has 
become slightly below that of the air remaining 
in the train pipe and the connecting chamber at 
the left of the triple-valve piston. The slight 
preponderance of pressure then existing upon 
the left face of the piston a causes it to move 
to the right until the graduating valve d be- 



Fig. 2.—Triple Valve. Brake Applied. 


comes seated in the slide valve and thereby pre¬ 
vents further discharge of air into the brake 
cylinder. The air pressure then existing in the 
brake cylinder causes the brake shoes to remain 
applied to the wheels, with a corresponding re¬ 
tarding effect upon the car. 

Graduating the Pressure. — Should it appear 
to the engineer that an increased retarding force 
of the brakes is desirable, he discharges a fur¬ 
ther portion of the air remaining in the train 
pipe, through his operating valve. This results 


in a further reduction of the air pressure in the 
train pipe and the connecting chamber at the 
left of the piston a, whereupon the preponderat¬ 
ing pressure in the auxiliary reservoir and cham¬ 
ber at the right of the piston causes it to again 
move to the left, until stopped by the stem j, 
thereby moving the graduating valve d and re¬ 
opening the passage through the slide valve for 
the further discharge of air from the auxiliary 
reservoir into .the brake cylinder. This discharge 
continues until the air pressure in the reservoir 
and chamber at the right of the piston a has 
become again reduced to a point slightly below 
the pressure yet remaining in the train pipe, 
when the preponderance of the latter upon the 
left face of the piston moves it inwardly and 
once more cuts off further discharge of air to 
the brake cylinder, by reseating the graduating 
valve d. This process, customarily called grad¬ 
uating, may be again repeated by the engineer, if 
the air pressure in the brake cylinder is still 
found by him to be insufficient to meet the de¬ 
mands of the occasion. In this manner, the en¬ 
gineer is enabled to apply the brakes with any 
of the various degrees of force required under 
the variable conditions calling for checking the 
speed of the train or for bringing it to a smooth 
and gentle stop at stations. 

To discharge the air from the brake cylinder 
and release the brakes, the engineer moves the 
handle of his operating valve into the position 
for restoring communication between the main 
reservoir and the train pipe. The air pressure 
in the train pipe is thereby elevated, and, acting 
upon the left face of the triple-valve piston, 
moves it, with its connected valves, to the right, 
until it again reaches the position shown in Fig. 
1. In this position of the slide valve, the 
passageway f, connected with the brake cylinder, 
is brought into communication, through a cavity 
in the lower face of the slide valve, with a port 
and passageway g leading directly to the atmo¬ 
sphere. The air in the brake cylinder thereby 
discharges to the atmosphere and the brakes 
become released. At the same time, the feed 
groove h again establishes communication be¬ 
tween the train pipe and the auxiliary reser¬ 
voir, so that compressed air from the main reser¬ 
voir upon the locomotive passes into and 
recharges the auxiliary reservoir, so that it is 
restored to a condition of readiness for again 
applying the brakes. 

An Emergency Discharge. — Should an emer¬ 
gency arise, in which it is important to stop the 
train quickly, the engineer discharges at once a 
considerable quantity of air from the train pipe, 
through his operating valve, thereby rapidly re¬ 
ducing the pressure upon the outer face of the 
triple-valve piston. This results in such a con¬ 
siderable preponderance of pressure upon the 
right face of the piston that 'the movement of 
the latter toward the left cannot be resisted by 
the spring supporting the stem j. The spring 
becomes compressed and permits the piston to 
continue its movement to the left until stopped 
by reaching the end of the chamber in which it 
operates. Under such conditions, the slide valve 
c moves so far to the left as to completely 
uncover the passageway f leading to the brake 
cylinder. A less obstructed discharge of air 
from the auxiliary reservoir to. the brake cylin¬ 
der results, and the maximum air pressure which 
can be supplied in the cylinder by the air in the 
auxiliary reservoir is more quickly attained. 























AIR BRAKE 


As the automatic air brake is applied by an 
operation of the triple valve which results from 
the discharge of air from the train pipe to the 
atmosphere, it is evident that the application of 
the brakes need not be confined to the manipula¬ 
tion of the operating valve by the engineer, but 
will result from any cause by which the train- 
pipe air pressure may become sufficiently re¬ 
duced. It was this feature of the apparatus 
which gave it the designation ^automatic.” 
Should any portion of the train become detached, 
or should the train pipe or hose become rup¬ 
tured, a reduction of air pressure in the train 
pipe immediately follows, and the brakes become 
automatically applied upon all the cars of the 
train. The importance of this feature of 
the automatic brake is very marked. Of all the 
operations of the air-brake apparatus, the neces¬ 
sity of prompt and reliable action, when the full 
retarding effect of the brakes is needed, stands 
pre-eminent. Of all the various manipulations 
of the air pressure, that of permitting the air 
pressure in the train pipe to be discharged to 
the atmosphere is the simplest and most surely 
attainable. In this way, the prompt response of 
the brake apparatus, when emergency calls for 
its operation, is most fully assured, and the 
automatic air brake has therefore taken a most 
conspicuous place in the front rank of railroad 
safety appliances. No accidental disorder of the 
apparatus can prevent the application of the 
brakes in emergencies. By means of the engi¬ 
neer’s operating valve, or of a valve called the 
conductor’s valve, connected with the train pipe 
in each passenger car, or by the occurrence of 
any disorder which dissipates the air pressure 
in the train pipe, the apparatus automatically 
causes the train to come to a stop — in the lat¬ 
ter case calling attention to the disorder and 
giving opportunity for such repair as shall again 
insure safety before the train proceeds. 

Power Brakes for Freight Trains .— The 
automatic air brake was very generally adopted 
for the passenger trains of all important rail¬ 
roads, and fully met all the requirements of its 
day. When, however, in the development of 
railroad transportation, the necessity for the use 
of an automatic power brake upon freight trains 
became apparent, new conditions were discov¬ 
ered which the automatic air brake was not qual¬ 
ified to meet. During the year 1886, a series of 
brake trials was conducted at Burlington, Iowa, 
by a committee of the Master Car Builders’ 
Association, and it was then demonstrated that 
the operating requirements of power brakes upon 
long freight trains could not be fulfilled by any 
power brake in existence. Prompt and efficient 
as had been the operation of the automatic air 
brake upon passenger trains, it was discovered 
that, upon long freight trains, the required re¬ 
duction of air pressure in the train pipe to 
actuate the triple valves at the rear end of the 
train, occupied too long a period of time, when 
that reduction was effected only by the dis¬ 
charge of the train-pipe air through the engi¬ 
neer’s operating valve. The length of the train 
pipe upon a freight train of 50 cars is about 
2,000 feet, or two fifths of a mile. When, in an 
emergency, the engineer turned the handle of his 
operating valve so as to permit the compressed 
air to discharge from the train pipe to the atmo¬ 
sphere as freely as possible, the movement of the 
air in the train pipe toward the engineer’s valve 
was so resisted and retarded by friction upon 


the walls of the train pipe that fully 17 seconds 
elapsed from the time that the discharge began 
at the engineer’s brake valve until the pressure 
in the train pipe upon the rear cars became suffi¬ 
ciently reduced to cause the triple valve to 
operate. The brakes upon the forward cars 
were promptly applied with full force, so that 
the speed of the forward portion of the train 
became materially reduced before the brakes 
began to apply upon the rear portion of the 
train. In consequence, the cars of the rear por¬ 
tion of the train plunged forward unresisted 
into those which were retarded by the brakes at 
the forward end, with a force that almost 
equaled that of collision. The shocks produced 
by such collision were sufficient to seriously 
damage the cars and their lading. 

It was clearly evident that the usefulness of 
the automatic air brake upon freight trains be¬ 
came contingent upon the discovery of some 
means whereby the interval of time elapsing 
between the application of the brakes upon the 
cars of the forward end and those at the rear 
end of the train, could be so diminished that no 
damaging shocks should result from any opera¬ 
tion of the brakes. An examination of the con¬ 
ditions of operation made it equally evident that 
but two methods could be utilized for securing 
a more nearly simultaneous application of the 
brakes to all the cars, one of which is to reduce 
the air pressure in the train pipe so gradually 
that such reduction is nearly uniform throughout 
the train, and the other is to provide a series of 
openings in the train pipe, in addition to that 
through the engineer’s brake valve, so that the 
train-pipe air may be discharged at different 
points throughout the train, at approximately the 
same time. While the first of these two methods 
proves entirely satisfactory for ordinary applica¬ 
tions of the brakes in regular service, so much 
time is occupied by it that it is wholly unsuit¬ 
able for applying the brakes when emergencies 
require prompt and efficient action. The second 
method, therefore, became the only practical 
solution of the use of the compressed air brake 
as an effective safety appliance upon freight 
trains. 

The Quick-Action Air Brake .— This inven¬ 
tion, introduced by Mr. Westinghouse about 
the beginning of the year 1888, was the result of 



Fig. 3. —Quick-Action Triple Valve. 


the development of the principle of venting the 
train pipe at each car, for quickly applying the 
brakes. The train pipe is provided with a vent 































AIR BRAKE 


valve upon each car, which is operated by the 
mechanism of the triple valve, when, and only 
when, an emergency application of the brakes 
is desired. By discharging the air, vented from 
the train pipe in emergency applications, into 
the brake cylinder, instead of into the atmo¬ 
sphere, Mr. Westinghouse also discovered that 
a considerably more powerful and effective appli¬ 
cation of the brakes could be secured in emer¬ 
gencies than is found to be necessary or desira¬ 
ble for use in the ordinary operations of the 
brakes in. customary service. The mechanism 
of the quick-action automatic air brake consists 
of the apparatus hitherto employed in the auto¬ 
matic air-brake system, with the simple addi¬ 
tion of the train-pipe vent valve and the means 
for causing it to operate in emergency applica¬ 
tions. A sectional view of the quick-action 
triple valve is illustrated in Fig. 3. 

All of the upper portion of this triple valve is 
of the same construction as that already de¬ 
scribed in connection with the automatic air 
brake, with the single exception that the main 
slide valve c is lengthened at the forward end, 
and this added portion is supplied with a some¬ 
what restricted port k. In all applications of 
the brakes which result from such moderate 
reductions of train-pipe air pressure as occur in 
all ordinary service, this portion of the triple 
valve is alone operative. The additional quick- 
action mechanism consists of the supplemental 
piston m, situated in the cylindrical chamber be¬ 
low the slide valve, an emergency valve n, with 
a stem extending upward to the piston, and a 
check valve 0 directly below the emergency valve. 
A light spring, situated between the check valve 
and the emergency valve, serves to support the 
emergency valve and supplementary piston in 
the positions shown, under all ordinary circum¬ 
stances. The port or passageway p, indicated by 
dotted lines, connects the main valve chamber 
with the chamber above the supplementary pis¬ 
ton m. This port is normally covered and 
closed by the slide valve c, and is only uncovered 
when the triple-valve piston a moves to the left 
with sufficient force to compress the supporting 
spring of the stem /, and thereby completes its 
full traverse to the end of its chamber. When 
the complete movement of the triple-valve piston 
thus occurs, the port p is uncovered through a 
notched opening in the lower face of the slide 
valve c, which, however, could not well be illus¬ 
trated, because of the fact that both it and the 
dotted port p are situated behind the plane of the 
section shown. 

Making a Sudden Stop .— When an emer¬ 
gency occurs, in which the engineer finds it 
necessary to bring the train to a sudden stop, he 
moves the handle of the brake valve into a posi¬ 
tion for quickly discharging the air from the 
train pipe, whereby a sudden and material re¬ 
duction of the air pressure is effected in the 
train pipe upon the first car and in the connected 
chamber at the left of the triple-valve piston a. 
This results in such a preponderance of air 
pressure from the auxiliary reservoir upon the 
right face of the triple-valve piston that the pis¬ 
ton is quickly moved to the left, compressing the 
supporting spring of the stem j, until it reaches 
the end of its chamber. The passageway p being 
thereby uncovered, air pressure from the aux¬ 
iliary reservoir instantly acts upon the upper 
face of the supplemental piston m, to force it 


downward and open the emergency valve n, as 
illustrated in Fig. 4. 

To clearly comprehend what then takes 
place, it is important to fully realize the condi¬ 
tions which exist at this instant; they are (1) 
that no compressed air has as yet, during the 
practically instantaneous operation above de¬ 
scribed, entered the brake cylinder from any 
source; (2) that the compressed air can be dis¬ 
charged from the auxiliary reservoir into the 
brake cylinder only comparatively slowly, be¬ 
cause of the restricted character of the port k 
in the slide valve; and (3) that the air pres¬ 
sure in the train pipe, while having been sud¬ 
denly. and materially reduced below the pres¬ 
sure in the auxiliary reservoir, to the extent of 
5 or 10 pounds, or possibly more, is still very 
considerable (60 or 65 pounds), and it has, by 
merely lifting the check valve o, a capacious 
and unobstructed passageway, past the open 
emergency valve n, into the as yet empty brake 
cylinder. In consequence of the existence of 
these conditions, the check valve 0 is lifted 
from its seat, against the light resistance of its 
spring (as indicated in Fig. 4.), and the train- 



Fig. 4.—Quick-Action Triple Valve, Emergency 
Valve Open. 

pipe air rushes into the brake cylinder, thereby 
greatly reducing the train-pipe air pressure in 
the vicinity. When the brake cylinder has be¬ 
come filled with air at the reduced pressure in 
the train pipe, the spring above the check valve 
o immediately causes it to be closed, cutting off 
a return of any air from the brake cylinder to 
the train pipe, as the pressure in the latter be¬ 
comes further reduced. The air in the auxiliary 
reservoir, which also has been comparatively 
slowly discharging into the brake cylinder during 
the operation just described, now continues to 
discharge through the port k and the passageway 
f, and to add to the contents of the brake cylin¬ 
der, until equilibrium of pressure exists in the 
reservoir and brake cylinder. 

The sudden discharge of a large quantity of 
air from the train pipe into the brake cylinder 
of the first car, not only thus causes a quick 
and powerful application of the brakes upon that 
car, but also produces a sudden and material re¬ 
duction of the air pressure upon the left face 
of the triple-valve piston a upon the second car, 
thereby reproducing the conditions necessary for 
the complete movement to the left of the triple¬ 
valve piston and a repetition of the operation 
which occurred in the triple valve of the first 
car. This operation of the triple valve of the 
second car similarly actuates the quick-action 












































AIR BRAKE 


triple valve upon the third car, and so on, from 
car to car, throughout the train. The accom¬ 
plishment of these successive or serial operations 
of the triple valves throughout the train occurs 
with such astonishing rapidity that, whereas 17 
seconds elapsed between the application of the 
old automatic brake upon the first car and the 
application upon the fiftieth, this interval is but 
about two and a half seconds in the operation 
of the quick-action air brake — but little longer 
than is required for sound to travel through a 
distance equal to the length of train pipe upon a 
freight train of 50 cars. 

The. quick-action automatic air-brake system 
thus virtually consists of two distinct brake 
systems — one of moderate power and smooth 
and gentle application for all the customary oper¬ 
ations of every day train service, and the other 
of high power and violent application for use 
only when emergencies require most energetic 
means to avert destruction of life and property. 
It has practically succeeded all other forms of 
power brake upon railroad trains, and is now in 
almost universal use upon the passenger and 
freight trains in America. 

It has already been noted that the condition 
which determines whether a service or an emer¬ 
gency application of the brakes will result from 
a reduction of the air pressure in the train pipe, 
is the rate of rapidity, or the suddenness, with 
which the reduction of the air pressure in the 
train pipe takes place. When the air pressure in 
the train pipe is reduced comparatively slowly, 
the leftward movement of the triple-valve piston 
is terminated, by the resistance of the spring 
supporting the stem j, in such a position that 
the compressed air of the auxiliary reservoir be¬ 
comes discharged into the brake cylinder, 
thereby reducing the air pressure of the auxiliary 
reservoir (which acts upon the right face of the 
triple-valve piston) co-ordinately with the con¬ 
tinued reduction of the air pressure in the train 
pipe (acting upon the left face of the piston), 
so that such a preponderance of air pressure 
upon the right face of the piston, as is neces¬ 
sary to compress the spring of the stem j, does 
not occur. It is only when the air pressure act¬ 
ing upon the left face of the triple-valve piston 
is reduced much more rapidly than the discharge 
of auxiliary reservoir air to the brake cylinder 
will permit the air pressure upon the right face 
of the piston to be reduced, that the piston makes 
its complete movement to the left and causes a 
quick application of the brakes throughout the 
train. It is necessary, therefore, that the engi¬ 
neer’s brake-operating valve shall be provided 
with such means as shall readily enable the engi¬ 
neer to discharge air from the train pipe with 
only such rapidity as shall result in a service 
application, or to discharge the air with such 
greater rapidity as shall cause the emergency 
application of the brakes. 

It is found also that, inasmuch as it is neces¬ 
sary to elevate the air pressure in the train pipe, 
as rapidly as possible, to a point somewhat above 
the pressure of the air remaining in the auxiliary 
reservoirs after an application of the brakes, in 
order to force the triple-valve piston to the right 
and release the brakes, the provision of a stored 
pressure in the main reservoir upon the loco¬ 
motive, higher than that ordinarily charged into 
the train pipe and brake apparatus, is very de¬ 
sirable for temporary use in effecting a prompt 
release of the brakes. It has thus occurred that 


the primitive three-way cock, used for an engi¬ 
neer’s brake-operating valve in the earlier forms 
of the air brake, has given place to a more com¬ 
plicated device, now employed for effecting the 
various operations of the quick-action air brake. 

Engineer’s Brake Valve .— The functions of 
the modern engineer’s brake valve may be enu¬ 
merated as follows: To supply air to the train 
pipe and the auxiliary reservoirs throughout the 
train, at a certain definitely determined pressure, 
for the proper operation of the brakes — the 
standard pressure adopted for this purpose 
by the railroads being 70 pounds; to discharge 
air from the train pipe to the atmosphere at such 
a rate of rapidity that all the applications of 
the brakes in customary service may be effected 
without the operation of the quick-action meclv 
anism of the triple valves; to maintain any re¬ 
duced train-pipe air pressure, resulting from an 
application of the brakes, so that the brakes may 
be kept applied with the force corresponding to 
such reduced train-pipe pressure; to discharge 
air from the train pipe to the atmosphere with 
such rapidity, in emergency applications of the 
brakes, as shall cause the quick-action mechan¬ 
ism of the triple valves to operate with certainty; 
and to temporarily supply the train pipe with an 
unusually high air pressure, whenever the brakes 



Fig. 5.—Engineer’s Brake Valve. 

are to be released. These various operations are 
in practice controlled by different positions of 
a rotary disk valve, the various positions of 
which are defined and secured by the movement 
of a handle operated by the engineer. 

In order to avoid confusion, and to more 
clearly illustrate the construction and operation 
of the engineer’s brake valve, it is somewhat 
diagrammatically shown, with its ports and 
passageways so arranged in one plane that a 
single sectional view of the structure will show 
them all, except those in the rotary disk valve. 

Fig. 5 illustrates a plan view of the valve, 
showing: the handle in the position for releasing 
the brakes. The other various axial positions 
of the handle are indicated by dotted lines. 
Within the handle, there is a latch or pawl, held 
in position by a coil spring (indicated by dotted 
lines, and also shown in Fig. 10), which, by 
engaging with various projections upon a disk, 
against which the pawl presses, readily indicates 
to the engineer’s sense of touch the various posi¬ 
tions of the handle for causing corresponding 
operations of the brake apparatus. 

Fig. 6 illustrates a sectional view of the en- 













AIR BRAKE 


gineer’s valve, . with the handle in the running 
position, in which air from the main reservoir is 
admitted into the train pipe for the purpose of 
charging the brake apparatus upon the cars with 
the proper degree of air pressure. The handle 
q is connected, by means of a spindle, with the 
rotary disk valve r. In the seat upon which the 
valve r rotates, there are shown four passage¬ 
ways. The passageway e leads directly to the 
train pipe; the passageway z leads directly to 
the atmosphere; the passageway x leads to the 



*5 

2 % 

ft 

o 

Fig. 6 . —Engineer’s Brake Valve, Handle in Running 

Position. 

chamber y above the piston u and the passage- 
way g leads to the chamber containing the valve 
v, at the upper end of the structure, called the 
feed valve. In this feed valve, the small sup¬ 
ply valve u controls communication between 
the passageway g and a chamber above the pis¬ 
ton t, which chamber is connected by a passage¬ 
way / with the passageway e leading directly to 
the train pipe. In Fig. 6, the piston t and valve v 
are shown in their uppermost positions, being 
sustained in those positions by the upward pres¬ 
sure of the spring s, which upward pressure is 
properly adjusted by means of the screw plug 
which supports the lower end of the spring. It 
is a standard practice upon railroads to charge 
the train pipe and auxiliary reservoirs upon the 
cars with air at 70 pounds pressure, and the 
adjustment of the spring ^ is, therefore, so regu¬ 
lated by the screw plug that an air pressure of 
70 pounds per square inch upon the upper . face 
of the piston t is necessary to force the piston 
downward and compress the spring, thereby per¬ 
mitting the valve v to be forced to its seat by 
the light spring pressing upon its upper face. 

Extending downward from the piston u, is a 
stem which terminates in the poppet valve w. 
The valve w normally closes a passageway lead¬ 
ing from the train-pipe passageway e to the 
atmosphere. The lower face of the piston u is 
always subject to the air pressure .existing in 
the train pipe, while the upper face is subjected 
to the variable air pressure in the chamber y. 
Because of the necessarily small volume of the 
chamber y, owing to its position in the midst of 


a structure which must occupy as small a space 
as practicable, a passageway leads from it to a 
small reservoir, which is connected with the 
structure of the engineer’s valve by means of a 
pipe. In this manner, the chamber y becomes 
a portion of a reservoir or chamber of sufficient 
volume to permit an accurate reduction of air 
pressure therein, through the discharge of a 
portion of the compressed air therefrom to the 
atmosphere. This small reservoir, which is 
located in any convenient place, out of the way 
of the engineer, has, therefore, no other function 
than to virtually provide such a volume for the 
chamber y as could not otherwise be acquired, 
without greatly increasing the bulk of the engi¬ 
neer’s valve structure, and so rendering it cum¬ 
bersome and an obstruction in the engineer’s 
cab. 

With the handle in the running position, as 
shown in Fig. 6, the rotary valve r is shown in 
the position in which a passageway through the 
valve conducts air from the main reservoir to 
the passageway g, leading to the feed valve. The 
air passes beneath the supply valve v into 
the chamber above the piston t and thence by the 
passageways l and e, into the train pipe and the 
auxiliary reservoirs upon the cars. This flow of 
air from the main reservoir into the train pipe 
and auxiliary reservoirs continues until they are 
charged with a pressure of 70 pounds per square 
inch, whereupon the piston t is forced down¬ 
ward, compressing the spring s and permitting 
the supply valve v to become seated and cut off 
further communication between the main reser¬ 
voir and the train pipe. 

The apparatus upon the cars is now charged 
and ready to apply the brakes, whenever de¬ 
sirable; but the air pump upon the locomotive 



Fig. 7.—Engineer’s Brake Valve, Under Service 
Application. 

continues to compress air into the main reser¬ 
voir, until the latter is charged with an air pres¬ 
sure of about 90 pounds per square inch, at 
which pressure a pump controlling device, called 


























































































































































AIR BRAKE 


the pump governor, connected by pipe with the 
main reservoir, is so caused to operate as to cut 
off the steam supply to the pump and stop its 
operation. 

It is also to be noted that, in this position of 
the rotary valve r, a passageway is provided 
which connects the passageways e and x, so that 
the chamber y and the small reservoir connected 
therewith are in direct communication with the 
train pipe and charged with the same air pres¬ 
sure as exists in the train pipe. 



Fig. 8 . —Engineer’s Brake Valve, Communication 

Cut Off. 

If, while the air-brake apparatus throughout 
the train is thus charged with the proper air 
pressure, any reduction of the air pressure 
should occur through leakage at any part of the 
apparatus, the effect is to diminish the pressure 
upon the upper face of piston t of the feed valve, 
thereby permitting the spring .? to force the pis¬ 
ton upward, unseating the supply valve v, and so 
to permit air from the main reservoir to flow 
into the train pipe and restore the pressure 
therein, and in the connected auxiliary reser¬ 
voirs, to 70 pounds. In like manner, a reduction 
of pressure in the main reservoir, from any 
cause, acts upon the pump governor to restore 
the steam supply to the air pump, which re¬ 
plenishes the pressure in the main reservoir and 
restores it to 90 pounds. 

In making a service application of the brakes, 
the engineer brings his handle into the proper 
position, thereby moving the rotary valve r into 
a position where the conditions are as illustrated 
in Fig. 7. In this position of the rotary valve, 
all communication between the main reservoir 
and other parts of the apparatus is cut off, and 
communication between the chamber y } above 
piston u, and the train pipe is similarly broken, 
At the same time, by means of a small cavity 
in the rotary valve r, the passageway x is placed 
in communication with the passageway z, so 
that air from the chamber y and the small reser¬ 
voir connected to it may be discharged into the 
atmosphere. The immediate effect of reducing 


the air pressure upon the upper face of piston 
u, while the train-pipe air pressure below the 
piston remains unchanged, is to cause the pis¬ 
ton u to be forced upward, thereby unseating 
the valve w and permitting air to be discharged 
from the train pipe directly to the atmosphere, 
through the train-pipe discharge passage. The 
pipe connecting the chamber y with the small 
reservoir is also connected by a branch pipe with 
an air-pressure gauge, by means of which the 
engineer is enabled to see how much the air pres¬ 
sure in chamber y is reduced by so discharging 
the air therefrom. When the air pressure in 
chamber y has been reduced to the extent that 
it is desired to reduce the train-pipe air pres¬ 
sure, the engineer moves his handle into the 
lap position, thereby bringing the rotary valve 
into the position illustrated in Fig. 8. 

In this position of the rotary valve, all com¬ 
munication between the respective passageways 
is cut off. The air continues to discharge from 
the train pipe, through the train-pipe discharge 
passage, until the air pressure in the train pipe 
has been reduced to a point slightly below that 
to which the pressure in the chamber y was re¬ 
duced by discharge of air from the latter cham¬ 
ber to the atmosphere. Thereupon, the prepon¬ 
derance of pressure upon the upper face of piston 
u causes the piston to move downward and 
reseat the valve w, thereby cutting off further 
discharge of air from the train pipe to the at¬ 
mosphere. Should the engineer subsequently 
wish to apply the brakes with a greater force, 
he again moves the handle of his valve to the 
position for making service applications and dis¬ 
charges an additional quantity of air from the 
chamber y, to further reduce the air pressure 
therein. This results in the piston u being again 



ZCL 

I s 


Fig. 9.—Engineer’s Brake Valve, Emergency 
Application. 

forced upward, again unseating the valve w and 
further discharging air from the train pipe. 

There are two reasons for the interposition 
of the piston u and valve w, in this process of 











































































































































































AIR BRAKE 


discharging air from the train pipe, instead of 
discharging it directly to the atmosphere, 
through a port in the rotary valve r, which would 
appear to be the most natural and simple 
course. One reason is that, as the number of 
cars composing a train varies greatly, the length 
of train pipe of a train of cars likewise varies 
between wide limits. Upon a short train, the 
volume of air which must be discharged from 
the train pipe, to effect a given reduction of 
air pressure therein, is very much less than the 
volume which must be discharged from the train 
pipe of a long train, to produce the same reduc¬ 
tion of air pressure. If the air were directly 
discharged from the train pipe into the atmo¬ 
sphere, therefore, it would be necessary for the 
engineer to hold the handle of the brake valve 



Fig. io. —Engineer’s Brake Valve. Release Position. 


in the position for making a service application 
a different length of time for each different 
length of train, to cause the same reduction of 
air pressure; while, with the use of the cham¬ 
ber y and connected reservoir, the engineer dis¬ 
charges the same quantity of air therefrom to 
the atmosphere, upon any length of train, to 
cause a given reduction of train-pipe air pres¬ 
sure, and the piston u remains in its upward 
position a longer or shorter time, depending 
upon the length of the train. By this means, 
the engineer becomes readily accustomed to hold 
the handle of his brake valve in the service ap¬ 
plication position the proper length of time to 
produce any given reduction of train-pipe air 
pressure, and thus, with experience, he is en¬ 
abled, with reasonable accuracy, to apply the 
brakes with the desired force, without the neces¬ 
sity of consulting the pressure gauge. 

The other reason for the use of piston u 
and valve w is that it is desirable that the dis¬ 
charge of air from the train pipe to the atmo¬ 
sphere shall be gradually and not suddenly ter¬ 
minated. The body of air in the train pipe 
acquires considerable velocity of movement 
toward the engineer’s brake valve, during the 
period that the discharge continues, and the 
sudden termination of such discharge usually 
results in a temporary increase of pressure at 
the forward end of the train pipe, sufficient to 
cause the release of the brakes that have most 


quickly applied at the forward end of the train. 
By means of the conical teat below the valve 
w, the downward motion of the piston u, which 
is gradual, is accompanied by a gradual closure 
of the train-pipe discharge passage, thereby pre¬ 
venting such an increase of air pressure in the 
forward end of the train pipe, after closure, as 
would result in causing the release of any of 
the brakes. 

In an emergency application of the brakes, 
the rotary valve r is turned to a position for 
establishing the conditions illustrated in Fig. 9. 
By means of a cavity in the rotary valve, the 
train-pipe passageway e is brought into direct 
communication with the passageway z, leading 
to the atmosphere. The air in the train pipe 
is thus provided with an unobstructed avenue 
for discharge to the atmosphere, whereby the 
train-pipe air pressure is so rapidly reduced as 
to cause an emergency application of the brakes 
throughout the train. 

To release the brakes, after any kind of an 
application, the handle of the engineer’s brake 
valve is placed in the release position, in which 
the rotary valve r is brought to a position for 
effecting the conditions illustrated in Fig. 10. 
In this position of the rotary valve, communica¬ 
tion is established from the main reservoir to 
the train pipe, through a port leading to the 
passageway e, and to the chamber y, by a port 
leading to the passageway x. By this means, 
the main reservoir air is furnished with an un¬ 
obstructed passageway to the train pipe, for 
quickly replenishing the air pressure therein, 
and the air pressure in the chamber y and con¬ 
nected reservoir is simultaneously replenished 
so as to prevent the increasing train-pipe pres¬ 
sure from lifting the piston u. The handle 
of the engineer’s brake valve is customarily left 
in the release position only long enough to as¬ 
sure the release of all the brakes upon the train 
when it is turned into the running position, 
which restores the conditions illustrated in Fig. 
6, whereby the train pipe and auxiliary reser¬ 
voirs are again charged with an air pressure of 
70 pounds and are so placed in a condition of 
readiness for the next application of the brakes. 

About the year 1891, the high-speed brake 
was devised. As long ago as 1876, during some 
extensive brake trials in England, with apparatus 
designed and constructed by Mr. Westinghouse 
and conducted by Capt. Douglas Galton, in be¬ 
half of the Institute of Mechanical Engineers of 
London, it was discovered that the friction be¬ 
tween brake shoes and wheels varies greatly at 
different speeds. The friction of the brake shoes 
upon the wheels produces a tendency to stop 
their rotation, while the friction between the 
rails and the wheels causes the wheels to con¬ 
tinue to rotate in spite of the resistance to rota¬ 
tion produced by the brake-shoe friction, and 
thus the rail friction upon the wheels is what 
finally and actually retards the motion of the 
train. In the Westinghouse-Galton brake trials, 
it was discovered that the rail friction upon the 
wheels (which is really the friction of rest) is 
practically the same at all speeds, and the same 
brake-shoe friction ought therefore to be util¬ 
ized at all speeds, to produce the best results in 
stopping. But, as already stated, it was discov¬ 
ered that the friction of the brake shoes con¬ 
tinually decreases as higher speeds are attained, 
and it is therefore very desirable that the brake 
shoes should be applied to the wheels with 































































AIR BRAKE 


greater pressure at high speed than at low speed, 
to compensate for the reduced coefficient of 
friction at the high speeds. 

The high-speed brake is designed for the 
purpose of realizing a greater brake-shoe pres¬ 
sure at high speed, which is subsequently re¬ 
duced, as the speed of the train declines during 
the stop, until the pressure has become only such 
as may be safely maintained until the final stop, 



without sliding the wheels upon the rails, it 
being a well-known fact that the sliding of 
wheels upon the rails not only seriously dam¬ 
ages the wheels but also very materially in¬ 
creases the distance in which the train can be 
stopped. The apparatus consists of the ordi¬ 
nary quick-action automatic brake apparatus, 
with the addition of an automatic pressure- 



in Brake Cylinder. 

reducing valve connected to each brake cylinder. 
The air pressure ordinarily employed in charg¬ 
ing the train pipe and auxiliary reservoirs of 
the quick-action automatic brake is 70 pounds 
per square inch; but, in using the high-speed 
brake, the train-pipe and auxiliary-reservoir pres¬ 


sure is increased to no pounds. In conse¬ 
quence of this increased train-pipe and auxiliary- 
reservoir pressure, the emergency application of 
the high-speed brake occurs with a much in¬ 
creased brake-cylinder pressure, which, by means 
of the automatic reducing valve, is gradually 
reduced until it becomes only about that which 
would occur in an emergency application of the 
ordinary quick-action brake. 

It is very important that, in ordinary ser¬ 
vice applications of the high-speed brake, the 
brake-cylinder pressure shall not materially ex¬ 
ceed that which occurs with the use of the quick- 
action brake, and it is therefore essential that 
the automatic reducing valve shall provide such 
a large release passage for the brake-cylinder air 
in service applications that the brake-cylinder 
pressure shall not materially exceed the limit 
attained with the use of the quick-action brake; 
but the discharge passage must also be suffi¬ 
ciently small in emergency applications to. cause 
the higher air pressure to accumulate in the 
brake cylinder and to be discharged only slowly. 

These functions of the automatic reducing- 
valve are obtained by the use of a triangular 
port opening, the broad base of which exposes 



a comparatively large opening for releasing any 
excess pressure in the brake cylinder in service 
applications, while in emergency applications the 
valve moves so as to expose the portion near the 
apex of the triangular port for discharging 
the air. The arrangement of this port in the re¬ 
ducing valve is illustrated in Figs. 1 1, 12, and 13, 
which show the upper portion of the reducing- 
valve structure. At Z, a pipe connects the 
reducing valve to the brake cylinder. The pis¬ 
ton 4 is thus subjected, upon its upper face, 
to the air pressure from the brake cylinder, 
while it is supported at its lower face by a 
spring, adjusted to hold the piston 4, and the 
valve 8 attached to it, in the positions shown in 
Fig. 11, when the brake-cylinder pressure does 
not exceed that desired in service applications. 
The slide valve 8 is supplied with the triangu¬ 
lar port b which, when the pressure in the 
brake cylinder is less than that for which the 
spring is adjusted, is in the position shown in 
Fig. 11, the discharge port a in the casing be¬ 
ing covered by the slide valve, so that no air 


























































































































































































AIR-CELLS — AIR-COMPRESSORS 


can escape from the brake cylinder. In a ser¬ 
vice application of the brakes, the brake-cylinder 
pressure can only comparatively slowly exceed 
the limit for which the reducing valve is 
adjusted, and the piston 4 is thereby slowly 
depressed until the base of the triangular port 
b registers with the discharge port a, as shown 
in Fig 12. In this position of the slide valve, 
the excess of air in the brake cylinder is rap¬ 
idly discharged, and the air pressure is thus 
permitted to but very slightly exceed the limit 
for which the reducing valve is adjusted. 

In an emergency application of the brakes, 
however, the air pressure in the brake cylinder 
increases with much greater rapidity than in ser¬ 
vice applications, and the accumulation of pres¬ 
sure upon the piston 4 causes it to move down 
more rapidly, bringing the triangular port b of 
the slide valve to register near its apex with the 
release port a, as shown in Fig. 13. In this 
position of the slide valve 8, the air discharges 
from the brake cylinder comparatively slowly 
and the pressure is thus gradually reduced, the 
piston 4 gradually rising with the reduced pres¬ 
sure, until the pressure has finally become re¬ 
duced to the limit for which the device is 
adjusted, when the port a is closed and the air 
pressure then remaining in the brake cylinder 
continues effective until the train is stopped or 
the brakes have been released in the customary 
way by the engineer. 

The high-speed brake is now quite generally 
employed upon the fast passenger trains through¬ 
out the United States, and stops trains from 
speeds of about 60 miles an hour in about 30 
per cent shorter distance than the ordinary 
quick-action air brake. 

R. A. Parke, 

Expert for Westinghouse Company. 

Air-cells, cavities in the cellular tissue of 
the stems and leaves of plants which contain 
air only, the juices of the plants being contained 
in separate vessels. They are largest and most 
numerous in aquatic plants, as in the V allisneria 
spiralis and the Victoria regia, the gigantic 
leaves of which latter are buoyed up on the sur¬ 
face of the water by their means. There are also 
air-cells in the bodies of birds. They are 
connected with the respiratory system, and are 
situated in the cavity of the thorax and abdo¬ 
men, and sometimes extend into the bones. 
They are most fully developed in birds of pow¬ 
erful and rapid flight, such as the albatross. 

Air-chamber, a reservoir in a hydraulic 
apparatus, in free communication with the 
water. The chamber or reservoir is filled with 
air, which by its elasticity diminishes the shocks 
that would otherwise be produced by sudden 
changes in the speed of flow of the water, and 
also equalizes the flow. When the pressure in 
the pipes is momentarily greater than the normal 
pressure, water enters the air-chamber and com¬ 
presses the air it contains; and when the pres¬ 
sure is momentarily less than the normal, the 
reverse action takes place, and the elasticity of 
the air forces water back into the pipes. 

Air-cock, a cock placed upon a water- or 
steam-pipe (notably upon a steam radiator) to 
allow of the escape of air from the piping. 

Air-compressors. The various practical 
applications of compressed air cover a range of 
pressure from a fraction of an ounce to several 
thousand pounds per square inch. To produce 


the required supply of air with proper pressure 
and economy, numerous types of compressors, 
each having its peculiar and appropriate field, 
have been designed. These are, in the order of 
the pressure produced: the disc fan, the centrif¬ 
ugal blower, the positive blower, the blowing 
engine, the direct-acting compressor, and the 
compressor with crank and flywheel. By the 
operation of all these, the same result is pro¬ 
duced — the delivery of a quantity of air under 
an increased pressure and correspondingly in¬ 
creased temperature, and the subsequent rapid 
loss by the air of its excess of temperature, 
with a proportionate decrease in volume. Most 
of the problems in the design of compressors 
are created by the heating of the air during 
compression and by the effects so produced 
upon the apparatus. 



Disc Wheel. 


The Disc Fan. —The disc fan, correspondsg 
to the marine screw propeller in action, is useful 
for producing a flow of air of considerable vol¬ 
ume but with almost inappreciable increase of 
pressure. It is thus suitable for purposes of 
ventilation in expelling foul air, gases, or smoke, 
or for removing dust, fine shavings, and waste 
particles from woodworking and grinding ma¬ 
chines. The power expended in revolving the 
fan goes in great part toward whirling the air 
current around in the fan casing and pipe — 
a waste of effort which limits the application 
of this device to conditions of moderate speed 
and very light pressure. 

The Centrifugal Blower. —By taking advan¬ 
tage of the tendency of revolving particles to 
fly away at a tangent, a fan blower of better 
efficiency and a wider field of usefulness is 
afforded. Particles of air whirled around by 
the blades of the disc fan merely fly out and 
press against the casing; but the centrifugal 
blower converts this action into useful compres¬ 
sion through the provision of a spiral casing 
around the fan, in which the air whirled off by 
the blades of the fan is deflected and conducted 
into a discharge pipe leading off from the cas¬ 
ing. The blower therefore consists of a fan 
with radial or sometimes curved blades which 
stand parallel to the axis instead of obliquely 
as in the case of the disc fan, and which revolve 












AIR-COMPRESSORS 


in a circular or spiral casing surrounding the 
fan and opening into a large discharge pipe 
that leads off at a tangent in any desired direc¬ 
tion — up, down, or sideways. Air enters 
around the shaft of the fan through openings 
in the centre of the casing, and, being received 
by the blades, is whirled around and thrown 
outward into the surrounding chamber with a 
pressure proportional to the square of the 
speed of the fan. The pressure thus produced 
is sufficient for blowing fires of all kinds, for 
removing small fragments of wood as well as 
finer particles from wood-cutting machines, for 
delivering illuminating gas to holders, and for 
other purposes requiring a pressure of not much 
over one pound per square inch. The centrifu¬ 
gal blower is the most efficient contrivance 
known for producing pressures of a few ounces, 
but its economy falls off very fast if the speed 
is increased so as to produce pressure as high 
as one pound per square inch. 



Cross-section of Positive Pressure Blower. 


This machine seems peculiar in. its behavior 
owing to the fact that it requires less power 
to maintain a certain speed when the discharge 
passage is partly closed than when it is fully 
open. It is evident that when there is no dis¬ 
charge opening, the fan, together with the air 
between its blades, will spin around freely like 
any wheel. If the discharge gate be opened, 
air will flow about the fan blades to their outer 
ends, and so into the casing and thence to the 
pipe system; while air from the centre of the fan 
follows out into the space between the blades, 
its speed increasing as it approaches the ends 
of the blades, where it is hurled into the 
casing. It is the work done in accelerating 
the motion of these particles of air, which ex¬ 
plains the resistance to the movement of the 
fan; and this work is evidently in proportion 
to the quantity of air that passes along the fan 
blades, being zero when, by reason of the clos¬ 
ing of either suction or discharge opening, no 


air is discharged, and being greatest when, with 
full opening, the volume of air passing is the 
maximum. The blades of the blower would 
fly in pieces before the speed could be increased 
sufficiently to produce an air pressure much 
over one pound per square inch. 

An apparatus identical in principle is the 
centrifugal pump, which, handling far heavier 
fluids, produces by centrifugal action pressures 
measured by pounds instead of ounces. 

The Positive Blower .—In direct competition 
with the centrifugal fan is the positive blower. 
Consider a fan having opposite blades, revolv¬ 
ing in a closed casing, and carrying around with 
it the air confined between the blades. If a 
radial partition could be slipped in just after 
one of the blades had passed, the following 
blade would compress the air between it and 
the partition, and would force it out through a 
discharge pipe if one were provided near the 
supposed partition. This partition might be 
imagined to be momentarily withdrawn as each 
blade passed, so that successive portions of air 
would be trapped and compressed. The positive 
blower consists of a fan of this sort, with one 
or more blades, revolving in connection with 
an ^abutment® performing the office of the par¬ 
tition just alluded to. A well-known form con¬ 
sists of a cylinder carrying two radial blades, 
and revolving in contact with a cylinder of half 
the diameter which is provided with a gap of 
proper form to receive the passing blades. As 
each blade travels around the casing, it drives 
the air before it up to the smaller cylinder, 
whose gap comes around at the proper instant 
to allow the blade to pass, while intercepting 
the air continuously. Another type consists of 
two similar two-leaved cams meshing together 
like gears, as shown in the sectional illustra¬ 
tion. 

The positive blower is necessarily made of 
cast-iron on account of the peculiar shapes re¬ 
quired, and its parts are therefore unduly 
heavy in comparison with their work of com¬ 
pressing air to low pressures. The limit of 
pressure is not far above that of the centrifu¬ 
gal blower; but as the quantity of air delivered 
per revolution is practically constant (except 
for slight leakage), this machine possesses, for 
certain purposes, some advantages. It is much 
used for blowing foundry cupolas, moving il¬ 
luminating gas in gas-works, and Tor pneumatic- 
tube transportation. 

The Air-compressing Engine .—The air-com¬ 
pressor proper is a cylinder-and-piston machine 
like the common steam engine. It comprises 
two sets of valves, usually designed to be 
opened automatically by excess of pressure un¬ 
der them and to be closed by gravity or by the 
actions of springs when the pressures become 
equal. The inlet valves open just after the 
piston commences its stroke, when the expan¬ 
sion of the compressed air remaining in the 
cylinder behind the piston has lowered the pres¬ 
sure above the valves. They close at the end of 
the intake stroke, just as the piston comes to 
rest. The outlet valves lift during the com¬ 
pression stroke, at about the time the rising 
pressure in the cylinder becomes equal to that 
in the outlet passage above the valves; and 
they close when the flow of air ceases as the 
piston completes its stroke. 

Perfectly correct action of automatic valves 
is not realized in practice. The valve must 



























































AIR-COMPRESSORS 


evidently be larger than the opening in its seat, 
so that the upper surface is larger than the area 
underneath reached by the lower pressure; con¬ 
sequently the valve will not open until the 
pressure below is greater than that above. To 
prevent destructive slamming of the valves, 
springs must be provided to force them to their 
seats just as the flow ceases and before the 
reverse stroke of the piston can cause much 
backward flow of air. The pressure of the 
spring acts to choke the flow through the 
valves, increasing the resistance they offer to 
the passage of air. Large compressors are there¬ 
fore often provided with mechanically-actuated 
valves which are opened and closed smoothly 
at the proper moment by eccentrics and valve 
rods. Any of the steam-engine valve gears 
may be used for compressors, and designed by 
the same methods, observing only that the com¬ 
pressor is in every way a reversed steam engine, 
so that its discharge port and valves are dupli¬ 
cates of the inlet details of the engine, while the 
engine exhaust and the compressor inlet valves 
are also similarly related. 

Varying initial (or boiler) pressure is com¬ 


bination the effect of valves automatic as re¬ 
gards their opening, but positively closed by the 
mechanism at the proper instant. Such lift- 
valves, being shut off entirely at the proper 
closing instant, seat themselves without noise 
or shock, and may therefore have very light 
springs, causing less resistance to the air pass¬ 
ing through. 

. Where the expense of full mechanical action 
is warranted on account of the superior effi¬ 
ciency obtainable, poppet or rotary valves may 
be arranged to open by means of springs or 
air dashpots. The opening device is released 
either through the rising pressure in the cylin¬ 
der easing the valve on its seat, and reducing 
the friction until the valve, when balanced, slips 
freely open; or through the same pressure act¬ 
ing on a piston attached to a pusher, the 
operation of which results either in starting 
the valve in spite of friction or in lifting a catch 
and thereby freeing the spring or dashpot 
mechanism of the compressor. 

Compound Compressors .—While low com¬ 
pression pressures are accompanied by only 
moderate heating of the air during compression, 



Sectional View of Steam Cylinder of a Typical Air-compressor. 


pensated, except in throttling engines, by vary¬ 
ing time of inlet-valve closure or <( cut-ofP; and 
varying discharge pressure in a compressor calls 
for variation in time of opening of the dis¬ 
charge valves. In both cases, the means of 
variation constitute the chief problem for the 
designer. 

Mechanically-moved inlet valves of compress¬ 
ors act always at the same points, opening a 
trifle after the piston starts on the intake stroke, 
and closing exactly at the end of the same 
stroke; but the discharge valves must open at 
the instant the piston has compressed the air in 
front of it to a pressure equaling that above 
the valves in the discharge pipe, and must close 
always at the same instant, at the end of the 
stroke. As the compressor may be working 
against a pressure greater or less than that reg¬ 
ularly carried, the discharge valves must be so 
controlled as to open at whatever point is re¬ 
quired by the pressure then being carried. The 
requirements are sometimes met by putting auto¬ 
matic lift-valves above, or even directly upon, 
the mechanical discharge valves, giving the com- 


the production of high pressures is attended 
with excessive heat and considerable increase in 
the volume of the compressed air. As the air 
leaving the cylinder soon resumes the normal 
temperature, and decreases in volume accord¬ 
ingly, the extra work done in compressing the 
increased volume is wasted. Compressing cyl¬ 
inders in operation are always cooled by water 
or otherwise; but it is impossible, even by 
spraying water into the cylinder, to keep the air 
from rising considerably in temperature. For 
high pressures, resort is therefore had to com¬ 
pound compression, the air being passed suc¬ 
cessively through larger low-pressure to smaller 
high-pressure cylinders, between which are lo¬ 
cated inter-coolers whose function is to restore 
the air to its original temperature before it 
enters on the next stage. The volume of the 
air is thus kept as small as possible; and the 
successive stages of compression result in pro¬ 
ducing the required pressure with a minimum 
of loss from heating during the process. Two- 
stage machines are preferred to single-stage 
where air must be compressed to one sixth or 





























































































AIR-COMPRESSORS 


a smaller fraction of its volume at atmospheric 
pressure (measuring pressures from absolute 
vacuum) ; and three or more stages are required 
in compressing to one sixteenth or less. Cylin¬ 
der diameters are selected which will provide 
for about the same amount of work being done 
in each cylinder. 

Most compressor problems deal with air 
taken directly from the atmosphere at its sea- 
level pressure; but, as at moderate elevation 
there is a marked decrease of the atmospheric 
pressure, compressors for high locations must 
deal with air at pressures below 15 pounds 
absolute. Under such conditions the volume 
of air taken into the compressor at each stroke 
weighs less, and therefore less air is delivered 
by the compressor, while there is a correspond¬ 
ing decrease in the power to run the machine. 
The ratio of compression, and the rise in tem¬ 
perature, are proportionately increased, so that 
a two-stage compressor may be desirable for 
pressures that would call for only single cylin¬ 
ders at sea-level. Thus, at many of the mines 
in the Rocky Mountain region, the atmospheric 
pressure is as low as 11 pounds per square inch, 


supplies against the piston a force decreasing 
toward the end of the stroke, while air during 
compression opposes a force increasing toward 
the end of the stroke; thus the power rapidly 
falls off as the resistance increases, causing a 
perceptible reduction in speed at the end of 
each stroke. If such a machine could be run 
at high speed, the weight (or more correctly, 
the mass) of the pistons and connections would, 
by inertia, help out the decreasing steam pres¬ 
sure when slowing to pass the centres, and thus 
produce a more even effort on the crank; but 
sufficiently high speeds are not possible for the 
automatic-lift valves generally used on small 
compressors. The varying power and resistance 
can be very satisfactorily balanced by connecting 
steam and compressing pistons to separate 
cranks set at right angles. Having provided 
two frames and cranks, a slight additional out¬ 
lay will supply an extra pair of cylinders tan¬ 
dem to the first pair, making a full duplex com¬ 
pressor. The excess steam pressure at the 
commencement of the stroke of one side is here 
transmitted by the crank shaft to the other side 
of the machine, to help out the deficient pres- 


S 











ACKET INLET 






AIR .OUTLET' 


Sectional View of Air Cylinders and Inter-cooler. 


so that 90 pounds’ air pressure by gauge re¬ 
quires a compression ratio of 9 to 1, which is 
considerably beyond that proper for a single- 
stage compressor. In general, high-level com¬ 
pressors should be specially proportioned for 
their work. 

Methods of Driving .—Like pumps and other 
machinery, compressors are direct-connected to 
engines or are driven through gears or belts 
from separate sources of power. The recip¬ 
rocating piston compressor requires a varying 
effort to balance the cylinder pressure, since, 
during the stroke, the piston moves against an 
increasing air pressure, and finally against the 
full discharge pressure, in pushing out the con¬ 
tents of the cylinder. Direct-connected com¬ 
pressors are either ^straight-line® (tandem), 
having steam and air pistons on the same piston 
rod, or they are connected to cranks set at an 
angle on a common shaft. The first method 
reduces floor space and cost, but requires very 
heavy fly wheels, and makes the machine liable 
to stop on a centre if run much below full 
speed and capacity. 

It is evident that steam used expansively 


sure of the expanded steam when the stroke is 
nearly finished. Such a machine has no (( dead 
centres,® and can be run at v.ery low speed 
when necessary. 

As it is generally desirable to maintain a 
constant air pressure, and to vary the speed of 
the machine according to the quantity of air 
required, speed governors for the, steam cylin¬ 
ders are not needed except to prevent racing 
in case of a bursting pipe or other excessive 
discharge of air. Some form of adjustable cut¬ 
off valves is very desirable in order to allow of 
suiting the work of the steam cylinder to the 
load. The pressure is controlled by automatic 
devices actuated by the rise and fall of the air 
pressure, either shutting off the air intake, 
opening a by-pass around the compressor piston, 
or (in case of duplex machines which can start 
from rest without attention) shutting off steam 
and stopping the machine. 

A description of the standard types of com¬ 
mercial compressors would be incomplete with¬ 
out reference to the most remarkably wasteful 
(( steam eater® known to the compressor trade 

a machine using ten times as much steam as 
















































































































AIR COMPRESSORS 


would be necessary for pumping the same 
amount of air by means of a fairly economical 
compressor, and yet a device most ingenious 
and entirely satisfactory for its work. This is 
the air-brake pump, which, for actual conditions 
of train service — where it stands idle until the 
closing of the throttle, and the application of 
brakes leave a large and heavily fired steam 
boiler to blow off at the safety valve until the 
fire can be checked — is seen to be well adapted. 
Indicator cards show that the entering steam 
is throttled through about half the stroke, 
while the exhaust is similarly choked at first 
and only let out freely about the time of full 
opening of the valve. The result is a (( straight- 
line® compressor having no crank or flywheel, 
with nothing moving but its two pistons and one 
rod, and yet so perfectly balanced between effort 
and resistance that its strokes are smoothly 
made at any speed from slowest to fastest, and 
all with maximum simplicity and minimum 
weight. These machines are also built with 
compound steam and two-stage air cylinders, 
and in these cases have pressures in the cylin¬ 
ders so nearly uniform that the steam distribu¬ 
tion may be considerably more economical than 
it is possible to obtain in the single-stage com¬ 
pressor. See Compressed Air. 

S. H. Bunnell, 

Works Manager, Watertown Engine Company, 
Watertown, N. Y. 

Air Compressors. An air compressor is a 
device used for compressing air. In itself air 
lacks the power to do work and serves only as a 
storer and transmitter of energy. Coal, on the 
other hand, is a hydro-carbon compound, each 
element possessing the power to do work when 
burning. To free the coal of its potential en¬ 
ergy it is necessary to apply sufficient heat to 
begin the operation of burning, and when once 
started it will continue to give off heat as long 
as sufficient coal and a sufficient quantity of 
oxygen are supplied. The burning of coal and 
the giving up of energy in the form of heat 
are attended by chemical changes, or changes 
in the state of matter itself. When air is com¬ 
pressed it has the power to do work by expan¬ 
sion, and as air is expanded the changes in the 
condition of the air are purely mechanical. 
Any device which reduces the volume of air 
with a pressure increase is an air compressor. 
Air compressors are of two distinct kinds,_ dry 
and wet. In the former type a solid piston 
serves to reduce the volume of air, and in the 
latter a liquid, usually water, Is employed. 

Dry or Piston Type .— This is the common 
form of compressor employed to-day and is 
widely and extensively used. It consists essen¬ 
tially of a solid shell or cylinder furnished with 
suitable valves for the admission and discharge 
of air, and a piston to effect the desired com¬ 
pression. On one stroke of the piston, air is 
sucked into the cylinder through the inlet valves 
and when the piston reaches the end of its 
stroke these valves close just before the piston 
begins the return stroke. On the return stroke 
the entrapped air is diminished more and more 
in volume, with an increase in pressure (and 
temperature, if compression is not isothermal). 
At a certain point in the stroke, when a pre¬ 
determined pressure is reached, the discharge 
valves open and the compressed air for the re¬ 
mainder of the travel of the piston is forced 


through the valves into a receiver. When all 
the air is discharged from the cylinder and the 
piston begins the return stroke, the discharge 
valves close and the intake valves again open. 
Such is, in brief, the operation of an air com¬ 
pressor. 

The commercial compressor, however, in¬ 
cludes many schemes and modifications to effect 
the greatest compression with a minimum ex¬ 
penditure of work and trouble. In the practical 
compressor, the details which receive special 
attention are main frame, main bearings, air 
cylinders, air heads, air valves, flywheel, main 
shaft, crank pins, connecting rod, crosshead, pis¬ 
tons, piston rod, oiling system, bearings, foun¬ 
dation, accessibility, intercooler, governing de¬ 
vices, method of drive, etc. For discussions on 
these various items, reference should be made 
to text-books on the subject. 

The type of compressor, whether straight 
line or duplex, single or compound, steam or 
power driven, depends upon the requirements 
and natural resources. Following, these points 
are considered in brief: 

Straight Line Compressor. — The straight 
line compressor is designed to take stresses and 
strains in direct lines. These machines were 
originally evolved to meet the demands for 
compressors which may be easily transported in 
mountainous countries for distant prospect work, 
shaft sinking and tunneling operations. Obvi¬ 
ously, such service is, almost without exception, 
hard and continuous. This suggests the ques¬ 
tion of accessibility and ease in making repairs 
when no shop facilities are available. The 
straight line design provides well for all these 
requirements. Every part of the machine is 
accessible and an occasional oiling is usually 
the only attention that such a machine demands. 
The machine has also been commonly installed 
in railroad shops for signal work and the like, 
where absolute reliability in the delivery of 
compressed air is imperative. For quarrying 
and also for general contract work this type 
finds favor. The best straight line machines 
are built on the lines which a long experience 
has proved to be the best, that is, power and 
resistance in straight lines, positive movement 
of air valves, cold intake air, cooling by a com¬ 
plete surface jacketing, resulting in dry air and 
effective cylinder lubrication, adjustable steam 
cut-off for the economical use of steam, small 
clearance space, automatic speed and air pres¬ 
sure regulation, medium stroke, high rotative 
speed, extra heavy bearing surfaces for crank 
pins, shaft and slides, and automatic lubrication. 
This type of compressor is self-contained and 
does not require an expensive foundation. 

Duplex Air Compressors .— The peculiar re¬ 
quirements of air compressing work are met 
with in the duplex machine in a manner differ¬ 
ent from that in the other type just described. 
In compressing air by means of a reciprocating 
steam engine the resistance throughout the 
stroke, due to compression, is inversely pro¬ 
portional to the power in the steam end, that 
is, at the beginning of compression the pressure 
is greatest in the steam cylinder and diminishes 
as the stroke advances, due to expansion of the 
steam; while the air pressure starts at atmos¬ 
phere and increases, due to compression. 

To equalize resistance and power, no design 
offers a better solution than the duplex type 


AIR COMPRESSORS 


The respective pistons on one side are so adapt¬ 
ed, relative to the pistons on the other side, 
that when one piston is at the beginning' of its 
stroke the other is at the middle of its stroke, 
whereby the resistance of the air on both pis¬ 
tons is practically equalized throughout the 
entire stroke. 

When steam is the driving fluid, the range 
of adaptability of the duplex compressor admits 
of any combinations of duplex or compound 
steam and air cylinders. The duplex form of 
construction admits also of installing one side, 
or the first half, as a compressor complete in 
itself at a time when the free-air requirement 
is only one-half of the ultimate demand; the 
other half may follow later. 

Sectional Compressors. — In mountainous re¬ 
gions and in places inaccessible by good roads, 
where mule-back transportation is the only 
available means of conveyance, the sectional 
compressor is employed. Such a machine is so 
designed that no one section exceeds a given 
weight limit or proper mule load. 

Portable Compressors. — In structural opera¬ 
tions where the only air power needed is for 
driving small machines for operations of a light 
character and of a shifting nature, the portable 
compressor outfit possesess many decided ad¬ 
vantages. Drilling, chipping and riveting in 
bridge, railroad, trestle and allied undertakings 
call for a moderate air supply. It is apparent 
that the seat of operation is ever changing and 
that much territory must be covered as the work 
progresses. The portable compressor is espe¬ 
cially adapted for such work. A portable outfit 
is a complete plant in itself, having boiler, en¬ 
gine, compressor, receiver and the necessary 
appurtenances mounted on one truck. The plant 
may be drawn by two or more horses. 

Single and Multiple Stage Compression .— 
Air is compressed in single, two or more stages, 
depending upon the degrees of compression re¬ 
quired. The practical limiting pressure to 
which to compress air economically in a single 
stage is about 70 pounds per square inch gauge. 
Above this point two, three or more stages are 
employed. Single stage compressors were the 
earlier forms of machines designed, and are 
still extensively used for purposes not demand¬ 
ing more than about 70 to 80 pounds pressure. 
Such machines are used for supplying air to 
drills, pneumatic tools and the like. 

Compound compressors have many advan¬ 
tages over single stage machines. The efficien¬ 
cy, owing to the heat of compression, decreases 
as the terminal pressure increases, and for pres¬ 
sures above 70 pounds the water jacket of the 
simple compressor is not sufficiently effective 
for producing the most economical results; and 
stage or compound compression is resorted to 
as the most practical and efficient method for 
reducing the loss due to the heat of compres¬ 
sion. In the compound compressor the cylinder 
diameters are so proportioned as to divide the 
work of compression equally between a given 
number of cylinders. All air cylinders are pro¬ 
vided with water jackets and are connected by 
intercoolers. Free air is admitted to the low 
pressure cylinder, where it is partially com¬ 
pressed and then forced into the intercooler. 
The intercooler acts as a receiver and at the 
same time removes the heat of compression of 
the intake cylinder before the air is admitted 


to the second stage cylinder. In the high pres¬ 
sure cylinder (in a two stage machine) the 
process of compression is completed and the air 
is delivered to the receiver at the required 
terminal pressure. The final temperature in 
each cylinder would be the same if the work 
was divided equally and the intercooler properly 
designed, but it will be very much lower than 
if the compression were done in one cylinder. 

To illustrate the difference in effect between 
single, two or three stage compression, let us 
take a specific case. Let it be required to com¬ 
press one cubic foot of free sea level air to 200 
pounds gauge pressure, assuming the intake air 
to be 6o° F., and the intercooler process per¬ 
fect ; the ideal or isothermal compression re¬ 
quires 0.1719 horse-power to do the work. The 
actual or adiabatic work demanded is 0.26 horse¬ 
power for single, 0.21 horse-power for two 
stage, and 0.196 horse-power for three stage 
compression. Compressing the air adiabatically 
to 200 pounds gauge pressure in a single stage 
necessitates a loss of Si.2 per cent. Two and 
three stage compression occasion losses of 22.2 
per cent and 14.0 per cent respectively. The 
temperature of the air in one stage and at 200 
pounds pressure reaches 673° F., while for two 
and three stage operations 308° F. and 213 0 F. 
are the maximum temperatures. The excessive 
loss in work and the extreme temperature 
reached in single compression for so high a ter¬ 
minal pressure demand the employment of a 
compound two or three stage compressor. As 
mentioned above, for single stage compression 
70 pounds gauge is about the limiting econom¬ 
ical pressure. The temperature reached in com¬ 
pressing in a single stage to 70 pounds gauge 
is about 404° F. 

The principal advantage of compound com¬ 
pression over simple compression lies in the 
reduction of the loss due to the heat of com¬ 
pression, which represents, therefore, a saving 
in power, since the resistance due to compres¬ 
sion is directly proportional to changes in tem¬ 
perature. 

Intercoolers. — An intercooler is a device 
used for cooling the air between stages in a 
compound compressor. It consists essentially 
of a shell or casing filled with nests of galvan¬ 
ized iron or brass tubes through which cool¬ 
ing water circulates. Baffle plates are pro¬ 
vided so that the air passing through the tubes 
is so distributed with reference to the cooling 
surface of the pipes that it readily parts with 
its heat to the cooling water. 

The great advantage of compounding is 
due very largely to the use of intercoolers, and 
this advantage depends upon the fact that 
more time is taken to compress a certain vol¬ 
ume of air, and that this air during the stages 
of compression is brought in contact with an 
efficient cooler. A properly designed inter¬ 
cooler should reduce the temperature of the 
air back to the original point, that is, to the 
temperature of the intake air, and even lower 
if the water is cold enough. The tubes of the 
intercooler should be placed close enough to¬ 
gether that the air when passing through must 
be split up into thin sheets. These devices 
are naturally expensive, but first cost is of 
small moment when compared with the effi¬ 
ciency of the compressor and its effect upon 
the coal and water consumed. 


AIR COMPRESSORS 


Steam Driven Compressors. — The air com¬ 
pressors in operation to-day are largely of the 
steam driven variety, both of the straight line 
and duplex types. The duplex steam driven 
machine represents probably the best form of 
compressor for plants of large size and perma¬ 
nent character. As the economy of a com¬ 
pressor is to a large extent dependent upon 
the efficiency and economy of the engine to 
which it is attached, this part of the machine 
has received special attention and has been 
developed to the highest point. Three methods 
of controlling steam admission to the steam 
cylinders are through slide valves, Meyer ad¬ 
justable cut-off valves, and Corliss valves. 
The slide valves are used only on machines of 
comparatively small capacity and moderate 
cost, the Meyer on larger and more costly 
compressors, and the Corliss valves on the 
largest and most economical machines. 

Simple and Compound Steam Cylinders .— 
Simple steam cylinders are used in installa¬ 
tions where the matter of economy in steam 
consumption is not paramount. Such cylin- 
lers are used for steam not over a pressure 
f about 75 or 80 pounds. In machines de- 
n anding the greatest economy and where the 
steam pressure is high, compound machines are 
resorted to. Steam is admitted first into the 
high pressure cylinder where it expands and 
does work; it is then exhausted into a steam 
receiver and thence into the second cylinder 
for further work. 

Power Driven Compressors. — The usual 
conditions under which an air compressor is 
installed are such as to favor one that is driven 
independently of any other machinery. Still 
there are many cases where the independent 
steam actuated compressor is replaced to ad¬ 
vantage with a machine driven from some out¬ 
side source of power. For instance, from a 
line shaft by gearing, belt, chain or ropes, from 
an electric motor, from a gas or oil engine or 
from an impulse, turbine or other water wheel. 
In some of these compressors the driving pul¬ 
ley or water wheel is on the main shaft and 
in others a countershaft is used to advantage, 
the ratio given frequently being two to one, 
but generally decided by the peculiarities of 
each separate case. When sufficient water 
power is available within several miles of the 
plant where power is used, this energy may be 
utilized for compressing air to be piped to the 
works and there used with great success and 
economy fo, pumping, hoisting, drilling and 
many other pm poses. In some few cases power 
may be converted into electrical energy to ad¬ 
vantage, the current so generated being used 
for driving a number of compressors located 
close to the seit of operations for driving pneu¬ 
matic machinery. 

Power-driven compressors may be of the 
simple straight line type or of duplex construc¬ 
tion, furnished with single or double acting cyl¬ 
inders. The simple straight line form may be 
used where the demand for air is light. This 
machine has the same advantage as the steam- 
driven straight line machine, in that it takes 
up stresses and strains in direct lines. Duplex 
machines are largely for service where the de¬ 
mand for air is considerable. Such machines 
have the advantage of relieving many of the 
excessive strains to which the compressor may 
be subjected by dividing the work equally be- 

Vol. I—I A. 


tween the cylinders and counterbalancing im¬ 
pulses. These machines are made with either 
simple or compound air cylinders, the former 
being used for sand blast work and the like, 
where the pressure in no case exceeds the eco¬ 
nomical limit of 70 pounds. Above this press¬ 
ure compound cylinders are employed and are 
provided with a suitable intercooler to remove 
the heat of compression as the air passes from 
the low to the high pressure cylinder. The air 
cylinders are water jacketed, that the valves 
and moving parts may be kept cool to assist 
the machine in its proper performance. 

The modern power driven compressor 
driven by gears, by a silent chain, or direct 
connected to an electric motor or gas engine, 
operates with efficiency and reliability. The 
belt driven compressor may be run from a coun¬ 
tershaft or from an electric motor, oil or 
gasoline engine. The gear driven compressor 
is especially convenient for connecting to an 
electric motor. The chain driven compressor 
is built for connection with any kind of motor. 
Its construction admits of a minimum dis¬ 
tance between motor and compressor shaft, so 
that the least possible space is taken up by the 
complete machine. The power used for run¬ 
ning the belt machine, of course, depends upon 
conditions. Where there is an existing line 
shaft driven by a shop engine with surplus 
power, the best method of drive would prob¬ 
ably be a belt, or if the cramped floor space 
prevents adequate belt centres a rope drive may 
be preferable, the driving wheel of the com¬ 
pressor being grooved instead of crowned. 
Again where water power is available a water 
motor may be used, the conditions of head and 
quantity of water determining the speed and 
thus regulating the use of a belt, chain or di¬ 
rect connection. Where the line shafts are not 
available, the compressor may be operated to 
advantage from either a gas engine or an elec¬ 
tric motor. The selection of either one or the 
other of these types of machines depends upon 
the availability of either gas or electrical 
energy. 

Wet or Hydraulic Types of Compressors .— 
There are three distinct varieties of wet com¬ 
pressors : First, where power is generated by 
the falling of water; second, where the power 
is mechanical, ultimately driving a water pis¬ 
ton ; third, the type in which cooling water is 
injected directly into the cylinder. 

The first is used where there is an abun¬ 
dant water fall and where a high efficiency is 
not required. The second has the advantage 
of eliminating entirely the undesirable clear¬ 
ance, as the water used in this instance fills all 
the dead space not reached by a solid piston. 
Piston speed is of necessity limited to a low 
rate due to the mass of water to be moved. As 
a result, if a large quantity of compressed air 
is required a multiplicity of compressors must 
be used. The third is desirable from the point 
of excellent cooling, but as the fluid used is a 
poor lubricant, proper lubrication is interfered 
with which results in a loss of power and in¬ 
creased wear. This variety also has the de¬ 
cided disadvantage of causing compressed air 
to become very moist, and unless reheating is 
resorted to before the air is applied to useful 
purposes it will cause difficulty in cold weather 
due to freezing. For a more detailed descrip¬ 
tion of hydraulic compressors, reference will 


AIRD —AIR-PUMP 


be made to literature on the subject. As a 
matter of fact, the hydraulic compressor is 
rarely used, as it is largely impracticable due to 
lack of efficiency and mainly on account of its 
cumberousness. 

Air Distribution or Transmission. — After 
the air is compressed it must be properly stored 
and conveyed and applied to secure all the bene¬ 
fits. For this purpose the aftercooler is im¬ 
portant as it serves to reduce the temperature 
of the air after the final compression, and in 
doing this it serves as a drier, reducing the 
temperature to the dew point, thus precipitat¬ 
ing moisture before the air is started on its 
journey. Other important appliances in distri¬ 
bution are receivers, which serve the purpose 
of reservoir, watertrap and rectifier; pipe lines, 
for transmitting compressed air from the com¬ 
pressor to the points of application, and re¬ 
heaters, for heating the air close to the point 
of admission to the motor. 

Application of Compressed Air. — At the 
present time compressed air is used in almost 
every art known to man. Its safety, the ease 
with which it is transported, its simplicity, its 
applicability to common engines and its use for 
many different purposes, its economy and the 
great service it renders in ventilation and cool¬ 
ing are reasons why compressed air is used so 
extensively. Some of the more important ap¬ 
plications of compressed air are for ventilation 
and heating, air motors, rock drills, quarrying 
machines, pumps, pneumatic haulage, pneumatic 
dispatch tubes, pneumatic tools, air jacks, air 
hoists, air cleaning, etc. See Compressed Air ; 
Pumps, Compressed Air. 

Edward F. Schaefer, M.M.E., 

Ingersoll-Rand Company, New York. 

Aird, Thomas, a Scotch poet who has 
won praise from high critics, but little popular 
acceptance: b. Roxburghshire, 1802; d. 25 April 
1876. He studied in the University of Edin¬ 
burgh, and formed a lifelong intimacy with 
Carlyle; contributed to ( Blackwood’s, 5 and won 
the warm good will of Wilson; edited the 
Weekly Journal 1832-5, and the Dumfriesshire 
and Galloway Herald (Dumfries) 1835-64. He 
published ( Religious Characteristics, 5 prose es¬ 
says (1827) ; ( The Captive of Fez, 5 narrative 
poem (1830) ; a character story, ( The Old 
Bachelor in the Scottish Village > (1845), very 
popular at the time; etc. But he is best (or at 
all) remembered now for his ( Devil’s Dream. 5 

Airdrie, a municipal and parliamentary 
burgh, Scotland, in Lanarkshire, 11 m. E. of 
Glasgow. It depends chiefly on the collieries 
and iron-works in its vicinity, but has also a 
large cotton-mill and factory, several extensive 
foundries and machine-shops, tube-works, and 
a number of hand-loom weavers. Pop. (1901) 
22,288. 

Air-drill, a rock drill or other form of 
drill actuated by compressed air. 

Airedale Dog. See Terrier. 

Air-engine, an engine in which air is the 
working body. Such an engine may be operated 
by air previously raised to a high pressure by a 
compressor, as in the storage and transmission 
of power by compressed air; or it may derive its 
power directly from the burning of fuel. In the 
latter case it is often called a hot-air engine. 


(For the elementary theory of the hot-air en¬ 
gine, see Thermodynamics.) 

Aire-sur-la-Lys, ar-siir-la-le, a town of 
France, dept. Pas-de-Calais, 10 m. S.E. of St. 
Omer. It stands at the junction of the Lys with 
the Laquette, on a low marshy site, but is well 
built, and possesses several beautiful fountains, 
a handsome Gothic church, and barracks for 
6,000 men. Its trade is chiefly in linens, fus¬ 
tians, hats, thread, starch, soap, Dutch tiles, 
osier work, and grain. Pop. (1902) 8,500. 

Air-gas, an inflammable gas produced by 
charging air with the vapors of naphtha, gas¬ 
oline, or some similar volatile hydrocarbon. 

Air-gate, in foundry work, an opening left 
in the mold for the escape of air and other 
gases as the molten metal enters. 

Air-gun, an instrument for the projection 
of bullets by means of condensed air, generally 
either in the form of an ordinary gun or of a 
pretty stout walking-stick, and about the same 
length. See Ordnance; Zalinski. 

Air-hole (or blow-hole), a fault in a cast¬ 
ing, due to the presence of a bubble of air or 
other gas. 

Air-lock, an air-tight chamber used in 
tunneling, when the tunnel has to be kept 
filled with compressed air to prevent the en¬ 
trance of water. The air-lock communicate 
with the tunnel by one door, and with the out 
side air by another. It serves the double pur¬ 
pose of permitting the workmen to enter ant 
leave the tunnel without undue loss of air, and 
of partially mitigating the physiological effects 
of a too sudden transition from the high pres¬ 
sure in the tunnel to the lower pressure out¬ 
side. 

Air-plant, a popular name for plants that 
live upon the trunks of trees and obtain their 
nourishment from air and rain but not from the 
plants upon which they grow. See Epiphyte. 

Air-pump, a machine invented by Otto 
von Guericke about 1652, by means of which air 
or other gas may be removed from an enclosed 
space; or a machine for compressing air within 
an enclosed space: the latter type is usually 
known, however, as an air-compressor (q.v.). 
An ordinary suction-pump for water is a rough 
kind of air-pump; indeed, before water reaches 
the top of the pipe the air has been pumped out 
by the same machinery which pumps the water. 
An ordinary suction-pump consists essentially 
of a cylinder or barrel having a valve opening 
from the pipe through which water is to 
rise, and a valve opening into the out¬ 
let pipe, and a piston fitted to work 
in the cylinder (the outlet valve may be in the 
piston). (See Pump.) The arrangement of 
parts in an air-pump is quite similar. The bar¬ 
rel of an air-pump fills with the air which ex¬ 
pands from the receiver (that is the vessel from 
which the air is being pumped), and consequent¬ 
ly the quantity of air expelled at each stroke is 
less as the exhaustion proceeds. Suppose that 
the receiver or vessel to be exhausted is exactly 
as large as the barrel; by the first stroke there 
is just half the air removed, by the second there 
is one fourth, by the third there is an eighth, 
and so on. Suppose the barrel is one third 
of the receiver as to volume. On raising the 


AIRSHIP —AIVALI 


piston the air which filled the receiver now fills 
both barrel and receiver, so that one fourth is 

removed at the first stroke, one fourth of the 

remaining three fourths is removed at the sec¬ 
ond stroke —that is, three sixteenths, and one 
fourth of nine sixteenths at the third stroke; 
the. quantity removed at each stroke forming a 
series of T \, A, etc.; that is, the total 

quantity removed is £ (i+f-f (f) 2 -f (f) 3 -f 
etc.). At each stroke we add a term to 

this series, and consequently the quantity 
removed by each stroke becomes smaller and 
smaller. There are also air-pumps for compress¬ 
ing air — the reverse operation from exhausting 
air — and a compressing pump may be consid¬ 
ered as one of the cylinder pumps above de¬ 
scribed, but having the receiver connected with 
the escape valve. There is not so much nicety 
required in compressing pumps as with exhaust¬ 
ing pumps. It may be observed that at the com¬ 
mencement of the stroke the effective pressure 
against the piston is, we may say, o, and when it 
has got to that position where the valve opens 
toward the receiver the effective pressure is that 
of the air in the receiver. It will be seen that 
when the pressure in the receiver is considerable 
the variation of pressure during the stroke is 
very great. It is on this account that compres¬ 
sion-pumps are sometimes used in which a set 
of cylinders have their pistons worked by a num¬ 
ber of cranks differently set on the same shaft, 
which shaft also carries a fly-wheel. There is 
some difficulty in compressing air considerably, 
from the heating of the pistons and cylinders, 
when the operation is rapidly proceeded with. 
Air may be compressed by sending water at 
pressure into an air-tight chamber containing air. 

Many interesting experiments may be made 
with the air-pump. If an animal is placed be¬ 
neath the receiver, and the air exhausted, it dies 
almost immediately; a lighted candle under.the 
exhausted receiver immediately goes out. Air is 
thus shown to be necessary to animal life and to 
combustion. A bell, suspended from a silken 
thread beneath the exhausted receiver, on being 
struck cannot be heard. If the bell be in one 
receiver from which the air is not exhausted, 
but which is within an exhausted receiver, 
it still cannot be heard. Air is there¬ 
fore necessary to the production and to the 
propagation of sound. For the mercury pumps 
that are used in exhausting incandescent electric 
lamp bulbs, see Vacuum. 

Airship. See Aerial Locomotion ; Bal¬ 
loon ; Flying Machine. 

Air-thermometer, a thermometer in which 
temperature is measured by determining the 
change of volume of a mass of air that is 
kept at constant pressure, or the change of 
pressure of a mass that is kept at constant vol¬ 
ume. See Thermometry. 

Air-trap, in steam and hydraulic engi¬ 
neering, a place where air can accumulate in a 
line of piping; as at the highest point of a line 
of water pipe. Air-cocks are placed at these 
points to permit of the removal of the accumu¬ 
lated air. (Also called air-bond.) 

Airy, Sir George Biddell, an English as¬ 
tronomer-royal : b. Alnwick 27 July 1801 ; d. 2 Jan. 
1892, in Greenwich. He was graduated at 
Trinity College in 1823. In 1826 he was ap¬ 


pointed Lucasian professor of mathematics at 
Cambridge, a chair once held by Newton, and he 
was the first actual director of the Cambridge 
Observatory, holding in connection with this 
post the Plumian professorship of astronomy. 
In 1835 he succeeded Pond as director of the 
Greenwich Observatory, and retained this office 
till 1881, when he retired on a pension. He in¬ 
itiated at Greenwich the plan of immediately and 
completely reducing observations; introduced the 
regular observation of magnetic phenomena, and 
of sun-spots by photography; invented new in¬ 
struments for lunar observations; and arranged 
the British observations in all parts of the world 
of the transit of Venus in 1874. His chief works 
were < Mathematical Tracts > (1826); < Ipswich 
Lectures on Astronomy) (1849); < Undulatory 
Theory of Optics) (1866) ; < Treatise of Sound) 
(1869) ; and < Treatise on Magnetism) (1870;, 

Aisle, in architecture, one of the lateral and 
usually lower divisions of a building which is 
divided lengthwise, as by rows of columns or 
piers, so that the roof is supported while still 
the interior is one large hall broken only by the 
uprights. The basilicas of the Romans were 
built in that way, as had been the small inte¬ 
riors of many Grecian temples; and when the 
first Christian churches were built in Italy and 
in the East, this ^basilican® form rivaled the 
round or polygonal plan and the plan of the 
Greek cross in popularity. At a later time 
Christian churches were nearly always built 
with aisles and a higher central part called 
usually the Nave. Most churches have an aisle 
on either side of the nave, and are called (( three- 
aisled® churches, but there are a few with five, 
and the famous Cathedral of Antwerp in Bel¬ 
gium has seven aisles, being almost alone in this 
respect. It is a mistake to count an outer row 
of chapels as another aisle. 

By extension the term covers such a long 
and narrow compartment of a building as is 
found in one of the great mosques of Cairo, 
Cordova, and Damascus. These buildings have 
generally flat roofs intended always to be of 
masonry, and that structure is carried by a 
great number of parallel rows of columns. The 
resulting ^aisles® are, of course, of the same 
height. In the mosque of Cordova there are 
17 such aisles left open, besides two outer ones 
which are largely enclosed for chapels: all the 
aisles opening by doors or windows upon a large 
court. 

Aitkin, Robert, printer and publisher: b. 
Dalkeith, Scotland, 1734; d. Philadelphia, July 
1802. Emigrated to America, 1769; settled in 
Philadelphia as a bookseller, becoming later a 
bookbinder and publisher as well. He pub¬ 
lished the < Pennsylvania Magazine) (1775- 
6), and printed numerous documents and state 
papers for the Continental Congress, among 
them the < Journals of Congress) from 5 Sept. 
1774 to 1 Jan. 1776 (Phila. 1777-80). At his 
own expense he published in 1782 the first Eng¬ 
lish Bible printed in America. This is now the 
rarest of all early Bibles printed in America, 
not more than 25 copies being known to exist 
In 1777 Aitkin was imprisoned for his attach¬ 
ment to the cause of independence. 

Aivali, Ai-va'li, or Kidonia, ki-do-ni'a 
(the ancient Hcracleia ), a town of Asiatic Tur¬ 
key, on the western promontory of the Gulf of 


AIX-LA-CH APELLE — AJALON 


Adramyti, 66 miles northwest of Smyrna. In 
the beginning of the present century it was a 
place of considerable note, but in June 1821, 
during a contest between the Greeks and Turks, 
it was set on fire by the latter and reduced to 
ashes. It has again revived, however, and 
(1902) possesses a population of 35,000. The 
olive is extensively cultivated in the district, 
and much oil and soap manufactured. 

Aix-la-Chapelle, ass, or ax-la-sha-pel' (Ger¬ 
man, Aachen; Latin, Civitas Aquensis, Aquis- 
granum), capital of a district of the same name 
in the Prussian province of the Rhine, 38 miles 
W. by S. of Cologne. It is a well-built town, 
pleasantly situated in a fine vale watered by the 
Wurm, and surrounded by the Venn Hills. It 
was formerly surrounded by ramparts, but these 
have been converted into pleasant promenades. 
The town-house (built in 1353 on the ruins of 
Charlemagne’s palace) contains the coronation 
room with portraits of the German emperors, 
half-sized portraits of Napoleon and the Em¬ 
press Josephine, painted by David, and many 
relics of old German art. The nave of the cathe¬ 
dral, erected by Charlemagne as a palace chapel 
between 796 and 804, was rebuilt on the old 
model by Otho III. in 983, after having been al¬ 
most destroyed by the Normans. It consists of 
an octagon, surrounded by a 16-sided gallery, 
and terminating in a cupola. The Gothic choir 
was begun in 1353 and finished in 1413; it is of 
prodigious height (114 feet) and lightness, and 
the large windows are filled with stained glass. 
Besides the tomb of Charlemagne, the cathedral 
contains many relics, the most sacred of which 
— such as the robes worn by the Virgin at the 
Nativity, the swaddling-clothes of the infant 
Jesus, the scarf he wore at the crucifixion, etc.— 
are shown only once in seven years, and attract 
many thousands of pilgrims from all countries. 
As the chief station of the Belgo-Rhenish Rail¬ 
way, which connects it with Antwerp, Ostend, 
and Cologne, Aix-la-Chapelle affords an exten¬ 
sive mart to the commerce of Prussia; it is also 
a grain market for Belgium, and the seat of com¬ 
mercial and other courts. It was eminent as a 
manufacturing city, especially of cloth and 
needles, as early as the 12th century; and its 
prosperity in this respect still continues. Its 
woolen cloths are highly esteemed on the conti¬ 
nent of Europe and are also exported to Amer¬ 
ica, China, etc. All trading countries, including 
the United States, have consulates in the city. 
It is estimated that over 30 per cent of the in¬ 
habitants are employed in the manufactures of 
the city. Although Aix-la-Chapelle is an exten¬ 
sive seat of manufactures and has considerable 
commercial relations, it derives its celebrity 
chiefly from its historical associations, and a 
considerable portion of its importance and pros¬ 
perity from the influx of visitors to its baths. 
There are in all eight mineral springs here, six 
of them warm. The most famous is the Im¬ 
perial Spring or Kaiserquclle, which has a tem¬ 
perature of 143 0 F., and the v-apor of which, 
when confined, deposits sulphur. For the ac¬ 
commodation of strangers there are a number 
of bathing-houses. The rooms for bathing are 
excellently fitted up, with baths from 4 to 5 feet 
deep, built in massive stone and in the old Ro¬ 
man style. About a half mile north of the city 
is the Louisberg or Lousberg, rising nearly 300 
feet higher than the city. It is a favorite sum¬ 
mer evening resort of the citizens. 


Aix-la-Chapelle was known to the Romans 
as early as the time of Csesar, and is mentioned 
by Pliny under the name of Vetera. It was, 
after 768, the favorite residence of Charle¬ 
magne, who made it the capital of all his do¬ 
minions north of the Alps and spared no 
expense in beautifying it. Here he died in 814, 
and in the cathedral his tomb is marked by a 
large flat slab with the inscription Carolo 
Magno. During the Middle Ages it was a free 
imperial city, and its citizens throughout the 
empire were exempt from feudal service, from 
attachment of their goods and persons, and from 
all tolls and taxes. Thirty-seven German em¬ 
perors and eleven empresses have been crowned 
in this city, and the imperial insignia were pre¬ 
served here till 1795, when they were carried to 
Vienna, and are now in the imperial treasury. 
By the peace of Luneville (9 Feb. 1801), which 
separated the left bank of the Rhine from Ger¬ 
many, the city was transferred to France, in 
whose possession it remained till 1814, when it 
was restored to Prussia. Pop. (1900) I 35 > 221 * 

Aix-la-Chapelle, Congress of, an impor¬ 
tant congress held in October and November 
1818. By this congress the army of the allies, 
consisting of 150,000 British, Russian, Austrian, 
Prussian, and other troops, which, since the 
second peace at Paris, had remained in France 
to watch over its tranquillity, was. withdrawn 
after France had paid the contribution imposed 
at the peace of 1815. Thus the Congress of 
Aix-la-Chapelle restored independence to France. 

Aix-la-Chapelle, Treaties of Peace con¬ 
cluded at. The first, 2 May 1668, put an 
end to the war carried on against Spain by 
Louis XIV. in 1667, after the death of his father- 
in-law, Philip IV., in support of his claims to a 
great part of the Spanish Netherlands, which 
he urged in the name of his queen, the Infanta 
Maria Theresa, pleading the jus devolutionis 
prevailing among private persons in Brabant 
and Namur. The second peace of Aix-la-Cha¬ 
pelle, 18 Oct. 1748, terminated the Austrian War 
of Succession in which the parties were at first 
Louis XV. of France and the Empress Maria 
Theresa, and, in the sequel, Spain on the one 
side, and Great Britain, Maria Theresa, and 
Charles Emmanuel, king of Sardinia, on the other. 

Ajaccio, a-ya'cho, or Ajazzo, a-yat'zo, 

France, capital of the department and island 
of Corsica, on its southwest coast, on a 
tongue of land projecting into the Gulf of Ajac¬ 
cio. It is sheltered by mountains from the 
north and east winds; and the town and bay are 
defended by a citadel. The entrance into the 
harbor is rendered unsafe by projecting rocks. 
Ajaccio b the birthplace of Napoleon; the house 
in which he was born is still in a state of good 
preservation, and has become the property of the 
nation. It is the handsomest city of Corsica 
and the seat of a bishop. It contains a cathe¬ 
dral, a communal college, a public library, a 
botanical garden, etc. In the commercial world 
it is famous for its coral and sardine fisheries, 
and it has also a trade in wine, grain, olive-oil, 
and fruits. Pop. (1902) 20,200. 

Ajalon, said to be the modern Yalo, a 
village 14 miles west-northwest of Jerusalem, 
was the town rendered memorable by Joshua’s 
victory over the five Canaanitish kings, and still 
more so by the extraordinary circumstance of 
the miraculously lengthened day. 


AJAX — ALABAMA 


A'jax (Greek, Aias ), the name of two of the 
Grecian chiefs who fought against Troy, distin¬ 
guished as Ajax Oileus and Ajax Telamonius. 
ihe former, the son of Oileus and Etiopas, 
a Locrian, was called the Less. When the 
Greeks had entered Troy, Cassandra fled to 
the temple of Pallas, whence she was 
forced and dragged along, bound as a cap¬ 
tive. Some accounts add that he violated the 
prophetess in the temple of the goddess. 
Ulysses accused him of this crime, when 
he exculpated himself with an oath. But 
the anger of the goddess at last overtook him, 
and he perished in the waves of the sea. The 
other Ajax was the son of Telamon, from Sa- 
lamis, and a grandson of Aiacus. He understood 
not how to speak, but how to act. After the 
death of Achilles, when his arms, which Ajax 
claimed on account of his courage and relation¬ 
ship, were awarded to Ulysses, he was filled 
with rage, and, driven to frenzy, threw himself 
on his sword, after having slaughtered the sheep 
of the Greek army, which he fancied were his 
enemies. 

Akron, Ohio, city and county-seat of Sum¬ 
mit County, is situated in a range of hills over¬ 
looking the Little Cuyahoga River. The Ohio 
Canal here mounts to the watershed between 
Lake Erie and the Ohio River by a series of 21 
locks. It is 31 miles southeast of Cleveland and 
98 miles northeast of Columbus. Railroads cen¬ 
tring here are the Baltimore & O., Pennsylvania, 
Erie, Cleveland, A. & C., Pittsburg & W., North¬ 
ern O., and Valley. The town was settled about 
1818, but its growth dates from the location of 
the Ohio Canal in 1825, the surplus water used 
in lockage, furnished by a system of reservoirs 
on the Summit level, making the power for large 
flouring mills then located here. It was incor¬ 
porated as a village in 1836, and as a city in 
1871. Its location is advantageous for a diver¬ 
sified industry, being in the northern edge of 
the grain belt, and on the southern border of the 
dairy section of the State, and beds of fire-clay 
and coal fields being close by. It is the prin¬ 
cipal seat of rubber manufactories for the Mid¬ 
dle West, the yearly output of these industries 
alone being $10,500,000, of which the B. F. Good¬ 
rich company furnishes about $6,000,000. The 
number of rubber workers employed is about 
5,000, and the amount paid to them in wages is 
over $2,300,000 in the year. The printing works 
of the Werner Company, employing 1,200 per¬ 
sons, are located here. The city is also the seat 
of a large number of other manufactories, in¬ 
cluding the American Cereal Company, the Ault- 
man, Miller & Company, makers of Buckeye 
mowers and reapers, the American Twine and 
Cordage Company, the American Clay Company, 
the Akron plant of the Wellman, Seavers-Mor- 
gan Company, where is made hoisting and min¬ 
ing machinery, The McNeil Boiler Company, 
and lesser manufactories of various kinds. At 
Barberton, the southern suburb of Akron, are 
the works of the Diamond Match Company, the 
largest in the world, O. C. Barber, one of the 
pioneers in this particular industry and founder 
of Barberton, being a native and resident of 
Akron. (See Barberton.) In addition to its 
proximity to the coal fields, Akron has facilities 
for manufacturing in the way of fuel, in natural 
gas piped from West Virginia. Under the mu¬ 
nicipal code of Ohio, Akron is governed by a 
mayor, council, board of public -service, board 


of public safety, board of education, and sub¬ 
ordinate officers. The school system alone in¬ 
volves the annual expenditure of upwards of 
$160,000, and is of a high and efficient grade. 
Here is the seat of Buchtel College (Univer- 
salist), founded by John R. Buchtel, the corner¬ 
stone of which was laid by Horace Greeley in 
1872. The other principal public buildings are 
Carnegie Free Library, United States Govern¬ 
ment building, Colonial Theatre, Grand Opera 
House, Methodist Episcopal church, High 
School building, etc. The annual revenue of the 
city is over $1,000,000. Akron was once the 
home of John Brown, and his former dwelling 
is still standing here, where the councils of his 
associates in the abolition cause were held. It 
was also the residence of Sidney Edgerton, first 
chief justice of Idaho Territory, and first terri¬ 
torial governor of Montana. Pop. (1900) 42,- 
728, being a gain of 54.8 per cent since 1890. In 
1903 the estimated population was 61,000. 

C. R. Grant, 

Attorney at Law, Akron, O. 

Alabama, Gulf State of United States (No. 
9 in order of admission), bounded N. by Tennes¬ 
see, S. by Florida and Gulf of Mexico, E. by 
Georgia, W. by Mississippi; extreme length 
336 m., greatest breadth 200 m., about 150 at N. 
border; area (No. 27 in U. S.), 52,250 sq. m., 
710 water; pop. 1900 (No. 18 in U. S.), 1,828,697, 
or 35-5 to sq. m. (No. 26 in density). Whites, 
1,001,152; colored, 827,545. 

Topography. — The great Tennessee Valley, 
which sweeps into and out of the State across 
the extreme N., is bordered in its western part 
by a region of fertile terraces ; in its eastern it 
separates the picturesque Cumberland Plateau 
on the N., a continuation of Middle Tennessee, 
from the declining flat-topped parallel ranges of 
the Blue Ridge on the S., which enter the State 
from N. Georgia some 1,600 feet high, and of 
which the Raccoon Mountains sink to low hills 
called the Sand Mountains extending to the 
centre of the State, while the Lookout Moun¬ 
tains end sharply about 60 miles within it. To 
the southwest they are succeeded by a low pla¬ 
teau where the great coal and iron deposits lie, 
to the southeast by the same ^PiedmonP* region 
of rolling upland as in all the southern States; 
and both decline to the great belt of level coast- 
land which extends all around those States 
and comprises three fifths of Alabama’s terri¬ 
tory. The sea line is short, three fourths of its 
natural extent being taken up by Florida ; and 
its only valuable part is Mobile Bay, an inlet 
36 miles long by 8 to 18 broad, which receives 
the great river systems of the State. Other 
bays are the Perdido, which with the Perdido 
River divides Alabama from Florida, 20 miles 
long by 6 to 10 wide, once a nesting-place for 
pirates and filibusters; the Grand; and the Bon 
Secours. 

River Systems (see also Commerce and Nav¬ 
igation, below).— The Mobile system drains the 
greater part of the State. The Mobile River, 
45 m. long, as such, and emptying into the 
Mobile Bay, is formed from the Alabama E. 
and the Tombigbee W., very crooked alluvial 
streams. The Alabama is a powerful stream 
800 m. long from its farthest sources, but only 
so named for the 320 m. from the junction of 
the Coosa N. and Tallapoosa E., just above 
Montgomery, the State capital; the. Coosa, 350 


ALABAMA 


m. long as such, is formed by the junction at 
Rome, Ga., of the Etowah and Oostenaula, and 
receives N. the Cahaba or Cahawba, rising in 
the mountains N.E. of Birmingham. The Tom- 
bigbee is about 500 m. long; it rises in Missis¬ 
sippi, and just above Demopolis, Ala., receives 
a large tributary, the Black Warrior, some 300 
m. long, wholly in Alabama, rising near the 
great south bend of the Tennessee at Gunters- 
ville. The Tennessee, the Ohio’s chief affluent, 
has about 180 m. of its course in Alabama, with 
a wholly unrelated drainage system. The S.E. 
portion of the State is drained by the Choctaw- 
hatchie, the Escambia with the Conecuh, and the 
Chattahoochee which divides the southern half 
from Georgia, all emptying in Florida. 

Climate. — Alabama ranges in climate and 
products from the temperate to the semitropic 
regions,— extending from 35 0 to 30° 10' N., or 
within 6% degrees of the Tropic, and from 
mountain to seacoast; and still more, from 
northern mountain to southern coast. Parts of 
its cool northeastern section are noted as sana- 
toriums; the Piedmont region is entirely salu¬ 
brious, and near the Gulf the sea winds temper 
the heat; along the river bottoms it is malarious. 
There is little snow or sharp cold in the north, 
nor extreme heat in the south; the mean tem¬ 
perature for winter is 42.9, for summer 83.9; for 
the year, in the north 59.70, in the south 66.60. 
The frost limits at Montgomery are 10 October 
and 25 April. Average rainfall, 54 inches in the 
north, 63 inches in the south; most of the rain 
is in early spring, especially in February. 

Geology. — All the Appalachian formations 
are found here, in three geological divisions: 
(1) Northern, above a line running southeast 
from the northeast corner to Tuscaloosa, show¬ 
ing Subcarboniferous rock masses and coal 
measures; (2) Middle, a triangle bounded by 
above line and one from Tuscaloosa to Colum¬ 
bus, Ga., having metamorphic and calcareous 
rocks, Silurian sediments, and coal measures; 
(3) Southern, all below this, having drift beds 
over Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks. The angle 
between the Alabama and Tombigbee is rich in 
fossils. 

Soils, Agriculture, and Forests. — Four terri¬ 
torial belts divide the State latitudinally. Each 
belt is distinguished by a variety of soils, but all 
soils are productive of forest trees and other 
wild growths. Each belt is watered in its own 
degree. Certain staple crops, cotton, corn, the 
cereals, the legumes, also garden vegetables, or¬ 
chard fruits and berries, flourish in degree in all 
the belts. The first is chiefly the Tennessee 
Valley, with a red chalky soil excellent for 
grain, and a sheltered situation making fruit cul¬ 
ture profitable, even delicate fruit like peaches. 
The mountainous districts around have much 
waste land, compensated by water-power, min¬ 
eral springs, and healing climate; the low foot¬ 
hills, however, are unsurpassed grazing grounds, 
and the long valleys between the spurs are 
highly fertile. The mineral lands have generally 
a sandy soil, often with clay subsoil. The Pied¬ 
mont region is a rolling prairie of great fertility, 
the metamorphic rocks having crumbled into 
varicolored loams with clay subsoil; around it is 
a forested girdle of similar loam with gravel or 
sedimentary rock beneath; the cotton belt is part 
of the famous Southern (( Black Belt,” and is a 
slender strip of black loam sometimes many 
feet deep, of enormous productiveness, extend¬ 


ing across the centre of the State. The south¬ 
ern coast land is sandy, but yields fair returns 
to labor; much of it is occupied by vast 
stretches of yellow pine and other woods, af¬ 
fording not only lumber, tar, turpentine, resins, 
etc., but much wax and honey, and the (( pine 
barrens ® are broken by alluvial bottoms in 
which rice is grown. 

The chief crop of the State is cotton, in 
which Alabama ranks fourth in the Union,—■ 
after Georgia, Mississippi, and Texas; in 1899, 
out of 223,220 farms, 192,388 raised cotton; and 
out of a total value of all crops of $70,696,268, 
that of cotton was $42,069,677. The number of 
bales in that year was 1,106,840; in 1901, 1,103,- 
000, from 3,447,751 acres estimated to be under 
cultivation. Strong efforts have been made to 
diversify the State’s agriculture more, and not 
without success; but the system of renting 
farms by merchants to small occupiers, largely 
negroes, who are supplied with necessaries by 
the merchant on a crop mortgage, makes it diffi¬ 
cult to effect the change, as the cotton is a less 
experimental crop than new ones, and the mer¬ 
chant wishes to sell the occupier other products 
himself. The partial exhaustion of even the 
fertile cotton land, however, by continuous 
planting for many years, has awakened much 
anxiety for the agricultural future; and the 
planting of cow-pease, alfalfa, etc., to enrich the 
soil and feed greater quantities of stock, has 
shown a considerable advance. Next in produc¬ 
tion to cotton is Indian corn, which is raised on 
nearly all farms to some extent, and in 1899 
amounted to 35,053,047 bushels, with a value of 
$17,082,271, or nearly one fourth the total of ffll 
crops; corn and cotton thus making up nearly 
six sevenths of the State’s crop products. In 
1900, a bad year for corn, that crop had fallen 
to some 29,300.000 bushels. Oats are the next 
heaviest cereal crops, having of late years 
crowded out wheat; in 1900 the total output was 
4,300,000 bushels against 916,000 bushels of 
wheat. A more valuable crop is sweet potatoes, 
of which in 1899 the State harvested 3,467,386 
bushels valued at $1,687,039; and little behind 
it was the production of syrup from sugar cane 
and sorghum, of which 4,395,235 gallons were 
made in 1899, bearing a market value of $1,405,- 
278. Peanuts are raised in the southeast. 
Peaches and melons are important staples. In 
farm animals the State is not rich, the num¬ 
ber of swine being greatest of any, 1,866,000 in 
1900. 

Minerals and Mining Industries. — The min¬ 
eral wealth of the State is enormous, practically 
all of it lying in the northern and middle geo¬ 
logical sections. The advantage of vast coal, 
iron, limestone, and dolomite (magnesian lime¬ 
stone) deposits lying close together has within 
the past 20 years raised the State from an al¬ 
most purely agricultural section to one of the 
chief manufacturing districts of the Union; its 
centre being Birmingham. It is said that iron 
products can be manufactured more cheaply 
there than anywhere else on the globe. The 
coal fields — all bituminous, but comprising all 
the highest grades, cannel, coking, gas, etc.— 
occupy 8,660 square miles; they are named from 
their rivers, the Warrior, Cahaba, and Coosa. 
The value of coal mined in Alabama has more 
than quadrupled in 18 years, rising from less 
than $2,500,000 in 1886 to over $14,000,000 in 
7904, ranking the State No. 5 in quantity and 



GrcenhUt, 

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Papulation of places is indicated 
by different lettering, thus': 

25,000 and over.....MOBILE 

6,000 to 25,000... 

1,000 to 5,000.. 

500 to 1,000 . 

Smaller Places..___ 

State Capitals shown thus. 

County Seats shown thus. 

Railroads__....... 


Chumukla 


Molina 


.Tuskegee 


Seminole 


. Andalusia 


Swardwout, 


Millvieub 


1 Lillian 
SojUlieroreek J 


.Steadham 


ft *f 

taranc 


Olisais. 


DuuphlneJ 


West" 































































































































































ALABAMA 


No. 6 in value in the United States. Besides its 
direct use and sale, a large part is manufac¬ 
tured into coke, in which Alabama ranks No. 3. 
1 he iron deposits so far mined are 72 per cent 
red and 28 per cent brown hematite, the State 
ranking second in the latter; magnetic, specular, 
limonite, and other valuable varieties are also 
present. The mining of this is almost entirely 
the development of the past two decades; in 
1880 the product was but 171,000 tons; in 1889 
it had risen to over 1,500,000 tons, and in 1899 to 
nearly 2,300,000 tons, making the State third 
in the Union, next after Michigan and Minne¬ 
sota — really second, the great Lake Superior 
beds constituting but one deposit. In export of 
pig iron it ranks first in the Union. The lime¬ 
stone, used as a flux, and also burned into 
quicklime, is quarried to the value of above 
$300,000 a year. Natural gas has been found. 
Clays are another valuable mineral asset: nota¬ 
bly bauxite,—an alumina with some silica and 
iron, used for making aluminum, alum, and 
crucibles,— porcelain, fire, and building clays. 
Building-stone is largely quarried, including a 
fine sandstone. Among the other of the won¬ 
derful mineral riches of Alabama are soapstone 
and lithographic stone, emery and corundum, 
asbestos and graphite, slate and asphalt, phos¬ 
phates and marl, manganese and ochre, gold, 
silver, copper, and tin. There are mineral 
springs of note in the north. The marble fields 
of Talladega County bordering the Coosa River 
and of Bibb County bordering the Cahaba River 
are unsurpassed both in abundance of the stone 
and in its quality. The Italian sculptor, Moretti, 
whose iron statue, Wulcan,* 54 feet high, was 
selected to represent Alabama at the Louisiana 
Purchase Exposition (1904) published his judg¬ 
ment upon practical test that no white marble 
known to his profession is as valuable to it in 
the finer grades of work as that which the Talla¬ 
dega quarries afford. These marbles are of 
many colors. 

It has been only of recent years that cement 
beds have been discovered in the black belt. 
There is a flourishing manufactory at Demopolis 
on the Tombigbee and preparations are well 
advanced (1904) to construct larger plants near 
Selma on the Alabama. The entire area, 20 
miles deep, from Selma to Demopolis, 50 miles, 
is underlaid with cement rock capable of pro¬ 
ducing at a cost nowhere else so low, an in¬ 
calculable supply of Portland cement of the 
highest classification. Gold mining has (1904) 
received fresh impetus in the northeastern coun¬ 
ties, where the supply is present but the mining 
yet problematical. The State geologist has pub¬ 
lished over his signature that the value of the 
phosphates of the central and southern counties 
of Alabama to agriculture surpasses the value 
of the entire coal field to commerce. 

Manufactures .— The manufacturing industry 
of the State as a whole has nearly doubled with¬ 
in the past ten years. By far the greatest in¬ 
crease has taken place in cotton goods, which 
have nearly quadrupled; an advance due partly 
to the development of iron industries,. the cotton 
manufacture needing constant facilities for the 
making and repair of machinery to be profitable. 
In volume the iron trades far exceed every 
other. The steel industry is a creation of the 
past five years mainly; the Alabama ores, from 
their phosphorus and silica, are unsuited to 
the acid Bessemer process, but in 1896 manu¬ 


facturers began to show a preference for the 
open-hearth steel for which they are fitted. The 
following table from the census of 1900 shows 
at a glance the condition and gain of the lead¬ 
ing industries: 

Value, 
1890 

$12,544,227 


8,507,971 

2,190,771 


2,195,913 

1,581,207 

2 , 474,377 

3,060,452 

1,203,989 


765,000 

213,529 
77,066 

The total number of hands employed in 
these manufactories in 1900 was 37,347, against 
20,657 in 1890. It is significant of the trend 
for consolidation that the number of ironworks 
was only 25 in 1900 against 35 in 1890; that 
the coking-works had diminished by 4, and the 
leather-dressing works by 3. As an instance of 
the economizing of labor, the flour and grist 
were turned out by 540 hands against 1,043 in 
1890, though there was a considerable increase 
in value. There were 5,062 establishments al¬ 
together in the State, employing $70,370,081 
capital and 55,432 hands, and paying $17,299,000 
for wages and $46,151,026 for materials; output, 
$82,793,804. The liberality of the State and of 
municipalities in exempting cotton mills from 
taxation for 10 years has exerted a powerful 
influence upon the growth of that institution. 
Iron manufactories planted in the suburbs of 
Birmingham, 20 years ago, with the view of 
escape from municipal taxes by reason of dis¬ 
tance from the corporate lines, are permitted to 
enjoy their original exemption notwithstanding 
the city now encloses them by a dense popula¬ 
tion. The policy of the State Penitentiary in 
mining coal on its own account with the labor 
of many hundreds of long term negro convicts, 
encourages not only manufactures dependent 
upon steam power, but railroads that transport 
the products of the mills, to anticipate a steady 
supply of the fuel. The great saw-mills also 
receive from the penitentiary a quota of steady 
and efficient labor. 

Commerce and Navigation .— The great 
streams of the State, never closed by ice, afford 
fully 1,500 miles regular steam navigation, be¬ 
sides smaller boats in reaches; and improve¬ 
ments under way will increase this. The Mo¬ 
bile River and its two great constituents are 
navigable to Montgomery on the Alabama, 320 
miles from the Mobile (the Coosa has also small 
steamers on it), and to Columbus, Miss., on the 
Tombigbee, 300 miles; and the Black Warrior 
is to be improved and connected with Birming¬ 
ham by a canal, which will enable products to 
be carried to Mobile at about one fifth the pres¬ 
ent cost. The Chattahoochee is navigable to 
Columbus, Ga., about 300 miles up. The Ten¬ 
nessee’s navigation is unfortunately broken by 
the Mussel Shoals near its western end. in the 
State. On the Gulf the one seaport, Mobile, is a 


Value, 

1900 

Iron and steel.$17,392,483 

Lumber and timber products 
(including turpentine and 
rosin, value $2,033,705) . .. 12,867,551 

Cotton goods. 8,153,136 

Foundry and machine shop 
products (iron pipe first, 
then stoves, car wheels, en¬ 
gines, boilers, etc.). 5,482,441 

Railroad cars and car-shop 

work . 4,172,192 

Coke . . 3,726,433 

r louring and grist-mill prod¬ 
ucts .;.. 3,310,757 

Oil, cottonseed, and cake.... 2,985,890 

Fertilizers (cottonseed meal 
mixed with Florida phos¬ 
phates) . 2,068,162 

Cotton, ginning. 1,218,283 

Leather, tanned, curried, and 

finished . 1,005,358 











ALABAMA 


port of great importance, the outlet of the great 
river systems of the State; with a heavy trade 
in cotton, coal, and lumber, and soon to have a 
vast iron trade also. The bay of Mobile, in 
1859-60, with a channel less than 10 feet deep, 
carried an export trade of $45,000,000, mostly 
cotton in compressed bales. Lighters were used 
to receive the cotton at the city wharves, to be 
towed down the shallow channel to sailing ves¬ 
sels waiting in the lower bay. In 1859 the Gen¬ 
eral Assembly passed a law requiring the county 
of Mobile to issue $800,000 bonds, the proceeds 
to deepen the channel. The outbreak of. war de¬ 
feated the plan, subject to the approval of 
Congress. Under large appropriations of Con¬ 
gress, a channel more than 30 feet deep and 
with a top width of 280 feet from the Gulf 
of Mexico to the mouth of Chickasaw Creek, 
above the city of Mobile, has been successfully 
opened. The influence of this improvement on 
the trade of the port, especially in tropical fruits, 
lumber, and naval stores has been gratifying. 
The work of deepening the harbor still con¬ 
tinues. In 1872 under the direction of the sec¬ 
retary of war, a line of canal was surveyed be¬ 
tween Guntersville on the Tennessee River and 
Gadsden on the Coosa in view of pending legis¬ 
lation to open both of those long rivers to navi¬ 
gation their whole length. The line of canal 
surveyed was approximately 40 miles and the 
project was announced feasible at moderate cost. 

Fisheries .— These employ about 1,000 men, 
with an annual catch worth about $150,000. 

Railroads and Street Railways .— The rail¬ 
road system of the State, which in 1850 com¬ 
prised 183 miles, had increased to 1,843 in 1880, 
3,422 in 1890, and 4,316 in 1901, of which 650 
1 were built since 1895, and 118 the previous year; 

, over j4 of a mile to every 10 square miles, and 
over 2.3 to each 1,000 inhabitants. The great 
railroad centre of the State is Birmingham, 
which has six trunk lines converging there. In 
1901 there were street railway lines in 11 places 
in the State, operating 216.95 miles of track. 

Railroad building began in Alabama at the 
earliest period in the use of that means of trans¬ 
portation in America. In 1832 the Decatur & 
Tuscumbia Railroad was chartered, 40 miles 
long, to overcome the obstacle of the Mussel 
Shoals in the Tennessee River by connecting the 
two towns that lay at either end of the shoals. 
The road was very crude in construction,— bar 
iron laid on wooden stringers, the cars drawn 
by mules. The rich planters of the level valley 
through which the line ran its entire length, 
built the grade by their slave labor, taking for 
pay stock in the road. Railroad property has 
grown to the proportion of approximately 1-6 of 
the assessable values of the State now taxed. 
Up to the time of secession, all the stock of the 
various short lines was owned in the State. 
Under the effects of a changed banking system, 
substituting the National Bank of issue, founded 
on government bonds in lieu of the private 
bank of issue, regulated alone by the State, 
founded on farm lands and other personal as¬ 
sets, with gold and silver coin to an ascertained 
deposit, railroad stocks and bonds are almost 
exclusively owned in New York and other mone¬ 
tary centres. The State is represented in the 
practical management of the railroads that pene¬ 
trate its territory,. in so far as domestic traffic 
is concerned by its own laws enforced by a 
railroad commission of citizens. The com¬ 


mission is elective at the polls and consists of a 
president and two associate commissioners, with 
an office always open at the capitol. 

It had been the purpose of the State in ante¬ 
bellum legislation, enacted in the last decade of 
slavery, to connect deep water at Mobile with 
the landlocked mineral wealth of the central 
counties by rail. There was a definite policy to 
add to the export cotton trade then enjoyed by 
Mobile, an export trade in iron and coal. To 
this end several lines of railroad were chartered 
and supplementary assistance rendered in the 
initial movements to build them to completion 
by loans in cash taken from the <( two per cent® 
and (( three per cent® funds, funds donated to 
the State by the Federal government from public 
land sales within her boundaries. The main 
resources of the projected railroads nevertheless 
lay in the wealth of slave-owning cotton planters. 
The results of the war dissipated this reliance 
and the ownership of the lines as far as com¬ 
pleted became promptly absorbed in the North. 
This change in ownership and control had two 
inevitable sequences, the operation of the roads 
in the interest of northern commercial centres as 
against Mobile, and the rapid extension of the 
mileage. 

State Finances .— The assessed valuation of 
the State in 1901 was $284,622,937; in 1897, 
$251,390,135.. The State tax was S T A mills, be¬ 
sides a special soldier and school tax of 1 mill 
each. The bonded debt in 1901 was $9,357,600; 
and the interest charge, $448,680. The assessed 
valuation of the State in 1903 was $307,643,704. 
The present State Constitution limits the power 
of the Legislature to levy in any one year a 
greater rate than 6 X A mills on the dollar State 
taxes. No county may levy a tax exceeding one 
half of one per centum by State assessment, 
except to pay old debts. All incorporated cities 
are subject to the same limitation of the power 
of taxation that applies to counties. The State 
can contract no new debt except that the gov¬ 
ernor may borrow $300,000. The governor has 
authority under the State Constitution to extend 
the present bonded debt of the State. The State 
bonds of all classes are now above par. 

Banks .— In 1901 there, were 42 national 
banks, with $4,075,000 capital, $1,883,750 sur¬ 
plus, $17,648,000 deposits, $1,968,000 outstanding 
circulation; 20 State banks and trust companies, 
with $992,000 capital and $2,328,400 deposits; 6 
sayings banks, with unreported deposits; and 34 
private banks. The national banks in 1904 had 
increased. to 53 with $22,000,000 deposits; the 
deposits in private banks then had risen to 
$17,000,000.. The State now has an officer, the 
bank examiner, on a salary of $2,000 a year, 
charged with stated and frequent examinations 
of private banks. Some of the later constructed 
bank buildings are equal in magnificence of 
appointments to the best in the United States. 
The bankers are thoroughly organized. 

Education .— The public school system of 
Alabama was founded on a grant of public lands 
by the Federal government. The principle under¬ 
lying the grant is incorporated in the ordinance 
of 1787, enacted originally by the Congress of 
the Confederation for the government of the 
Northwest Territory. It consisted in the dona¬ 
tion of the 16th section (640 acres) in each 
township of government survey to be sold or 
leased under the State as trustee and the pro¬ 
ceeds accruing to be held by the State for the 


ALABAMA 



STATE CAPITOL AT MONTGOMERY. 























ALABAMA 


exclusive benefit of public schools in the town¬ 
ship involved. Besides the 16th section for pub¬ 
lic school support, the same act of Congress 
donated to the State for the benefit of a uni¬ 
versity within its bounds a large body of public 
lands. The lands now known as the (( University 
Lands® are rich in coal seams and are now, al¬ 
though only partially developed, yielding a large 
supplement to its income from other sources. 
The 16th section fund yields a partial support to 
the public schools,. while the State pays the uni¬ 
versity an annual interest amounting to $36,000, 
by constitutional proviso, on the proceeds of 
sales of its lands received from Congress made 
in the earlier history of the State. 

In 1875, a State convention repealed the mil¬ 
itary constitution of 1868 under which the public 
schools had practically suspended. The military 
regime had accumulated a public debt which had 
utterly driven State credit away. Nevertheless 
the new Constitution prescribed a limit of 
appropriations for the schools, below which 
the General Assembly could not reduce the 
annual sum. In 1901 a State convention again 
assembled to _ revise the State Constitution. 
The. Constitution of 1875 prescribed that the 
public schools should receive from the State 
not less than $100,000 annually. The Constitu¬ 
tion of 1901 so enlarges the limit that the schools 
now receive about $1,000,000 annually. The 
Constitution of 1901 ordains methods of pro¬ 
cedure under which each county may create a 
special school fund by taxation. In every en¬ 
largement of the public school system the result 
applies with exact uniformity to the two races 
who must have separate schools. The question 
of division of the school fund between the races 
in ratio of race contribution was raised and elab¬ 
orately considered in the convention only to be 
defeated by a decided majority. The youth 
from 5 to 17 in 1900 were 329,003 whites and 
281,348 colored, 610,351 in all; the actual attend¬ 
ance, however, was only 161,884 white and 78,549 
colored, 240,433 in all, or less than half the total 
of white and not much over one fourth the total 
of colored. There were upward of 7,000 schools 
and 7,500 teachers, the white and colored being 
taught separately. Besides these there were 48 
public high schools, with about 1,300 scholars; 
and 66 private secondary schools, with some¬ 
thing over 1,000 pupils. There are 7 normal 
schools aided by the Peabody Fund, 3 of them 
for colored students, besides 3 private normal 
schools; 9 agricultural schools for given dis¬ 
tricts. 

The Alabama Polytechnic Institute is the 
successor to the Alabama Agricultural and Me¬ 
chanical College at Auburn. The institution is 
in a highly flourishing condition and is con¬ 
ducted on the military plan. A practical instruc¬ 
tion in agriculture and mechanics is given there. 
Applied science in many features is taught in 
addition to the usual literary course. There are 
more than four hundred students there. 

The University of Alabama rebuilt entirely 
from destruction during the War is now open 
to the coeducation of the sexes. A.law depart¬ 
ment under a dean is maintained in the same 
grounds for education in the law. At .Mobile 
the medical department, for the. education of 
physicians and surgeons is maintained. 

There are in the State 9 men’s and coedu¬ 
cational universities and colleges* and 9 w0 " 
men’s; chief among them are: 


Alabama Baptist Colored University (1878). 
Alabama Conference Female College, Meth¬ 
odist (1855). Athens Female College, Meth¬ 
odist, Athens (1842). Bailey Springs Univer¬ 
sity, non-sectarian, Bailey Springs (1893). 
Blount College, non-sectarian, Blountsville 
(1890). Howard College, Baptist, East Lake 
(1841). Isbell College, Presbyterian (1849). 
Judson Female Institute, Baptist (1839). La¬ 
fayette College, non-sectarian, Lafayette (1885). 
Lineville College, non-sectarian, Lineville 
(1890). St. Bernard College, Roman Catholic, 
Cullman (1892). Selma University, non-secta¬ 
rian, Selma. Southern University, Methodist, 
Greensboro (1859). Spring Hill College, non¬ 
sectarian, Mobile. Tuskegee Normal and In¬ 
dustrial Institute, colored, Tuskegee (1881). 
Talladega College, non-sectarian, Talladega. 
University of Alabama, non-sectarian, Tusca¬ 
loosa (1831). 

Tuskegee University (q.v.) is of world¬ 
wide note for Booker T. Washington’s mag¬ 
nificent work in elevating the colored race by 
industrial training. In March 1901 it had 1,050 
pupils from 23 States and Territories, Porto 
Rico, Cuba, and Africa. 

Churches .— The Baptist and the Methodist 
Episcopal South are the only strong denomina¬ 
tional bodies; of the others, the chief are the 
Presbyterian, Episcopal, and Roman Catholic. 
There are about 8,000 churches of all denomi¬ 
nations. 

Charitable and Penal Institutions .— The 
State maintains an asylum for the insane at 
Tuscaloosa. It is one of the institutions of the 
kind that primarily owes its origin to the benev¬ 
olent spirit of Miss Dorothy Dix of New Eng¬ 
land. The asylum was opened formally in 
1860-1. Dr. Peter Bryce, a young physi¬ 
cian, was then made superintendent, and held 
the position the remainder of his life, some 35 
years. The reforms in the management of the 
insane introduced there by Dr. Bryce are fa¬ 
mous the world over. There are State schools 
at Talladega for the blind, deaf and dumb of 
both races, the races kept separate. At Bir¬ 
mingham there is a State-supported school for 
the reform of white boys. At Mountain Creek 
the State supports a Home for Indigent Veter¬ 
ans of the Confederate Army. The State peni¬ 
tentiary is at Wetumpka, a farm of 700 acres. 
There is a branch farm of 4,500 acres at Spig- 
ners, 10 miles away, and on the Tallapoosa 
River, five miles in the opposite direction, is a 
third farm of 1,800 acres. The coal mines in 
Jefferson County operated by the State employ 
some 800 convicts. The saw-mills and farmers 
hire many. At Spigners there is a saw-mill 
and a: cotton-mill. Ordinarily there are 2,500 
convicts, 85 per cent negroes. The negro female 
convicts are perhaps 1 per cent of all; the white 
female convicts yet fewer. The net income from 
the penitentiary to the State in 1904 is estimated 
at $250,000, mostly from the coal mines. 

State Government .— The State offices are 
held for four years, and incumbents are not 
eligible for re-election, and the governor not for 
any State office or United States Senate during 
or within a year after his term. The governor’s 
salary is $3,000 per annum. The Board of Par¬ 
dons consists of the attorney-general, secretary 
of state, and state auditor, ex officio; its func¬ 
tions are only advisory, as the governor has full 
power. The latter’s veto power extends to 


ALABAMA 


items of appropriation, but a majority vote 
overrules it, and a bill becomes law without 
his signature after a week. The legislature 
meets once in four years, sessions being limited 
to 50 days; the Senate is limited to 35 members 
and the House to 105. Members are paid $4 a 
day and traveling expenses. The statutes must 
be revised every 12 years; the State may not 
vote money for internal improvements; and 
revenue bills cannot be passed in the last five 
days of a session. 

Congressional Representation. —The State 

has 9 representatives in Congress. 

Population and Divisions. —The increase in 
population has been as follows: 1820, 127,901; 

1830, 309,527; 1840, 590,756; 1850, 771,623; i860, 
964,201; 1870, 996,992; 1880, 1,262,505; 1890, 
1,513,017; 1900, 1,828,967, an increase of 20.9 
for the decade. The foreign-born population 
was 14,592; colored, 827,545. The colored popu¬ 
lation is largely concentrated in the (( cotton- 
belt w : in 15 selected counties the negro popu¬ 
lation was 399,397 against 122,040 white, while 
in 2 of them the proportion is between 6 and 7 
colored to 1 white, and in others 4 and 5. The 
urban population is small: the largest city has 
under 40,000 people, and only 10 per cent of the 
population lives in places of 4,000 and over; 
these places, however, have increased from 10 
in 1890 to 16 in 1900, and the negroes crowd 
into them. 

The State has 67 counties, whose names and 
county-seats are as follows: 


Autauga, Prattville. 
Baldwin, Daphne. 
Barbour, Clayton. 

Bibb, Centreville. 
Blount, Oneonto. 
Bullock, Union Springs. 
Butler, Greenville. 
Calhoun, Anniston. 
Chambers, Lafayette. 
Cherokee, Centre. 
Chilton, Clanton. 
Choctaw, Butler. 

Clarke, Grovehill. 

Clay, Ashland. 

Cleburne, Edwardsville. 
Coffee, Elba. 

Colbert, Tuscumbia. 
Conecuh, Evergreen. 
Coosa, Rockford. 
Covington, Andalusia. 
Crenshaw, Luverne. 
Cullman, Cullman. 

Dale, Ozark. 

Dallas, Selma. 

Dekalb, Fort Payne. 
Elmore, Wetumpka. 
Escambia, Brewton. 
Etowah, Gadsden. 
Fayette, Fayette. 
Franklin, Russellville. 
Geneva, Geneva. 

Greene, Eutaw. 

Hale, Greensboro. 
Henry, Abbeville. 


Houston, Dothan. 

Jackson, Scottsboro. 
Jefferson, Birmingham. 
Lamar, Vernon. 

Lauderdale, Florence. 
Lawrence, Moulton. 

Lee, Opelika. 

Limestone, Athens. 
Lowndes, Hayneville. 
Macon, Tuskegee. 

Madison, Huntsville. 
Marengo, Linden. 

Marion, Hamilton. 
Marshall, Guntersville. 
Mobile, Mobile. 

Monroe, Monroeville. 
Montgomery, Montgomery. 
Morgan, Decatur. 

Perry, Marion. 

Pickens, Carrollton. 

Pike, Troy. 

Randolph, Wedowee. 
Russell, Seale. 

St. Clair, Asheville. 

Shelby, Columbiana. 
Sumter, Livingston. 
Talladega, Talladega. 
Tallapoosa, Dadeville. 
Tuscaloosa, Tuscaloosa. 
Walker, Jasper. 
Washington, St. Stephens. 
Wilcox, Camden. 

Winston, Double Springs. 


Chief Cities. —The largest place, and the 
commercial port of the State, is Mobile, with 
38,469 population; Birmingham, the Pittsburg 
of the South, with 38,415 — but Birmingham has 
a suburban population of peculiar density, num¬ 
bering of itself quite 75,000, in hourly contact 
with the city by electric cars. Montgomery, 
the capital and head of navigation on the Ala¬ 
bama, has 30,346. Anniston, in the Blue Ridge, 
another iron city and cotton mart, has 9,695; 
Selma, a cotton centre, on the Alabama below 
Montgomery, 8,713; Huntsville, in the moun¬ 
tains north of the Tennessee, the emporium of 


that region and a noted sanatorium, 8,068; 
Florence, the head of navigation on the lovver 
Tennessee, 6,478; Bessemer, a new iron city, 
6,358; and Tuscaloosa, formerly the capital, 
head of navigation on the Black Warrior, 

5 , 094 - 

History. —When discovered by white men, 
the territory was occupied by great Indian tribes 
of the formidable Muskohegan stock — Choc¬ 
taws, Creeks, and Chickasaws, Alibamos, and 
Apalachis. Hernando de Soto (q.v.) found the 
Indians along the upper Coosa more bountifully 
supplied with corn and beans and inhabiting 
better quarters than any of the red men he had 
found on his way from his landing on the Flor¬ 
ida coast. At Mauvila, on his way westward, he 
found the red men well housed and fed and 
ready for desperate fighting to resist the invader. 
The first settlement was by the French under the 
Canadian Bienville in 1702, at Mobile, where he 
built Fort St. Louis; the city was founded in 
1711, and was the capital of Louisiana for the 
next 15 years, New Orleans taking its place in 
1726. Fort Toulouse was built at the conflu¬ 
ence of the Coosa and Tallapoosa in 1714. 
There were the usual Indian wars and hostilities 
with the English traders who settled there. 
When France lost her American dominions in 
1763 Alabama was divided at 32 0 40', the north¬ 
ern half being added to Illinois and the southern 
to West Florida. In 1779 Spain seized the 
latter, whose British inhabitants had not joined 
the Revolution, while the United States suc¬ 
ceeded to the former. Spain by treaty yielded 
the territory above 31 0 to the United States in 
1795; f°r a time it was claimed by Georgia. In 
1798 Congress organized Mississippi Territory, 
with the Mississippi and Chattahoochee as 
western and eastern limits, the 31st parallel 
(the present main boundary with Florida) S., 
and a line from the Yazoo N.; in 1804 the 
northern boundary was carried to the southern 
boundary of Tennessee; in 1812 the territory 
between the Pearl River and the Perdido was 
annexed to it by proclamation, and in 1813 
Mobile was seized and held by Gen. Jackson for 
the United States. Meanwhile the Lower 
Creek Indians, instigated by the British, took 
up arms against the United States and on 30 
Aug. 1813 massacred a large party of settlers 
who had taken refuge in Fort Mims; the Upper 
Creeks remained loyal, but were involved in the 
vengeance which overtook the Indians at the 
hands of Jackson, who crushed them at Talla¬ 
dega and the Horse Shoe Bend of the Talla¬ 
poosa. (See Jackson.) They had to give up 
their lands west of the Coosa and south of 
Wetumpka, and were gradually expropriated 
and finally removed west of the Mississippi. 
(See Creek War; Indian Reservations.) On 
3 March 1817 Alabama Territory was organized, 
capital St. Stephens; the first legislature met in 
1818 at Huntsville. On 14 Dec. 1819 Alabama 
was admitted to the Union as a slave State, 
paired with Maine as a free State. In 1820 the 
capital was changed to Cahaba, in 1826 to Tus¬ 
caloosa, in 1847 to Montgomery. 

Alabama was one of the earliest of the 
Southern States to engage in the secession 
movement, and Montgomery was the first capi¬ 
tal of the Confederacy: the ordinance of seces¬ 
sion was passed 11 Jan. 1861, 61 to 39. In the 


ALABAMA 


secession, convention the black belt influence 
was dominant, as it had been in the government 
of the State from the earliest period. The di¬ 
vision of the vote on the adoption of the 
Ordinance of Secession was not between a dis¬ 
union . and a Union party. Two methods of 
dissolving the Union were under discussion, and 
one or the other method embraced all the dele¬ 
gates of the ioo holding seats, except perhaps 
a dozen who were unconditional Unionists. 
William L. Yancey, a lawyer, led the straight 
separate State secessionists, who were 54 in 
number. Robert Jemison, a capitalist, led the 
faction favorable to a co-operation of all the 
slave States for the purpose of some undefined 
measure of self-defense against the abolitionists 
represented by John Brown’s invasion; William 
R. Smith was the representative of the uncondi¬ 
tional Unionists. Until the military successes 
of the Federal government occupied the coun¬ 
ties in the northern part of the State, the small 
farmers there exhibited no reluctance to volun¬ 
teer in the Confederate army. Forts Morgan 
and Gaines, which guarded Mobile harbor, were 
seized; the senators and representatives re¬ 
signed their seats in Congress 21 January, and 
on 4 February the government of the Confed¬ 
eracy was organized at Montgomery by delegates 
from the seceding States. Selma was made a 
leading Confederate arsenal and shipyard. The 
Tennessee Valley was occupied by Union forces 
early in 1862, the fleet in Mobile Bay destroyed, 
and the forts retaken by Farragut in 1864, and 
the whole State reoccupied April 1865. A pro¬ 
visional government was established by Presi¬ 
dent Andrew Johnson in June 1865, by the ap¬ 
pointment of Lewis E. Parsons, a native of 
New York who had long resided in Alabama, to 
be governor. Governor Parsons ordered an 
election by the full body of electors except the 
several classes not yet pardoned by the Presi¬ 
dent, of delegates to assemble in the capitol 
at Montgomery September 1865. This conven¬ 
tion made a new State Constitution, revoking 
the Ordinance of Secession, abolishing slavery, 
providing for the equality of the freedmen in 
rights of person and property and ratifying the 
Thirteenth Amendment to the Federal Consti¬ 
tution. The new Constitution restricted the 
electorate to the white males eligible. The 
State government set up by the new Constitu¬ 
tion was accepted by all the departments of the 
Federal government and went into effect De¬ 
cember following. The General Assembly, 
however, refused to ratify the Fourteenth 
Amendment. Thereupon the Senators and Rep¬ 
resentatives from Alabama to Congress were 
denied seats and by the acts of March 1867 the 
State government was abolished and military 
rule restored. Under military supervision the 
Constitution of 1868 was made and a civil gov¬ 
ernment set up. The Constitution of 1868 re¬ 
mained in force until 1875, when a new one was 
made by the people in convention. The State 
was bankrupted by the carpet-bag regime, and 
there was great disorder in the attempt to bring 
the rule once more into the hands of the better 
classes; but these conditions have long passed 
away, and the reorganization of the public debt 
in 1876 made industrial progress possible. The 
State is solidly Democratic. 

John Witherspoon Du Bose, 
Author of ( Life and Times of Yancey P 


Alabama, a river formed near Montgom¬ 
ery, in the State of Alabama, by the junction 
of the Coosa and the Tallapoosa. It flows west 
and then south to its junction with the Tom- 
bigbee about 50 miles above its mouth, where 
it assumes the name of the Mobile, and finally 
falls into Mobile Bay. Steamboats ascend to 
Montgomery, 320 miles, but the navigation is 
interrupted during the season of low water. 
Some of the largest cotton plantations of Amer¬ 
ica are situated on its banks. 

Alabama, The, a ship built at Birken¬ 
head on the Mersey by the Lairds under con¬ 
tract with the Confederate States at a cost of 
$250,000, and sent to sea as a privateer, in the 
spring of 1862, known as a 2 goA The name in¬ 
dicated only that the vessel was, in order of 
launch from the builders’ yards, number 290. 
Protest had come to the British government 
from the American minister at the Court of 
Saint James, Charles Francis Adams (q.v.), 
against the sailing of the ship. Meantime Capt. 
Raphael Semmes and 24 young naval officers 
from the Confederacy arrived in Liverpool with 
commissions in their pockets to take command. 
For sake of prudence Capt. Semmes ordered 
the C( 2go )} to sail for the island of Terceira, one 
of the Azores, under command of Capt. Butcher, 
a young officer of the British merchant marine. 
Semmes immediately followed as a passenger 
on an English ship. His armament had been 
already shipped to the same rendezvous. At 
Terceira the privateer ran up the Confederate 
colors, took her name as ordered by the Con¬ 
federate government, and received on board as 
armament two pivot guns amidships and six 
32-pounders, eight guns in all. The manning 
of the ship was 25 officers in all and about 120 
men. Stores for a long cruise were taken 
aboard, and the vessel, equipped for both steam 
and sail, entered promptly upon her memorable 
career. On the night of 11 Jan. 1863, the 

United States steamer Hatteras engaged the 
Alabama off the coast of Texas and was sunk. 
The Alabama roved the seas for two years, 
seeking the commerce of the United States 

from both hemispheres. The privateer was 
supposed to have destroyed one half the Amer¬ 
ican merchant marine, then second in tonnage 
only to that of Great Britain among the nations. 
On the forenoon of 11 June 1864 the Alabama 
made anchor in the port of Cherbourg, France. 
The intent of Capt. Semmes was to dock his 
ship for much-needed repairs. While Semmes 
was awaiting the consent of the Emperor Napo¬ 
leon III. to the use of the government docks, 

the news of the arrival of the privateer spread 

over the land. Capt. Winslow, commanding the 
United States ship Kearsarge, lying at Flushing, 
was apprised of the fact by Dayton, United 
States minister to France, and made for Cher¬ 
bourg, sailed into the harbor and out without 
anchoring, but took position outside. Semmes 
rightly construed the conduct of the Kearsarge 
as the equivalent of a challenge to combat. The 
Alabama steamed out on Sunday morning in 
faultless weather. The Kearsarge’s machinery 
was additionally protected by a chain-armor 
covered with one-inch deal boards. However, 
as that part of the ship was struck but twice, 
the armor was of no material aid. The Kear¬ 
sarge had 163 men and seven guns; the Ala¬ 
bama 149 men and eight guns. The metal car¬ 
ried by the Kearsarge guns was heavier than the 


ALABAMA CLAIMS 


metal of the Alabama guns. The battle was 
fought in a circle and lasted i hour and 2 
minutes, resulting in the sinking of the Ala¬ 
bama. In the first 30 minutes the Alabama 
lodged a rifled percussion shell near the stern- 
post of the Kearsarge, which from a faulty cap 
failed to explode. The shell is now to be seen, 
in the wood where it buried itself, in the 
ordnance museum of the navy yard at Wash¬ 
ington. Capt. Semmes remained on the deck 
of his ship until it went down. He and 41 
others from the sunken vessel were rescued by 
the Deerhound, a pleasure yacht belonging to 
John Lancaster, an Englishman. Many persons 
had come from Paris to view the battle and the 
hills along the coast were lined with spectators 
as it progressed. After the close of the war 
the British government paid an indemnity to 
American shippers of $15,500,000, representing 
losses inflicted by the Shenandoah (in part), 
the Florida (in full), and the Alabama (in 
full). Consult: Semmes, ( The Cruise of the 
Alabama* (1864) ; Bullock, ( Secret Service of 
the Confederate States 1 * (1883) ; Sinclair, ( Two 
Years on the Alabama 1 * (1895) ; also the narra¬ 
tives in ( Battles and Leaders of the Civil War 1 * 
(1887-8), edited by Johnson and Buell. See 
Alabama Claims. 

John Witherspoon Du Bose, 
Author of ( Life and Times of Yancey? 

Alabama Claims, claims against Great 
Britain for damages to United States shipping 
by Confederate cruisers — the Alabama chiefly, 
also the Florida, Georgia, Shenandoah, and 
others — built or equipped in British waters 
during the Civil War, and allowed to depart 
counter to international law (see Declaration of 
Paris ; Marque and Reprisal) and to statutes 
of both countries obligating their governments 
to prevent expeditions from their territories 
against friendly powers. At the outbreak of the 
War the Confederacy, having no navy, commis¬ 
sioned privateers as of old. Great Britain is¬ 
sued a proclamation of neutrality, according 
belligerent rights to both and forbidding arma¬ 
ment at English hands to either; but the Eng¬ 
lish officials obeyed their superiors’ secret wishes 
and their own sympathies and not their formal 
orders, knowing they would not be held to 
account for preventing $1,100,000,000 of English 
subscriptions to Confederate bonds from be¬ 
coming worthless. Accordingly English built, 
stored, and manned vessels soon scoured the 
seas, capturing and burning United States mer¬ 
chantmen ; and English colonial ports, especially 
Nassau, were safe nests for them for any length 
of time; while Northern vessels at best were 
held sternly to the letter of the law, and in 
some cases illegally imprisoned for many weeks 
in harbors they had lawfully entered to refit. 
The least part of the loss was the direct capture 
of prizes: manyfold greater were the indirect 
losses caused by the decline in trade from the 
difficulty in securing freights, the great rise in 
marine insurance, and greatest of all, the pro¬ 
longation of the war and its increased cost while 
it lasted. 

The Alabama case, by its flagrancy and Mr. 
Adams’ menace, half frightened and half 
shamed the English government into amending 
its conduct, and no more privateers left Eng¬ 
land ; but those afloat heaped up for it a legacy 
of trouble, of which the United States steadily 


pressed for a settlement. As early as the winter 
of 1862-3 W. H. Seward (q.v.) had served 
notice on Great Britain of a purpose to hold her 
to account for «negligence,® in diplomatic 
phrase, in enforcing her laws. From 1865 on 
there was no cessation in United States urgency 
of the claims and effort to arrive at some ad¬ 
justment, including claims for <( indirect dam¬ 
ages,® above mentioned, which excited the 
wrath of all parties in England. At last, by the 
Treaty of Washington (q.v.), 8 May 1871, it 
was agreed that the « Alabama Claims » (which 
included those for depredations of other ves¬ 
sels) should be referred to five arbitrators; one 
to be named by the United States, one by Eng¬ 
land, and one each by the king of Italy, the 
emperor of Brazil, and the president of Switzer¬ 
land ; and it defined for their guidance the du¬ 
ties of a neutral and the phrase « due diligence.® 
The commission met at Geneva, 15 Dec. 1871, 
and named as chairman Count Federigo Sclopis, 
the Italian nominee. England sent Sir Alex¬ 
ander Cockburn; the United States, Charles 
Francis Adams; Brazil, Baron d’ltajuba, Bra¬ 
zilian minister to France; Switzerland, ex- 
President Jacob Staempfli. The chief English 
counsel was Sir Roundell Palmer; while the 
American side was represented by W. M. Evarts, 
Caleb Cushing, and M. R. Waite (later 
Chief Justice),— Mr. J. C. Bancroft Davis pre¬ 
paring its case. The decision was given 14 
Sept. 1872; for its rules see Geneva Arbitra¬ 
tion. Indirect damages were unanimously 
barred out, on the ground that they were too 
indefinite to estimate under international law 
(q.v.) ; also doubtless for the reason, not 
openly expressed, that any nation would take 
its chance of going to war rather than pay 
such amounts, more than any conceivable war 
indemnity. England was held liable only for 
the Alabama (unanimous), Florida (4 to 1), 
Shenandoah in part (3 to 2), and the tenders 
of the Alabama and Florida (unanimous) ; the 
Retribution failed of inclusion by 3 to 2. The 
total amount was fixed in a lump at $15,500,000, 
the United States being left to settle with pri¬ 
vate claimants. That the total was sufficiently 
high for the direct losses is shown by the fact 
that eight years after the establishment of a 
United States court for distributing it (23 June 
1874), claims for only three fifths of it had been 
allowed. On 5 June 1882 a second court was 
established to deal with the remainder. 

If the award failed to content the extremists 
on either side,— the Americans too sore from 
the war losses and bereavements, and the feel¬ 
ing of English foul play which had made « neu¬ 
trality » a national byword in war time, to give 
up contentedly all indirect damages; or the 
English who had lost their investment, and who 
felt that laws were made to squeeze and 
stretch according to national sympathies, and 
that every nation always did so without ac¬ 
countability,— the fact of such a dispute between 
the two foremost nations of the world being 
submitted to arbitration advanced enormously 
the cause of peace in the world (see Arbitra¬ 
tion), and made a general settlement of national 
contests without war for the first time a ra¬ 
tional forecast instead of a Utopia. By the 
curious revolution of time, the United States has 
had more reason to feel its hands tied by the 
award than England: as the greatest neutral and 


ALABAMA — ALAMANNI 


trading nation in the world it has most to lose 
by enlarging the responsibilities of neutrals in 
time of war. 

Alabama, University of, a coeducational 
(non-sectarian) institution in Tuscaloosa; or¬ 
ganized in 1831: Professors and instructors, 
50; students, 400; volumes in the library, 25,000; 
grounds and buildings valued at $300,000; pro¬ 
ductive funds, $300,000; income, $42,563; num¬ 
ber of graduates, 553. The Medical School of 
the university is located in Mobile. 

Alabama Shad. See Herring. 

Alabandite, an iron-black, submetallic 
mineral. . It is usually granular-massive, while 
its rare isometric crystals exhibit very perfect 
cubical cleavage. The black color of a fresh 
.surface, tarnishes to a dark brown, while its 
streak is green. Its hardness is 3.5 to 4 and spe¬ 
cific gravity about 4.0. Alabandite is a man¬ 
ganese monosulphide MnS, and contains 63.1 
per cent of manganese. Some of its most im¬ 
portant localities are in Austro-Hungary, Peru, 
and Mexico. It also occurs in Summit County, 
Col., and at Tombstone, Ariz. 

Alabaster, a name applied to two sub¬ 
stances, the one a stalagmitic or stalactitic car¬ 
bonate of lime, the other a kind of gypsum or 
sulphate of lime. The first is often called Ori¬ 
ental alabaster, and is that which is mentioned 
in the New Testament. It occurs in caves in 
limestone regions, and is a translucent stone of 
yellowish milky color or of a deeper tinge of 
yellow, and sometimes marked with lighter and 
darker streaks like an onyx. It is found in the 
cave of Antiparos, the Baumann’s cave in the 
Hartz, and is now worked in the province of 
Oran in Algeria. The gypseous alabaster has a 
fine granular texture, and is usually of a pure 
white color. It is softer than the other alabaster, 
indeed so soft that it may be scooped out with 
the nails; while the other kind cannot be so 
treated. It is found in many parts of Europe; 
in great abundance and of peculiarly excellent 
quality in Tuscany and Piedmont in Italy, also 
in England. It is extensively carved into 
statuettes and vases and often sold as <( Floren- 
tine marble.® Many museums contain ancient 
vases and similar articles of alabaster, for which 
the Romans often employed this material. 

Aladdin, or The Wonderful Lamp, one of 
the* stories in ( The Arabian Nights’ Entertain¬ 
ments^ Aladdin, the son of. a poor widow, 
comes into possession of a magic ring and lamp, 
and thus becomes the master of the powerful 
jinns who are the slaves of the lamp and ring. 
Through their powers he amasses great wealth 
and becomes Sultan. 

Alagoas, a maritime province of Brazil, 
deriving its name from various intercommuni¬ 
cating lakes for which it is noted; capital Ma- 
ceio. It is bounded on the north and west by 
the province of Pernambuco, on the south by 
that of Sergipe del Rey, and on the east, by the 
Atlantic; area, 11,640 square miles. This prov¬ 
ince has several lakes, none of them of great ex¬ 
tent, frequented by a great variety of birds; and 
in the west several ridges of hills, none of them 
of great elevation, but generally well wooded, 
and inhabited by abundance of game, ounces, 
macaws t etc. From the extent of surface cov¬ 


ered by lakes and by forests the climate of Ala¬ 
goas is on the whole moist. The plains near the 
sea are generally sandy and not very fertile; 
but inland the soil is good, producing besides 
tobacco, cotton, and sugar, which are exported 
to Bahia and Pernambuco, rice, cocoanuts, man¬ 
goes, oranges, jack-fruit, and abundance of fine 
timber used for ship-building in the above- 
named ports and in Maceio. The forests fur¬ 
nish excellent building and dye woods, and 
much ipecacuanha. Limestone, granite, and 
various kinds of clay abound in the province. 
Pop. (1902) 515,000. 

Alajuela, al-a-wha'la, a city of the State 
of Costa Rica, Central America, 23 m. W.N.W. 
of Cartago, and a little on the western side of 
the watershed between the Atlantic and the 
Pacific. It is connected with Cartago by rail. 
Pop. 16,000. 

Alaman, a-la-man', Lucas, Mexican histo¬ 
rian and statesman: b. 18 Oct. 1792; d. 2 June 
1853. He was educated in Spain 1814-20, and 
served as minister of foreign affairs, 1823-5, 
1830,. 1837, 1853. He introduced European 

machinery; founded a museum of antiquities 
and natural history, and was an active official 
encourager of industry and agriculture, but re¬ 
actionary in religion and politics. His works 
are, dissertations on the History of the Mexi¬ 
can Republic from the Conquest to its Independ- 
ence > (3 vols. Mexico 1844-9), an introduc- , 
tion to his ( History of Mexico, 5 1808-30 (5 
vols. Mexico, 1849-52), of scholarly impartiality 
in the main, filled with documentary proofs, but 
with a tendency to belittle the actions of those 
not of pure Spanish blood. 

Alamanni, or Alemanni, a confederacy of 
several German tribes which, at the commence¬ 
ment of the 3d century after Christ, lived near 
the Roman territory, and came then, and sub¬ 
sequently into conflict with the imperial troops. 
Caracalla first fought with them in 211, but did 
not conquer them; Severus was likewise unsuc¬ 
cessful. About 250 they began to cross the 
Rhine westward, and in 255 they overran Gaul 
along with the Franks. In 259 a body of them 
was defeated in Italy at Milan, and in the fol¬ 
lowing year they were driven out of Gaul by 
Postumus. But the Alemanni did not desist 
from their incursions, notwithstanding the nu¬ 
merous defeats they suffered at the hands of the 
Roman troops. In the 4th century they crossed 
the Rhine and ravaged Gaul, but were severely 
defeated by the Emperor Julian and driven back. 
Subsequently they occupied a considerable terri¬ 
tory, on both sides of the. Rhine; but at last 
Clovis broke their power in 496 and deprived 
them of a large portion of their possessions. 
Part of their territory was latterly formed into 
a duchy called Alemannia or Swabia, this name 
being derived from Suevi or Swabians, the 
name which they gave themselves. It is from 
the Alemanni that the French have derived their 
names for Germans and Germany in general, 
namely, Allemands and Allemagne, though 
strictly speaking only the modern Swabians and 
northern. Swiss are the proper descendants of 
that ancient race. 

Alamanni, Luigi, Italian poet: b. in Flor¬ 
ence 1495; d. 1556. His father was zealously 
devoted to the party of the Medici, and he him- 


ALAMEDA — ALANI 


self stood in high favor with the Cardinal Giulio, 
who governed in the name of Pope Leo X.; but 
conceiving himself to have been injured he 
joined a conspiracy formed against the life of 
the cardinal. The plan was discovered; Ala- 
manni fled to Venice; and when the cardinal 
ascended the papal chair, under the name of 
Clement VII., he took refuge in France. But 
the misfortunes which befell this Pope giving 
Florence an opportunity to become free, Ala- 
manni returned thither in 1527. His country 
sent him on an embassy to Genoa. Here he 
became the friend of Andrea Doria, with whose 
fleet he went to Spain. Charles V. soon after 
sailed in the same fleet from Spain to Italy to 
arrange the affairs of Florence and subject it to 
the Medici. 

After this new revolution, Alamanni, now 
proscribed by the Duke Alessandro, went 
to France (1530), where the favors of Francis 
I. retained him. Here he composed the greater 
part of his works. The king esteemed him so 
highly that after the peace of Crespy in 1544 
he sent him as ambassador to the Emperor 
Charles V. Alamanni discharged his office with 
great skill. He was held in like estimation by 
Henry II., who also employed him in several 
negotiations. He followed the court and was 
with it at Amboise, when he was attacked with 
dysentery, which terminated his life in 1556. 
His principal works are ( Opere Toscane,> (La 
Coltivazione,) < Girone il Cortese,) etc. The 
English poet Wyatt imitated some of his satiri¬ 
cal work. The writings of Alamanni are rec¬ 
ommended by ease, perspicuity, and purity of 
style, but often want strength and poetic eleva¬ 
tion. 

Alameda, a-la-ma'da, co-extensive city 
and township in Alameda co., Cal., on San Fran¬ 
cisco Bay and the Southern Pac. R.R.; 11 miles 
E.S.E. of San Francisco. It is the seat of the 
College of Notre Dame (Roman Catholic) ; a 
popular summer resort, and the place of resi¬ 
dence of many San Francisco business men. It 
has numerous banks, electric light and street 
railway plants, the largest borax works in the 
world, extensive potteries, oil refineries, and 
ship-building yards. The government of the 
city is vested in a board of four trustees, the 
president of which is executive head. It has 
grown from a population of 100 in 1854 t° about 
18,000 in 1903. 

Alaminos, a-la-me'nos, Antonio de, Span¬ 
ish pilot: b. in Palos, Spain, about the end of 
the 15th century. He is said to have been 
with Columbus in 1599, and was the principal 
pilot for the expeditions of Cordova, Ponce de 
Leon, and others, in the early part of the 16th 
century. The earliest map of North America 
is supposed to have been prepared by Alaminos. 

Alamo, a'la-mo, The, San Antonio, Tex.: a 
Franciscan mission house built about 1722 and 
called San Antonio de Valerio; after 1793 used 
on occasion as a fort and renamed Fort Alamo. 
It consisted of an oblong plaza some 2^2 acres in 
area, enclosed by walls 8 feet high and 33 inches 
thick, a church, a hospital building, a convent, 
and a walled convent yard about 100 feet square. 
It has enduring celebrity as the scene of the 
battle and massacre of 6 March 1836, in the war 
for Texan independence. The fort was held by 
about 140 men under Wm. B. Travis, and on 


23 February was invested by a considerable 
Mexican army (probably about 4,000) under 
Santa Anna, who at once began a bombardment 
scarcely intermitted for the next ten days. The 
little garrison, compelled to man the defenses 
day and night, and too few to relieve each other, 
sent desperate appeals to their outside com¬ 
rades for help; but to break through the dense 
Mexican forces was so difficult that the only 
reinforcement received was 32 men on the 1st 
of March. At last a breach was made in the 
walls, and shortly after daylight on the 6th a 
general assault was ordered. Twice the storm¬ 
ing party were repulsed with heavy loss of lives; 
the third time they gained the parapet and en¬ 
tered the inclosure. No surrender was offered, 
and the result showed that the Texans knew 
their foe too well to expect quarter; worn with 
fatigue and privation, they fought to a finish, 
till only five were left. These were taken pris¬ 
oners, and the savage Santa Anna had them 
slaughtered on the spot. Three women, two 
white children, and a negro boy were the sole 
survivors of about 180 inmates. Santa Anna 
stated the Mexican loss at 70 killed and 300 
wounded, but it is believed to have been much 
greater. The news of the heroic fight, «the 
Thermopylae of America,® nerved the Texans 
in all their future efforts, and their slogan was 
«Remember the Alamo!» Santa Anna him¬ 
self was defeated and captured at San Jacinto a 
few weeks later. (Corners, (San Antonio de 
Bexar,) 1890; Williams, (Sam Houston and 
the War of Independence,) 1893; J. L. Ford, 
(Origin and Fall of the Alamo,) 1896.) 

Aland Islands, a group of about 80 is¬ 
lands and islets between the Gulf of Bothnia 
and the Baltic Sea, and near the mouth of the 
Gulf of Finland; area, 468 square miles. The 
principal islands are Aland, which is the largest, 
and gives name to the group, Lemland, Lumpar- 
land, Ekeroe, Fogloe, Kumlinge, Braendoe, Vor- 
doe, and Hannoe. Aland, distant about 30 miles 
from the Swedish coast, is 25 miles long and 
about 22 broad. In this island is a harbor ca¬ 
pable of containing the whole Russian fleet. 
The chief towns are Aland and Castelholm. The 
islands are now included in the province of 
Finland. Pop. about 19,000. 

Alani, or Alans, one of the warlike tribes 
which migrated from Asia westward at the 
time of the decline of the Roman empire. They 
are first met with in the region east of Mount 
Caucasus, where Pompey fought with them. 
From this centre they spread over the south of 
modern Russia to the confines of the Roman 
empire. They were engaged in war with Rome 
in the time of Hadrian, but were defeated by 
Arrian, the general of that emperor. Marcus 
Aurelius had much difficulty in keeping them out 
of the empire, and Tacitus concluded a treaty 
with them (275 a.d.). About a century later 
those on the banks of the lower Danube were 
conquered by the Huns, after which most of 
them joined the ravaging expeditions of that 
people. They accompanied Rhadagais on his 
march into Italy, and after his defeat they settled 
first on the Rhine, afterward (about 411) in 
modern Portugal. Being there completely de¬ 
feated by the Visigoths, they joined the Van¬ 
dals, among whom they have become lost to 
history. 


ALANUS AB INSULIS — ALASKA 


Alarms ab Insulis, a-la'nus ab in'su-lis, or 
Alain de Lille, a-lan' de lei, a noted French 
scholastic philosopher: b. 1114; d. 1203. Of his 
voluminous theological writings the best known 
is the treatise on (( The Articles of the Faith® 
His poem, <( Anti-Claudinus, or On the Duties 
of a Good and Perfect Man,® is one of the most 
celebrated poetic compositions of the Middle 
Ages. 

Alarcon, Pedro Antonio de, a distin¬ 
guished Spanish novelist, poet, and politician: 
b. in Gaudix, 10 March 1833; d. 19 July 
1891. His critical contributions to papers, politi¬ 
cal and literary, his description of the Moroccan 
campaign, but especially his novels and short 
stories, are among the best of their kind, and 
present a picture of modern Spanish society as 
true to life as it is variegated. His clever es¬ 
say, ( The Poet’s Christmas, ) went through over 
100 editions. An imposing number of his stories 
appeared under the collective titles ( Love and 
Friendship, > ( National Tales, ) Hmprobable 
Stories. ) Among them ( The Three-Cornered 
Hat > and ( The Scandal* deserve special men¬ 
tion. 

Alarcon y Mendoza, a-lar-kon e man-d5'- 
tha, Don Juan Ruiz de, a noted Spanish dram¬ 
atist : b. in Tasco, Mexico, about 1588 or 1590; 
d. 4 Aug. 1639. Little is known about his early 
life, but he went to Spain in 1600 and became 
royal attorney in Seville. From 1608 to 1611 he 
was in Mexico; then he took up his residence in 
Madrid, where he was appointed reporter of the 
royal council of the Indies, about 1628. Ele¬ 
vated sentiment, harmony of verse, and correct¬ 
ness of language distinguish his works, the 
principal of which are ( The Weaver of 
Segovia ) ; ( Suspicious Truth,* the model for 
Corneille’s ( Liar ) ; ( Walls Have Ears ) ; ( The 
Proof of Promises ) ; ( The Anti-Christ. ) A 
complete edition of his works was published by 
Hartzenbusch in Madrid 1866. 

Al'aric I., king of the Visigoths: b. about 
the middle of the 4th century; d. 410, and is 
first mentioned in history in 394 a.d., when 
Theodosius the Great gave him the command of 
his Gothic auxiliaries. The dissensions between 
Arcadius and Honorius, the sons of Theodosius, 
inspired Alaric with the intention of attacking 
the Roman empire. In 396 he ravaged Greece, 
from which he was driven by the Roman gen¬ 
eral Stilicho, but made a masterly retreat to Il¬ 
lyria, of which Arcadius, frightened at his suc¬ 
cesses, appointed him governor. In 400 he in¬ 
vaded Italy, but was defeated by Stilicho at 
Pollentia (403), and induced to transfer his 
services from Arcadius to Honorius on condi¬ 
tion of receiving 4,000 pounds of gold. Hon¬ 
orius having failed to fulfil this condition, Alaric 
made a second invasion of Italy, during which 
he besieged Rome thrice. The first time (408) 
the city was saved by paying a heavy ransom; 
the second (409) it capitulated, and Honorius 
was deposed, but shortly afterward restored. 
His sanction of a treacherous attack on. the 
forces of Alaric brought about the third siege, 
and the city was taken, 24 Aug. 410, and sacked 
for six days. He quitted Rome with the inten¬ 
tion of reducing Sicily and Africa, but died at 
Cosenza. 

Alaric II., king of the Visigoths from 484 
to 507 a.d. At the beginning of his reign the 


dominions of the Visigoths were at their great¬ 
est extent, embracing three fourths of the mod¬ 
ern Spain and all western Gaul to the south of 
the Loire. His unwarlike character induced 
Clovis, king of the Franks, to invade the king¬ 
dom of the Visigoths. In a battle near Poictiers 
(507) Alaric was slain and his army completely 
defeated. The ( Breviarium Alaricianum,* a 
code of laws derived exclusively from Roman 
sources, was compiled by a body of Roman 
jurists at the command of this King Alaric. 

Ala-Shehr, a-la-shar', ancient Philadelphia, 
a town in Turkey in Asia, 76 miles east of 
Smyrna, famous as the seat of one of the first 
Christian churches, and still having a vast 
number of interesting remains of antiquity, con¬ 
sisting of fragments of beautiful columns, sar- 
cophagi, fountains, etc. It is a place of some 
importance, carrying on a thriving trade, chiefly 
with Smyrna, to which runs a railway. Pop. 
19,000. 

Alaska, Innuit al-ak-shak or al-a-ek-sa, 
<( great land,® formerly Russian America; a 
Territory of the United States, the N.W. ex¬ 
tremity of the continent; bounded N. by the 
Arctic Ocean, S. by the Pacific Ocean, E. 
by Canada (Yukon District and British Colum¬ 
bia), W. by the Arctic Ocean and the Bering 
Sea. Lat. 54 0 40' to 71 0 30' N.; Ion. mainland 
141 0 to 167° 59' 12" W., to the farthest island 
(Attu) about 187°. Length, mainland about 
1,150 m., Alaska Peninsula and islands 1,500 m. 
(as far west of San Francisco as Maine lies to 
the east) ; breadth N. to S., about 850 m.; shore 
line of the mainland and the islands 26,364 m.; 
area, 590,884 sq. m. Pop. (1900) 63,592 (for 
items see Population) ; (1902) about 90,000. 
Capital, Juneau. 

General Outline .— Alaska forms the north¬ 
western part of North America; and on the 
south, west, and north the coast is washed by the 
waters of the Pacific Ocean, Bering Sea, and 
the Arctic Ocean. It is a part of the possessions 
of the United States, but is separated from the 
main body thereof by the British Columbia and 
Northwest Territories o f the Dominion of 
Canada. 

It is unique in its geographical outlines. On 
the northwest coast of America the general 
trend of the shores and of California, Oregon, 
and Washington, from Cape Mendocino in lat. 
40° 26' to Cape Flattery in 48° 23' is north; 
thence from the Strait of Fuca the coast line of 
British Columbia runs northwesterly along the 
ocean face of Vancouver Island and the Queen 
Charlotte Archipelago for 620 statute miles to 
Cape Muzon, the northwest point of Dixon En¬ 
trance which separates that archipelago from the 
Archipelago Alexander, comprising the southern 
part of Alaska. From Cape Muzon, in lat, 54 0 
a o' and long. 132 0 41' W., the southwest point of 
Prince of Wales Island, the general trend of 
the outer coast continues northwestwardly for 
430 miles to Ocean Cape at Yakutat Bay in 
lat. 59 0 32', long. 139 0 00'. From that position 
the coast trends nearly west to lat. 6o° under 
the shadow of Mount Saint Elias in long. T41 0 , 
and continues for 430 miles to the northeast 
point of Kenai Peninsula. Thence the coast 
swings boldly to the southwest to the western 
extremity of the Peninsula of Alaska at Isanot- 
ski Strait in lat. 54 0 50', long. 163° 25'. The 


ALASKA 


ocean area between Cross Sound in lat. 58° 12' 
and the Kenai Peninsula or Kadiak Island is 
denominated the Gulf of Alaska, formerly the 
Fairweather Ground of the American whalers. 

Beyond the extremity of the Alaska Penin¬ 
sula, the great chain of the Aleutian Islands 
stretches for 1,070 miles in a regular but gentle 
curve, convex to the south, to the western point 
of Attu Island, and within 420 miles of the 
eastern coast of Kamchatka, the Commander 
Islands, Copper, and Bering, lying in that open¬ 
ing and geographically a part of the Aleutian 
chain. The Aleutian chain has its lowest lati¬ 
tude at Amaticnak Island in lat. 51 0 30' and 
long. 172 0 30' E. 

In the series of courses thus far described we 
note the Archipelago Alexander lying between 
Dixon Entrance on the south and the head of 
Taiya Inlet at. the extreme north — that is from 
lat. 54 0 40' to lat. 59 0 30', 340 miles, with a gen¬ 
eral breadth of about 90 miles, and covering an 
area of more than 25.000 square miles. It em¬ 
braces 25 large islands, 125 smaller ones, and 
hundreds of rocky islets and rocks. It is trav¬ 
ersed by great deep straits north and south, and 
east and west; with mountainous walls forming 
lines of Ocean Yosemites. Chatham Strait, 
Lynn Canal, and Taiya Inlet form one continu¬ 
ous straight line of deep water for 250 miles. 
The area of the islands of this Archipelago is 
over 14,000 square miles; and the shore line 
of the islands and of the mainland is 8.000 miles 
long, with tree-covered shores to 2,000 feet above 
the sea. 

In the great curve to the northwest, and 210 
miles westward from Mount Saint Elias, lies the 
Prince William Sound of Cook, with its straits, 
inlets, and glaciers. It opens upon the Gulf of 
Alaska by two main channels. The western 
boundary of this Sound is the part of the east¬ 
ern shore of the Kenai Peninsula, which has its 
western shore on Cook’s Inlet, the head of which 
reaches within 10 miles of the northwestern arm 
of Prince William Sound, in lat. 61 0 10'. Cook’s 
Inlet is a great arm of water stretching nearly 
200 miles northeastward from lat. 59 0 , long. 
152 0 , with an extreme width of 40 miles. The 
entrance lies between Cape Douglas on the 
southwest and Cane Elizabeth at the extremity 
of the Kenai Peninsula on the northeast. The 
western shore of Cook’s Inlet is part of the 
southeast shore of the Alaska Peninsula; and is 
backed by an extremely high range of moun¬ 
tains, marked by the volcanic peaks of Redoubt 
and Iliamna, 11,700 and 12,200 feet high respect¬ 
ively. The Russian fur traders considered the 
eastern plateau shore of Cook’s Inlet the garden 
of Alaska. 

The Alaska Peninsula is a marked feature of 
the geography of this region. It stretches south- 
westwardly from its narrowest part, that lies 
between Cook’s Inlet and Iliamna Lake in lat. 
59 0 50', through 510 miles to Isanotskij Strait 
in lat. 54 0 52', long. 163° 10'. Its greatest width 
is no miles, and the average about 25. On the 
southeast it is bounded by Cook’s Inlet, Shelikof 
Strait, and the Pacific; on the northwest by 
Iliamna Lake, Koichak River, and Bristol Bay 
and Bering Sea. Bristol Bay is 175 miles wide 
between the Peninsula of Alaska and Cape New- 
enham, and receives the waters of Lakes Ili¬ 
amna and Nikhkak through the Koichak River. 

North of the chain of the Aleutians lies the 


Bering Sea; and the very irregular coast of the 
western coast of Alaska northward from the 
Peninsula of Alaska thence to Bering Strait 
has several marked features. From Cape New- 
enham, the northwest cape of Bristol Bay, the 
general trend of the coast to Cape Romanzof is 
northwestward, and the air line 280 miles. This 
stretch of the coast receives the waters of 
Nashagak River that drains a series of mountain 
lakes; the Kuskokwim that rises on the south¬ 
west flank of Mount McKinley; and one of the 
southern mouths of the Yukon. Cape Romanzof 
is a hill on the outermost point of the Yukon 
and Kuskokwim deltas. It is in lat. 61 0 37', 
long. 166 0 17'. From Cape Romanzof to Cape 
Prince of Wales the distance is 280 miles, and 
the bearing a little west of north. 

Cape Prince of Wales is the extreme north¬ 
west extremity of North America, and lies about 
50 miles east of the east cape of Asia; between 
them is the shallow Bering Strait connecting 
Bering Sea with the Arctic Ocean. It lies in 
lat. 65° 40', long. 168° 00', and is the termina¬ 
tion of a high promontory from the eastnorth- 
east. Between Cape Romanzof and Cape Prince 
of Wales the coast retreats 280 miles northeast 
to the head of Norton Sound, with an inter¬ 
vening low shore the greater part of the dis¬ 
tance. North and south of Cape Romanzof are 
the mouths of the great delta forming Yukon 
River; the eighth or tenth in size of the rivers 
of the world. The shore line of the delta of 
the Yukon and Kuskokwim is 420 miles long, 
and the moorland is so low that the shore is 
not visible from a ship’s deck when she is in 
five fathoms of water. On the irregular shore 
line between the head of Norton Sound and 
Cape Prince of Wales, convex to the south, 
lies Cape Nome, now well known for its gold 
placers. Reaching into the Arctic Ocean from 
Cape Prince of Wales, the Alaska coast runs 
north by east to Point Hope and Cape Lisburne, 
distant 140 and 175 miles respectively. Between 
Cape Prince of Wales and Point Hope the 
coast recedes sharply 175 miles to the eastward 
to. the head of Kotzebue Sound; and between 
this Sound and Norton Sound lies the com¬ 
paratively narrow neck that forms Seward Pe¬ 
ninsula, of which Cape Prince of Wales is the 
western extremity. From Cape Lisburne in lat. 
68° 53*. and long. 166 0 10', the coast trends 285 
miles in a general eastnortheast direction to 
Point Barrow; thence the Arctic coast of Alaska 
has an irregular but general east by south direc¬ 
tion for 390 miles to the eastern boundary of 
Alaska at the 141st meridian. The highest lati¬ 
tude reached by this Arctic coast of Alaska is 
at Point Barrow in lat. 71 0 25' and 156° 25' 
long. 

The foregoing gives a general idea of the 
ocean coast of Alaska. To it should be added 
the islands of the Bering Sea — Saint Lawrence. 
Saint Matthew, King, Sledge, the Pribilofs, 
Nunivak, and one of the Diomedes. In the 
Arctic should be reckoned the Wrangell Land 
which was discovered by American whalers in 
1867; landed upon and formally taken posses¬ 
sion of in August, 1881; and surveyed later. 
Off the southern coast of the Peninsula of 
Alaska lie the groups of Sannak, Shumagin 
and Semidi, and the important group Kadiak. 

The eastern boundary of Alaska is gener¬ 
ally noted as beginning at the southernmost point 





"FROM JUNEAU 


FORTY MILE 

CREEK 

8 CALE OF MlLEd 


aX aiiiUUi 


Pt - Harrow 


(nnu 'rii/f lt 


8CALE OF MILES. 


Population of places is indicated 
by different lettering, thus : 
S,()00 and over. 

1,000 to 3,000. 

GOO to 1,000. 

100 to GOO 


Rom am of a, B, if/ 


Franklin 


Sitka 


Douglas 


. Aii vik 


Smaller places. 


Kakwok 


Railroads. 


■Fuatok 


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Five 

Fingers 


■fMips) 

'llovvae 


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fliifr 


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Tanana Hills 

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from Greenwich 


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iginjul x. 

. SemlijJ r 8 . 


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Rat I.ci LSItkln I. 

Hat Islands ^T\ 
Amchltka vs, 

Longli'ttlc East 


Continuation of 

ALEUTIAN IS, 

Same Scale ns Slain Map. 


yTgitkin I. 
.Chlgul I. 


Qaroloi 1.^ 


Copyright, 1903, by The Americana Company 
160 ° 


Amatlgnok I. 


Longit ii ale >\ent 













































































































ALASKA 


of the Prince of Wales Island, Cape Muzon, 
thence eastwardly for 85 miles through Dixon 
Entrance or Granitza Straight to the entrance 
of Portland Canal; up that inlet about 70 miles 
to the head, thence in an irregular but general 
direction northwest and west at a distance of 
10 or less marine leagues from the sinuosities 
of the Continental shore to the 141st meridian, 
thence to the Arctic Ocean or Frozen Sea. The 
areas of the District of Alaska are only known 
approximately because the outline of the main¬ 
land and of the islands have not been accurately 
surveyed. We may assume the latest measures 
as close to the truth. The total area is 590,884 
square miles. Of this the following groups of 
islands are reckoned to contain areas as follows: 

Square Miles. 


Archipelago Alexander. 14,140 

Kadiak group. 5,680 

Shumagin group. 1,030 

Aleutian chain. 6,390 

Bering Sea Islands. 3,960 


31,200 

Physically the Territory may be divided into 
four sections, climatically and productively dis¬ 
tinct; the Coast-Mountain, the Insular, the 
Basin, and the Yukon-Arctic Districts. 

1. The Coast-Mountain District.— Apart 
from the islands this consists entirely of two 
great mountain ranges, geologically distinct, 
with a glaciered plateau between them. One 
(the St. Elias Range) starts at Cross Sound 
where the coast from northwest turns west, and 
hugs it closely to Prince William Sound. The 
other (the Coast Range) comes from the United 
States and Canada, and runs parallel to the 
coast till it turns, with a narrow table along the 
sea; continues northwest behind the St. Elias 
to about 63° N. lat., forming the western water¬ 
shed of the upper Yukon; then turns southwest 
in a stupendous range called the Alaska Moun¬ 
tains of the Kenai and Alaskan peninsulas, 
forming the watershed of the Tanana and Kus- 
kokwim valleys. The coast range proper is a 
series of irregular spurs with peaks 6,000 to 
8.000 ft. high, the permanent snow line being at 
an elevation of about 2,000 ft. The Alaska 
Range is the highest elevation in North 
America: flanked on the east by the grand iso¬ 
lated volcano Mt. Wrangell (eruptive early m 
the 19th century), then from lower summits ris¬ 
ing steadily to the west till it culminates in 
enormous nameless peaks, crowned by a named 
one, Mt. McKinley, 20,460 ft., the summit of the 
continent. Of the other peaks in this range, 
measurements have been taken of Hayes, 14,- 
500 ft.; Sanford, 14,000; Tillman and Drum, 
13,300 each; Iliamna and Redoubt, volcanoes, 
about 12,000 each; and Lituya, 11,832 ft. The 
St. Elias Range is far loftier, narrower, and 
more regular than the Coast Range, and next 
to the Alaskan the highest land on the con¬ 
tinent. The part beyond Yakutat Bay is known 
as the Chugach. Mt. Crillon, near Cross Sound, 
is 15,900 ft. high; Mt. Fairweather just north, 
15,292; Mt. Vancouver, about Yakutat Bay, 
15 666; Mt. Cook, above Malaspina Glacier, 
13.758; Mt. St. Elias (q.v.), 18,024. The high¬ 
est peak of this range, Mt. Logan, back of Mt. 
Cook (19,539 ft.), is in Canada. 

The seaward flanks of all these mountains 
bear in most places fields of everlasting and 
ever-fresh ice, from which move down to the 
Vol. 1—is 


coast through the valleys the rivers of ice called 
glaciers; but the St. Elias has scarce anything 
else, the Chugach producing the most enormous 
ones on earth outside the polar regions. The 
Swiss glaciers beside them would be nameless 
and disregarded rills. These ice-rivers have 
plowed their valleys into deep gorges, sinking 
for miles inland far below sea-level and creating 
the fiords or narrow steep-walled mountain bays 
with which the coast is fringed, and making is¬ 
lands of the lower coastal lands. Every gorge 
down to the head of its fiord is choked with 
its ice-stream pushing swiftly down and break¬ 
ing off hourly in an amazing number of gigantic 
icebergs; and where there is a strip of coast 
between the mountain-foot and the sea, they 
bank up and spread out over it in titanic ice 
walls of many miles frontage. The tremendous 
Malaspina Glacier, which lies along Yakutat 
Bay and the coast beyond, is the most notable 
of these: it is 1,550 ft. high, and has an area 
of 500 to 600 sq. m. Valdez Glacier at Prince 
William Sound runs 15 m. along the coast, full 
of death-dealing crevices. The most familiar 
are those along the Klondike route: Muir 
Glacier at the head and east end of Glacier Bay, 
over 200 feet high and 3 m. long, and Pacific 
Glacier to the west of it, off Fairweather Moun¬ 
tain. Other vast ones are Miles Glacier off the 
mouth of Copper River, and Baring Glacier just 
east of it. 

Real rivers are naturally few in this district. 
The little Chilkat running into Lynn Canal is 
familiar from the pass above it. The largest 
is the Copper River, with a considerable affluent, 
the Chechitna, both unnavigable from rapids. 
Nearly as large and more valuable is the 
Sushitna flowing into Cook’s Inlet, navigable 
for no m.; its affluent, the Yentna, is navigable 
for 100 more, and leads to a pass into the Kus- 
kokwim Valley. The Knik empties into a fiord 
of Cook’s Inlet, and has an arm, the Matanuska, 

2. The Insular District comprises the Alaska 
Peninsula and the Aleutian Islands, the south¬ 
western continuation of the Alaska chain nearly 
to Siberia; the lower levels sinking under the 
ocean, and for over 1,000 miles only the tops 
showing as islands, though these sometimes rise 
thousands of feet above the waves. Of the 150 
composing the chain 61 are volcanoes, of which 
10 are sporadically active; the monarch of all 
is the grand Shishaldin, 8,000 ft. above the sea, 
Akutan, Makushin, and others, are also on fire. 
Bogoslov was thrown up by volcanic action in 
1796. They have grass and shrubs, but no trees. 
The great partly wooded Kadiak Island, just 
east and near the mainland, is a prolongation of 
Kenai Peninsula and belongs to the first group. 

3. The Basin District.— This is the great 
space enclosed by the Alaska Mountains south¬ 
east and the Lower Yukon watershed (a rather 
low one), and drained into Bering Sea by the 
Kuskokwim, a large but shallow and bar- 
obstructed stream rising on Alt. McKinley. Its 
somewhat sheltered position gives it a climate 
possible for civilized existence and available for 
pasturage and some hardy crops in the lower 
valley, while the upper valley leads through rich 
mineral lodes. 

4. The Yukon-Arctic District.— The Yukon 
River (q.v.), one of the chief in the world, 
emerging from Canada, runs for a long distance 
in a mountainous plateau; as do its tributaries, 








ALASKA 


the Porcupine, which enters from the northeast 
at what was Fort Yukon north of the Arctic 
Circle; Birch Creek, from the southeast not far 
below, through a now famous mining district; 
and the Tanana, rising near Mt. Wrangell, flow¬ 
ing along the eastern and northern flanks of the 
Alaska Range, and entering the Yukon about 
152 0 W. Ion. In its lower course the Yukon cuts 
through a vast swampy moor. The coast to 
the north is mountainous to Point Barrow, in¬ 
cluding the great central western peninsula ; the 
interior west of the Porcupine Hills continues 
the moor, sloping to the interminable wastes of 
tundra (a treeless plain full of ponds and 
swamps cut up by small valleys) that stretch 
to the Arctic Ocean. The coast north of the 
delta is mountainous. Kotzebue Sound receives 
three large rivers, the Selawik, Kowak, and 
Noatak; and into the Arctic Ocean on the 
northern side flows the Colville through vast 
tundra wastes. 

Climate .— The climate of the entire Coast- 
Mountain and Insular districts is dominated by 
the two influences of the mountain barrier and 
the Japanese <( Black Current® or Kuro Shi wo 
(q.v.), which flows along it to California. The 
former shields the coast from the Arctic winds; 
the latter fills the air with warm vapors which 
the prevailing western winds drive against the 
icy mountain flank, condesing them into almost 
perpetual rain or fog. The annual rainfall of 
the southern strip is from 60 to 90 inches (a 
fall of 156 inches has been known) ; and the 
days of rain in the year range from 190 to 
285. August and September are specially rainy 
months. For the same reasons the temperature 
is less extreme than in districts east of the 
Rocky Mountains; up to Sitka it is about the 
'same as that of British Columbia. It rarely 
exceeds the rangs o° or 8o°, and is isothermal 
at 40° annual mean with the lower St. Lawrence, 
the Rocky Mountains deflecting the line north¬ 
ward. Going north and west there is greater 
cold, snow, and wind; Cook’s Inlet, however, is 
for some reason free from fog. Along the coast 
of Norton Sound, where the mountainous coast 
and the warm current flowing into Bering Sea 
still exercise a tempering influence, the weather 
remains milder than in the interior, with winters 
less long and rigorous. But inside the moun¬ 
tains, where their shelter, the moderating cur¬ 
rent, and the vapors, are all absent, semi-arctic 
conditions prevail. In the Kuskokwim Valley 
the average temperature from December to 
March is about zero, and on the Lower Yukon 
at Nulato (about 65° N. lat.) it is about— 16 0 . 
The Yukon freezes to a depth of from 6 to 9 
feet. There is a short warm summer and a 
very long intense winter in all this district,— the 
former uncertain, the latter sure; the cold sinks 
to — 65° in spells. Farther north the climate is 
pure Arctic: at Point Barrow (where the gov¬ 
ernment keeps up at times a whalers’ relief house 
and a weather observatory) the annual mean is 
25 0 ; and the northern tundra has a permanent 
layer of frozen soil 40 or more feet thick from 
about 3 feet below the surface. 

Flora .— The moisture and temperate climate 
of the southern strip has bred the same gigantic 
forests which cover the entire northern Pacific 
coast from northern California upward; their 
great size and commercial value ending at Cross 
Sound, and the3 r change to quasi-arctic condi¬ 


tions, but reaching in less proportions to Kadiak 
Island. The deciduos trees are rather small, 
except the poplars, which are often of great size ; 
but enormous evergreens clothe all the moun¬ 
tains to the snow line and cover all the islands. 
The many thousands of square miles of white 
pines, cedars, and firs will soon become of prime 
importance to a world wasting its trees so fast. 
Most valuable of all as timber is the yellow 
cedar ( Cupressus nutkaensis), a straight-grained 
and highly durable wood, from which the Haida 
Indians make their remarkable dugout. canoes, 
sometimes 75 feet long by 8 to 10 wide, and 
carrying 100 people. The balsam fir is used for 
tanning. But the local wood-of-all-work is the 
Sitka or Alaska spruce (Abies sitchensis) , the 
most universal of Alaska trees, reaching in 
stunted form to the Arctic Circle, but large 
enough for much utility only on the southeastern 
and southwestern coasts. It is too knotty for 
fine boards; but for rough lumber, house or 
mining timber, firewood and lightwood, sledges, 
etc., it is the great resource of natives and for¬ 
eigners alike. The Aleutian Islands have only 
berry bushes and dwarf willows. The hills 
of the lower Kuskokwim have little wood; but 
the mountains of its earlier course have heavy 
spruce forests on their sides, and the valleys are 
thick with shrubs, grass, and tall flowering- 
herbs. The northwestern hills are naked. The 
Yukon-Arctic tundra has only in permanence 
low bushes and dwarf scrub spruce and willows, 
though the brief summer brings out a profusion 
of herbage. 

Fauna. —■ That of Alaska is of immense va¬ 
riety and commercial importance. The fur ani¬ 
mals are of course first in popular interest. Most 
valued is the sea-otter (Latax lutris) of the 
southern coast, once plentiful and the means of 
livelihood of many Aleut trappers; but for that 
reason it is now nearly exterminated, only 154 
being caught in 1889. The martin, the wolver¬ 
ene, and the coarser-furred ermine are common; 
sables are found in the forests; and mink, musk¬ 
rat, and some though diminishing otter and 
beaver in the rivers. Foxes are of several kinds 
and among the most valuable of fur animals; 
the white arctic fox is found on the western 
coast and the northern islands; the blue fox on 
the Aleutians, where it is regularly bred for its 
fur; red and cross foxes in all parts; the black 
fox in the eastern mountains. Bears (q.v.) in¬ 
clude the grizzly, black, polar, and glacier, and 
the gigantic Kadiak varieties. Gray wolves, the 
ancestors of the sledge dog, furnish a coarse fur, 
and lynxes and smaller animals, finer varieties. 
Fossil-elephant ivory is an article of commerce. 
The food animals include the moose of the Kus¬ 
kokwim Valley; the caribou-reindeer, once nu¬ 
merous, but now nearly exterminated, though 
the government is attempting to stock the coun¬ 
try with Lapland and Siberian reindeer; the 
arctic hare and porcupine, marmots, squirrels, 
and lemmings; with sheep and goats in the 
southeastern mountains. The list of birds and 
mammals of purely scientific interest is very 
great, but cannot be given here. Swarms of 
insects are as numerous and formidable as in 
the tropics; especially mosquitoes, which rise in 
throngs to the very shores of the Arctic Ocean, 
sting even bears and moose around the eyes till 
they are maddened into miring themselves in 
the swamps, force the native hunter to wrap his 






























ALASKA 


head in furs, and make a settled lowland class 
almost an impossibility. 

Fur Seals, Whales, etc. — The fur seal once 
swarmed all along the western coast and the 
Bering Sea islands, but now resorts solely to 
the Pribyloff and Copper islands. The former 
were leased many years ago to the Alaska 
Commercial Company, under contract to kill 
only ioo,oco adult males a year, no females or 
very young males. In May 1890 the North 
American Company succeeded the old company. 
As the herds showed signs of exhaustion, the 
number was reduced to 30,000; but the new 
company is now able to secure little more than 
half that number, as pelagic sealing — before 
the herds reach the islands — is rapidly annihi¬ 
lating them. Forbidden by the United States to 
its citizens, this pelagic sealing was done by 
Canadians (some, perhaps, with American capi¬ 
tal behind them), who kill many more at sea 
than the company does on the Islands, and with¬ 
out restriction of kind. The United States tried 
for years to have Great Britain join in suppress¬ 
ing the slaughter; but that country would not 
antagonize Canada to the behoof of the United 
States (though to its own also, as the seals 
furnish the most important fur of the world). 
At last, in 1902, Great Britain formed a pro¬ 
tective agreement with the United States; on 
which the Canadians took shelter under the 
Japanese flag and went on slaughtering as be¬ 
fore. Unless all the great Powers join hands, 
the practical extinction of the fur-seal is pre¬ 
dictable in no long time, with the destruction of 
the livelihood of many native Alaskans. The 
other seals, though of no moment to civilized 
trade, are the very life of the natives, who shoot 
and spear them for food, dress, boots, tents, 
boats, dog harness, whips, etc., and use the skins 
in barter. The walrus fills a similar function 
to the Eskimo around and north of Bering 
Strait; but its hunting by civilized men for ivory 
is also exterminating the race. The natives also 
rely much on whales, which are likewise hunted 
by the whaling fleets, which take about 150 a 
year, and often linger too long and are frozen 
in for the winter; thus arctic conditions render 
the extinction of the whale more distant. 

For Fisheries, Agriculture, Commerce and 
Transportation, etc., see Alaska, Recent De¬ 
velopment oe. See also Fur Trade, The. 

Geology. — Alaska is geologically one of the 
latest portions of the continent. The west coast 
and the Aleutian Islands are of very recent vol¬ 
canic upthrow; and the entire peninsula islands 
and Bering Sea basin are still rising. The ac¬ 
tivity of the forces now at work is shown not 
only by the vast number of volcanoes eruptive 
or but recently so, but by the great number of 
valuable hot mineral springs of every chemical 
character. The southeastern strip and archi¬ 
pelago are believed to be later than the Triassjc 
period; they are part of the Rocky Mountain 
granitic system, overlaid by sedimentary rocks. 
The St. Elias is thought to be the youngest 
range on the continent, and post-Tertiary in 
elevation. 

Minerals. — Coal is found in many places, 
from the upper Yukon to the Aleutian Islands 
and Cape Lisburne, where it is now and then 
utilized by whalers or revenue vessels. Much 
money has been sunk in mining it; but it is a 
sulphurous lignite, endurable only for household 
use, and it has been found cheaper to import 


coal for making steam. The iron is also poor. 
Copper, galena, marbles, and petroleum are other 
products as yet not much exploited. 

The all-important mineral product so far is 
gold, in which Alaska promises to take high 
rank, now third in the U. S. The Russians and 
trappers knew of gold sands and placers, but 
the Russian government did not wish prospect¬ 
ing in a district utterly beyond effective control. 
With its acquisition by the United States a 
new policy prevailed, and prospectors began 
an active search for precious metals. The first 
great discovery was made on Douglas Island, in 
the Alexander Archipelago at the foot of Lynn 
Canal: the first placer, which drew together a 
mining-camp; then of the quartz ledges they had 
crumbled from, which in the hands of a power¬ 
ful corporation rank among the richest mines of 
the world, keeping 1,500 stamps busy, and mak¬ 
ing the island and adjoining mainland one huge 
mine, connected by a tunnel under the water. 
Exhaustless water-power close by, and the ore 
cars, running down to the stamps by their own 
\veight, enable very low-grade ores to be worked 
at a high margin of profit. Profitable mines 
have also been opened near by, and the town of 
Juneau is built up by this interest on the main¬ 
land shore opposite. Other mines are worked 
in various islands of the Archipelago and along 
the shores, some around Sitka, some on Lynn 
Canal. Placer mining and sand-washing have 
also yielded a good return at Yakutat Bay and 
on the islands and shores about Cook’s Inlet. 
Greater still were the discoveries in the Yukon 
basin, instigated by the Klondike placer finds 
higher up the river on Canadian soil in 1896-7. 
The whole upper Yukon was eagerly prospected, 
and very rich deposits found, especially in the 
valleys of the affluents Tanana and Birch Creek, 
which produced about $1,000,000 in 1900, and 
$7,000,000 in 1906. But greatest of all was the 
result of washing the beach sands on Norton 
Sound; those at Cape Nome were found in 
1898-9 to be so rich that the neighboring streams 
which fed them were searched, and some of the 
richest placers on the earth revealed. The re¬ 
turn of the washing was fully $4,000,000 in 1900. 
The whole Territory produced $8,171,000, or 
395'°39 ounces of fine gold, against 121,766 
ounces valued at $2,459,500 in 1899, or 3J/3 times 
increase in one year. 

Population .— Rough estimates were made by 
Russians in 1839 and 1863, with results of 39,813 
and 30,434 — the latter certainly the more nearly 
accurate. In 1880 the first United States census 
was attempted under many difficulties, and found 
430 whites, 1,756 half-breeds, and 31,240 natives 
— 33,426 in all. In 1890 a closer computation 
fixed the total at 32,052 of all kinds. In 1900 it 
was returned at 63,592: native Indian, 29,536; 
Chinese, 3,116; Japanese, 279; negro, 168; white, 
30,493, of whom only 3,200 were female. The 
Chinese were mostly in the northern salmon 
canneries and lumbering industries. Of the in¬ 
crease of 31,540 over 1890, pretty much all 
white, 23,435 was in the Yukon basin. Making 
allowance for errors in former calculations, the 
natives had fallen off somewhat. In the past 
two years more than 25,000 men are estimated 
to have poured into the Nome district, making 
perhaps 90,000 altogether, about 60,000 being 
white. 

The native races of Alaska are from four 
main stocks: (1) The Eskimo (q.v.), occupy- 


ALASKA 


ing originally most of the Arctic and Bering 
Sea coasts. (2) The Athabascans (q.v.), who 
occupied the upper Yukon Valley and Eastern 
mountains, and the southern coast from Yakutat 
Bay to Cook’s Inlet. (3) The Aleutes (see 
Aleutian Islands), of the Alaska Peninsula 
and the islands beyond. (4) The Thlinkits 
(q.v.), from Yakutat Bay to Puget Sound, a 
superior race. The Alaskans as a body are of 
a far higher type than the Red Indians — a fact 
which makes the theory of the peopling of 
America from Siberia improbable. They have 
not needed to be put in reservations, as they 
have not the fickleness or ferocity of the Red 
Indians, have a far better forecast of the future 
and greater willingness to labor steadily, and 
have readily taken up civilized individual em¬ 
ployments. There is no industry brought in by 
white men in which natives cannot be employed, 
though they are debarred from several by the 
refusal to admit them to citizenship. Unfortu¬ 
nately the rapid killing off of the land and 
marine animals and river fish by white com¬ 
panies is impairing their old livelihoods, and 
liquor and alien diseases are decimating them; 
the Aleutes are nearly exterminated. 

Government. —Alaska, like other Territories, 
is governed by United States officials: there is 
a governor resident at Juneau, a surveyor-gen¬ 
eral, courts and judges, etc. On 7 May 1906 
Congress authorized the election by the people 
of a delegate from the District of Alaska. There 
is no Territorial legislature, however; but mu¬ 
nicipal self-government is allowed to towns of 
some size. It is divided into three judicial 
districts, with headquarters at Juneau, Eagle 
City, and St. Michael; the judges may appoint 
commissioners in their districts to act as civil 
and criminal officers, recorders, judges of pro¬ 
bate, etc. A criminal code was given it in 1899, 
a civil code in 1900. 

Education and Religion. — In 1900 the United 
States appropriated $30,000 for public schools 
in Alaska, and maintained 25. Towns may tax 
themselves for school purposes. Mission schools 
are maintained by various Protestant and 
Catholic bodies (who are active in Christian 
work here), and the Russian Greek Church, 
which also sustains churches. An industrial 
training-school at Sitka is supported by the 
Presbyterian Church. The majority of the na¬ 
tives are Christianized. 

History. — The East Cape of Asia was re¬ 
discovered by Bering in 1728. In 1741 Bering 
and Chirikof discovered the northwest coast of 
America and some of the Aleutian Islands. 
The Russian fur traders entered the country, 
maltreating the natives so that they once 
provoked a massacre which was frightfully 
avenged. Capt. Cook explored the coast in 
1778, discovering Cook’s Inlet. The same year 
the Russians organized a company for the 
Alaska trade, and in 1784 made the first per¬ 
manent settlement at Three Saints, on Kadiak 
Island. In 1790 they made the famous Alex¬ 
ander Baranov manager. He established a 
colony on Bering Strait in 1796; in 1799, when 
the Russian-American Company was organized, 
with a 20-year monopoly, extended in 1820 and 
1844, Baranov, as their manager, took possession 
of the island named after him, founded Sitka, 
and began an extensive trade with the natives 
which was afterward extended to China and 


the Atlantic ports of the United States. Under 
its auspices the Russian Greek Church estab¬ 
lished many missions. A scheme to lay a cable 
under Bering Strait, for which energetic ex¬ 
plorations were carried on 1864-7, was super¬ 
seded by the Atlantic cable. But the territory 
never paid its expenses to Russia, which was 
saddled with claims on its behoof and was 
anxious to be rid of it. During the Civil War 
she was friendly to the United States govern¬ 
ment; and on the advice of William H. Seward, 
secretary of state,— who had an enthusiastic 
belief in Alaska’s future,— our government took 
the territory off her hands in March 1867, pay¬ 
ing $7,200,000 for it. On 18 October the Ameri¬ 
can forces took formal possession at Sitka, and 
the next year the United States customs, etc., 
laws were extended over it. Russia had in 

1821 claimed ownership of Bering Sea as an 
inland water, to protect her seal-fisheries. In 

1822 the Uffiited States and Great Britain pro¬ 
tested against this claim as delivered in the 
Ukase of 1821. Great Britain could not be 
expected to allow the claim for so vast an 
oceanic body, especially when urged by Cana¬ 
dian sealing interests, and the seizure of Cana¬ 
dian sealing vessels by the United States caused 
an acrid international dispute for years. At 
length, in 1902 a protective agreement was en¬ 
tered into between the two nations; for its re¬ 
sults see Seals, etc., above. There was also ar 
old contention as to United States and Canadian 
boundaries, not pressed because the districts in 
debate were reckoned worthless. But the gold 
discoveries on the Y'ukon in 1896-7 and at Cape 
Nome in 1898-9. (see Minerals and Chief 
Towns, above), with the vast influx of popula¬ 
tion, made some settlement imperative; for 
years no decision was arrived at beyond a 
modus vivendi, the rival claims covering too 
much of value, but on 3 Sept. 1903 the Alaska 
Boundary Tribunal (q.v.) met in London to 
determine the matter. The chief crux was over 
the district around Lynn Canal, Canada claim¬ 
ing the. ports at the head which form part of 
the main Klondike routes,— Skagway, Dyea, 
and Pyramid Harbor. 

Although it is of evident importance that 
the United States navy should in case of a crisis 
be able to obtain coal supplies at Sitka, no coal 
is kept there by mercantile .companies, and the 
navy has frequently been embarrassed for want 
of such supplies in the protection of American 
seal and other interests. In May 1903 prelimi¬ 
nary steps were taken for the establishment of 
a coal station at Dutch Harbor. This port is 
in the northern part of Unalaska (q.v.), one 
of the Aleutian Islands, and near the direct 
commercial routes between the ports of Bering 
Sea and southern Alaska and the Pacific coast 
of the United States. It is also near the line of 
steamers passing through the Akutan and Uni¬ 
mak Passages, most of which make it a port of 
call. Dutch Harbor will form the fifth station 
in the chain of coal depots along the Pacific 
Coast, which will begin at San Diego and include 
San Francisco, Puget Sound, and Sitka. The 
fact that Alaska is separated from the States by 
hundreds of miles of coast line in a foreign 
domain constitutes a strong reason why that 
great territory should be provided with its own 
coaling stations. Territorial status was granted 
to Alaska 6 June 1900. 




THE KADIAK BEAR. 


ALASKAN MAMMALS 


DISCOVERED BY THE 


HARRIMAN EXPEDITION, 


ALASKA. 












ALASKA 


Bibliograph y .— Abercrombie (W. R.), 
‘Alaska 5 (1899) ; Aldrich (H. L.), ‘Arctic 
Alaska and Siberia ) ; Balch, ( The Alaska- 
Canadian Frontier) (1902); Bancroft (H. H.), 

( Alaska, 1730-1885 5 ; Bruce, ‘Alaska: Its His¬ 
tory and Resources ) ; Compilation of Narra¬ 
tives of Explorations in Alaska’ (U. S. Mili¬ 
tary Affairs Committee) ; Elliott, Cur Arctic 
Province’ ; Foster (J. W.), ( The Alaskan 

Boundary ) ; Harriman, ( Alaska Expedition 5 ; 
Jackson (Sheldon), ‘Alaska 5 ; Kerr, ‘The 
Shores and Alps of Alaska 5 ; ‘Maps and De¬ 
scriptions of Routes of Exploration in Alaska 
in 1898’ (U. S. Geological Survey) ; ( Mono¬ 
graph on Seal Islands’ (10th U. S. Census Re¬ 
port) ; Petroff, ( Population and Resources of 
Alaska ) (nth U. S. Census Report) ; Reid, 
‘Studies of the Muir Glacier’ ; Report of Com¬ 
missioner of Education (1901) ; Russell, ‘An 
Expedition to Mount St. Elias’ (U. S. Geologi¬ 
cal Survey) ; Schwatka, ( Report of a Military 
Reconnaissance in Alaska 5 (1883) ; ‘Along 
Alaska’s Great River 5 ; Swan, ‘The Northwest 
Coast’ (U. S. Geological Survey) ; Swineford, 
Alaska 5 ; Vancouver, ( Voyage of Discovery to 
the North Pacific Ocean in i794 ) ; Whymper, 
‘Travel and Adventure in Alaska 5 ; Wright, 
( The Ice Age in North America. 5 

George Davidson, 

Professor of Geography, University of 
California. 

Alaska, Commercial. The United States 
purchased Alaska from Russia, in 1867, for 
$7,200,000. After the discovery of gold in Cal¬ 
ifornia in 1848, a considerable trade in fish, 
lumber, and ice, had been built up between San 
Francisco and Alaska. On that point, the Hon. 
O. P. Austin, chief of the Bureau of Statistics 
of the Department of Commerce and Labor, in 
his monograph on Alaska, published in 1903, 
says: Commercial companies were formed in 
* San Francisco and Alaska to engage in that 
trade, and the information thus obtained regard¬ 
ing Alaska and its possibilities formed some of 
the causes which led to the favorable considera¬ 
tion of the proffer of sale of Alaska, made by 
the Russian ambassador at Washington to Sec¬ 
retary of State Seward, in 1864, and completed 
in 1867. 55 Thus was the vast territory of Alaska 
and the Aleutian Islands acquired and added to 
the national domain of the United States for 
what is now the value of the country’s internal 
commerce for only one hour, reckoning that 
commerce at twenty-two thousand million dol¬ 
lars a year, the working days at three hundred 
yearly, and the working hours at ten for each 
day. 

Great progress in Alaskan matters generally, 
and in its value to the United States has been 
made since the day on which Reward’s Ice¬ 
berg 55 was acquired, but even yet only the fringe 
of Alaskan possibilities has been touched. With 
the acquirement of Hawaii, Guam, and the Phil¬ 
ippine Islands, undreamed of in Seward s day 
and until a very few years ago, with the far¬ 
thest point of the Aleutian Islands almost 
touching the farthest point of the Empire of 
Japan, with the Philippines within as easy reach 
of Japan as New York is of Liverpool, and 
with the prolific territory of Hawaii and Guam 
as milestones on the American way across the 
great Pacific, who can measure the present com¬ 
mercial possibilities of Alaska, with its wealth 


of furs, fish, gold, coal, iron, and other min¬ 
erals ? Those possibilities cannot be measured, 
but a brief study of what has been done and is 
being done, will afford us a glimpse of what 
the womb of the future has in store for the 
Alaskan interests of the United States. 

Area and Population .— According to the 
census of 1900 the gross area of Alaska is 
590,884 square miles. In a recent report the 
governor of Alaska states that this is equal to 
the area of the 20 States of Maine, New Hamp¬ 
shire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, 
Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsyl¬ 
vania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, West Vir¬ 
ginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, 
Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, and Tennessee. 
In his report for 1901, the governor states that 
the area of Alaska in acres is 369,529,600. 

The journey from Seattle to the nearest 
point in Alaska covers no greater distance than 
a journey from New York to Cincinnati, and 
from Seattle to the most distant point in Alaska 
is about as far as from New York to San Fran¬ 
cisco. The first is a two-day trip by steamer, 
and the latter (Seattle to Nome) requires 
12 days. From Seattle to the gold fields of 
the Yukon, by ocean steamer, rail, and well- 
equipped river steamer, consumes about six days. 

The population of Alaska at the date of the 
transfer was estimated at about 30,000. One 
third of this number was Eskimo, located in the 
entire north, one third Indian, located in the 
south, and the last one third Russian or mixed 
Russian and Indian. The census of 1900 gives 
the population at 63,592, an increase of over 100 
per cent. Of the 63,592, 30,507 were whites, 
29,536 natives, 3,116 Chinese, 265 Japanses, and 
158 negroes. Of the 30.507 whites, 27,307 were 
males. It is not estimated that the population 
is much greater now (1905) as the Cape Nome 
and Yukon gold rushes have quieted down. 

Industries .— Furs, fisheries, and mining 
(mainly gold) are the principal industries of 
Alaska at the present time. From the acquire¬ 
ment of the Territory in 1867 to 1904, inclusive, 
37 years, the gross product of these industries 
has been: Furs, $72,000,000; fisheries, $75,000,- 
000; mining (since 1880), $62,000,000; total, 
over $200,000,000, or more than 28 times the 
$7,200,000 purchase price of the entire Territory. 

Mining .— The recorded gold production be¬ 
gan with $6,000 in 1880, reaching $9,101,000 in 
1904, by the following quinquennial stages: 
1880, $6,000; 1885, $300,000; 1890, $762,500; 
1895, $1,615,300; 1900, $8,171,000; 1902, $8,345,- 
000; 1904, $9,101,000. 

The silver production has been small: 1890, 
$9,697; 1895, $86,880; 1900, $94,772; 1904, esti¬ 
mated, $90,000. While gold is the only mining 
industry in Alaska, which has so far received 
particular attention, there are other mineral de¬ 
posits equally valuable waiting development. 
Large deposits of coal, some of commercial 
value, exist in the Copper River Valley, and on 
the shores of Cook’s Inlet. Valuable deposits 
of iron are believed to exist alongside these coal 
beds, while extensive copper deposits have been 
found in the main range of the Coast Moun¬ 
tains. In the Copper River extensive argen¬ 
tiferous quartz deposits of a promising charac¬ 
ter have been discovered. From other regions 
have come rumors of mineral deposits. Putting 
aside these rumors and the present large annual 


ALASKA 


gold production, it is easy to anticipate how 
very much greater will be the value of “Com¬ 
mercial Alaska® as soon as railways are built 
to open these large deposits of coal, iron, and 
copper, the three mineral resources, the most 
useful to the gigantic manufacturing interests 
of the American mainland. 

In an address to the American Institute of 
Mining Engineers, at the Lake Superior meet¬ 
ing in September 1904, Mr. Alfred H. Brooks 
said: “The developments of the last five years 
have shown that Alaska, as a field for mining, 
stands in the first rank among the possessions 
of the United States. Its annual gold output 
is now about $8,000,000. It also produces sil¬ 
ver, copper and coal in paying quantities, and 
its recently discovered tin and petroleum prom¬ 
ise to become important products. Concurrent 
with the gradual development of this wealth, 
the mining public has ceased to regard the Ter¬ 
ritory simply as an Arctic province, where a 
few placer miners struggle with adverse con¬ 
ditions to secure a good stake, or a modest 
fortune. Of late years there has been a large 
influx of capital to investigate its mineral re¬ 
sources, but in its area of nearly 600,000 square 
miles there still remain large uncompleted and 
little known fields.® 

Mention must also be made of the finding 
of asbestos, platinum, gypsum, uranium, lead, 
zinc, graphite in large quantities, near Nome, 
and marble. The latter promises to become an 
important product of Alaska. Large quarries 
covering 400 acres are located on Prince of 
Wales Island. Gray marble is also found on 
Ham’s Island and the contiguous mainland. It 
is exceptionally hard and stands a test of 10,000 
pounds to the square inch. The fact must also 
be recorded that the principal mines of lignite, 
anthracite, bituminous and cannel coal, found 
in ever}'- section of the Territory, are located on 
navigable streams, and near tide water, thus 
enabling this industry, when railroad transpor¬ 
tation is provided, to be placed on a favorable 
footing as a competitor with the coal fields of 
British Columbia. The coal mining of Alaska 
is destined to be a large industry. In the 
Seattle Chamber of Commerce room, there is 
a lump of coal weighing 1,500 pounds. It came 
from Cape Sabine, in the Arctic Ocean. Ships 
have mined their own coal there. In his annual 
report for 1902, the Governor of Alaska said: 
“One thing about the gold from Alaska that 
should not be forgotten is that every ounce of 
it is a measure of human energy and hardship, 
as much so as is a bushel of grain, a measure 
of the farmer’s toil.® 

The report of the Senate Committee, sent to 
Alaska in 1903 to investigate conditions in the 
Territory, bears ample witness to the vast 
wealth of Alaska’s mineral resources, subject 
to the provision of transportation facilities, par¬ 
ticularly, for all minerals outside of gold, the 
present annual output of which is more than 
paying the full purchase price of the Territory 
each year. Incidentally, the report says: “The 
resources of Alaska are indicated by the fact 
that since the government yielded in revenues 
to the general government nearly $10,000,000, a 
sum greater by nearly $t,ooo,ooo than the entire 
expenditure made in her behalf, as appears from 
the records of the Federal Treasury Depart¬ 
ment.® In other words, Alaska is not costing 


the Federal government a single dollar to 
govern the Territory, but is actually making a 
profit for the treasury besides paying its pur¬ 
chase price once each year in gold, and over a 
million dollars more, to say nothing of the 
nearly $10,000,000 a year which it sends us in 
furs and fish. All the Territory and all its re¬ 
sources to the good, without cost, and a large 
yearly profit earned, besides. On such a record 
as that, “Commercial Alaska® has a great 
present and the certain promise of a far greater 
future. 

With three or four railroads crossing Alaska 
in different directions, men, capital, and ma¬ 
chinery will go in and the coal, iron, copper, 
lead, zinc, marble, tin, and other minerals will 
come out, besides a far larger annual output of 
fish, gold, and silver. Then will go in Ameri¬ 
can products and American manufactures to an 
amount many millions greater than the $11,108,- 
004 worth of merchandise which we sent to 
Alaska in 1904. 

Agriculture .— Until quite recent years, agri¬ 
culture was an unknown quantity in connection 
with Alaska. Furs, fish, and gold absorbed the 
attention of employers and settlers. But since 
the United States Department of Agriculture 
sent representatives into the Territory to ex¬ 
amine and seriously consider its agricultural 
possibilities public attention has been drawn to 
that class of Alaska’s manifold resources. In 
this neglect to examine into the agricultural 
possibilities of Alaska, we have one of the many 
ways in which Alaska, until very late years, has 
not been taken seriously by the American peo¬ 
ple. Alaska is a land of more than furs, fish, 
and gold. It is a land where many phases of 
agriculture can be profitably utilized. 

In his report for 1899, the governor of 
Alaska said: “Oats, wheat, rye, varieties of bar¬ 
ley, and buckwheat, cabbage, cauliflower, pota¬ 
toes, turnips, ruta-bagas, thyme, sage, horse¬ 
radish, carrots, beets, parsnips, lettuce, radishes, 
peas, horse-beans, onions, celery, clover, flax, 
rhubarb, etc., were planted, and nearly every 
one brought to perfection. The cereals were 
planted the last of April, and came to maturity 
with full plump grain the last of September. 
They grow with rank straw. Good garden truck 
was successfully grown as far north as Eagle 
City, upon the Yukon.® 

In each of his five annual reports since 1899, 
the Governor of Alaska has continued to point 
out and emphasize the good possibilities of the 
lines of agriculture, specified above. 

In agriculture, Alaska is eminently a poor 
man’s country. Such can get direct and imme¬ 
diate returns for their own labor from adja¬ 
cent consumers. Farming makes men inde¬ 
pendent. Farming will give to Alaska a class 
of thrifty, industrious, and self-reliant citizens 
— the very class of men who have made the 
United States what it is to-day, a nation of 
workers, not idlers; of doers, not dreamers; of 
men, not chattels. 

Agricultural results in Alaska, so far, have 
been so small, measured in money, that a sta¬ 
tistical record or comparison would not mean 
anything, and is therefore omitted. In this sec¬ 
tion of American enterprise and energy, Alaska 
has as yet taken only a few tottering steps. 

Manufactures .— The census of 1900 gives 
Alaska the following credit for manufacturing 


ALASKA 




COURTESY OF DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & CO. 






I. City of Skagway. 


2. City of Dawson 









































































































































































































ALASKA 


interests located in the Territory: Number of 
establishments, 63; capital, $3,600,409; wage- 
earners, average, 2,263 5 wages paid yearly, 
$.1,395,709; cost of materials used yearly, 
$1,785,776; yearly product, $4,250,984.. 

We get an idea of the increase in Alaska’s 
interest in manufactures by noting the figures of 
that interest, as shown by the census of 1890: 
Number of establishments, 10; capital, $105,727; 
wage-earners, average, 78; yearly wages, $18,- 
625; cost of materials used, yearly, $30,198; 
yearly product, $58,440. 

The increase here shown, in only 10 years, 
is very large, being practically an increase of 
98^2 per cent in the yearly product. Among 
the 2,263 wage-earners only one woman was 
employed. The other 2,262 were males of at 
least 16 years of age. 

The census of 1900 gives 1,962 as the horse¬ 
power in use in Alaskan factories — an increase 
of 1,511 horse-power or 335 per cent over 1890. 
This power was furnished by 49 steam engines, 
14 water wheels, and 11 electric motors. 

Food and kindred products, such as fish, can¬ 
ning and preserving, etc., represented $3,821,136 
of the $4,250,984 total yearly product of all the 
manufacturing of the Territory, which ranks 
fourth among the States and Territories of the 
Union in fish, canning and preserving. 

In lumber, manufactured and unmanufac¬ 
tured, the census of 1900 credits Alaska with a 
yearly product of $429,848. Those two items 
make up the $4,250,984 total yearly manufactur¬ 
ing product of 1900. 

But that is only a beginning. When Alaska 
has railroads, saw-mills will be built, and its 
vast forest wealth made use of. Mr. Petroff, an 
authority, says: Forests of Alaska: <( The tim¬ 
ber of Alaska extends over a much larger area 
than a great many surmise. It clothes the steep 
hills and mountain sides, and chokes up the val¬ 
ley of the Alexander Archipelago, and the con¬ 
tiguous mainland; it stretches, less dense, but 
still abundant, along that inhospitable reach of 
territory which extends from the head of Cross 
Sound to the Kenai Peninsula.® The (< Sitka 
spruce® is the universal forest tree of Alaska 
and is found of gigantic size on the islands of 
the Alexander Archipelago, and on the shores 
of Prince William Sound. This spruce is used 
in the construction of nearly every dwelling 
throughout the Territory. Its sappy outer por¬ 
tion is used as torches to light up the dark 
dwellings of the interior tribes, and the wood 
is freely used in many domestic ways. The 
huge planks for house-building are obtained by 
splitting, mostly by hand. 

One of the most valuable Alaska woods is 
vellow cedar. It combines, says Mr. Petroff, a 
fine close texture, with great hardness, durabil¬ 
ity, and a peculiar but pleasant odor. The Rus¬ 
sians named it «dushnik». (scented wood). 
During the wasteful Russian occupation of 
Alaska, this tree, though of such great value 
was nearly exterminated in the vicinity of 
Sitka, and on the Baranof and adjoining is¬ 
lands, but considerable bodies, of it still exist 
on the British Columbia frontier, on Prince of 
Wales Island, on Kuiu Island, and a few other 
islands of the Alexander Archipelago. In the 
Nass and Skeena River valleys it is also abun¬ 
dant. 

Other Alaska woods are hemlock and balsam 


fir, but not of great value, as compared with the 
Sitka spruce and the yellow cedar. At present 
lumber from Puget Sound and British Columbia 
mills is shipped to nearly all ports in western 
Alaska for the use of whites and half-breeds, 
while the natives in their more remote settle¬ 
ments obtain planks and boards by the very la¬ 
borious process of splitting logs with iron or 
ivory wedges. Evidently the forests of Alaska 
have a large commercial value, which railroads 
will turn into money. In the meantime, we have 
it as a resource, against the day when the timber 
of Oregon and Washington becomes scarce. 

Fisheries .— The fisheries of Alaska more 
than pay the entire $7,200,000 original cost of 
the Territory each year. They are not of so 
great annual value as the annual gold field, 
which each year produces more than what the 
Territory cost. Quoting the Hon. O. P. Austin, 
chief of the Bureau of Statistics, again, we find 
that in 1905 the Territory packed and shipped 
1,894,516 cases of 48 one-pound cans each, and 
19,071 barrels, composing in all 100,000,000 
pounds of salmon, taken from Alaska waters in 
one year. 

To produce this result required 30 com¬ 
panies and individual packers, occupying 47 
canneries, and 12 salteries and using 31,000,000 
salmon. The capitalization of these enterprises 
was $22,000,000, and the value of the plants, 
including vessels, was $12,000,000. All this has 
grown from two establishments in 1881, pro¬ 
ducing 13,000 cases a year, of the value of 
$50,000. The value of the salmon pack in 1901 
was $7,075,000. These figures show an increase 
in the yearly product of 14,000 per cent, or 140 
fold in the short space of 20 years. The annual 
packs of salmon since 1901 have been: 1902, 
$7,834,000; 1903, $8,606,000; 1904, $9,054,000; 
1905, $6,304,671 ; while the annual breed of 
salmon apparently slightly lessens. This is a 
case where we do not have to buy the raw 
material. It is a nature’s free gift to us each 
year, just as is gold and everything else we get 
out of the ground. In this reflection we strike 
the keynote of the marvelous prosperity of the 
United States — its boundless natural resources. 
But salmon is not the only fish which Alaska 
produces. The codfishing industry is also worth 
$300,000 a year. The area in which the cod 
may be taken and the supply justify the state¬ 
ment that the cod fisheries of Alaska are des¬ 
tined to exceed in value those of Newfound¬ 
land, or any other part of the world. As a safe 
calculation, there is not less than 200,000 square 
miles of codfishing in connection with the 
Alaska coast. Then there are Atkha or Attu 
mackerel, black cod, halibut, and herring. The 
salmon industry employs about 13,000 persons, 
including 5,000 Chinamen and 2,500 natives. 
The yearly pay roll amounts to about $2,700,000. 
The tin plate used costs $1,150,000. This dis¬ 
bursement of more than a million dollars for 
tin cans is a noteworthy fact. I11 1901, the 
shipping employed was no steamers, 55 sailing 
vessels, and 1,777 lighters and boats, a very 
imposing fleet. 

The government tax of 4 cents a case and 10 
cents a barrel yields about $100,000 a year. The 
salmon pack of Alaska fills about one half the 
yearly requirement of the United States. In 
1902 the Pacific coast pack was worth $4,259,000. 
As the two packs combined fill only 75 per 


ALASKA 


cent of the American demand, and as that de¬ 
mand grows with the rapid increase in popu¬ 
lation, and further, as salmon are heavy breed¬ 
ers, it is evident that the salmon industry of 
Alaska as well as that of the Pacific coast has 
a growing future. That part of (( Commercial 
Alaska,® as well as the gold part, is an imme¬ 
diate and continuously profitable proposition. 

Fur Seals. — The Probilof Islands are the 
seat of the fur seal industry of Alaska. They 
came to us in the purchase from Russia. They 
are leased to the North American Commercial 
Company by the United States Government for 
an annual rental of $60,000 and a tax upon each 
skin taken of $10.22^2. The number of seals 
to be killed each year being fixed by regulation 
of the secretary of the treasury. In the years 
1870-1902, the lessees have taken 2,209,621 seals. 

No official statements of the value of the 
seal skins taken on the Probilof Islands are 
made. It is estimated that the value of seal 
skins taken in Alaska since 1867 is $61,500,000; 
adding pelagic sealing to the value of $10,- 
500,000 brings the total to $72,000,000. The sea 
otter and others bring the total for furs up to 
$54,000,000. 

Education and Churches. — The entire edu¬ 
cational work in Alaska, except in the incor¬ 
porated towns, is under the control of the Rev. 
Sheldon Jackson, D.D., United States General 
Agency of Education in the Territory. His 
report for 1904 shows 35 public schools, 38 
teachers, and 2,257 pupils outside of the schools 
in towns. Nineteen of the new schools were 
established in 1904. The expenses are $56,211. 

The Presbyterian Church supports 14 mis¬ 
sions and a hospital and training school. The 
Protestant Episcopal Church has 10 missions, 
and the Catholic and other religious organiza¬ 
tions a smaller number. 

All this is education, and it has a direct 
bearing on the present and future of Commer¬ 
cial Alaska. 

Transportation. — Transportation in Alaska, 
while not to-day the problem it was a few years 
ago, is still the <( question of the hour® and the 
fundamental necessity and prime requisite of 
commercial or other success in the Territory. 
In the summer there is one boat of 1,000 tons 
each day for the ocean travel from Puget 
Sound to Skagway. One can now go by rail 
from Skagway to White Horse, over the moun¬ 
tains, and freight rates are only one tenth of 
what they were before the railroad was built. 
In the summer season the ardent adventurers 
can go by semi-weekly steamers from White 
Horse to Dawson. In the winter the trip has 
to be made by stage. Lodging houses along 
the road charge about $6 a day for meals and 
lodging. In the summer the $75 boat fare in¬ 
cludes meals. The steamboats on the Yukon 
River are modern and well equipped. Nome is 
reached by steamer from Sitka to Unalaska in 
the Aleutian chain of islands, and thence north 
to Saint Michael and Nome. 

Something is being done for transportation, 
through sundry small appropriations in the 
army bill, toward building wagon roads and 
trails. Says the Governor: (( Trails are better 
than nothing. If Congress cannot bring itself 
to aid us to railroads, then we shall be grateful 
for wagon roads, and if they are impossible let 
us have trails; but the railroads are bound to 


be built. The American spirit animates the 
movement. Governor Gilpin’s dream of a Cos¬ 
mopolitan railway 1 * will be realized.® 

Postal Service. — Just as fast as Alaska 
needs and can take care of post-offices, they 
are being started. Daily mails leave the Pacific 
coast for Alaska. The present number of post- 
offices is about 80, and mails are regularly de¬ 
livered north of the Arctic Circle. 

Telegraphs .— The United States and the 
world now has telegraphic communication with 
all the chief centres of population in Alaska. 
This work has been done by the Signal Service 
of the War Department. The lines also con¬ 
nect with those of the Canadian telegraph sys¬ 
tem, and with all the telegraph systems of the 
United States. 

A military cable, 1,300 miles long, connects 
Seattle with Juneau and Sitka, affording an 
alternate route (the Canadian is the other) for 
commercial business and a more direct and sat¬ 
isfactory means of telegraphic communication 
for the government. 

Land Laws. — The law recently enacted by 
Congress permits the application of the home¬ 
stead laws of the United States to tracts not 
exceeding 80 acres. Owing to the lack of sur¬ 
veys very few homesteads have yet been ap¬ 
plied for under this act. But they will when 
Alaska has railroads, because railroads involve 
surveys, and emigration from one point to an¬ 
other always follows the whistle of the loco¬ 
motive. 


Commerce. — The commerce of Alaska is a 
substantial and growing quantity. Beginning 
with nothing less than a generation ago, it has 
already reached satisfactory proportions. It is 
not necessary to trace at length the history of 
Alaska commerce from the acquirement of the 
Territory, as for quite a number of years after 
that act of farsighted statesmanship, Alaska was 
only thought of as the place whence the seal 
skins of our wives, our daughters, and our 
sweethearts came. It is a vastly different propo¬ 
sition to-day, with the acquirement of Hawaii 
and the Philippines, the American Pacific cable 
in operation, the American Panama Canal in 
sight, and the Alaska Boundary dispute settled. 
Commerce between the United States and 
Alaska means something these days, and the 
commerce of Alaska with Canada and the Far 
East is beginning to tell. 

A few figures will tell the story. 


1879 

1890 

1895 

1903 

1904 
i 9°5 
1906 


1879 

1890 

1895 


1903 

1904 

1905 

1906 


From the U. S. 

.$ 3 x 7,ooo 

. 1,897,000 

. 3,017,000 

. 9,509,701 

.10,165,110 

. 1 4,295,346 

. x 7 ^378,039 

Alaska Ex 


From Other 
Countries. 

$ 4'79 I 

24,577 
55,o8o 
477,463 

667,355 

1,076,701 

1,004,047 

to all Countries. 


To the U. S. 

.$10,228,569 

. 10,165,140 

. 9,362,527 

. 12,092,915 


To Other 
Countries. 
$1,612,128 
1,565,690 
1,095,598 
1,504,775 


Total. 


$ 9,987,164 
10,772,465 
15,372,047 
18,382,086 

• • • • $50,378 

• •.. 4,682 

.... 11,520 

Total. 

$11,840,697 
XI , 730,830 
10,458,125 
x 3,597,690 


These export figures are exclusive of the 
Canadian dug gold — about $10,000,000 a year, 
which reaches the United States through 
Alaska. 
















ALASKA 


Summary for 1906, actual: 


Alaska imports .$18,382,086 

Alaska exports . 13,597,690 

Canadian gold . 10,000,000 

Total commerce .$41,979,776 


This is the concrete result of 40 years of 
American ^Commercial Alaska.® Nothing to 
begin with, practically nothing for 27 years 
after the beginning (only $3,000,000 in 1895), 
then a growth to $40,000,000 more a year in 
11 years. Almost an average growth of 
$1,000,000 a year, for each of the 40 years’ life 
of American (< Commercial Alaska,® with 27 of 
those 40 years practically dormant. 

Alaska, Recent Development of. No longer 
is Alaska, even in popular conception, the lone 
land of ice and snows which fiction and tradi¬ 
tion long presented it. Northward, swift on the 
heels of the gold-seeking pioneers, have gone 
railroad builders and telegraph linemen, engi¬ 
neers, capitalists, bankers, teachers, and settlers, 
until not only Alaska but the whole vast stretch 
of the Far Northwest is repeating California’s 
marvelous story of development. Steamers, 
many of them palatial in their fittings, now navi¬ 
gate the Alaska rivers; towns with organized 
systems of government are growing fast, with 
schools and banks and churches, and streets 
lighted by electricity, and paved. The telegraph 
and the telephone connect the principal settle¬ 
ments, and railroads are being built which in a 
year or two will traverse the peninsula almost 
from end to end. 

Yet the new Alaska, which has become so 
important a reality, is, in a measure, but a 
startling revival of the commercial Alaska of 60 
years ago. Then Sitka — a thousand miles 
north from Seattle, Washington — was the in¬ 
dustrial capital of the Pacific coast of America. 

But the ijnilitary managers of the Russian- 
American Company were not captains of in¬ 
dustry. Vast sums were squandered in imprac¬ 
ticable experiments, in mining valueless coal, in 
extracting iron from inferior ore, in making 
bricks and woodenware for which no market 
existed. Thus the trade of Sitka languished, 
and in time the catching of fish and furs became 
the only occupation of the Alaskans. Even the 
purchase of the country by the United States 
failed for many years to add a stimulus to its 
lapsed industry. 

The new North which has arisen may not 
again dominate the trade of the Pacific Coast, 
but it has attained an intrinsic importance of 
which the Russian owners of Alaska never 
dreamed, not merely through its wealth of min¬ 
erals, its furs, and its fisheries, but also in con¬ 
siderable measure through its possibilities in 
agriculture. Fields of grain and gardens stocked 
with every variety of vegetable are now familiar 
sights on the outskirts of a hundred thriving 
settlements. From end to end of the Yukon, 
one of the mighty rivers of the world, the 
traveler may wander during four months of the 
year and never see snow. Instead, there will 
be a tangle of rich vegetation, of great forests, 
of grass that grows as high as a man’s shoulder, 
and endless fields of beautiful plant life. Wild 
berries in great variety — raspberries, currants, 
huckleberries, blackberries, cranberries, etc.— 
beautiful ferns waving in the soft breezes, great 
beds of the purple lupine and the red columbine, 
wild celery and wild parsnip growing many feet 


high, ponds on which float great yellow lilies, 
with the purple iris bordering their banks, are 
everywhere. 

When Alaska was purchased by the United 
States in 1867 its value was lightly regarded. 
The price paid — $7,000,000 — was thought to be 
excessive, and there was much popular opposi¬ 
tion to the terms. Yet in 36 years the govern¬ 
ment received in revenues not only the sum 
expended, but $2,000,000 more. During the same 
period Alaska and the adjoining Canadian 
Yukon territory have supplied fish, furs, and 
mine products amounting in value, at a con¬ 
servative estimate, to $375,000,000. Goods worth 
about $40,000,000 a year are now sent in return, 
and the amount of capital invested there is prob¬ 
ably not less than $125,000,000. 

Of the future of the new North, President 
Roosevelt, addressing an audience at Seattle, 
Washington, in 1903, made this significant 
prophecy: 

(( The men of my age who are in this great 
audience will not be old men before they see one 
of the greatest and most populous States of the 
entire Union in Alaska. ... I predict that 
Alaska, within the next century, will support as 
large a population as does the entire Scandina¬ 
vian peninsula of Europe, the people of which by 
their brains and energies have left their mark on 
the face of Europe. I predict that you will see 
Alaska, with her enormous resources of mineral, 
her fisheries, and her possibilities that almost 
exceed belief, produce as hardy and vigorous a 
race as any part of America.® 

Not only Alaska, but the entire northwestern 
portion of the continent — for many hundred 
miles beyond the international boundary — is 
undergoing a marvelous development. Ten 
thousand miles of railroad are already under 
construction or definitely projected in territory 
farther north than is now touched by any es- 
isting completed line; a greater mileage than 
that of the Union Pacific, the Northern Pacific, 
and the Erie systems combined. 

A glance at the line in the accompanying 
map which marks the northern limit of cereal 
production in America will indicate a reason for 
this railroad construction. Gold and furs alone 
could not have brought it about. Were the great 
western North the bleak counterpart of 
^pitiless Labrador® the miner and hunter there 
would still pack their treasures of mineral and 
fur over weary wastes of snow by dog train. 
But, whereas in the East the extreme limit of 
cereal-growing territory is reached in latitude 
49 0 , at a point a little north of Rimouski, on the 
St. Lawrence River, in the West the limit is 
Norton Sound, beyond St. Michael’s, more than 
twelve hundred miles nearer the pole. So fat 
north as that are grains now grown. 

As long as the States to the south are still 
undeveloped, the north received but scanty 
attention. At intervals, it is true, had come 
reports of great natural wealth which existed 
there, and now and then the outcropping of a 
boundary dispute had lent ephemeral interest 
to the country. But the gold finds of 1896 in the 
Canadian Yukon and of 1898 near Nome came 
when the western States were beginning to be 
filled up. Thousands of American farmers had 
already moved northward into the Canadian 
provinces of Manitoba, Assiniboia, and Alberta, 
beginning a movement which has since assumed 
enormous proportions. The gold thus hastened 







ALASKA 


a natural development. Prevailing fallacies re¬ 
garding the climate of the new land disappeared. 
In southern Alaska, which is tempered by the 
warming airs from the Japan current, the ther¬ 
mometers rarely falls to zero, and the changes 
from midwinter to midsummer has not exceeded 
37° in 14 years. Even at St. Michael’s north 
of the mouth of the Yukon River, the mean 
summer temperature is 50° F. In the interior 
the climate is more severe, but not so bitter as 
is commonly believed. Daily observations 
during five summers in the Klondike region 
show that on the average the temperature there 
rises to 70° or higher on forty-six days, and to 
8o° on fourteen days; 90° was recorded in 
Dawson in June, 1900, and 95 0 in July of the 
same year. 

Great hardships were undergone by the gold 
miners during the pioneer period, but these 
were due to abnormal conditions. The gold 
fever had carried a great swarm of fortune 
hunters into an unknown country of vast dis¬ 
tances. Confusion, suffering, and even starva- 


the surf. In the months of June and July this 
is accomplished with little difficulty, but later in 
the season storms prevail, and the landing is 
then attended with considerable peril. Vessels 
are forced to anchor from half a mile to two 
miles from the shallow beach, and their cargoes 
removed in lighters, which were frequently lost 
in the surf. Wrecks of schooners, barges, 
steam-launches, boats, and stern-wheel steamers 
littered the beach at Nome every year, and 
pumps, donkey boilers and engines, dredging 
machinery and damaged provisions were strewn 
along the shore. 

The first discovery of gold at Nome was 
made by a United States soldier who was dig¬ 
ging a well, and the first to profit by it was an 
old prospector from Idaho, who was ill and not 
able to reach the gulches farther inland. In 
twenty days the man from Idaho took out three 
thousand dollars’ worth of gold with a rocker. 
With the news of the find a wild frenzy to dig in 
the beach seized people everywhere, and during 
the height of the excitement nearly two thou- 




*«* t 

• 4 a Ws. 


• -v -w O 

n \ . -=■» 

\ . 

jj 

S.t, ft ra «• 

o« 

#*7 ‘" S 

| fl 

1 

UNITED STATES 



.Proposed Railroad Lines. 
—Present Railroad Lines. 



The great Northwest and its projected transportation facilities, showing also the northern limit of cereal 

growth. 


tion were the natural outcome. An incident in 
the construction of the White Pass and Yukon 
Railway well illustrates the conditions which 
then prevailed. On the morning of one June day 
in 1899 there were 2,000 men at work along the 
line of the new road — doctors, lawyers, teach¬ 
ers, and college men, in a motley crowd with 
Chinese laborers, and rough prospectors who 
could not write their names. That afternoon 
came the news of a big discovery of gold near 
Atlin, and in the evening there were but 600 
men in camp. The other 1,400 had plunged into 
the wilderness, carrying with them the com¬ 
pany’s picks and shovels, but leaving behind a 
half week’s pay at ten dolars a day. Such was 
the spirit of recklessness in which the gold- 
seekers invaded the new country. 

Scenes similar to those which marked the 
rush to the Klondike were repeated at Nome. 
The latter place is without a natural harbor, and 
passengers and supplies had to be landed through 


sand men were burrowing like moles in the 
sand. Every man at Nome — physician, lawyer, 
carpenter, clerk, or whatever else his vocation — 
abandoned his ordinary work and took up the 
shovel and rocker. The price of labor went up 
to fifteen dollars a day, but even at that rate 
working hands were hard to secure. When the 
army of miners stopped work in the fall the 
beach for fifteen miles presented a huge rampart 
of piled-up sand, giving to the city the appear¬ 
ance of having been fortified against invasion. 

Nome is now a city of 25,000 population, and 
the building of two new railroads, which are 
under way, and the improvement of the harbors 
at Port Clarence and at Solomon, will remove 
the last of the transportation difficulties of its 
inhabitants. In the past the only means of for¬ 
warding freight from the city to interior points 
not reached by the Yukon River steamers was 
by men wading in the shallow streams and push¬ 
ing flat-bottomed boats ahead of them. The cost 





















ALASKA 


was about $300 a ton for fifty miles, and from 
8 to 15 days were required to make that dis¬ 
tance, according to the conditions of the weather. 

Nome is the western terminus of the railroad 
development of northwestern Alaska, whose 
roads are the farthest north of all in the world, 
extending almost within the Arctic Circle. The 
city is about 250 miles southeast of Cape Prince 
of Wales, the point at which Alaska most nearly 
approaches Asia, and is reached by steamers 
from the western coast of the United States by 
passing through the Aleutian chain, past Un- 
alaska, as well as by rail from Skagway and 
steamboat down the Yukon River. Nome boasts 
good hotels, large stores, daily newspapers, 
banks, electric lights, telegraph and telephone 
systems, and the other usual adjuncts of civiliza¬ 
tion in more southern climes. It is connected 
with St. Michael's by cable, and by telegraph 
with Dawson and Skagway. Handsome private 
residences are being built by men who have made 
their money there and who have settled down to 
make the city their home. Well-kept lawns and 
flower gardens add to the wonderful metamor¬ 
phosis which has overtaken the sandy beach. 

Seward Peninsula, on which Nome is situated, 
is being rapidly ^gridironed® by the various rail¬ 
roads built to communicate with the principal 
gold mines and with the other towns in that 
part of Alaska. The Valdez Copper River & 
Yukon Railway will run from Valdez, the most 
northerly port in Alaska, to Eagle City, a dis¬ 
tance of 430 miles, and will open up the mineral 
and agricultural districts of the Copper, Ta- 
nana, and Yukon valleys. Construction has al¬ 
ready begun on this line, the route lying through 
a country which is heavily timbered, with tribu¬ 
tary territory rich in gold, copper, and coal. 
With a railroad projected, as a part of the Grand 
Trunk Pacific System, from Port Simpson to 
Dawson, with a 100-mile line soon to be built 
from Dawson north, and with the yaldez Cop¬ 
per River & Yukon Railway coming east to 
Eagle City and west to connect with the Nome 
& Solomon City Railroad, it remains but a 
question of time when there will be all-rad 
communication from New York to Norton 
Sound, a few miles across Bering Strait from 
the continent of Asia. A northern spur from 
the Trans-Siberian Railway would then realize 
the once lightly regarded dream of (( New York 
to Paris by rail.® 

The first railroad undertaking in the Far 
North was begun in southern Alaska and the 
British Yukon in 1898. In June of that year 
work was begun by a syndicate of English cap¬ 
italists on what is now the White Pass .& 
Yukon Railway, extending from Skagway, in 
Alaska, to White Horse, Yukon Territory, a 
distance of 112 miles. It was constructed pri¬ 
marily to afford access to the gold fields of the 
Canadian Yukon, but has since been made a link 
in the continuous rail and river route to north¬ 
western Alaska and Seward Peninsula. The 
road was completed to White Horse in June, 
1900, at places the cost of construction exceed¬ 
ing $250,000 a mile. The route had been used 
for pack-horses in the fall of 1897, but the trail 
was almost impassable, and. immense numbers of 
the animals had died in their tracks. Two thou¬ 
sand had to be collected and burned with kero¬ 
sene before the work could be undertaken. In 
attempting to lower Lake St. Louis about three 


feet, the entire lake washed away, causing wide¬ 
spread damage. The total cost of the White 
Pass Railroad was about $5,000,000; but it paid 
nearly $2,000,000 profits during its first two 
years’ operations. 

From White Horse to Dawson — which has 
a population of 1,200 — a distance of 482 miles, 
connection is now made by modern steamers in 
summer and by four-horse sleighs in winter. 
The stages used in winter cover the distance, 
under ordinary conditions of weather, in three 
and a half days, or at a rate of about 90 miles 
a day. A railroad was built last summer from 
West Dawson to Stewart River, a distance of 
82 miles, tapping the rich mining districts in that 
direction. A number of other railroads leading 
to different gold centres are now being con¬ 
structed, and in a few years Dawson will be 
connected with its outlying districts in every di¬ 
rection, and even, it is projected, with the trans¬ 
continental lines to the south. 

Dawson enjoys almost as many municipal 
advantages as any place of its size in the United 
States. It has a splendid system of water-works, 
a local telephone system and long-distance con¬ 
nections with the principal mines, telegraphic 
communication with the world, churches of 
every denomination, large Federal and municipal 
buildings, and good schools. There are a num¬ 
ber of clubs and lodges, as well as theatres and 
other places of amusement, and three banks. 
The personal and realty assessment of the city 
exceeded $11,000,000 last year, and post-office 
orders to the value of $1,800,500 were sold. The 
streets are all thoroughly lighted by electricity. 
Lines of steamboats along the wharves, loading 
and unloading, and steam dredges at work in the 
river, give an animated aspect to the water-front. 
More than $5,000,000 is about to be spent by a 
private company in installing a huge water-sup¬ 
ply and pumping plant to furnish water for con¬ 
sumption and for mining purposes, in working 
the deposits that line the side-bars of the neigh¬ 
boring streams. 

Three years ago the inhabitants of Dawson 
lived principally on dried and canned meats and 
German sliced evaporated potatoes. To-day 
fresh meat is brought in, frozen in winter and 
in refrigerator cars to White Horse in summer, 
and all vegetables are grown in market gradens 
nearby. Nothing pleases the Dawson citizen 
more than to entertain a skeptical visitor from 
the south at table with lettuce, asparagus, green 
peas, or celery, cauliflower, cabbage, and carrots, 
according to the season, grown in his own rear 
yard; and the same civic pride has led the Daw¬ 
son Chamber of Commence to display some very 
fine specimens of barley and oats grown in that 
section. Moreover, throughout the Klondike 
country live stock can find sufficient feed to sus¬ 
tain life outdoors even in winter. 

From Dawson to St. Michael’s, by the Yukon 
River, is 1,600 miles, and during the open season 
of navigation — from the middle of May till 
the middle of October — about 40 stern-wheel 
steamboats run between the two points in from 
9 to 12 days. The Yukon is easy to navigate, 
being without snags and with shores alongside 
of which boats can run and tie up at almost any 
desired spot. Between its mouth and the Ta- 
nana it flows with an easy current of about 
three miles an hour, the stream varying in width 
from a mile to a mile and a half. The rest of 


ALASKA 


the river, below Dawson, flows variously 
through mountainous regions and wide flats, at¬ 
taining at places a width of io miles, with many 
channels and numerous small islands. 

The winter trade begins as soon as the ice 
has formed in sufficient thickness to sustain 
teams of dogs and loaded sleighs, and contin¬ 
ues until the break-up in the spring. The trail 
having once been marked by some venturesome 
first traveler, running as nearly as possible over 
the smooth ice near the shore, is generally fol- 
dowed thereafter. Although the temperature 
sometimes falls to 65 degrees below zero, such 
occasions are rare, and even then the air is dry 
and uniform and accompanied by little wind. 
At no part of the route is the traveler out of 
telegraphic communication with the world. 

At Eagle, the first American town beyond 
Dawson, four large trading companies maintain 
well-stocked stores, and Fort Egbert, located 
there, has a garrison of 200 soldiers, with bar¬ 
racks, stables, hospital, and officers’ houses. 
There are two saw-mills, and the town is the 
headquarters of the United States Weather Ser¬ 
vice for the interior of Alaska. Several large 
gardens supply an abundance of vegetables — 
potatoes, carrots, peas, beans, lettuce, radishes, 
cauliflower, etc.— and barley and oats are raised 
in steadily increasing quantities. Grass grows 
luxuriantly from the fertile soil, and there are 
large natural meadows in the vicinity from 
which heavy crops are cut. Mowing machines 
and other hay-making tools are frequent sights 
along the bank of the river all the way to St. 
Michael’s. 

The railroads of Alaska and of the Canadian 
Yukon are being built primarily because of the 
enormous mineral wealth to be tapped. Those 
projected for the Hudson Bay, North Saskat¬ 
chewan and Peace River districts have another 
reason for their inception. Agriculture and 
lumber are the great natural resources of that 
vast stretch of little-known territory, and min¬ 
erals and furs play but subordinate parts. 

Almost a thousand miles north of the bound¬ 
ary between the United States and the Canadian 
Nortwest territories, in the valley of the Peace 
River, wheat, barley, and oats are grown in 
quantities limited only by the number of agricul¬ 
turists ; and a 100-barrel roller-process flour-mill, 
the most northerly mill on the continent, has 
just been completed at Vermilion. Two other 
water-power stone mills, owned respectively by 
a private firm and by the Roman Catholic mis¬ 
sion, have been running for the past two years, 
and have been offered more grain than they have 
been able to handle. Two steam saw-mills are 
also in continuous operation, while cattle and 
hogs are raised by the settlers and find a ready 
market among the traders. The town is lighted 
by electricity, derived from the water-power of 
Vermilion Falls. 

The wheat which was awarded the first prize 
at the Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia in 
1876 came from the Peace River country. 
Farther east, on the south side of Lesser Slave 
Lake, a wild meadow, 30 to 40 miles in extent, 
from which three tons of grass to the acre are 
obtained, gives evidence of the richness of the 
soil there, while the land on the opposite side is 
excellently adapted to mixed farming, consisting 
of open prairie interspersed with tracts of cot¬ 
tonwood timber. Dr. Dawson, of the Canadian 
Geological Survey, estimates the Peace River 


country to contain 15,140,000 acres of good 
arable soil. 

The Hudson Bay and Western Railway, the 
bill incorporating which was passed at the last 
session of the Canadian Parliament, will con¬ 
nect Port Simpson, on the Pacific, with Fort 
Churchill, on Hudson Bay, a distance of 1,500 
miles, passing through Vermilion and running 
south of Lake Athabasca and north of Reindeer 
Lake. Athabasca Lake is connected with Great 
Slave Lake by the Slave River, and, with the 
exception of a' break about 20 miles long, steam¬ 
boat navigation between the two is uninter¬ 
rupted. From Great Slave Lake the Mackenzie 
River affords a clear course to the Arctic Ocean. 
For years past steamboats have been plying on 
the Athabasca and the Mackenzie, and with the 
Hudson Bay and Western Railway completed 
it will be possible for a passenger to buy his 
ticket in New York — or in any other city, for 
that matter — for the Arctic Ocean, and pro¬ 
ceed there with almost as great comfort as if he 
were booked for the Adirondacks. 

Still another railroad — running from North 
Dakota — will have Fort Churchill as its north¬ 
eastern terminus. The bill incorporating the 
construction company was passed by the Cana¬ 
dian Parliament at its last session. Apart from 
agriculture, the southeastern Hudson Bay dis¬ 
trict is said to be rich in minerals of all kinds. 
The fisheries of the bay are also valuable, and 
whalers from New Bedford even now find it 
profitable to go there, notwithstanding that it 
takes them two years to make a catch. Cod, 
trout, and whitefish in large numbers are found 
in both Hudson and James Bay. At Moose Fac¬ 
tory there are several large gardens, in which all 
kinds of vegetables and fruits are grown, and 
cattle find excellent pasturage on the natural 
meadows, where the wild grass grows in great 
luxuriance. 

The timber wealth of all this section is natur¬ 
ally great, the forests of spruce, pine, and poplar 
having as yet been scarcely touched by the axe 
of the woodsman. Unrivaled water-power is 
furnished by the innumerable streams and rivers, 
and the transportation of sawn lumber is counted 
upon to furnish no inconsiderable source of rev¬ 
enue to the railroads. A species of large pop¬ 
lar called ft liard, )) or balm of Gilead, which is 
much sought for by cabinet-makers, is said to 
grow very extensively in the Mackenzie Valley, 
and tamarack for railway construction is found 
in the entire region. The greater part of the 
territory, also, is the natural home of pulp-wood, 
where, it is declared, is a perennial crop to be 
harvested unsurpassed in the world. The aver¬ 
age annual snowfall at Moose Factory, taken for 
a period of five years, is 80 inches, as compared 
with 177 inches during the same period at Mon¬ 
treal. 

But railroads are only one phase of the in¬ 
creasing activity in the North. The telegraph 
has far outdistanced the iron horse, and remote 
corners, as yet long distances removed from any 
line of railroad, can flash their intelligence 
around the world. Since 1901 the Signal Corps 
of the United States Army has put in working 
order in Alaska more than 1,500 miles of land 
telegraph lines and submarine cables, and in the 
Canadian territories of the Yukon and North 
British Columbia the Dominion Government has 
displayed an equal activity. About 2,000 miles of 
Canadian Government telegraph lines have been 


ALASKA 


built from the international boundary, beyond 
Dawson, south to Port Simpson and Quesnelle. 
At the latter point connection is made with the 
regular commercial lines. Well-equipped tele¬ 
phone services have also been established be¬ 
tween the towns, and scarcely a place of 500 
inhabitants in the mining country has not its 
local and long-distance telephone system. 

On. the Pacific Coast daily mails leave by all 
the principal steamship lines, and are forwarded 
from Sitka, Skagway, Nome, and other dis¬ 
tributing points by steamer, rail, wagon, and 
carrier. Where ordinary means of distribution 
fail, the Russian reindeer, domesticated in 
Alaska, carry the sacks over the frozen lakes 
and snow-mantled uplands, traversing a vast dis¬ 
tance in an incredibly short time. The highest 
salaried postal official in the world is in Alaska. 
He receives $25,000 a year for carrying the mail, 
twice a month the year around, to Fort Yukon, 
providing his own dogs and sleds for the pur¬ 
pose. There are now upward of 100 post-offices 
in Alaska, and mails are delivered regularly be¬ 
yond the Arctic Circle. 

The development of Alaskan oil-fields prom¬ 
ises to establish an industry the extent of which 
cannot be yet foretold. In 1902 an immense oil 
gusher — Alaska's first — was struck at Cotella, 
near Kayak, 30 miles south from Copper City. 
Oil was thrown 150 feet into the air, carry¬ 
ing away, everything in its course and being 
capped with great difficulty. Experts were at 
once sent to the scene by the officials of the 
Standard Oil Company, but a Canadian and 
English syndicate had acted more quickly; and 
secured control of the larger part of the Kayak 
fields, comprising 40,000 acres of land which had 
been leased to the Alaska Development Com¬ 
pany. The British capitalists chartered two 
steamships to convey north from Tacoma, 
Wash., a great quantity of pipes and machinery 
obtained from Pittsburg, Pa., together with 
other supplies. A hundred men were employed 
in sinking additional wells, and $500,000 was 
to be spent in development work, including the 
erection of an experimental refinery. 

The fisheries of Alaska are among the rich¬ 
est in the world. Cod, halibut, and other im¬ 
portant deep-sea fishes are found in the waters 
off the coast, and salmon in all the streams. 
More than half the entire salmon product of 
the United States comes from Alaska waters. 
It is the opinion of competent authorities that 
the cod banks exceed in wealth those of New¬ 
foundland. The cod industry, however, is as yet 
only in its infancy — if, indeed, it can be said to 
have attained even that primitive stage of de¬ 
velopment because salmon are so much more 
easily caught than the deep water codfish. There 
are about 15,000 persons engaged in the salmon 
fisheries, and the market value of last season’s 
output was a little more than $7,000,000, which 
is exactly what we paid for Alaska. The pack¬ 
ing industry is conducted at 37 canneries and 12 
salteries. The total number of salmon of all 
varieties taken in 1902 was about 33,000,000. 
The companies engaged in this industry have a 
capitalization of about $22,000,000, and their 
plants, including vessels, are valued at $12,000,- 
000. The amount which they pay in wages ex¬ 
ceeds $2,500,000 annually, and the yearly ex¬ 
penditure for tin plate is about $1,100,000. In 
the shipping of the fisheries last year there were 
employed 115 steamers, 57 sailing vessels, and 


100 boats and lighters. The codfishing firms 
permanently located in Alaska have vessels, ply¬ 
ing only in Alaska, valued at $60,000. Accord¬ 
ing to estimates of the United States Fish Com¬ 
mission, there are not less than 250,000 miles of 
codfishing along the Alaskan coast. 

The special features of Alaska — its furs, 
fisheries, and gold mines — have been so fre¬ 
quently exploited by writers that an entirely 
erroneous idea has been conveyed as to the 
country’s other diversified sources of wealth. 
That a grain-growing soil could be found so far 
north, with summers sufficiently long to bring 
wheat to maturity, has not been supposed pos¬ 
sible. Yet, as I have already said, not only has 
wheat been grown and successfully harvested 
wherever the experiment has been made, but 
even so far north as Fort Yukon, within the 
Arctic Circle, oats, rye, and barley are now 
grown regularly. The winters of Alaska are 
more hospitable than those of the great plains of 
Wyoming, Montana, and some parts of Nevada, 
and in the dead of winter horses and cattle can 
be worked without fear of being frozen. The 
temperature frequently is very cold, but there 
are no storms. 

Except on the coast of Bering Sea, all the 
hardy vegetables are grown with marked suc¬ 
cess throughout Alaska and the Canadian Yukon 
south of the Arctic Circle. No finer potatoes, 
cauliflower, cabbage, kale, peas, lettuce, and 
radishes could be found anywhere in the United 
States than samples which I have seen grown 
at the government experiment stations at Sitka 
and Kenai, and I have been told by a friend that 
at Holy Cross Mission he had eaten new pota¬ 
toes, cauliflower, and other late vegetables in the 
month of July. At Rampart, in latitude 65°, 
winter rye, seeded there in August, lived through 
the winter perfectly, and matured grain by Au¬ 
gust of the following year. Barley seeded in 
May was ripe by the middle of August. 

The great river valleys of Alaska and the 
Canadian North embrace cultivable areas large 
enough to form several good-sized States. All 
through the interior, in fact, there are to be 
found extensive tracts of grass lands, the 
growths from which, could there be found a 
market for them, would exceed in value the 
products of all the gold mines. Along the route 
surveyed for the Valdez Copper River & Yukon 
Railway, from Valdez to Eagle City, many large 
meadows, on which the grass was waving waist 
high, were traversed by the party of engineers. 
A number of horses were seen which had run at 
large in tlds region for two years. 

Stock-raising is becoming an important 
Alaskan industry — within a very few years it is 
probable that regular shipments of cattle for ex¬ 
port will be made. The existence areas of rich 
growths of grass and the absence of storms in 
the winter make many sections of the country 
ideal places for ranching. The present summer 
is seeing an important step being taken in this 
connection. Several large stock-growers of 
Washington State are planning to convert the 
Aleutian Islands into vast cattle and sheep 
ranges, which will surpass in extent the rapidly 
diminishing ranges of Montana and Texas. One 
company has already begun the shipment of 
25,000 sheep and 5,000 head of cattle to the 
Aleutians, a first consignment of 8,000 head of 
sheep have recently been sent from San Fran¬ 
cisco. The company had previously demonstrat- 


ALASKAN BOUNDARY COMMISSION 


ed that sheep will thrive there, living throughout 
the winter solely on the grass of the islands, by 
having landed 1,000 head there about a year and 
a half ago. 

The rapidly increasing importance of the 
North has made the United States government 
decide to establish a coaling station at Dutch 
Harbor (q.v.), the present end of the cable from 
Seattle. 

In 1892 the total foreign trade of Alaska — 
by which is meant imports and exports of mer¬ 
chandise— amounted to but $28,366, of which 
the larger part were imports. In 1900 the total 
trade was little less than $1,000,000. For the 
fiscal year ending 30 June 1906, Alaska’s foreign 
trade reached a total of more than $31,000,000, 
of which the exports were about $13,000,000. 
With the gold and silver added, the exports 
would have exceeded $23,000,000, making the 
total foreign trade $41,000,000. The importation 
of iron and steel products into the Territory 
during the year exceeded in value $2,000,000. 

And yet the development of the North has 
only begun. Its immense wealth of fisheries 
and of timber has been but little exploited; its 
possibilities for agriculture have not even been 
attempted. Only the industry in furs and. its 
gold mines have received general recognition. 
When the cod banks of the coast have been ex¬ 
ploited ; the salmon industry placed on a more 
systematic basis; the deposits of gold, iron, 
nickel, copper, and coal worked by adequate 
modern machinery; the vast tracts of fertile 
land brought under cultivation, and the rail¬ 
roads briefly indicated in the foregoing sketch 
have been completed, the great North will be no 
longer the lone terra incognita of the past, but 
will throb with an active and productive civil¬ 
ization. 

In the steady stream of population north¬ 
ward there is nothing known of the limits of 
nationality. There are more of American birth 
in Dawson than there are Canadians. Even in 
the great wheat lands of Manitoba the farmers 
from Dakota, Montana, and the other States of 
the North and West almost equal in numbers 
those of Canadian origin. The explanation is 
simple. With its population of 85,000,000 the 
United States can send forth its pioneers in the 
ratio of thirteen to one from the provinces of 
the Dominion. Loyalty to British connection 
will not prevent the spread of American in¬ 
fluence and the growth of American ideals of 
government. The entire Canadian Northwest is 
already more American than British in its ad¬ 
ministrative systems. 

Shut off, industrially, from the east of Can¬ 
ada by the uninhabited and not very cultivable 
strip north of Lake Superior and Georgian Bay, 
northwestern Canada must make its commerce 
with the northwestern States and with Alaska. 
From south, west, and north, therefore, the in¬ 
fluences will be wholly American, while within 
its boundaries American capital and American 
settlers will spread the leaven of the genius of 
American institutions. A few years ago it was 
the custom to laugh at the purchase of Alaska 
as having been, somewhat politely, forced upon 
the United States by Russia as a return for her 
supposed friendship during the Civil War. The 
laugh is no longer appropriate. Larger in area 
than the combined States of Alabama, Connecti¬ 
cut, Delaware, Indiana, Indian Territory, Ken¬ 


tucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Mississippi, 
Rhode Island, New Jersey, New York, Pennsyl¬ 
vania, South Carolina, Tennessee, Vermont, Vir¬ 
ginia, and West Virginia, or than the British 
Isles, France, Germany, Portugal, and Belgium 
together, Alaska, already an important part of 
the United States, will contribute largely to a 
social and commercial, if not a political, union 
of two nations. 

William R. Stewart, 
Editorial Staff ( New York Daily News .> 

Alaskan Boundary Commission, a mixed 
tribunal which met in London, England, 3 Sept. 
1903 to arbitrate on the contentions of the Cana¬ 
dian government with regard to the boundary 
line between Alaska and Canada, from Mount 
Sr. Elias to the Portland Canal. The commis¬ 
sion consisted of three Americans and three 
Britons, the American commissioners being Sec¬ 
retary Root, Senators Lodge and Turner, while 
the British commissioners were Lord Alverstone 
(formerly Sir Richard Webster), English, Sir 
Louis Jette, and Mr. A. B. Aylesworth, Canadi¬ 
ans. Ex-Secretary Foster was counsel for the 
American side and Mr. Clifford Sifton for the 
British side. 

In May 1898 the United States and Great 
Britain agreed to appoint an Anglo-American 
Joint High Commission to consider and put on 
a satisfactory basis the regulations of the North 
Atlantic fisheries, commercial reciprocity, the 
Bering Sea fishery question, and other disputes 
which disturbed relations between the United 
States and Canada. When the questions for the 
deliberation of this commission were fixed, no 
mention was made by Great Britain of any di¬ 
vergence of opinion regarding the Alaskan boun¬ 
dary,— but on 1 Aug. 1898 the British govern¬ 
ment informed the United States that a differ¬ 
ence of views existed as to the provisions of the 
treaty of 1825, which defined the Anglo-Russian 
boundary. On 23 August Great Britain sub¬ 
mitted its claims, enumerated below. It was 
proposed to arbitrate the matter, but the High 
Joint Commission could not agreed. The United 
States rejected a European umpire for American 
territory and the Canadians would not agree to 
an American judge. The final compromise was 
the above-mentioned tribunal. 

Previous to the discovery of gold in the Yu¬ 
kon region there was no dispute,.or occasion for 
dispute, as to the course of the boundary line 
defined by the Anglo-Russian treaty of 1825. 
For 73 years it had been tacitly recognized by 
all nations, including Great Britain. The his¬ 
tory of that treaty is interesting. The govern¬ 
ment of the czar had from time to time by ukase 
asserted exclusive jurisdiction over the coast 
lands and the waters of Alaska, to prevent any 
encroachment by the British Hudson’s Bay Com¬ 
pany upon the monopoly of the Russian-Ameri- 
can Fur Company which had established its sta¬ 
tions and carried on its trade in the islands and 
along the coast of Alaska extending northward 
from the Portland Canal. Disputes arose, and 
in the attempt to settle them the negotiations 
were begun which led to the signing of the 
treaty of 1825. The purpose of Russia in that 
negotiation was altogether to shut out Great 
Britain from the coast and the waters in which 
the Russian company was carrying on its busi¬ 
ness. The attempt of Great Britain was to se¬ 
cure a foothold upon the coast with the obvious 


ALASKAN BOUNDARY COMMISSION 


purpose of getting an opportunity for the Hud¬ 
son’s Bay Company to establish its stations there, 
which was the very thing Russia sought to pre¬ 
vent. 

The negotiations lasted from 1822 to 1825, 
Count Nesselbrode and M. de Poletica conduct¬ 
ing the Russian case, and Sir Charles Bagot 
first, and Lord Stratford de Redcliffe finally, the 
British case. At that time Great Britain feared 
that the United States would insist upon re¬ 
taining possession of the whole Oregon terri¬ 
tory up to the Russian line at the historic parallel 
of 50° 40'. This would have shut off Canada 
from the Pacific coast entirely, and the British, 
therefore, made strenuous efforts to get an out¬ 
let through the Russian coast strip, making vari¬ 
ous propositions, one after the other which the 
Russians rejected, stubbornly adhering to their 
original proposition, which in the end prevailed. 

The British first asked to have the boundary 
line drawn straight down the 141st meridian to 
the sea at Mount St. Elias, thus depriving Rus¬ 
sia of the entire (( panhandle® of Alaska, and 
causing her even to relinquish Sitka, the colonial 
capital. This was peremptorily rejected by Rus¬ 
sia without serious consideration. The British 
next proposed Christian Sound, Chatham Strait, 
and Lynn Canal as the boundary, leaving Bar- 
anoff Island to Russia, but giving to the British 
Juneau, Admiralty Island, and everything to the 
south and east thereof. This was also rejected. 
Then Clarence Strait and the Stikine River were 
proposed, leaving Prince of Wales Island to 
Russia, but giving to Great Britain the islands 
of Wrangell and Revilla-Gigedo. This also the 
Russians rejected. Finally the British commis¬ 
sioners conceded to Russia the whole strip down 
to 54 0 40', but sought as a last resort to have 
the coast line drawn straight across such arms of 
the sea as Glacier Bay and Lynn Canal, from 
headland to headland, so as to give the British 
access to tidewater. This, too, the Russians, 
inexorably refused to grant, and in the end they 
won on this point as on all the others. From 
first to last the constant and inflexible Russian 
contention was for Russian possession of an 
unbroken strip of coast from Mount St. Elias to 
Portland Canal, and in the treaty of 1825 that 
contention was explicitly upheld and confirmed. 

That Russian title was transferred to the 
United States in 1867, and from that time to the 
present the United States has stood for pre¬ 
cisely what Russia stood for in 1822-5. 

In 1898, however, as already stated, following 
the discovery, in 1896, of the rich gold deposits 
in the Klondike district, the Canadian govern¬ 
ment set up a claim based upon a new under¬ 
standing of the Anglo-Russian treaty. The main 
contention, which, by the way, never had any 
cordial support from qualified experts in Great 
Britain, was whether the line of demarkation 
between the southeastern end of Alaska and the 
British northwest possessions cut through the 
inlets and estuaries of the Pacific or went around 
them, leaving all these waterways in American 
territory and preventing Great Britain from ac¬ 
cess to the sea. The British contended that the 
boundary line, which was defined by treaty as 
running parallel with the sinuosities of the coast 
at a distance of 30 marine miles inland, except 
where parallel mountain ranges were nearer, 
when it was to follow these ranges, was to be 
construed as running parallel to the coast of 
the Pacific and not parallel to the shores of the 


inlets of that sea, thus constituting a political 
rather than a physical coast line. If the British 
contention had been granted, Dyea and Skagway, 
two important ports on the Lynn Canal, and the 
prominent places of export and import for the 
Yukon and Klondike gold fields, would be in 
Canadian territory. So would the Porcupine 
gold fields. 

On account of the apparent clearness of the 
terms of the Anglo-Russian treaty in 1825 it may 
seem difficult to imagine how any interpretation 
different from that argued for by the United 
States could have been put forth. The original 
treaty, however, was in French, and dispute arose 
as to the precise translation of <( crete,® meaning 
crest, (( lisiere,® meaning strip, and <( cote,® usually 
translated as coast. 

The treaty also laid down the boundary on 
supposed topographical conditions which did not 
exist. When the treaty was drawn up the fram¬ 
ers relied upon some of the maps of Capt. Van¬ 
couver, and from observations in the small sec¬ 
tion of British Columbia which he explored it 
seemed apparent that the whole coast was bor¬ 
dered by a range of mountains which ran parallel 
to and at a distance of from 25 to 30 miles from 
the sea. 

As a matter of fact there is a jumble of 
mountains in various places along the coast, but 
in no case is there a well-defined watershed. 
The (( crests® mentioned in the treaty were even 
more difficult to decide upon, and with the dif¬ 
ference of opinion as to whether the coast line 
as intended in the treaty ran through the inlets 
or around them there were grounds for dis¬ 
putes, for the settlement of which an international 
tribunal became necessary. 

The treaty between the United States and 
Great Britain, of which the appointment of the 
Alaska tribunal was the consequence, therefore 
decided that the following questions should be 
decided upon : 

1. What is intended as the point of com¬ 
mencement of the line? 

2. What channel is the Portland channel? 

3. What course should the line take from 
the point of commencement to the entrance to 
Portland channel? 

4. To what point on the 56th parallel is the 
line to be drawn from the head of the Portland 
channel, and what course should it follow be¬ 
tween these points? 

5. In extending the line of demarkation 
northward from said point on the parallel of the 
56th degree of north latitude, following the crest 
of the mountains situated parallel to the coast 
until its intersection with the 141st degree of 
longitude west of Greenwich, subject to the con¬ 
dition that if such line should anywhere exceed 
the distance of 10 marine leagues from the ocean 
then the boundary between the British and the 
Russian Territory should be formed by a line 
parallel to the sinuosities of the coast and distant 
therefrom not more than 10 marine leagues, was 
it the intention and meaning of said convention 
of 1825 that there should remain in the exclu¬ 
sive possession of Russia a continuous fringe or 
strip of coast on the mainland, not exceeding 
10 marine leagues in width, separating the Brit¬ 
ish possessions from the bays, ports, inlets, 
havens, and water of the ocean, and extending 
from the said point on the 56th degree of lati¬ 
tude north to a point where such line of demark- 


ALASKAN BOUNDARY COMMISSION 


ation should intersect the 141st degree of lon¬ 
gitude west of the meridian of Greenwich ? 

6. If the foregoing question should be an¬ 
swered in the negative, and in the event of the 
summit of such mountains proving to be in places 
more than 10 marine leagues from the coast, 
should the width of the (( lisiere® which was to 
belong to Russia be measured (1) from the main¬ 
land coast of the ocean, strictly so-called, along 
a line perpendicular thereto, or (2) was it the 
intention and meaning of the said convention 
that where the mainland coast is indented by 
deep inlets, forming part of the territorial waters 
of Russia, the width of the lisiere was to be 
measured (a) from the line of the general direc¬ 
tion of the mainland coast, or ( b ) from the line 
separating the waters of the ocean from the 
territorial waters of Russia, or (c) from the 
heads of the aforesaid inlets? 

7. What, if any exist, are the mountains 
referred to as situated parallel to the coast, 
which mountains, when within 10 marine leagues 
from the coast are declared to form the eastern 
boundary ? 

The United States made no actual_ claim. 
She reiterated her right to territory which she 
proved had been recognized as hers by Great 
Britain and by various official acts of Canada. 
Various maps were produced to show that Rus¬ 
sia had been entitled to the disputed territory 
and that after the purchase of Alaska that same 
territory was mapped and charted as belonging 
to the United States. 

Among the maps put in evidence was the 
British Admiralty Chart No. 787, corrected to 
April 1898, in which the boundary line follows 
the sinuosities of the actual sea-coast, and de¬ 
prives Canada of the inlets which cut into the 
continent. It was proven also that post-offices 
have been maintained on various points of the 
disputed strip; that custom-houses have been 
established there and have collected duties, and 
that government and mission schools, particu¬ 
larly at the head of the Lynn Canal have been 
maintained for nearly 20 years. The fact that 
the possession of the territory by Russians and 
later by Americans had not been disputed from 
1825 until 1898, was also put forth by the United 
States in support of her claim. 

The British contention rested primarily on the 
claim that it would have been impossible to trace 
at a distance of 30 miles the intricate convolu¬ 
tions of the line forming the edge of the salt 
water, and that therefore a general coast line, 
including many of the islands and disregarding 
many of the inlets, was the intention of the 
framers of the Anglo-Russian treaty. If the 30- 
mile limit were applied to such a coast, the 
boundary line would of course cut across all 
the deeper inlets, giving the British immediate 
access to the interior. 

The British also submitted an argument plac¬ 
ing a new interpretation of that clause of the 
treaty which provides that where the boundary 
line follows the mountain ranges, the crests of 
these mountain peaks shall mark the precise line 
of demarkation. It was demonstrated in the 
rush to the Klondike that there was no general 
line of mountains anywhere near the coast, but 
a number of peaks and small mountains were 
scattered disconnected close along the coast. 

The British claim that the boundary line 
should follow the crests of these isolated peaks, 
had it been allowed, would have deprived the 


United States of a great portion of their 30-mile 
<( lisiere.® The British cited the action of Ameri¬ 
can surveyors in 1893 in support of their inter¬ 
pretation of <( coast.® 

Dr. T. C. Mendenhall, superintendent of the 
United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, in 
that year directed his subordinates to carry their 
operations inland (( 30 nautical miles from the 
coast of the mainland in a direction at right 
angles to its general trend.® In regard to the 
mountains it was contended that a gap does not 
discontinue the general line of the range. 

The official report of the tribunal was signed 
and issued on 20 Oct. 1903. The signatories 
were Lord Alverstone, the British commissioner, 
and the three American commissioners, who 
constituted a majority of the tribunal, the Cana¬ 
dian commissioners refusing to sign. 

All the American claims were granted with 
the exception of those in regard to questions 
2 and 3, in which the British contentions were 
upheld. The original treaty specified that the 
line should run from the southernmost point of 
Prince of Wales Island (Cape Muzon) to Port¬ 
land Channel. The course of this line, accord¬ 
ing to the United States, is due east about 70 
miles. 

The British locate it a little north of east 
about 66 miles to what they call Portland Chan¬ 
nel, and what the Americans call Pearse Chan¬ 
nel. The American claim is made on the map 
of Capt. Vancouver, who first scientifically in¬ 
vestigated the territory, and the British claim 
was made upon the text of Capt. Vancouver’s 
book, which differed slightly from the map. 

A substantiation of the American contention 
would have given to the United States Pearse 
and Sitklan Islands, which command the en¬ 
trance to Fort Simpson, to which point Canada 
proposes to build a new transcontinental rail¬ 
way. 

The decision in regard to Portland Channel 
or Canal gave Canada Pearse and Wales Is¬ 
lands, while the United States obtained Sitklan 
and Kunnughunnut Islands and the broad 
southern portion of the channel. Three opinions 
were also delivered to Messrs. J. W. Foster and 
Clifford Sifton, the agents respectively of the 
United States and Canada, one by the United 
States commissioners discussing the Portland 
Canal claims; another by Lord Alverstone on 
the general issue, and a third -by the Canadians 
protesting in the most emphatic language against 
all the American claims. The chief interest in 
the decision lay in the conclusions upon the 
fifth or main question of Lord Alverstone, who 
by his impartial and high-minded course re¬ 
futed the assumption on which was based the 
principal objection to the former treaty, that not 
even on the bench could a British subject be 
found who would not persist in upholding the 
supposed interests of his country, no matter 
how cogent might be the appeals to his sense 
of justice or of equity. 

The following is an abstract of Lord Alver- 
stone’s conclusions: 

<( The broad, undisputed facts are that the 
parties. were engaged in making an agreement 
respecting the archipelago and islands off the 
coast and some strip of land upon the coast 
itself. The western limit of these islands ex¬ 
tends in some places about 100 miles from the 
coast and the channels or passages between the 
islands and between the islands and the coast 


ALASKAN BLACKFISH —ALB 


are narrow waters, their widths varying from a 
few hundred yards to 13 miles. 

(< In ordinary parlance no one would call the 
waters of any of these channels or inlets the 
ocean. I agree with you as presented on behalf 
of Great Britain that no one coming from the 
interior and reaching any of these channels, par¬ 
ticularly the head of Lynn Canal or Taku Inlet, 
would describe himself as being: upon the ocean, 
but on the other hand, it is quite clear that the 
treaty does regard some of these channels as 
the ocean. This consideration, however, is not 
sufficient to solve the question. It still leaves 
open the interpretation of the word coast, to 
which the mountains were to be parallel. * * * 

(( There is, so far as I know, no recognized 
rule of international law which would by im¬ 
plication give a recognized meaning to the word 
coast as applied to such sinuosities and such 
waters different from the coast itself. As I 
have said more than once, the locus in quo to 
which the treaty was referring precludes the 
possibility of construing the word coast in 
any particular article in any special way if it 
does not refer to the coast line of the continent. 
I think the words upon the border of the con¬ 
tinent comprised within the limits of the Russian 
possessions in Article V. rather confirm the 
view that Russia was to get a strip all along 
the continent, but I do not think that much 
reliance can be placed upon this because of the 
provision regarding the rivers and streams in 
Article VI. 

<( Turning from the language of the treaty to 
the record of the negotiations, I have been un¬ 
able to find any passage supporting the view 
that Great Britain was directly or indirectly 
putting forward a claim to the shores or ports 
at the head of inlets. This is not remarkable 
inasmuch as no one at that time had any idea 
that they would become of any importance. 
* * * The language of both the British and 
Russian representatives in reporting the con¬ 
clusion of the treaty to their respective govern¬ 
ments is in accordance with the view I have 
suggested. * * * I have little doubt that if 

shortly after making the treaty in 1825 Great 
Britain and Russia had proceeded to draw the 
boundary provided by the treaty, the difficulties 
and in certain events the impossibilities of draw¬ 
ing the boundary in strict accordance with the 
treaty would have been evident. 

(< I can, therefore, understand and appreciate 
the contention of Great Britain that under ex¬ 
isting circumstances difficulties in delineating the 
boundaries described must arise in one view and 
might arise in any view. But these contentions, 
strong as they are in favor of a just and equi¬ 
table modification of the treaty, do not, in my 
opinion, enable one to put a different construc¬ 
tion upon the treaty. I think the parties knew 
and understood what they were bargaining about 
and expressed the terms of their bargain in 
terms to which effect can be given. The fact 
that when, 75 years later, the representatives 
of the two nations attempted to draw the bound¬ 
ary in accordance with the treaty they were 
unable to agree as to its meaning does not en¬ 
title me to put a different construction upon it. 

«In the view I take of the terms of the treaty 
itself it is unnecessary to discuss the subsequent 
action. Had the terms of the treaty led me to 
a different conclusion and entitled me to adopt 
Vol. 1—16. 


the view prescribed by Great Britain, I should 
have felt great difficulty in holding that any¬ 
thing done or omitted to have been done, by or 
on behalf of Great Britain, prevented her from 
insisting upon a strict interpretation of the 
treaty, nor do I think the representations of the 
map-makers that the boundary was assumed to 
run around the heads of the inlets could have 
been _ properly urged by the United States as 
sufficient reason for depriving Great Britain of 
any rights she had under the treaty had they 
existed.® 

Alaskan Blackfish, Greenfish, etc. See 

Blackfish, etc. 

Alassio, a-las'se-o, a small seaport in the 
province of Genoa, Italy, situated on the Gulf 
of Genoa, about 48 m. S.W. of the city of Genoa. 

Alastor, in Greek mythology, a surname 
given to Zeus as the avenger; also the name of 
an avenging demon who follows the sinner and 
drives him to fresh crime. In the Middle Ages 
the name was given to a house-demon, the skele¬ 
ton in the cupboard. 

Alatan, a range of mountains in central 
Asia, forming the boundary between Mongolia 
and Turkestan. 

Alatyr, a-la-tir', a town in Russia, govern¬ 
ment Simbirsk, at the confluence of the Alatyr 
with the Sura, with a considerable trade. Pop. 
12,000. 

Alau'da, a genus of insessorial birds, 
which includes the larks. See Lark. 

Alaux, al-o', Jean, called <( Le Romaic,® 
a French painter: b. in Bordeaux 1786; d. 3 
March 1864. He was a pupil of Vincent and 
Guerin; in 1815 took the Prix de Rome with the 
painting of ( Briseis Finding the Body of Pa- 
troclus in the Tent of Achilles.> He executed 
many portraits and other works. His historical 
paintings in the Museum of Versailles are 
famous: ( Battle of Villaviciosa,* Valen¬ 

ciennes Taken by Assault by Louis XIV., J 
( States-General of Paris under Philippe de 
Valois,> ( Assembly of Notables at Rouen under 
Henry IV ., y ( States-General of Paris under 
Louis XIII.,> and the ( Reading of the Will of 
Louis XIV. > He spent nine years in painting 
the 86 pictures which decorate the hall of the 
States-General of Paris. He was director of the 
Academy of France from 1847 to 1850, and in 
1851 became a member of the Academy. His 
brother, Jean Paul Alaux, called (( Le Gentil,® 
born in 1788, was director of the School of De¬ 
sign at Bordeaux. 

A'lava, a hilly province in the north of 
Spain, one of the three Basque provinces; area, 
1,207 square miles; covered by branches of the 
Pyrenees, the mountains being clothed with oak, 
chestnut, and other timber, and the valleys yield¬ 
ing grain, vegetables, and abundance of fruits. 
There are iron and copper mines, and inex¬ 
haustible salt springs. Capital, Vittoria. Pop. 
about 95,000. 

Alb (from Lat. albns, white), a clerical vest¬ 
ment worn by priests while officiating in the 
more solemn functions of divine service. It is a 
long robe of white linen reaching to the feet, 
bound round the waist by a cincture, and fitting 
more closely to the body than the surplice. 


ALBA —ALBANIA 


Alba, the name of several towns in ancient 
Italy, the most celebrated of which was Alba 
Longa, a considerable city of Latium, according 
to tradition built by Ascanius, the son of zEneas, 
300 years before the foundation of Rome. It 
was at one time the most powerful city of La¬ 
tium, and the head of a league of the Latin 
cities, but fell during the reign of Tullus Hos- 
tilius, when the town was destroyed and the in¬ 
habitants removed to Rome. In later times the 
site of the ancient Alba Longa became covered 
with villas of wealthy Romans, whence arose 
the municipium of Albanum, now Albano (which 
see). Another Alba, called Alba Fucentia or 
Fucentis, was near the Lacus Fucinus. The 
cyclopean walls of the old town are still to be 
seen in excellent preservation. 

Alba, Duke of. See Alva. 

Albacete, a town in Spain, capital of the 
province of the same name, on the highway be¬ 
tween Madrid and Cartagena, on an important 
line of railway. It lies in a fertile but treeless 
plain. Albacete, from its position, is a place 
of considerable business; and carries on trade, 
both direct and transit, with Murcia, Alicante, 
Valencia, and Madrid, exporting grain, saffron, 
and cattle; and importing codfish, sardines, rice, 
sugar, wine, iron, cloths, etc. A good deal of 
cutlery is made here. 

Alba Longa. See Alba. 

Alban, Saint, protomartyr of Britain, 
303. A native of Hertfordshire, he was tortured 
and executed at Verulamium by command of the 
prefect, Asclepiodotus. When tranquillity was 
restored a chapel was erected over his grave; 
in 795, Offa, king of the Mercians, founded a 
large monastery upon the spot, and Pope Adrian 
IV. (1154-9) directed that he should hold the 
first place among the abbots of England. His 
festival is celebrated by the Roman Catholic 
Church on 22 June, and by the Anglican Church 
on 17 June. 

Albani, a powerful family of Rome, which 
has supplied the Roman Catholic Church with 
several cardinals. Two of them are well known 
as patrons of the fine arts: (1) Albani, Ales¬ 
sandro, born in 1692; died in 1779; he was a 
great virtuoso, and possessed a collection of 
drawings and engravings which at his death was 
purchased by George III. for 14,000 crowns. 
(2) Albani, Giovanni Francesco, nephew of 
the former, born in 1720; a great friend of the 
Jesuits, and in every respect liberal and en¬ 
lightened. His palace was plundered by the 
French in 1798, when he made his escape to 
Naples stripped of all his possessions. Died in 
1803. 

Albani, Francesco, a famous painter: b. 
Bologna 1578; d. 1660. He entered the school 
of Dionysius Calvaert, a Flemish painter, who 
had a great reputation in Bologna. Albani was 
one of his most distinguished scholars, but 
quitted him for Ludovico Carracci, under whose 
instruction he made rapid progress. He labored 
here several years in connection with Domeni- 
chino, to whom he was closely attached by 
friendship and love of art; and some resemblance 
is perceptible in their manner of coloring. But 
in invention he surpasses his friend, and indeed 
all his rivals of the school of Calvaert. His fe¬ 
male forms Mengs places above those of all 


other painters. Among the best known of his 
compositions are the (Sleeping Venus,> (Diana 
in the Bath,) «Danae Reclining,) (Galatea on the 
Sea,) ( Europa on the Bull.) Scriptural sub¬ 
jects he has less frequently selected, but when 
he has, the paintings are principally distinguished 
for the beauty of the heads of the angels. He 
had a numerous school in Rome and Bologna. 
The scholars of Guido, with whom he vied, ac¬ 
cused him of effeminacy and weakness of style, 
and maintained that he knew not how to give 
any dignity to male figures. He has been called 
the Anacreon of painters. 

Albani, Marie Emma (Lajeunesse), a dra¬ 
matic soprano and opera singer: b. 1 Nov. 1852, 
in Chambly, near Montreal, Canada. After 
studying with Lamperti, at Milan, she made her 
debut at Messina (1870), in ( La Sonnambula,* 
under the name of Albani, in compliment to the 
city of Albany, where her public career began. 
In 1878 she married Ernest Gye of the Covent 
Garden Theatre. 

Albania, an extensive region in west Eu¬ 
ropean Turkey between the Adriatic Sea, 
Greece, Macedonia, and Montenegro. Upper or 
northern Albania formed a part of the Illyria of 
the Romans; lower or southern Albania cor¬ 
responds to ancient Epirus. It comprises the 
vilayets of Scutari and Janina and parts of 
Monastir and Kossovo. It forms the southwest¬ 
ern portion of the remaining immediate posses¬ 
sions of European Turkey, and extends along 
the western shore of the Balkan peninsula, from 
the river Bojana to the Gulf of Arta. To the 
north it is bounded, since 1878-80, by the 
newly won Montenegrin territory and by Bos¬ 
nia; on the south it is separated, since 1881, from 
Greece by the river Arta. The eastern boun¬ 
dary is a mountain range, which to the north 
attains an altitude of 7,990 feet. Westward of 
this range lie parallel chains enclosing long, 
elevated valleys sinking to level strips along 
the coast, which mostly consist of unhealthy 
swamps and lagoons. The highlands advance 
to the sea, forming steep, rocky coasts. One 
promontory, the Acroceraunian, projecting in 
Cape Linguetta far into the sea, reaches a height 
of 6,642 feet. There are three lakes, Scutari, 
Ochrida, and Janina. The principal rivers are 
the Boyana, Drin, Shkumbi, and Artino. A fine 
climate and a favorable soil would seem to in¬ 
vite the inhabitants to agriculture, but in the 
north little is cultivated but maize, with some 
rice and barley in the valleys; the mountain ter¬ 
races are used as pastures for numerous herds 
of cattle and sheep. In the south the slopes of 
the lower valleys are covered with olives, fruit, 
and mulberry trees, intermixed with patches of 
vines and maize, while the densely wooded 
mountain ridges furnish valuable supplies of 
timber. The plateau of Janina yields abun¬ 
dance of grain; and in the valleys opening to 
the south the finer fruits are produced, along 
with maize, rice, and wheat. The inhabitants 
form a peculiar people, the Albanians, called by 
the Turks Arnauts, and by themselves Skipetar. 

They are half-civilized mountaineers, frank 
to a friend, vindictive to an enemy. They are 
constantly under arms, and are more devoted to 
robbery than to cattle-rearing and agriculture. 
They live in perpetual anarchy, every village be¬ 
ing at war with its neighbor. Many of them 
serve as mercenaries in other countries, and 


ALBANS, ST.—ALBANY 


they form the best soldiers of the Turkish army. 
At one time the Albanians were all Christians; 
but after the death of their last chief, the hero 
Skanderbeg, in 1467, and their subjugation by 
the 1 urks, a large part became Mohammedans. 
Their language is one of the eight chief Indo- 
Germanic g oups, and represents the ancient 
Illyrian; it is found not only in Albania, but in 
southern Italy and Sicily. The former notion 
that its affinities were prevailingly Greek was 
derived from the number of Greek loan-words 
in its southern branch, the Toskish, the northern 
and more primitive being called Gegish: the 
affiliation of the whole is rather to Slavic than 
any other. While retaining its grammatical 
structure, its vocabulary has been largely trans¬ 
formed by borrowing from neighbors; Latin 
most, then Greek, Slavic, and Turkish. It has 
almost no literature except folk songs and tales. 
The Gegish uses the Roman alphabet, the Tos¬ 
kish the Greek, with some changes. 

Albans, St. See St. Albans. 

Albany, Louisa Maria Caroline, or Aloy- 
sia, Countess of, a princess of the Stolberg- 
Gedern family: b. 1753; d. 29 Jan. 1824. She 
married in 1772, the English pretender, Charles 
Edward Stuart, after which event she bore the 
above title. Her marriage was unfruitful and 
unhappy. To escape from the barbarity of her 
husband, she retired, in 1780, to a cloister, and 
afterward to the house of her brother-in-law at 
Rome, where she met the poet Alfieri, to whom, 
soon after the death of her husband, she was 
privately married. Alfieri attributed to her his 
poetic inspiration. (See Alfieri.) She died at 
Florence, her usual place of residence, in her 
72d year. Her ashes and those of Alfieri now 
repose under a common monument in the church 
of Santa Croce at Florence. 

Albany, Ga., county-seat of Dougherty 
County, on the Albany & North Seaboard Air 
Line, Central Ga., and Plant System R.R.’s, at 
the head of navigation on the Flint River, about 
175 m. W. from Savannah. The city has large 
manufacturing interests, and is the centre of 
one of the most productive agricultural regions 
in the State. It is governed by a mayor and a 
council. Pop. (1900) 4,606. 

Albany, Mo., city and county-seat of Gen¬ 
try County, on the Chicago, B. & Q. R.R., about 
82 m. N.E. from Kansas City. The Central 
Christian College and the Northwest Missouri 
College are situated there. The city, first settled 
in 1845, has a mayor and council. Pop. (1900) 
2,025. ~ 

Albany, N. Y., State capital and seat of 
Albany County, on the right (west) bank of the 
Hudson, 143 miles north of New York, 200 miles 
west of Boston, 297 miles east of Buffalo. Be¬ 
sides its political importance as the capital, its 
commercial and manufacturing status is high. 
Of old for many years the starting point of all 
the enormous eastern travel and traffic to the 
Great West, over the Erie Canal (q.v.), con¬ 
necting it with the Great Lakes at Lake Erie; 
it is still an important port and the intersecting 
point of the great western as well as northern 
rail and water routes. With New York and the 
ocean it is connected by the imperial LIudson, 
of which it is the head of navigation for large 
steamers (smaller ones going on to 1 roy, six 
miles above!. The Erie Canal is still a great 


commercial advantage, and will soon be more 
so; while the Champlain Canal gives access not 
only to western Vermont, but to the St. Law¬ 
rence and the heart of Canada, with the foreign 
business centring at Montreal. By rail it joins 
the western and northern traffic of the New 
York Central Railroad system (the Adirondack 
region, Vermont, and Canada) and that of the 
Delaware & Hudson Railroad with the western 
traffic of central New England over the Boston 
& Albany branch of the New York Central road, 
the Fitchburgh branch of the Boston & Maine 
Railroad and the Rutland Railroad. 

Trade and Manufacturing. — The through 
freight lines now leave little transhipment to be 
done at Albany, though it still remains an im¬ 
portant passenger centre; but commerce and in¬ 
dustries are conservative, and it retains much 
of both given it by its position in earlier times, 
as a distributing point and terminal. In par¬ 
ticular, the great Canadian and Adirondack 
forests to the north have made it an immense 
lumber port. Its manufactures are of wide and 
well-known importance, the greatest being iron 
goods,— foundries and stove works,— wood and 
brass; combined wood and metal, as carriages 
and wagons; brick; shirts, collars, and cuffs; 
clothing and knit goods; shoes; flour; tobacco 
and cigars ; and brewery products; billiard balls; 
dominoes; checkers and embossed blocks. 

In 1900 the city contained 1,566 manufactur¬ 
ing establishments with $21,328,764 capital, em¬ 
ploying 14,092 persons, paying $7,127,864 in 
wages and $11,121,501 for materials, and having 
a total output of $24,992,021. 

Finances. — The assessed valuation of tax¬ 
able property in 1903 was $68,672,887 and the 
net public debt in 1903 was $1,318,435. The an¬ 
nual and municipal outlay is about $2,600,000, of 
which $300,000 is for schools, $157,000 for police 
and $150,000 for the fire department. There are 
six national banks, with aggregate capital of 
$1,750,000, two trust companies with a capital, 
surplus and profits of $1,135,000, and seven 
savings banks with a surplus (at market value) 
of $4,621,941, and amount of deposits of 
$55,496,220. 

Interior. — The city has a river frontage of 
four miles, and extends west five miles from a 
narrow alluvial strip often flooded in the spring, 
over a steep rise to a sandy table-land 150 to 
200 feet above tide-water, divided into four ele¬ 
vations and their corresponding valleys. It 
has 85 miles of streets, paved with granite, 
asphalt, and brick; gas and electric light plants; 
and over 30 miles of electric street railways 
within its limits, several suburban lines running 
to towns at a distance, centring in Albany: 
these lines reach Troy, Cohoes, Saratoga, Glens 
Falls, Lake George and Warrensburgh in the 
north, a distance of 71 miles. Sand Lake in 
the northeast, a distance of 15 miles; Schenec¬ 
tady, Amsterdam, Johnstown, and Gloversville 
in the a est, a distance of 50 miles, and Hudson 
in the south, a distance of 38 miles. The river 
is crossed by two railroad and foot bridges and 
one wagon bridge to Rensselaer (formerly 
Greenbush). The water supply is partly taken 
by gravity from an artificial lake five miles west, 
and partly pumped from the river, with a public 
filtration system. This plant covers 20 acres of 
ground, has eight filter beds and filters 15,000,000 
gallons of water daily. The parks, 11 in num- 


ALBANY 


ber, contain 305 acres; the largest is Washington 
Park of 90 acres with a lake 1,700 feet long. 
This park contains the celebrated ( Burns* statue 
by Charles Calverly and the bronze and rock 
fountain ( Moses Smiting the Rock ) by J. Mas¬ 
sey Rhind. The three cemeteries cover 440 
acres. President Arthur’s tomb is in the hand¬ 
some Rural cemetery of 280 acres, situated four 
miles north of the city. 

Buildings .— The great show building of Al¬ 
bany is the magnificent capitol, begun in 1871 
and continued by several different architects at a 
total outlay to date of some $25,000,000. The 
lack of unity in plan makes itself perceptible 
both in looks and cost, millions have been spent 
in alterations and reconstructions, and some of 
the mechanical work and material have been 
poor; but though more might have been ob¬ 
tained for the money, the capitol is a noble 
structure. It is of Maine granite, in the Renais¬ 
sance style ; is 300 x 400 feet and covers more 
than three acres; it occupies a most sightly posi¬ 
tion on the hillside facing the river, and in¬ 
cluding part of the site of the old capitol built 
in 1806. Besides its rooms for the legislative 
bodies and officials and the court of appeals, it 
contains the magnificent State library of over 
450,000 volumes, and many interesting relics of 
the Revolution and Civil War. The grand 
western staircase in the western end of 
the building is said to be the finest staircase 
in the world: it cost nearly two millions of 
dollars. 

The State Hall and the City Hall face it; 
the former of white marble, and the latter of red 
sandstone with grand campaniles and Roman¬ 
esque doorways. The custom-house and post- 
office are in the government building at the foot 
of State Street. Among other buildings are the 
State Arsenal, Harmanus Bleecker Hall, the old 
Schuyler mansion, now used as an orphan asy¬ 
lum, and the Agricultural and Geological hall. 
In 1893 the second Van Rensselaer manor-house, 
built 1765, was removed to the Williams College 
campus, of Williamstown, Mass. 

The buildings of religious and educational 
institutions are also creditable features: Albany 
is the seat of both Roman Catholic and Protes¬ 
tant Episcopal bishoprics, and has over 70 
churches. Very notable are the cathedrals of 
the Immaculate Conception (R. C.) and All 
Saints (P. E.). St. Peter’s Church (P. E.) is 
reputed one of the finest specimens of the 
French Gothic type of architecture in the United 
States. 

The Madison Avenue and First Reformed 
churches were organized in 1642, incorporated 
in 1720 and continued as one church until 1799, 
when separate edifices were built; these two 
churches continued under one government until 

1815. 

The public school property is valued at nearly 
$1,000,000. Other institutions of learning are the 
law and medical departments of the Union Uni¬ 
versity at Schenectady (originally independent 
academies of 1851 and 1839), Albany Academy, 
the State Normal College, St. Agnes School, the 
Albany Female Academy, and the Convent of the 
Sacred Heart. Also the Dudley Observatory and 
the Bender Hygienic Laboratory. Albany has a 
fine city hospital built in 1899 on the pavilion 
plan and covering 16 acres with 150,000 feet of 
door space; the Albany penitentiary, dating 


from 1848 — from three to four hundred prison¬ 
ers a year are confined in this institution. 

Government .— Biennial mayor; city council, 
the president elected at large, the aldermen by 
wards; and boards of finance, public works, pub¬ 
lic safety, assessment and taxation, charities and 
correction, judiciary, and law. For their compo¬ 
sition, see statutes of New York State, cities of 
the second class. The mayor also appoints a 
sealer of weights and measures, and super¬ 
visors are elected. 

Population .— In 1800, 5,289; 1820, 12,630; 
1840, 33,721; i860, 62,367; 1880, 90 , 758 ; 1890, 
94,923; 1900,94,151 (17,700 foreign). 

History .— Albany, as an old frontier town 
and strategic post against the French settlements 
in the 18th century wars, is of much historic in¬ 
terest. Next to Jamestown, Va., and St. Augus¬ 
tine, Fla., it was the oldest settlement in the 
Union; if the 13 colonies only are included, and 
Jamestown thrown out as deserted since 1676, it 
may perhaps be called the oldest with a con¬ 
tinuous life, though its actual settlement as a 
residence is later than Plymouth. (For early 
discovery, see America; Hudson; Verassano.) 
About 1540 a French trading-post was set up 
there for a time. In 1614 the Dutch, following 
Hudson’s lead, established a factory, on Castle 
Island, called Fort Nassau, in 1617 removed to 
the mainland and called Beverwyck. The first 
settlers were 18 Walloon families (Huguenot 
refugees from Belgium — Peter Minuit, the first 
director-general of New Amsterdam, was a 
Walloon), and Fort Orange (Latinized Au- 
rania) was built the same year, near the present 
capitol. In 1626 a war with the Mohawks 
forced the temporary abandonment of the vil¬ 
lage. In 1629 Killian Van Rensselaer, having 
obtained from the Dutch government a large 
land-grant near by, colonized it with Dutch set¬ 
tlers and rented the land to them as patroon. 
(See Anti-Rent War; Patroon.) This, as 
always, ended in a chronic dispute over the 
extent of his legal rights and jurisdiction, which 
was not settled till after the ownership of the 
Dutch settlements was transferred by the Eng¬ 
lish conquest to the Duke of York and Albany 
(later James II.) after whom Fort Orange was 
renamed. In 1686 it received a city charter (its 
bi-centennial was celebrated in 1886) from Gov. 
Thomas Dongan; its first mayor (appointed by 
the governor, though the council was elected) 
was Peter Schuyler. The English settlers 
rapidly increased, but Albany was long a Dutch 
city. In the French and Indian wars it was a 
stockaded rendezvous, arsenal, and hospital, the 
refuge of the border. In 1754 it was the meet¬ 
ing-place of the first Provincial Congress, 
which formed <( a plan of a proposed union of 
the several colonies® (see Albany Congress). 
In 1777 it was Burgoyne’s objective point, where 
he was to meet the expeditions up the river and 
from Canada. After being for many years later 
the occasional seat of State government, it be¬ 
came the permanent capital in 1797, the centen¬ 
nial of which it celebrated 6 Jan. 1897. Its rapid 
growth began with the opening of the Erie 
Canal in 1825, making it the terminal for west¬ 
ern business. Within 35 years it had in¬ 
creased fivefold. In 1848 it was partially de* 
stroyed by fire. 

William Boucher Jones, 
Secretary Albany Chamber of Commerce. 



THE STATE CAPITOL AT ALBANY. 





















































































































































ALBANY — ALBATROSS 


Albany, Ore., city and county-seat of Linn 
County, on the Southern Pacific and the Cowalli 
& E. R.R.’s, and the Willamette River, about 25 
m. S. by W. from Salem. The city has good 
water-power from the Willamette River, and 
has large manufacturing interests. It ships both 
grain and flour. Pop. (1900) 3,149. 

Albany, West Australia, in Plantagenet 
co., on King George’s Sound. It has one of 
the finest harbors in Australia, and is a port of 
call for the steamers of the Peninsular & Ori¬ 
ental Co. It is a consular station of the United 
States. Pop. about 3,000. 

Albany Congress, an assembly of repre¬ 
sentatives of the seven northern British-Amer¬ 
ican colonies (Massachusetts, New Hampshire, 
Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York, Penn¬ 
sylvania, and Maryland), called together in 
1/54 by the British government to consult in 
regard to the threatening French war. It met 
19 June, and two plans were proposed: (1) a 
league with the Five Nations, which was car¬ 
ried out; (2) a proposal offered by Franklin 
for a political union. In this a common presi¬ 
dent was proposed, and a great council repre¬ 
senting the different colonies. The president 
was to be appointed by the Crown; to be also 
commander-in-chief, to commission all civil offi¬ 
cers and appoint all military ones, and have a 
veto on the council. The council was to con¬ 
sist of three-year members, two to seven from 
each colony; not to be adjourned or dissolved 
or kept over six weeks in session against its 
will; it could lay taxes, maintain troops, build 
forts, nominate civil officers, manage Indian 
affairs, and authorize new settlements; and 
its acts were to be valid unless vetoed within 
three years by the Crown. This plan was re¬ 
jected by the British Crown because it gave 
too much power to the colonies and by the col¬ 
onies because it gave too much power to the 
Crown. The significance of this congress lies 
in the fact that it stimulated the union of the 
colonies which was afterward accomplished. 

Albany Regency, in American political 
history, the nickname of a powerful group of 
Democratic leaders in New York State, who 
controlled the party machinery there and acted 
together for influence in State and national af¬ 
fairs about 1820—54 • so named because its mem¬ 
bers either lived near the capital or held offices 
which made it their headquarters. Its origin 
and essence as an aristocracy of «bosses » lay 
in the system of frequent elections among a 
democracy, which puts nominations, into the 
hands of professionals who will be paid in some 
shape, creating a permanent standing army of 
political managers. The Regency was the un¬ 
official staff of this army, and was larger than 
in other States from the imperial field which 
New York offered for great careers; but it 
could not have perpetuated its power but for 
the means of rewarding friends and punishing 
enemies given it by the <( spoils system» (a 
name derived from the saying of one of its 
members, William L. Marcy, in 1833* that «to 
the victors belong the spoils»). While per¬ 
sonally upright, and strong opponents of cor¬ 
ruption, they held firmly to this, the very spring 
of corruption: the giving or taking away. of 
offices, the use of public contracts for printing 
or other work or supplies, etc. That this was 


its cement is shown by the fact that after the 
bitter factional split of 1848 (see Barnburners) 
had given the other party this patronage to 
use against it, the Regency was reduced in a 
few years to unorganized individuals. The 
members of course kept themselves in high or 
profitable positions according to their capacities 
or preferences; several alternating between 
State and national preferment, but never ne¬ 
glecting the former basis even in the latter 
service. The earliest and greatest leader was 
Martin Van Buren, State attorney-general, 
United States senator 1821-8, resigning to be¬ 
come governor of New York, Jackson’s secre¬ 
tary of state, Vice-President, President. Others 
were William L. Marcy, State comptroller, 
judge of the New York supreme court, United 
States senator 1831, resigning 1833 to become 
governor of New York, Polk’s secretary of 
war, Pierce’s secretary of state; Silas Wright, 
Congressman, State comptroller, United States 
senator 1833 (succeeding Marcy), resigning 
1844 to become governor of New York; John 
A. Dix, State secretary of state, United States 
senator 1845-9, Buchanan’s secretary of the 
treasury, again governor of New York 1872-4; 
Benjamin F. Butler, Van Buren’s attorney- 
general and acting secretary of war; while 
others held only State offices,— Azariah C. 
Flagg, State secretary of state and afterward 
twice comptroller; Edwin Croswell, State 
printer, editor of the Albany Argus, leading 
Democratic organ; Benjamin Knower, State 
treasurer; and others held no offices,— Dean 
Richmond, Roger Skinner, Peter Cagger, Sam¬ 
uel A. Talcott, etc. (Hammond’s ( Political 
History of New York ) is a shrewd analy¬ 
sis of .State politics from a judicious and 
experienced observer.) Afterward Samuel J. 
Tilden, Daniel Manning, and others of high 
stamp, by sagacity of central management, pre¬ 
served in a manner the traditions of the older 
group, though they never had its patronage to 
use for discipline. 

Albatross (corrupted from Portug. alca- 
troz, the cormorant; from Ar. al, the; qadus, 
bucket, on account of its pouch), a large, al¬ 
most exclusively pelagic bird of the family 
Diomedeidcu, a feature of the lonely southern 
oceans. They are rarely seen on the north At¬ 
lantic, but frequent nearly all other seas, and 
are never seen ashore except on the barren 
antarctic islands where they breed. They have 
great powers of flight and follow ships 
for long distances to pick up offal. Their 
appetites are rapacious, their natural diet 
consisting of any fishes, mollusks, or other 
animal matter which they find at the sur¬ 
face of the water; they do not dive. Sailors 
are fond of them and have a strong supersti¬ 
tion against killing them. Like their allies, 
the petrels, the albatrosses have three fully- 
webbed toes, while the hind toe is either en¬ 
tirely wanting or represented by a claw. The 
bill of an albatross is four inches or more long, 
very thick, and finished by a powerful hook at 
the tip. The nostrils open from round hori¬ 
zontal tubes placed one on each side of the 
bill, but at its base, instead of together on top 
as with the petrel. The wings are extremely 
long and pointed, the tail short and somewhat 
rounded. The feathers of the body form so 
thick a coat as to withstand both water and 


ALBAUGH — ALBERT 


severe, long-continued cold; owing to the ex¬ 
treme length of the wing the number of flight 
feathers on it is greater than on the wing of 
any other bird. The single large white egg of 
the albatross is usually hatched on the bare 
earth. Two rather small species of albatross, 
the short-tailed ( Diomedca albatrus ) and the 
black-footed ( Diomedca nigripes), occur on the 
western coasts of North America; these are 
about three feet long and seven feet across the 
wings. The sooty albatross ( Phcebetria fuli- 
ginosa), of much the same size, belongs broadly 
to the Pacific Ocean. There are from seven to 
nine other species, of which the largest is the 
wandering albatross ( Diomedca exulans ) of 
the southern oceans. It is 4 or 5 feet long and 
10 to 12 feet from tip to tip of wings. Its color 
is white, with black bars across the wing coverts 
and across part of the back. This is probably 
the best known species in the family. 

Albaugh, John, American actor: b. Bal¬ 
timore, 30 Sept. 1837. Under the management 
of Joseph Jefferson he made his first appearance 
in a play called ( Brutus^ in 1855. For 13 years 
he played throughout the United States and in 
1868 became manager of various theatres, lat¬ 
terly in Washington and Baltimore. He re¬ 
tired from the stage in 1899 and devoted his 
leisure to stock-raising. 

Albay, a province in the southeast of 
Luzon, Philippine Islands, and the richest hemp¬ 
growing district on the island. It has yielded 
as much as 40,000 tons of hemp in a season. 
The province contains a picturesque . volcano, 
Mayon, which has had several destructive erup¬ 
tions, the last in 1888. In January 1900 Brig.- 
Gen. William A. Kobbe, United States Volun¬ 
teers, was appointed military governor of the 
province and Catanduanes Island, with tem¬ 
porary authority over Samar and Leyte Islands 
for the purpose of controlling the hemp-growing 
country and occupying and opening to trade the 
various hemp ports. The principal towns in the 
province are Albay (the capital), Tivi, Malinao, 
Tobaco, Malilipot, Bagacay, Libog, Legaspi, 
Manito, Libon, Polangui, Ligao, Oas, Guinoba- 
tan, Cagsaua, and Camalig. Vicol is almost the 
exclusive language of the province. The indus¬ 
tries are hemp-growing (annual value $4,750,- 
217), ship-building, gold, silver, coal, and iron 
mining. Pop. (1900) 195,129. 

Albemarle, The, a Confederate ram, 
which for a long time did great damage among 
Union shipping, but was finally destroyed by W. 
B. Cushing (q.v.), who was entrusted at dif¬ 
ferent times with various difficult feats of the 
sort. . Cushing, while the Albemarle was at 
moorings in the harbor of Plymouth, N. C., on 
the night of 27 Oct. 1864 entered the harbor and 
succeeded in blowing up the vessel by means of 
a torpedo. The Albemarle was rendered com¬ 
pletely useless, and Cushing obtained lieutenant- 
commander’s rank and the thanks of Congress 
for his execution of the exploit. 

Albemarle Sound, a shallow and narrow 
body of water on the coast of North Carolina, 
separated from the Atlantic Ocean by low sand 
islands. The greatest depth is about 18 feet, 
but it is generally so shallow as to be unnavi- 
gable except where it has been dredged. The 
water is generally fresh and is not affected by 
the tides. It extends directly west from the 


ocean about 60 miles. It is the outlet of many 
of the streams of northeastern North Carolina, 
chief of which are the Roanoke and Chowan. 

Alberoni, Giulio, cardinal and minister of 
the king of Spain: b. Firenzuola, Parma, 1664; 
d. Rome 1752. He soon gained the favor of 
powerful patrons, especially the Duke of Ven- 
dome, whom he accompanied to Paris and then 
to Spain, the Duke being appointed generalis¬ 
simo of the armies of Philip V. Having made 
himself a favorite of the Spanish king, he rose 
to be prime minister, became a caidinal, was all- 
powerful in Spain after the year 1715, and en¬ 
deavored to restore it to its ancient splendor. 
He reformed abuses, created a naval force, 
organized the Spanish army on the model of the 
French, and rendered the kingdom of Spain 
more powerful than it had been since the time 
of Philip II. 

Albert, Prince (Albert-Francis-Augus- 
tus-Charles-Emmanuel), Prince of Saxe- 
Coburg-Gotha, and Prince Consort of England, 
second son of Ernest I., Duke of Saxe-Coburg, 
was born at the Rosenau, a castle near Coburg, 
on 26 Aug. 1819. In 1837 he entered the Uni¬ 
versity of Bonn, where he devoted himself to the 
studies of political and natural science, history, 
philosophy, etc., as well as to those of music 
and painting. On leaving the university he made 
a tour through the chief cities of Italy with 
Baron Stockmar. On 10 Feb. 1840 he married 
his cousin, Queen Victoria of England. An 
allowance of £30,000 a year was settled upon the 
prince, who was naturalized by act of Parlia¬ 
ment, received the title of Royal Highness by 
patent, was made a field-marshal, a Knight of 
the Garter, of the Bath, etc. Other honors were 
subsequently bestowed upon him, the chief of 
which was the title of Prince Consort (1857). 
He always took a deep and active interest in the 
welfare of the people in general. His services 
to the cause of science and art were very im¬ 
portant ; he presided over the commission ap¬ 
pointed in 1841 to consider the best means of 
rebuilding the houses of parliament and the 
great exhibition of 1851 owed much of its suc¬ 
cess to his activity, knowledge, and judgment. 
He died, of typhoid fever on 14 Dec. 1861, after 
a short illness. A collection of his speeches and 
addresses, was published in 1862. A biography 
of the prince by Sir Theodore Martin has been 
published in five volumes, London 1875-80. 

Albert I., Duke of Prussia, son of Fred¬ 
erick, Margrave of Ansbach and Baireuth, and 
grandson of Albert Achilles, Elector of Bran¬ 
denburg: b. 17 May 1490; d. 20 March 1568. 
In 1511 he was chosen by the Teutonic Knights 
grand master, of their order. Being the son of 
Sophia, the sister of Sigismund, king of Poland, 
and descended from one of the most powerful 
German families, the Knights hoped by his 
means to be freed from the feudal superiority 
of Poland and placed under the protection of 
the empire. Being recognized by Poland he pro¬ 
ceeded to Konigsberg and assumed the govern¬ 
ment in 1512. He refused the oath of allegi¬ 
ance to Poland, which the previous grand 
master had evaded, and prepared for resist¬ 
ance. In 1520, after protracted negotiations, 
Sigismund attempted to enforce submission by 
an invasion of the. territories of the Order, but 
the contest was without decisive result, and in 


ALBERT 


the following year a truce of four years was 
agreed to at Thorn. The latter years of his 
reign were troubled with many intrigues, for¬ 
eign and domestic; in 1532 he was put under 
the ban of the empire, but succeeded in trans¬ 
mitting his succession to his son. 

Albert I., Margrave of Brandenburg, sur- 
named the Bear, from his heraldic emblem, 
was the son of Otto the Rich, Count of Ballen- 
stadt. As Marquis of Lusatia he served the 
Emperor Lothaire with credit in his war with 
Bohemia. The Diet afterward withdrew Lusa¬ 
tia from him, but the emperor for further 
services conferred on him in 1134 the mar- 
gravate of Brandenburg. In 1136-7 he made 
incursions into the territory of the Wends, who 
disturbed his government, and checked their 
disorders. In 1138 the Emperor Conrad con¬ 
ferred on him the duchy of Saxony, of which 
he had deprived Henry the Proud. This led to 
a war with Henry, in which Albert was deprived 
of Brandenburg, but was restored by an armis¬ 
tice negotiated by the ecclesiastical electors. 
On the death of Henry (1139) he reassumed 
the title of Duke of Saxony. A combination 
was then formed against him, which, in spite 
of the favor of the emperor, reduced him to 
extremities. Peace was concluded in 1142. Al¬ 
bert resigned Saxony, and Brandenburg was 
raised to an immediate fief of the empire. He 
acquired at the same time by inheritance from 
Przibislas, a Vandal king who had taken his 
name in baptism, the country between the Elbe 
and the Oder. He made his new possessions a 
fief of the empire, and in order the better to 
guard them removed his residence to Branden¬ 
burg. In 1148 he led an expedition into Pome¬ 
rania, and in the following year induced the 
duke of that country to embrace Christianity. 
In 1150 he was raised to the electoral dignity. 
In 1157 he made a third expedition against the 
Wends, conquered their country, and colonized 
it with agriculturists from Germany, Holland, 
and Zealand. In 1164 he went on a crusade 
to the Holy Land. Another war broke out be¬ 
tween him and Henry, Duke of Saxony, which 
was terminated to the advantage of the latter 
in 1168 by the mediation of the Emperor Fred¬ 
erick I. In 1169 Albert remitted his estates to 
his son. He died in 1170. The origin of Ber¬ 
lin, Kolln, Aken on the Elbe, and other towns, 
is attributed to the colonies founded by him. 

Albert I., Duke of Austria, and afterward 
emperor of Germany: b. 1248; son of Rudolph 
of Hapsburg, who had a short time before his 
death attempted to place the crown on the head 
of his son. But the electors, tired of his power, 
and emboldened by his age and infirmities, re¬ 
fused his request and indefinitely postponed the 
election of a King of the Romans (the title of 
the designated successor of the emperor). 
After the death of Rudolph, Albert, who in¬ 
herited only the military qualities of his father, 
saw his hereditary possessions, Austria and 
Styria, rise up in rebellion against him. He 
quelled by force this revolt, which his avarice 
and severity had excited; but success increased 
his presumption. He wished to succeed Ru¬ 
dolph in all his dignities, and without waiting 
for the decision of the Diet seized the insignia 
of the empire. This act of violence induced 
the electors to choose Adolphus of Nassau em¬ 


peror. The disturbances which had broken out 
against him in Switzerland, and a disease which 
deprived him of an eye, made hi n more humble. 
He delivered up the insignia and took the oath 
of allegiance to the new emperor. Adolphus, 
after a reign of six years, having lost the regard 
of all the princes of the empire, Albert was 
elected to succeed him. A battle ensued near 
Gellheim, in which Adolphus fell by the hand 
of his adversary. The last barrier had fallen 
between Albert and the supreme power, but he 
was conscious of having now an opportunity of 
displaying his magnanimity. He voluntarily re¬ 
signed the crown conferred on him by the last 
election, and as he had anticipated was re¬ 
elected. His coronation took place at Aix-la- 
Chapelle in August 1298, and he held his first 
diet at Nuremberg with the utmost splendor. 

But a new storm was gathering over him. 
The Pope, Boniface VIII., denied the right of 
the electors to deprive Adolphus of the impe¬ 
rial dignity and bestow it upon one who had 
caused the death of the legitimate sovereign. 
He accordingly summoned Albert before him 
to ask pardon and submit to such penance as 
he should dictate; he forbade the princes to 
acknowledge him, and released them from their 
oath of allegiance. The archbishop of Mainz 
from a friend became the enemy of Albert and 
joined the party of the Pope. On the other 
hand, Albert formed an alliance with Philip le 
Bel of France, secured the neutrality of Saxony 
and Brandenburg, and by a sudden irruption 
into the electorate of Mainz forced the arch¬ 
bishop not only to renounce his alliance with 
the Pope but to form one with him for the five 
ensuing years. In April 1301 Boniface forbade 
all submission to Albert until he would go to 
Rome and repair his crimes. The next year 
Albert entered into negotiations with the Pope, 
in which he again showed the duplicity of his 
character. He broke his alliance with Philip, 
acknowledged that the Western Empire was a 
grant from the Popes to the emperors, that the 
electors derived their right of choosing from 
the see of Rome, and promised to defend with 
arms the rights of the Pope, whenever he should 
demand it, against any one. As a reward Boni¬ 
face excommunicated Philip, proclaimed him to 
have forfeited his crown, and gave the kingdom 
of France to Albert. Philip in revenge an¬ 
noyed and persecuted the Pope. 

Albert was engaged in unsuccessful wars 
with Holland, Zealand, Friesland, Hungary, Bo¬ 
hemia, and Thuringia. While preparing to re¬ 
venge a defeat which he had suffered in Thurin¬ 
gia he received the news of the revolt of the 
Swiss, and saw himself obliged to direct his 
forces thither. The revolt of Unterwalden, 
Schwyz, and Uri had broken out 1 Jan. 1308. 
Albert had not onl}'- foreseen this consequence 
of his oppression but desired it, in order to 
have a pretence for subjugating Switzerland en¬ 
tirely to himself. A new act of injustice, how¬ 
ever, put an end to his ambition and life. Sua-- 
bia was the inheritance of John, the son of his 
younger brother Rudolph. John had repeatedly 
asserted his right to it, but in vain. When Al¬ 
bert set out for Switzerland John renewed his 
demand, which was contemptuously rejected by 
Albert. John, in revenge, conspired with his 
governor, Walter of Eschenbach, and three 
friends against the life of Albert. The con- 


ALBERT LEA —ALBIGENSES 


spirators took advantage of the moment when 
the emperor, on his way to Rheinfelden, was 
separated from his train by the river Reuss, and 
assassinated him. Albert breathed his last, i 
May 1308, in the arms of a poor woman who 
was sitting on the road. 

Albert Lea, Minn., county-seat of Free¬ 
born County, on the Chicago, M. & St. P., the 
Burlington, C. R. & N., and the Minneapolis & 
St. L. R.R.’s, about 100 m. S. of St. Paul and 10 
m. N. of the boundary of Iowa. The presence of 
many lakes and artesian wells of chalybeate 
waters make the city and neighborhood a popu¬ 
lar summer resort. It is the market town for a 
large agricultural and dairy region and has con¬ 
siderable manufacturing interests. It is the seat 
of a Presbyterian college for women (est. 1855), 
and a Lutheran Academy. Pop. (1900) 4,500. 

Alberta, a Canadian Northwest Territory, 
created in 1882, and named for H. R. H. Prin¬ 
cess Louise, wife of the Marquis of Lome, 
then Governor-General. Area, 101,521 sq. m.; 
chief towns, Calgary, Edmonton, Lethbridge, 
and Strathcona (q.v.). The southern part is 
open and rolling, with timber along the streams 
and in the foot-hills; the northern is more or 
less timbered throughout. The drainage is 
about equally northward and eastward through 
the Athabascan and Saskatchewan river sys¬ 
tems ; some small streams in the south are of 
the Missouri system. The winters are mild, 
with little snow, and the summers hot and dry. 
The rainfall is small, but the melting snow in 
the mountains affords an abundance of water 
for irrigation. The winter storms are severe, 
but the warm west wind, the Chinook, disperses 
the snow rapidly, and cattle and horses graze 
all winter. The soil is good in the northern 
and eastern parts. Ranching and dairying are 
the chief industries; extensive irrigation has in¬ 
creased general farming in recent years. The 
natural resources are coal, petroleum, natural 
gas, building stone, and gold. The mountain 
district about Banff has been set apart by the 
Dominion Government as a national park. 
Three branches of the Canadian Pacific Rail¬ 
way (q.v.) traverse the territory, and a short 
independent line connects Lethbridge with the 
Great Northern Railway at Great Falls, Mon¬ 
tana. The projected lines of the Canadian 
Northern and Grand Trunk Pacific Railways 
(q.v.) will pass through Edmonton and the 
northern part. Pop. (1904) about 70,000. On 
1 Sept. 1905 the western portion of Atha¬ 
basca was added to Alberta, thus nearly dou¬ 
bling its area and materially increasing its 
population. 

Alber'tus Magnus, or Albert the Great, 

Count of Bollstadt, a distinguished German 
scholar of the 13th century: b. 1200; d. 1280. 
He studied at Padua, became a monk of the Do¬ 
minican order, teaching in the schools of Hildes- 
'heim, Ratisbon, and Cologne, where Thomas 
Aquinas became his pupil. In 1245 he went to 
Paris and publicly expounded the doctrines of 
Aristotle. It was through his teaching that the 
philosophy of the Stagyrite became predomi¬ 
nant in the Middle Ages. He became a rector 
in the school of Cologne, in 1249; in 1254 he 
was made provincial, of his order in Germany; 
and in 1260 he received from Pope Alexander 
IV. the appointment of Bishop of Ratisbon. 


In 1263 he retired to his convent at Cologne, 
where he composed many works, especially com¬ 
mentaries on Aristotle. 

Albicore, or Albacore. See Tunny. 

Albigenses, a religious sect, coming first 
into prominence in the 12th century, and taking 
its name from Albi, their principal stronghold. 
What their doctrines were has not been deter¬ 
mined, as no formal statement of them was ever 
drawn up. It appears that the Albigenses held 
beliefs similar to those of the Patarins in Italy, 
the Bulgarians in France, and other similar 
sects. They styled themselves Cathari the Pure 
and traced their doctrines to the Manichean sect 
known as Paulicians, that settled in Bulgaria, 
whence their tenets spread to France. 

They taught the doctrine of the Manicheans, 
that there are two opposing creative principles, 
one good, the other evil; the invisible word pro¬ 
ceeding from the former, the body and all ma¬ 
terial things from the latter. <( Their teachers 
assumed a great simplicity of manners, dress, 
and mode of life. They inveighed against the 
vices and worldliness of the clergy, and there 
was sufficient truth in their censures to dispose 
their hearers to believe what they advanced and 
reject what they decried. They also rejected 
the Old Testament, said that infant baptism 
was useless, and denied marriage to the ( per- 
fect ) as they called their more austere members.® 
(Addis and Arnold’s ( Catholic Dictionary^) 

On the other hand the license permitted to 
the imperfect gave rise to so much fanaticism 
and grave social and moral disorders as to 
threaten the destruction of Christian civilization 
in the heart of France. They had increased 
very much toward the close of the 12th century 
in the south of France, about Toulouse and Albi, 
and in Raymond, Count of Toulouse, they found 
a patron and protector. Innocent III., after 
trying in vain to reform the abuses prevalent 
among them, was so incensed by the assassina¬ 
tion of the papal legate, Peter of Castelnau, in 
1208, that he proclaimed a crusade against tlrem, 
and was supported by the king of France. 

An army was accordingly collected, large 
numbers of those composing it being mere mer¬ 
cenaries and adventurers brought together by 
the hope of plunder rather than by zeal for the 
Catholic faith. The chief leader was Simon de 
Montfort, father of the well-known Earl of 
Leicester. Raymond’s territories were ravaged, 
and in 1209 the crusaders took Beziers by storm, 
and put a number of the inhabitants to the 
sword. Simon de Montfort was equally severe 
toward other places in the territory of Ray¬ 
mond and his allies, of whom Roger, nephew 
of Raymond, died in a prison and Peter I., 
king of Aragon, in battle. The lands taken 
were presented, as a reward for his services, 
to Simon de Montfort, who, however, was 
killed at the siege of Toulouse in 1218. When 
Innocent III. heard of the cruelties of the 
invading armies he recalled his legate Milo 
for his weakness in not restraining Simon and 
restored to Raymond the captured territory. 
Soon after, however, Raymond once more es¬ 
poused the cause of the Albigenses. He died in 
1222, under excommunication, and his son, Ray¬ 
mond VII., was obliged to defend his inherit¬ 
ance against the legates and Louis VIII. of 
France, who fell in 1226 in a campaign against 
the Albigenses. After thousands had^ fallen on 


ALBINISM — ALBUFERA 


both sides a peace was made in 1229 by the 
terms of which Raymond was released from the 
penalties in consideration of a large tribute. He 
ceded Narbonne, with several estates, to Louis 
IX., and made his son-in-law, a brother of 
Louis, heir of his other lands. 

Albinism, a condition in which there is a 
congenital absence of pigment in the hair, eye, 
and. skin.. Animals so affected are albinos. 
Albinism is also present in the flowers of many 
if not all plants, white flowers occurring among 
those of other color on the same plant. Albinos 
have been known among all races and all peo¬ 
ples, hence neither climate nor race are its caus¬ 
ative factors. Rare in many races, it occurs 
frequently in others, as for instance in the Zuni 
and other tribes of Arizona. The most widely 
accepted theory is that the condition is due to an 
arrest of development of the pigment layers in 
the embryo. Affections of the eye are the most 
important disagreeable features for albinos. 

Albion, the earliest name by which the 
island of Great Britain was known, employed by 
Aristotle, and in poetry still used for Great 
Britain. The Greeks and Romans probably re¬ 
ceived the name from the Gauls, in whose lan¬ 
guage it would mean mountain-land or white- 
land, from the Celtic alp, alb, said to mean high 
or white (whence also Alps), the latter name 
being given to it in reference to the chalky 
cliffs on the coasts. 

Albion, Mich., city in Calhoun County, 
situated on Kalamazoo River, the Lake Shore 
& M. S. and the Michigan C. R.R.’s, 28 miles 
south of Lansing. It has three banks, with a 
combined capital of $185,000; six churches and 
good schools. Albion College (q.v.) is located 
here. There are manufactures of doors and 
sashes, tools, harness and carriages. It is gov¬ 
erned by common council of eight members, 
elected yearly. First settled in 1831, became 
a borough in 1855, incorporated in 1885. Pop. 
(1900) 4,519. W. S. Kennedy, 

Editor ( Recorder? 

Albion, N. Y., the county-seat of Orleans 
County, on the New York Central R.R. and the 
Erie Canal, about 43 m. northeast of Buffalo. It 
has two banks, public parks, a free library, sev¬ 
eral schools and churches, and 5 newspapers. 
The House of Refuge for Women is located 
here. The most important manufactures are 
mowing-machines, carriages, shoes, and plows. 
There are large stone quarries here and several 
fruit canneries. The city is lighted by electric¬ 
ity. The affairs of the community are adminis¬ 
tered by a mayor and board of trustees. Albion 
was first settled in 1812, incorporated 1828. Pop. 
(1900) 5,749- 

Albion, New. See New Albion. 

Albion College, a coeducational institu¬ 
tion in Albion, Mich., organized under the 
auspices of the Methodist Episcopal Church. 
Professors and instructors, 25; students, 454; 
volumes in the library, 15,000; grounds and 
buildings valued at $80,000; productive funds, 
$228,000; income, $29,000; graduates, 986. 

Albite, an important member of the feld¬ 
spar group of minerals. It stands at one end of 
the albite-anorthite series of triclinic feldspars 
(see Feldspar Group). It is a sodium-alumi¬ 
num silicate. Na A 1 Si 3 0 8 , and is often called 


(( soda feldspar.® It has perfect basal cleavage 
and also cleaves easily parallel to the brachypin- 
acoid. It is brittle, breaking with an uneven to 
conchoidal fracture. Its hardness is 6 to 6.5, and 
specific gravity > about 2.63. Its usual color is 
white, whence its name (from <( albus,® white), 
but it is occasionally gray or tinted with blue, 
green or red. The variety peristerite shows a 
delicate blue irridescence, similar to the <( change 
of colors® of moonstone, which is also some¬ 
times a variety of albite. Cleavelandite is a 
common lamellar variety, named in honor of the 
eminent mineralogist, Dr. P. Cleaveland, who 
died in 1858. Albite crystals present a great 
variety of forms, some of the simpler of which 
are quite similar to those of the monoclinic 
orthoclase, with which albite is often associated 
in parallel growths and intergrowths such as 
perthite. Twinning is even more common in 
albite than in orthoclase, and their analogy is 
shown by the occurrence of Carlsbad, Baveno 
and Manebach twins. Several other laws of 
twinning are, however, followed by albite, not¬ 
ably those known as the ft albite law® and the 
<( pericline law.® Both of these types are very 
common and often manifest themselves by the 
polysynthetic twinning lamellae which are so 
characteristic of the plagioclase feldspars. A 1 
bite often occurs in tabular crystals and 
embedded masses in which this twinning is re¬ 
vealed by striations on the basal plane. Prob¬ 
ably the most striking occurrence of albite is at 
Amelia, Va., this locality producing large groups 
of tabular crystals, each over a foot in length. 
It usually occurs in granite or gneiss, and less 
frequently in the crystalline schists. It is found 
but rarely in volcanic rocks and in limestones. 
Many of the most highly prized gem minerals, 
such as topaz, beryl and tourmaline occur in 
albitic granite, while albite is often a guide min¬ 
eral to columbite, allanite and other rarer min¬ 
erals. It is also an essential constituent of 
dioryte. There are many noteworthy localities 
in Switzerland, the Tyrol, Cornwall and else¬ 
where in Europe, while it abounds throughout 
' the Atlantic Coast States, and is found in espe¬ 
cially attractive specimens on amazonstone in 
Colorado. 

Albret, Jeanne d\ Queen of Navarre, 
daughter of Henry II. of Navarre and Margaret 
of Valois (sister of Francis I. of France), was 
the mother of Henry IV. of France, and a zeal¬ 
ous supporter of the reformed religion, which 
she established in her kingdom. She was b. in 
1528; d. 1572. She married Antoine de Bour¬ 
bon in 1548, succeeded her father on the throne 
of Navarre and Bearn in 1555, reigned in con¬ 
junction with her husband till his death in 1562, 
and afterward alone. 

Albright, Jacob, American minister of 
the Methodist Church; b. near Pottstown, Pa., 
1 May 1759; d. 1808. His work lay among the 
Germans of Pennsylvania. Becoming impressed 
with the decline of religious life and of the doc¬ 
trines and morals of the surrounding churches, 
he began a work of reform in 1790. He trav¬ 
eled about the country at his own expense, 
preaching his mission, until he founded in 1800 
the Evangelical Association (q.v.), often known 
as <( Albrights.® 

Albufera, a lake about 9 miles square near 
Valencia, Spain, supposed to have been exca¬ 
vated by the Moors. It is separated from the sea 


ALBULA — ALBURNUM 


by a strip of land. The revenues from the 
fisheries of the lake belonged at one time to the 
Duke of Wellington. 

Albula, a Swiss river in the Canton Gri- 
sons, an affluent of the Rhine, 29 m. in length, 
in which distance it falls over 4,500 feet. 

Albula Pass, at the head of the Albula 
Valley, about 7,600 ft. above the sea. In this 
pass is the most direct road from the valley 
of the Inn to the valley of the Hiter-Rhein. 
A railroad now runs through it. 

Album, among the Romans, a board or 
tablet on which official notices, such as the 
praetor's edicts, lists of the members of public 
bodies, etc., were written, and which was put up 
in some public place to be seen by all. It was 
so called either because it was of a white ma¬ 
terial {albas, white) or a material whitened, or 
because the writing on it was in white. Album 
is a name now generally given to a blank book 
for the reception of pieces of poetry, autographs, 
engravings, photographs, etc. 

Albu'men, or Albumin (L., from albas, 
white), a substance, or rather group of sub¬ 
stances, so named from the Latin for the white 
of an egg, which is one of its most abundant 
known forms. It may be taken as the type of the 
protein compounds or the nitrogenous class of 
food stuffs. One variety enters largely into the 
composition of the animal fluids and solids, is 
coagulable by heat at and above 160°, and is 
composed of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and 
oxygen, with a little sulphur. It abounds in the 
serum of the blood, the vitreous and crystalline 
humors of the eye, the fluid of dropsy, the sub¬ 
stance called coagulable lymph, in nutritive mat¬ 
ters, the juice of flesh, etc. The blood contains 
about 7 per cent of albumen. When albumen 
coagulates in any fluid it readily incloses any 
substances that may be suspended in the fluid. 
Hence it is used to clarify syrupy liquors. In 
cookery white of eggs is employed for clarifying, 
but in large operations like sugar-refining the 
serum of blood is used. From its being coagu¬ 
lable by various salts, and especially by corrosive 
sublimate, with which it forms an insoluble 
compound, white of egg is a convenient antidote 
in cases of poisoning by that substance. With 
lime it forms a cement to mend broken ware. 

In Botany .—A substance interposed between 
the embryo and the testa of many plants. It is 
sometimes soft and fleshy, and at other times 
hard. It varies greatly in amount in those plants 
in which it is present, being particularly large 
in some endogens, such as the cocoanut, in 
which it constitutes the eatable part of the fruit. 

In Photography .—A process by which albu¬ 
men is used instead of collodion to coat glass 
or paper. A method of doing this in the case of 
glass was published by M. Niepce de Saint Vic¬ 
tor in the ( Technologist ) for 1848. It was 
subsequently improved by M. le Gray. The 
foreign transparent stereoscopic views were at 
one time obtained by the use of albumen in the 
way now described. 

Albuminoid. See Proteids. 

Albuminuria, a condition characterized by 
the presence of albumen in the urine, irrespec¬ 
tive of any organic disease of the kidney. Thus 
there may be a functional or physiological al¬ 
buminuria, following excessive exercise, such as 


bicycling; febrile albuminuria as a result of 
fever, being especially common in malaria, pneu¬ 
monia, diphtheria, and typhoid; hemic albumi¬ 
nuria accompanying blood diseases, lukemia, 
anaemia, poisoning by lead and mercury, syphilis, 
etc. Any of these albuminurias may result in 
chronic disease. See Kidneys. 

Albunol, a town of southern Spain, in the 
province of Granada, near the Mediterranean, 
on which it has a harbor, some 35 m. to the 
south of the city of Granada. Pop. 9,400. 

Albuquerque, Affonso d’, al'bo-kark'e, 
«the Great,» Viceroy of the Indies: b. near 
Lisbon, 1453; d. in Goa, 16 Dec. I 5 I 5 - 1 he 

Portuguese had discovered and subjugated a 
great part of the western coast of Africa, and 
were beginning to extend their dominion over 
the seas and the people of India. Albuquerque, 
being appointed viceroy of these new possessions, 
with a fleet and some troops landed on the Mal¬ 
abar coast in 1503; conquered Goa, which he 
made the seat of the Portuguese government 
and the centre of its Asiatic commerce; and 
afterward Ceylon, the Sunda Isles, the Penin¬ 
sula of Malacca, and the island of Ormuz at 
the entrance of the Persian Gulf. When the 
king of Persia sent for the tribute which the 
princes of this island had formerly rendered to 
him, Albuquerque presented bullets and swords 
to the ambassador, saying: « This is the coin 

in which Portugal pays her tribute.® He made 
the Portuguese name profoundly respected 
among the princes and people of the East; and 
many of them, especially the kings of Siam and 
Pegu, sought his alliance and protection. He 
maintained strict military discipline, was active, 
far-seeing, wise, humane, and equitable, re¬ 
spected and feared by his neighbors while be¬ 
loved by his subjects. His virtues made such 
an impression on the Indian peoples that, long 
after his death, they resorted to his grave to 
implore his protection against the misgovern- 
ment of his successors. Yet he did not escape 
the envy of courtiers and the suspicions of his 
king, who appointed Soarez, a personal enemy 
of Albuquerque, to supersede him as viceroy. 
This news reached him just as he was leaving 
Ormuz, and gave a severe shock to his shattered 
health and he died a few days later. 

Albuquerque, al'be-kerk, N. M., town and 
county-seat of Bernalillo co.; * situated on the 
Rio Grande and the Atchison, T. & S. F. and the 
Santa Fe Pacific R.R.’s; 75 m. S.W. of Santa 
Fe. It has an elevation of 5,000 feet above sea- 
level ; .is an ancient and interesting settlement, 
divided into the Old and New towns; and is 
the seat of the University of New Mexico and of 
a government school for Indians. The town is 
located in a rich gold, silver, iron, and coal 
mining region, and has also an extensive trade in 
hides, grain, wool, and wine. There are a 
number of railroad shops, a foundry and ma¬ 
chine works, a national bank (capital about 
$150,000), and large trading and jobbing in¬ 
terests. Pop 0 (1900) 6,238. 

Albur num, the soft white substance 
which, in trees, is found between the liber or 
inner bark and the wood, and, in progress of 
time acquiring solidity, becomes itself the wood. 
A new layer of wood, or rather of alburnum, is 
added annually to the tree in every part just 
under the bark. 


ALCALA — ALCHEMY 


Alcala, name of seven cities in Spain, but 
by far the most important in Spanish history is 
Alcala de Henares, province of Toledo. Car¬ 
dinal Ximines began the first building of the 
University of Alcala in 1500. Francis I., in 
15 1 7, declared that the cardinal had done for 
Spain what it had taken many kings to do for 
France. It was in Alcala that the famous Com- 
plutensian Polyglot Bible was brought forth. 

Alchemist, The, a satirical comedy by 
Ben Jonson ; probably his greatest work. It was 
played in 1610, and published in 1612. Its sub¬ 
ject is the paramount folly of the time, the 
search for the philosopher’s stone. The Al¬ 
chemist is the quack Subtle, who, previous to 
exposure deludes the credulous characters of 
the play, the chief of whom is Sir Epicure 
Mammon. 

Alchemy, or Alchymy, the art which in 
former times occupied the place of and paved 
the way for the modern science of chemistry 
(as astrology did for astronomy), but whose 
aims were not scientific, being confined solely to 
the discovery of the means of indefinitely pro¬ 
longing human life, and of transmuting the 
baser metals into gold and silver. Probably the 
ancient nations, in their first attempts to melt 
metals, observing that the composition of differ¬ 
ent metals produced masses of a color unlike 
either — for instance, that a mixture like gold 
resulted from the melting together of copper and 
zinc — arrived at the conclusion that one metal 
could be changed into another. At an early 
period the desire of gold and silver grew strong 
as luxury increased, and men indulged the hope 
of obtaining these rarer metals from the more 
common. At the same time the love of life led 
to the idea of finding a remedy against all 
diseases, a means of lessening the infirmities of 
age, of renewing youth, and repelling death. 
The hope of realizing these ideas prompted the 
efforts of several men, who taught their doc¬ 
trines through mystical images and symbols. 
To transmute metals they thought it necessary 
to find a substitute which, containing the origi¬ 
nal principle of all matter, should possess the 
power of dissolving all into its elements. This 
general solvent or menstruum universale, which 
at the same time was to possess the power of 
removing all the seeds of disease out of the 
human body and renewing life, was called the 
philosopher’s stone, lapis philosophorum, and its 
pretended possessors adepts. The more obscure 
the ideas which the alchemists themselves had 
of the appearances occurring in their experi¬ 
ments, the more they endeavored to express 
themselves in symbolical language. Afterward 
they retained this phraseology to conceal their 
secrets from the uninitiated. In Egypt Hermes 
Trismegistus was said to have left behind him 
many books of chemical, magical, and alchemical 
learning. These, however, are of a later date. 
(See Hermes Trismegistus.) After him chem¬ 
istry and alchemy received the name of the 
hermetic art. It is certain that the ancient 
Egyptians possessed considerable chemical and 
metallurgical knowledge, although the origin of 
alchemy cannot with certainty be attributed to 
them. Several Grecians became acquainted with 
the writings of the Egyptians, and initiated in 
their chemical knowledge. The fondness for 
magic, and for alchemy more particularly, spread 


afterward among the Romans also. When true 
science was persecuted under the Roman tyrants, 
superstition and false philosophy flourished the 
more. The prodigality of the Romans excited 
the desire for gold, and led them to pursue the 
art which promised it instantaneously and abun¬ 
dantly. Caligula made experiments with a view 
of obtaining gold from orpiment. On the other 
hand, Diocletian ordered all books to be burned 
that taught to manufacture gold and silver by 
alchemy. At that time many books on alchemy 
were written, and falsely inscribed with the 
names of renowned men of antiquity. Thus a 
number of writings were ascribed to Democritus, 
and more to Hermes, which were written by 
Egyptian monks and hermits, and which, as the 
Tabula Smaragdina, taught in allegories, with 
mystical and symbolical figures, the way to dis¬ 
cover the philosopher’s stone. At a later period 
chemistry and alchemy were cultivated among 
the Arabians. In the 8th century the first 
chemist, commonly said to be Geber, flourished 
among them, in whose works rules are given for 
preparing quicksilver and other metals. In the 
Middle Ages the monks devoted themselves to 
alchemy, although they were afterward pro¬ 
hibited from studying it by the popes. But 
there was one even among these, John XXII., 
who was fond of alchemy. Raymond Lully, or 
Lullius, was one of the most famous alchemists 
in the 13th and 14th centuries. A story is 
told of him that during his stay in London he 
changed for King Edward I. a mass of 50,000 
pounds of quicksilver into gold, of which the 
first rose-nobles were coined. The study of 
alchemy was prohibited at Venice in 1488. Para¬ 
celsus, who was highly celebrated about 1525, 
belongs to the renowned alchemists, as do Roger 
Bacon, Basilius Valentinus, and many others. 
When, however, more rational principles of 
chemistry and philosophy began to be diffused 
and to shed light on chemical phenomena, the 
rage for alchemy gradually decreased, though 
many persons, including some nobles, still re¬ 
mained devoted to it. Alchemy has, however, 
afforded some service to chemistry, and even to 
medicine. Chemistry was first carefully studied 
by the alchemists, to whose labor and patience 
we are indebted for several useful discoveries, 
for example, various preparations of quicksilver, 
kermes, etc. 

It is still impossible to assert anything with 
certainty about the transmutation of metals. 
Modern chemistry, indeed, places metals in the 
class of elements, and denies the possibility of 
changing an inferior metal into gold. Most of 
the accounts of such transmutation rest on fraud 
or delusion, although some of them are accom¬ 
panied with circumstances and testimony which 
render them probable. By means of the galvanic 
battery even the alkalies have been discovered 
to have a metallic base. The possibility of obtain¬ 
ing metal from other substances which contain 
the ingredients composing it, and of changing 
one metal into another, or rather of re¬ 
fining it, must therefore be left undecided. Nor 
are all alchemists to be considered impostors. 
Many have labored, under the conviction of the 
possibility of obtaining their object, with inde¬ 
fatigable patience and purity of heart (which is 
earnestly recommended by sound alchemists as 
the principal requisite for the success of their 
labors). Designing men, however, have often 


ALCIATI — ALCMiEON 


used alchemy as a mask for their covetousness, 
and as a means of defrauding silly people of 
their money. Many persons even in our days, 
destitute of sound chemical knowledge, have 
been led by old books on alchemy, which they 
did not understand, into long, expensive, and 
fruitless labors. Hitherto chemistry has not 
succeeded in unfolding the principles by which 
metals are formed, the laws of their production, 
their growth and refinement, and in aiding or 
imitating this process of nature; consequently 
the labor of the alchemist is but a groping in the 
dark. 

Alciati, Andrea, Italian jurist and poet: 
b. Milan, 8 May 1492; d. Pavia, 12 Jan. 1550. 
For many years an advocate in Milan, he treated 
the objects of legal science to keen criticism, and 
was founder of the so-called (( elegant® school of 
law. He also wrote several antiquarian and 
historical essays, but his most popular work 
was the ( Emblems } (Milan 1522), epigram¬ 
matic poems on his contemporaries’ virtues 
and vices. Of the numerous editions of this 
work several are chiefly sought on account of 
their wood-engravings. Editions of his ( Com¬ 
plete Works > in Latin: 4 vols. Basle, 1546-9; 
6 vols. Lyons, 1560-1; 4 vols. Frankfort, 1617. 
Cf. C. Mignault’s ( Life of Alciati ) (Milan, 

1584). 

Alcibiades, son of Cleinias, an Athenian of 
high family: b. in Athens 450 b.c ; d. 404 b.c. 
His father, who died a few years after his 
birth, had greatly distinguished himself in the 
Persian wars, and had taken a prominent part 
in the expulsion of the Peisistratidae. Alcibiades 
was a relation of Pericles, who was his joint 
guardian along with Ariphron. He was re¬ 
markable in youth for the beauty of his person, 
the dissoluteness of his manners, the determina¬ 
tion of his character, and the greatness of his 
abilities. He came under the influence of Socra¬ 
tes, who tried to lead him into the paths of 
virtue; but though their friendship was strength¬ 
ened by mutual obligations, each having saved 
the other in battle, the passions of Alcibiades 
were too strong for advice, and little permanent 
effect was produced on his character. He ac¬ 
quired great popularity by his liberality in pro¬ 
viding for the amusements of the people, and 
although guilty of many violent, extravagant, 
and audacious acts, he had, after the death of 
Cleon, a political ascendency which left him no 
rival but Nicias. Both at first cultivated alliance 
with Sparta, to which Alcibiades had a hered¬ 
itary partiality, but the Spartans trusting more 
to Nicias, be was offended, and induced the 
Athenians to break with Sparta and ally them¬ 
selves with Argos, Elis, and Mantineia (in the 
Peloponnesian war). In 419 he was chosen 
strategos, and led a small army into the Pelopon¬ 
nesus with which some important operations 
were effected. In 415 he advocated the Sicilian 
war, and was chosen one of the leaders of the 
expedition appointed to conduct it; but before 
it sailed he was charged with profaning and 
divulging the Eleusinian mysteries, and mutilat¬ 
ing the busts of Hermes which were set up in 
public all through Athens. He was permitted to 
take his place in the expedition, but was recalled 
before his plans could be accomplished. He 
made his escape and went to Sparta, where he 
was well received. He divulged the plans of the 


Athenians, and assisted the Spartans to defeat 
them. Sentence of death and confiscation was 
pronounced against him at Athens, and he was 
cursed by the ministers of religion. He induced 
the Athenian dependencies of Athens to revolt, 
and made alliance with Tissaphernes, a Persian 
satrap. Soon after he abandoned Sparta and 
took refuge with the Persian, ingratiating him¬ 
self by his affectation of Persian manners as he 
had previously done at Sparta by a similar affec¬ 
tation of Spartan simplicity. He now began to 
intrigue for his return to Athens, offering to 
bring Tissaphernes over to the Athenian alliance. 
His intrigue led to the establishment of an oli¬ 
garchy (the Four Hundred), but they did not 
recall him. The fleet, however, which was sta¬ 
tioned at Samos declared in favor of a democ¬ 
racy and recalled him. The revolution was 
effected at Athens without the return of the 
armament, and the banishment of Alcibiades was 
cancelled. He remained abroad, however, for 
some years in command of the Athenian forces, 
gained several victories, and took Chalcedon and 
Byzantium. In 407 b.c. he returned to Athens, 
where all proceedings against him were can¬ 
celled, but in 406, the fleet which he commanded 
having suffered a severe defeat, he was deprived 
of his command. He retired to the Thracian 
Chersonesus, where he made war with mercena¬ 
ries on the Thracian tribes. On the establishment 
of the Thirty at Athens a decree of banishment 
was passed against him. He took refuge with 
Pharnabazus, a Persian satrap, and was about 
to proceed to the court of Persia when he was 
assassinated, probably through private revenge. 

Alcinous, said to have been a king of the 
Phaeacians, in the island now called Corfu. 
See Ulysses. 

Alciphron, al'si-fron, a Greek rhetorician 
who flourished in the 2d century of the Chris¬ 
tian era and attained celebrity through his series 
of more than a hundred imaginary letters pur¬ 
porting to be written by the very dregs of the 
Athenian population, including courtesans and 
petty rogues. Their importance in literature 
is due almost wholly to the insight they afford 
into the social conditions and manners and 
morals of the day. The letters from the cour¬ 
tesans ( hetairai ) are based upon incidents in 
Menander’s lost plays, and the new Attic comedy 
was likewise drawn upon for material. 

Alciphron, or The Minute Philosopher. 

See Berkeley, Bishop. 

Alcira, a well-built and strongly-fortified 
town of Spain, in the province of Valencia, on 
an island encircled by two arms of the river 
Jucar, some 25 m. from Valencia. It was 
founded by the Carthaginians. Pop. 20,000. 

Alcmaeon, alk-me'on, a son of Amphiaraus 
and Eriphyle, was one of the heroes who took 
part in the successful expedition of the Epigoni 
against Thebes. He was charged by his father 
to put his mother to death in revenge for her 
having urged her husband to take part in an 
expedition in which his foresight showed him 
he should perish. She had been gained over to 
urge this fatal course by a gift from Polynices 
of the fatal necklace of Harmonia. The matri¬ 
cide brought upon Alcmaeon madness and the 
horror of being haunted by the Furies, but at 
Psophis he was purified by Phegeus, whose 
daughter he married, giving her the fata! 


ALCMAN — ALCOHOL 


present. But the land became barren in conse¬ 
quence of his presence, and he fled to the mouth 
of the river Achelous, the god of which gave 
him his daughter Callirrhoe in marriage. His 
new wife longed for the fatal necklace, and sent 
her husband to Psophis to procure it under the 
pretence of dedicating it at Delhi; but Phegeus, 
learning for whom it was really intended, caused 
his sons to murder the ill-fated Alcmseon. 

Aleman, one of the earliest and greatest of 
Greek lyric poets, belonging to the 7th century 
b.c. He is supposed to have been a native of 
Lydia, and to have been taken as a slave to 
Sparta. Only small fragments of his odes re¬ 
main. He used the broad, homely Doric dialect. 
His poems were love ditties, hymns, pseans, pro¬ 
cessional chants, etc. 

Alcmene, or Alkmene, alk-me'ne, in 

Greek mythology, the daughter of Anaxo and 
Electryon, king of Mycenae. She became the 
mother of Hercules through Zeus, who took the 
form of her husband Amphitryon. Finally Zeus 
bade Hermes guide her to the Islands of the 
Blest, where she was happily united with Rha- 
damanthus. 

Alco, a small variety of dog, with a small 
head and large pendulous ears, found wild in 
Mexico and Peru, and also domesticated. 

Alcobaga, a small town of Portugal, in 
Estremadura, 50 m. N. of Lisbon, at the junc¬ 
tion of the Alcoa and Baga; is celebrated for a 
magnificent Cistercian monastery, the richest in 
the kingdom. It was founded in 1148 by Don 
Alphonso I. The buildings include an early 
Gothic church, containing the tombs of some of 
the Portuguese kings. The library is said to 
possess more than 25,000 volumes. Parts of the 
buildings are used for barracks. 

Alcock, Sir Rutherford, diplomat: b. Ea¬ 
ling, 1809; d. London, 2 Nov. 1897. Educated as 
a physician, he served as surgeon with British 
troops in Spain and Portugal 1832-6; and was 
appointed consul at Fuchow 1844. On the 
way his services were requisitioned at 
Amoy, where, with Sir Harry Parkes, he 
succeeded in convincing the Chinese of¬ 
ficials that treaty agreements were to be 
respected and kept. Transferred to Shanghai 
he showed courage and determination by pro¬ 
claiming that English ships would pay no duties, 
and that 1,400 grain junks then waiting to sail 
would not be allowed to go until the murderers 
of some missionaries were seized and punished. 
Though only one British sloop of war was in the 
harbor at the time, his bold attitude succeeded. 
He was appointed first consul-general in Japan 
1858, and created K. C. B. 1862. As minister 
at Peking (1865) he conducted many difficult 
negotiations with tact and success. Retiring, in 
1871, he devoted himself to medical charities, 
promotion of geographical studies, and the fur¬ 
therance of a knowledge of Japanese art. 
Works: ( Medical History and Statistics of the 

British Legion in Spain > (1838); Japanese 

Grammar } (1861); ( Capital of the Tycoon > 
(1863); ( Art and Art Industries in Japan > 
{1878). 

Alcofribas Nasier, pseudonym sometimes 
used by Rabelais (q.v.). 

Al'cohol. (Origin of the word somewhat 
obscure. According to most authorities it is 


from the Arabic al-koh’l, koKl being the finely- 
powdered black sulphid of antimony used in 
the East for painting the eyebrows. First used 
to signify this powder, it afterward stood for 
any fine powder obtained by trituration or sub¬ 
limation ; then for any essence or spirit, and 
lastly for the liquid to which it is now applied. 
In the latter part of the 16th century spirit dried 
over powdered carbonate of potash was called 
spiritus alcolisatus ; but Kopp suggests that this 
is a corruption of spiritus alcalisatus, signifying 
spirit that has been treated with alkali, and that 
alcolized [or alcoholized] spirit was then short¬ 
ened to alcohol.) 

1. Ethyl Alcohol. — Unless otherwise quali¬ 
fied, (( alcohol® is understood to mean the liquid 
known to the chemist as (( ethyl alcohol,® and 
to the trade as «grain alcohol,® or <( spirits of 
wine.® It is colorless and inflammable, burning 
with a flame that is intensely hot but almost 
non-luminous. Most of the alcohol used in the 
arts is produced by the fermentation of sugars 
or starches. A thin paste is made from molasses, 
finely ground corn or potatoes, or other natural 
products containing sugars or starches, and a 
small quantity of malt or other agent containing 
diastase (q.v.) is added. The mixture is then 
allowed to stand until the diastase has trans¬ 
formed the starch into dextrose (glucose). 
Taking the chemical formula of starch as 
(CeHioCL)3 for the sake of illustration, we may 
have either of the following reactions as the 
primary effect of the diastase: 

(C 6 H 10 O 5 ) 3 4" H 2 o = (C 6 H 10 O 5 ) 2 -f- c 6 H 12 o 6 

Starch Water Dextrin Dextrose 

(C 6 H 10 O 5 ) 3 + 2H 2 0= Cj 2 H 2 2^2 j-f-CgH! 2 0 6 
Starch Water Maltose Dextrose 

Neither dextrin nor maltose is directly ferment¬ 
able, but each slowly becomes further trans¬ 
formed into dextrose, as appears from the fol¬ 
lowing equations: 

(CgHj 0 O 5 ) 2 -f- 2 H 2 0 = 2 C 6 H 12 0 6 
Dextrin Water Dextrose 

Ci 2 H 22 0 11 T H 2 0 = 2 C 6 H 12 0 6 
Maltose Water Dextrose 

The reduction to dextrose (glucose) being now 
complete, yeast is added, and the temperature 
is maintained at from 72 0 to 85° F. Under the 
influence of the yeast-plant ( Saccharomyces 
cerevisioc or Torula cerevisicc ) the dextrose then 
undergoes fermentation, alcohol and carbon- 
dioxid being the chief products, according to 
the equation: 

C 6 H 12 0 6 = 2 C 2 H 6 0 + 2 C 0 2 

Dextrose Alcohol Carbon- 

dioxid 

(A certain amount of nitrogenous and mineral 
matter must be present, in addition to the starch 
and sugar, in order to furnish food for the yeast- 
plant.) The next step in the process is to 
distil off the alcohol from the fermented prod¬ 
uct. This is usually done in a still heated by 
steam. One or more redistillations may be 
necessary in order to obtain the alcohol in a 
satisfactory state of purity and strength. The 
product of the original fermentation is weak in 
alcohol, but the subsequent distillations effect a 
great concentration, since alcohol is far more 
volatile than water and therefore passes off 
first. The British Pharmacopoeia requires recti¬ 
fied spirits (produced as described above) to 


ALCOHOL 


have a specific gravity of 0.838, which is equiv¬ 
alent to 84 per cent of alcohol by weight. The 
United States Pharmacopoeia fixes the specific 
gravity at 0.820, which corresponds to 91 per 
cent of alcohol by weight. It is possible to ob¬ 
tain this latter degree of concentration by 
ordinary distillation; but it is not possible to 
free the alcohol entirely from water without dis¬ 
tilling it with potassium-carbonate, quicklime, 
calcium-chloride, or some similar substance pos¬ 
sessing sufficient affinity for water to prevent the 
water from passing over. The best way to elim¬ 
inate the last traces of water is to digest strong 
alcohol with quicklime for two hours at about 
ioo° F., and then distil, rejecting the first and 
last portions of the distillate. The product is 
then subjected to the same treatment a second 
time, after which it will probably be free from 
water. Alcohol thus deprived of the last trace 
of water is termed (( absolute ® or <( anhydrous ® 
alcohol. Its chemical formula is C2H5.OH, and 
its specific gravity is 0.80625 at 32 0 F., and 
0.79367 at 59 0 F. Absolute alcohol boils at 
173.1 0 F., when the barometer stands at 29.92 
inches (760 mm.). It freezes at about 200° 
below zero F., first becoming very viscid. Its 
low freezing-point has led to its use as a ther¬ 
mometric fluid for the measurement of low tem¬ 
peratures. Its specific heat is variously estimat¬ 
ed, but is in the vicinity of 0.61. Absolute 
alcohol has a powerful affinity for water, and 
it is therefore used as an astringent, and _(for 
certain purposes) as an antiseptic. When ex¬ 
posed to the air it quickly absorbs a sensible 
amount of aqueous vapor, and ceases to be <( ab¬ 
solute.® According to the experiments of At¬ 
water, the human body is capable of oxidizing 
about two ounces of it per day, since this amount 
can be administered without any evidence of 
alcohol appearing in the excreta. Alcohol mixes 
with water in all proportions, and is extensively 
used as a solvent for substances that do not 
dissolve in water: notably for organic substances 
and for alkaloids and drugs. When absolute 
alcohol is mixed with water the volume of the 
mixture is considerably less than the sum of the 
volumes of the constituents. The specific grav¬ 
ity of such a mixture therefore cannot be de¬ 
duced by any simple formula; but it has been 
found by direct experiment, and tabulated, for 
all possible mixtures and temperatures. The 
strength of a given mixture of alcohol and water 
may be found by observing the specific gravity 
of the mixture at a definite temperature by 
means of a hydrometer (q.v.) and then referring 
to the tables. The greatest contraction of vol¬ 
ume observed upon mixing absolute alcohol and 
water occurs when 49.8 volumes of water are 
mixed with 53.9 volumes of absolute alcohol, 
both liquids being at 32 0 F. The volume of 
the mixture is then 100, instead of 103.7, as it 
would be if there were no contraction. Men- 
deleeff points out that this particular mixture 
corresponds to a possible compound having the 
formula C2HGO.3H2O; but it has not been con¬ 
clusively proved that such compound exists. An 
alcohol containing 49.3 per cent (by weight) of 
absolute alcohol is known in the arts and for 
excise purposes as <( proof spirit.® This term 
was originally intended to denote alcohol just 
strong enough to ignite gunpowder when 
burned upon it; but it was defined by law in 
the reign of George III. of England to be spirit 


«such as shall, at the temperature of 51 0 F., 
weigh exactly twelve-thirteenth parts of an equal 
amount of distilled water® (Watts). At 6o° F. 
proof spirit has a specific gravity of 0.920. A 
mixture stronger or weaker than this is said to 
be (respectively) overproof or underproof. Dis¬ 
tilled liquors, such as whiskey, brandy, and gin, 
contain from 40 to 50 per cent of absolute alco¬ 
hol, wines from 7 to 20, ale and porter from 
5 to 7, and beer from 2 to 10. Alcohol coag¬ 
ulates albumen, and, partly for this reason and 
partly because of its action in arresting the 
development of micro-organisms, it prevents the 
putrefaction of dead animal matter. 1 he alkali 
metals attack absolute alcohol rapidly with the 
formation of compounds variously known as 
alcoholates, alcohates, and alcoates, but more 
definitely and correctly as <( ethylates.® Thus al¬ 
cohol may be regarded as water in which one 
atom of hydrogen has been replaced by a mole¬ 
cule of the organic radical ethyl, C2H5, and, 
water being H-O-H, the formula for alcohol 
may be written (C2H 5 )~0~H. An alkali metal, 
when it combines with alcohol, merely replaces 
the H at the right of this formula; and sodium 
ethylate (for example) is therefore (C2H5) - 
0 ~Na, or simply C 2 H 5 ONa. The commonest 
test for alcohol in small quantities consists in 
warming the suspected liquid (or its distillate) 
with caustic potash and iodine. If alcohol is 
present iodoform comes down after a time as a 
precipitate. In England the use of alcohol in 
the arts is permitted without the payment of an 
excise tax, provided the alcohol contains 10 per 
cent of methyl alcohol (wood spirit). Alcohol 
so treated is known as (< methylated spirit ® ; it 
is unfit for drinking, and the methyl alcohol 
that it contains cannot be readily removed. Al¬ 
cohol can be prepared directly from its elements 
as follows: Acetylene (q.v.), C 2 H 2 , will com 
bine directly with hydrogen to form olefiant gas, 
C2H4; concentrated sulphuric acid will absorb 
olefiant gas with the formation of hydrogen- 
ethyl-sulphate, C2H5.HSO4 ; and if the product 
so obtained is diluted with water and boiled, 
alcohol is formed in accordance with the equa¬ 
tion : 

C 2 H 5 .HS04+ H2O = H2SO4+ C2H5.OH. 

This process is of considerable theoretic inter¬ 
est, and is said to be in commercial use in Rus¬ 
sia. Until carbide of calcium (“from which 
acetylene is prepared) can be had more cheaply, 
however, it can hardly be successfully used in 
the United States. 

2. Wood Alcohol, or Methyl Alcohol .— A 
colorless, inflammable liquid, strongly resem¬ 
bling ethyl alcohol in its general properties. It 
burns with a flame resembling that of grain 
alcohol, but with sensibly less evolution of heat. 
It is far cheaper than grain alcohol, because 
there is no excise tax upon it; in many uses it 
may be substituted for grain alcohol with suc¬ 
cess, its solvent powers being very similar. It 
cannot be used internally, however, as it is of 
a poisonous nature, and has a peculiar selective 
action upon the optic nerve, in which it often 
induces a condition of permanent atrophy with 
consequent total blindness. Methyl alcohol is 
obtained by the dry distillation of wood. The 
process, as carried out in New York State, is 
substantially as follows: Hardwood is cut into 
cordwood size and allowed to season thoroughly. 


ALCOHOL 


two-year-old wood being dry enough to yield 
excellent results. Beech, maple, and birch are 
most commonly used, birch being the poorest of 
the three, because it yields a larger proportion 
of objectionable tarry matter. The seasoned 
wood is placed in retorts of cast iron or sheet 
steel, which are cylindrical in general shape, 
and large enough to hold rather more than half 
a cord each. A slow fire is then built under 
the retorts, its intensity being gradually in¬ 
creased as the distillation progresses, and regu¬ 
lated so that at the end of from 12 to 18 hours 
nothing remains in the retort but charcoal. The 
distillate is passed through a condenser, by 
which a portion is condensed into a watery fluid, 
while another and very considerable portion 
passes through in the form of a permanent, non- 
condensable gas. The non-condensable part con¬ 
sists largely of marsh gas, hydrogen, carbon- 
dioxid, and carbon-monoxid, together with 
smaller amounts of acetylene and numerous 
other substances. No attempt is made to utilize 
this portion of the product except as fuel. The 
portion that condenses consists largely of acetic 
acid and methyl alcohol, together with acetate of 
methyl and acetone, and a considerable quantity 
of tarry matter. The condensed distillate is 
passed into settling-tanks, where it is allowed 
to remain until the greater part of the tarry 
matter has subsided. The lighter part is then 
drawn off and saturated with slaked lime to 
fix the acetic acid. A second distillation expels 
the methyl alcohol, which is recovered by means 
of a condenser and shipped to the refiners in 
iron tanks, being known to the trade in this 
form as (< wood spirit.® The acetate of lime 
remaining behind is then recovered by evapora¬ 
tion and spread out upon a heated floor to 
dry. 

Acetate of lime, as it comes from the alcohol 
manufacturer, is brown in color, from the tarry 
impurities that it contains. It is used in the 
manufacture of acetic acid and the various ace¬ 
tates (notably those of iron and aluminum) 
that are used in dyeing and in printing upon 
cloth. The impure methyl alcohol, or «wood 
spirit,® that is shipped from the factory to the 
refiner, usually contains 80 per cent of alcohol 
and 20 per cent of water. The yield of spirit 
of this strength varies greatly, according to the 
skill and care exercised by the manufacturer; 
but in the best plants it may be taken at from 
eight to nine gallons per cord of good wood. 
Crude wood spirit contains considerable empy- 
reumatic matter as well as acetone, acetate of 
methyl, and acetate of ammonia. Pure methyl 
alcohol may be prepared by saturating the crude 
spirit with fused calcium chloride (CaCh) and 
heating on a water-bath. Methyl alcohol com¬ 
bines with calcium chloride, under these condi¬ 
tions forming a compound which can be readily 
purified, and from which the alcohol can again 
be recovered by distilling with water. A final dis¬ 
tillation over quicklime will give the alcohol in 
its anhydrous or « absolute ® state. Pure methyl 
alcohol, free from water, has a specific gravity 
at 32 0 F. of 0.8101. Its chemical formula is 
CH3.OH; it is the hydrate of the organic radical 
«methyl ® (CH 3 ), being analogous in this re¬ 
spect to ethyl alcohol, which is the hydrate of 
the organic radical (( ethyl ® (QH 3 ). It boils at 
about 151 0 F. under ordinary atmospheric pres¬ 
sure. 


3. Alcohol. — In organic chemistry, a member 
of a numerous class of compounds consisting 
of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and derived 
from hydrocarbons containing an even number 
of hydrogen atoms by the substitution of one or 
more hydroxyl molecules (HO) for an equal 
number of hydrogen atoms. The alcohols, as 
thus defined, include the two substances de¬ 
scribed above, and also many others (such as 
glycerin) whose properties at first sight appear 
to be radically different from those of either 
ethyl or methyl alcohol. Alcohols are classified 
as monohydric, dihydric, trihydric, tetrahydric, 
pentahydric, and hexahydric, according as they 
contain one, two, three, four, five, or six mole¬ 
cules of hydroxyl (OH). Thus ethyl alcohol, 
C2IT5OH, is monohydric, while glycerin, 
C3H5. (OH) 3 , is trihydric. In the present ar¬ 
ticle only the monohydric alcohols will be con¬ 
sidered. These are divisible into five general 
series as follows: (a) Those having the gen¬ 
eral formula CnH 2 n +1.OH; they are derived 
from the paraffins, CnH 2 n + 2 , by the substitu¬ 
tion of one molecule of OH for one atom of 
hydrogen, and are known as the <( fatty alco¬ 
hols.® ( b ) Those having the formula CnH 2 n — 
i.OH. Allyl alcohol is the most familiar mem¬ 
ber of this series. Its formula is C 3 H 3 .OH. 

(c) Those having the general formula 
CnH 2 n- 3 .OH. No familiar example can be given. 

( d ) Those having the general formula CnH 2 n—• 
t.OH. This series is derived from the aromatic 
series of hydrocarbons, just as the first series 
given above is derived from the paraffins. Thus, 
when hydrogen peroxid, H 2 0 2 , acts upon ben¬ 
zene, CeH 6 , we have CsHed - H 2 0 2 = : H 2 0 + 
GH5.OH, the last expression in this equation 
being the formula of phenyl alcohol, or (as 
it is more familiarly known) carbolic acid. 

( e ) Those having the general formula CnH 2 n—- 
d.OH. Cholesterin belongs to this series. It will 
be evident that the complete discussion of even 
the monohydric alcohols would be impossible in 
the present place; hence in what follows atten¬ 
tion will be confined to the fatty or paraffin 
series of monohydric alcohols, having the gen¬ 
eral formula CnH 2 n +1.OH. No less than 17 
distinct members of this series are known, the 
first five, when they are arranged in order ac¬ 
cording to the number of carbon atoms they 
contain, being: 

Methyl alcohol, CHs.OH. 

Ethyl alcohol, C 2 H 5 .OH. 

Propyl alcohol, C3H7.OH. 

Butyl alcohol, C4H9.OH. 

Amyl alcohol, CsHu.OH. 

The first two members of this series do not ad¬ 
mit of any isomeric modifications; but the third 
member admits of one such modification, and 
the following members admit of more than one. 
For example, propane has the formula 
CH3.CH2.CH3, and an alcohol may be formed by 
substituting OH for any one of the H atoms in 
this formula. If a hydrogen atom at the end of 
the formula be replaced in this way, we shall 
obtain the same result whether the substitution 
be made at the right-hand end or the left; that 
much is evident from the symmetry of the 
' formula. But if one of the hydrogen atoms in 
the central CH 2 be so replaced, the alcohol thus 
v formed may differ from the one previously ob¬ 
tained by an end substitution; and in fact ex- 


ALCOHOLISM 


periment shows that two different alcohols do 
actually exist, both having the same formula 
C3H7OH. These are distinguished as (( pri- 
mary® and ^secondary® respectively. In gen¬ 
eral, an alcohol is called <( primary® if the carbon 
atom to which the OH is attached is itself at¬ 
tached to only one other carbon atom; it is 
(< secondary® if the carbon atom to which the 
OH is attached is itself attached to two other 
carbon atoms; and it is ^tertiary® if this car¬ 
bon atom is attached to three other carbon 
atoms. If it is admitted that the quantivalence 
of carbon is never greater than four, it follows 
that no carbon atom can be attached to more 
than three other carbon atoms; hence every al¬ 
cohol in the class under consideration must be 
either primary, secondary, or tertiary. The va¬ 
rious radicals with which hydroxyl (OH) is 
combined in the alcohols are collectively called 
alkyls. Thus CH 3 (methyl), C2H5 (ethyl), and 
C3H7 (propyl) are all <( alkyls,® and an alcohol 
may be briefly described as the hydrate of an 
alkyl. Other alkyl compounds are also known. 
For example, hydrochloric, hydrobromic, hydri- 
odic, or hydrofluoric acid, when allowed to act 
upon an alkyl hydrate, yields the chloride, bro¬ 
mide, iodide, or fluoride of that alkyl. Thus: 
CHs.OH +HC1 = CH3.CI + H 2 0 ; and GH7.OH 
+ HI = C3H7.I + H 2 0 . CH3.CI is «methyl 
chloride,® and C3H7.I is <( propyl iodide.® The 
oxids of alkyls are called (( simple ethers.® (See 
Ether.) For example, (C 2 H 5 )2.0 is ethyl oxid 
(or ether), often erroneously called (( sulphuric 
ether® from the fact that sulphuric acid is 
used in preparing it. By the action of various 
acids upon alkyl hydrates (or alcohols), salts of 
these alkyls, entirely analogous to the metallic 
salts, are obtained. Thus acetic acid and ethyl 
alcohol react according to the equation: 
C 2 H s . 0 H+CH 3 .C 00 H=CH 3 .C 00 (C 2 H 5 )+H 2 0 . 

Ethyl Acetic Ethyl Water 

hydrate acid acetate 

This reaction is entirely analogous to the fol¬ 
lowing familiar one relating to potassium: 

K.OH + CH3.COOH = CH3.COOK + H 2 0 . 

Potassium Acetic Potassium Water 

hydrate acid acetate 

See Esters. A. D. Risteen, Ph.D., 

Editorial Staff, ( Encyclopedia Americana? 

Alcoholism, a term applied to the symp¬ 
toms produced by poisoning with ethyl alco¬ 
hol (see Alcohol). Alcoholism may be acute, 
subacute or chronic, and in order to under¬ 
stand its phases a brief review of the more 
important features of the physiological action 
of alcohol is necessary. Locally alcohol is an 
irritant, and induces congestion and increased 
cellular activity. There appears to be some 
foundation for the popular view that taken be¬ 
fore a meal alcohol increases the appetite and 
digestive power, for although in any marked 
quantity it greatly reduces or altogether inhibits 
the action of the digestive ferments it is prob¬ 
able that the increased amount of gastric juice 
secreted under the influence of small amounts 
more than makes up for this effect. Some au¬ 
thorities maintain that while the stimulant 
remains in the stomach digestion is retarded, 
but that after absorption of the alcohol the 
process advances more rapidly than would oth¬ 
erwise have been the case. The most impor¬ 
tant effect of the administration of alcohol is 


manifested by the nervous system. There is 
still some difference of opinion in this regard, 
some observers claiming that in small amounts 
it acts as a stimulant, whereas others assert 
that the apparent increase in intellectual activ¬ 
ity is not real but is dependent on depression 
of the higher centres whereby the normal self 
control and reserve are cast off and the lower 
centres are allowed to act without restraint. 
Experiments have shown that tasks like the 
addition of columns of figures or reading series 
of disconnected syllables were less well per¬ 
formed when the person had taken moderate 
amounts of alcohol, though he usually felt in¬ 
creased self-confidence and was convinced that 
the actually inferior work he was doing was 
especially good. It is in this way that alcohol 
aids the after dinner speaker, who is by mod¬ 
erate amounts of wine relieved of diffidence or 
embarrassment and enabled to speak with a flu¬ 
ency never at his command under ordinary con¬ 
ditions. It is probable that the capacity for 
muscular work also is only apparently aug¬ 
mented by alcohol, the slight increase in effici¬ 
ency at the start being neutralized by the 
earlier onset of fatigue. According to modern 
observers alcohol has but little direct effect 
on the circulation, though there is some change 
in the distribution of the blood through dila¬ 
tation of the peripheral vessels. Respiration is 
little if at all affected. The question of whether 
or not alcohol is a food has elicited much con¬ 
troversy, but the experiments of Atwater, Neu¬ 
mann, and others show beyond doubt that a 
certain amount of alcohol can be completely 
burnt in the body and serve as a source of 
heat and energy. In this way a saving of 
other food stuffs is affected, and in this sense 
alcohol is undoubtedly a food. The view up¬ 
held by some of the older authors that alcohol 
has the power of lessening the oxidation of 
the tissues is, however, unfounded. The mod¬ 
ern tendency is to regard alcohol not as a 
physiological stimulant but as a universal de¬ 
pressant. From the above it might be inferred 
that alcohol does not possess the traditional 
value ascribed to it in medicine, and to some 
extent this is true. On the other hand, there 
are many legitimate indications for its use 
that cannot be met by other drugs and few 
thoughtful clinicians would be willing to do 
without its aid. Alcohol is often used in 
popular medicine without a correct conception 
of its action. Contrary to general belief it 
does not raise the bodily temperature, but 
actually causes it to fall on account of the 
increased radiation of heat from the surface 
of the body accompanying the dilatation of the 
blood vessels of the skin. Consequently alco¬ 
holic drinks should not be taken before ex¬ 
posure with the idea of avoiding fatigue or 
chilling, though there is no objection to its 
use when the exposure is over and the in¬ 
dividual has returned home wet or chilled 
through. 

Acute alcoholic poisoning follows the taking 
of very large quantities of strong spirits in a 
short time, and is not often seen. The patient 
promptly becomes comatose, the face is con¬ 
gested or purplish, there is complete muscular 
relaxation, weak heart action, and collapse, end¬ 
ing in death through paralysis of the heart or 


ALCORAN 


ALCOTT 


of respiration, or both, unless medical aid is 
given. Subacute alcoholism is the ordinary- 
type of drunkenness or <( intoxication® and pro¬ 
duces different manifestations in different in¬ 
dividuals. The first effect of moderate amounts 
of alcohol is to cause exhilaration, garrulity, in¬ 
distinctness and incoherency of speech, blunt¬ 
ing of the sense of touch, and loss of muscular 
control so that the patient is unsteady on his 
feet and staggers when he walks. Dizziness 
and disturbances of sight and hearing may also 
appear, and finally a deep lethargy and stupor 
supervene. On awaking, nausea, vomiting, 
headache and mental depression remind the 
sufferer of his debauch. In some individuals 
the stage of hilarity does not appear and quar¬ 
relsomeness and moroseness are manifested 
from the start. The insensibility of alcoholic 
intoxication to some extent resembles that at¬ 
tending certain grave disorders like apoplexy, 
epileptic coma, fracture of the skull, or opium 
poisoning, and mistakes in diagnosis on per¬ 
sons found unconscious in the street are un¬ 
fortunately not infrequent. The true state of 
affairs is often extremely difficult to recog¬ 
nize, and it is always wiser to treat doubtful 
cases as if the more serious trouble existed. 
The fact that the breath smells of liquor is of 
little value, as bystanders may have sought to 
aid a victim of other conditions in this way, or 
a man who has indulged in alcohol may also 
be suffering from some of the difficulties men¬ 
tioned. Some persons instead of becoming 
stuporous pass into a condition of wild excite¬ 
ment and uncontrollable fury termed alcoholic 
mania, during which the most revolting crimes 
may be committed. In others convulsive seiz¬ 
ures, or alcoholic epilepsy, may succeed the 
first stage. Dipsomania is a form of insanity 
in which the patient is subject to attacks of 
irresistible craving for liquor, though in the 
intervals he may be quite rational and alcoholic 
beverages may even be repugnant to him. De¬ 
lirium tremens is a state of nervous unrest 
sometimes following a protracted debauch, 
sometimes appearing in steady, but not nec¬ 
essarily excessive, drinkers, usually as the re¬ 
sult of some physical or mental shock. There 
are distaste for food, intense restlessness, 
terrifying hallucinations and illusions, and ob¬ 
stinate insomnia. The treatment of acute alco¬ 
holism comprises, first, elimination of the poison 
by washing out the stomach, purging, rec¬ 
tal irrigation with salt solution, and the Turk¬ 
ish bath, and secondly, the substitution of other 
stimulants such as ammonia, strychnine, caf¬ 
feine, etc., until nourishment can be retained 
and strength returns. In delirium tremens the 
two great indications are to produce sleep and 
nourish the patient, problems that often tax 
the ingenuity of the physician to the utmost. 

Chronic alcoholism is the result of long con¬ 
tinued immoderate indulgence in alcoholic 
liquors and is a serious cause of disease. 
Nearly all the organs of the body are affected 
and exhibit a new growth of connective tissue. 
The blood vessels show the lesions of arterio¬ 
sclerosis, the heart is affected in a variety of 
ways, commonly becoming fatty and weak, the 
kidneys develop nephritis, the liver cirrhosis, and 
the stomach is the seat of a chronic catarrhal 
condition giving rise to nausea, vomiting and 
distaste for food. There are congestive and 

Vol. i — 17. 


catarrhal changes in the respiratory apparatus; 
the bodily strength is decreased and there is a 
tendency to obesity. There is also marked in¬ 
volvement of the nervous system leading to 
complete mental and moral deterioration with 
loss of will power, loss of memory, and inca¬ 
pacity for the responsibilities of life. Chronic 
alcoholics have lessened power of resistance to 
infectious diseases and readily break down 
under the stress of any mental or physical 
strain. The treatment of chronic alcoholism 
requires isolation of the patient, preferably 
in an institution, where no intercourse with 
friends will be possible. In one plan of treat¬ 
ment every article of food given the patient 
is soaked in liquor until the disgust awakened 
by its odor and taste is sufficiently great to 
ensure abstinence for a time at least. Some 
authorities advise immediate withdrawal of all 
alcohol, others recommend a more gradual 
process of (( tapering off.® Which method is 
preferable depends on the individual case. Hy¬ 
podermic injections of nitrate of strychnine form 
the basis of some of the courses of treatment. 

See Insanity; Temperance. Consult: Cush¬ 
ing, ( A Textbook of Pharmacology and Thera¬ 
peutics. ) 

Karl M. Vogel, M. D., 

New York City. 

Alcoran. See Koran. 

Alcorn, al'kern, James Lusk, American 
statesman: b. near Golconda, Ill., 4 Nov. 1816; 
d. 30 Dec. 1894. He was educated at Cumber¬ 
land College; five years deputy sheriff of Liv¬ 
ingston co., Ky.; member of the legislature 
1843 5 in 1844 removed to Mississippi and began 
law practice, and was in the Mississippi legis¬ 
lature 1846-65. He was a Scott presidential 
elector in 1852, declined a Whig nomination for 
governor 1857, and the same year was defeated 
for Congress by L. Q. C. Lamar. He founded 
the levee system in the State. In 1861 he was 
in the Secession Convention, and was elected 
brigadier-general, but Jefferson Davis refused 
his commission from political grudge. In 1865 
he was elected United States Senator, but not 
allowed to take his seat. In 1869 he was elected 
governor (Republican), but resigned on election 
to the United States Senate, where he served 
1871-7. He was independent candidate for gov¬ 
ernor in 1873, but was defeated. 

Alcott, Amos Bronson, American philoso¬ 
pher and educator: b. Wolcott, Conn., 29 Nov. 
1799; d. 4 March 1888. In 1823 he set up an 
infant school, teaching it by conversation; 
and it gained much local fame. In 1828 
he removed to Boston, and till 1836 con¬ 
ducted a school of the same sort, exciting wide 
attention by his genius for teaching, his revolu¬ 
tionary methods, and his exaggerated respect for 
the infant mind. His system was disfavored by 
most people, and in 1836 he removed to Concord, 
Mass., thenceforth expounding reform views on 
all human subjects, society and theology, diet 
and education, politics, morals, and metaphysics. 
He became an admired public lecturer in the 
great days of the lecture platform. In 1842 he 
visited England, where a Pestalozzian school 
near London had been named Alcott House. 
Returning with two English friends, one 
of them, Charles Lane, bought an estate in 
the town of Harvard, Mass., for a communistic 


ALCOTT —ALCOY 


settlement, and the others joined him; but it 
failed. Mr. Alcott lived in Boston for a while, 
but finally returned to Concord, where he spent 
the remainder of his life as a <( peripatetic 
philosopher,® as justly said: giving talks in dif¬ 
ferent towns and cities on all human subjects 
when invited,— first at random, but latterly for¬ 
mal, with printed topics and regular places and 
periods. The conversation was nominally open, 
and questions in order; but it was soon found 
better to let it be a monologue by Mr. Alcott, 
who was put out by interruptions and could not 
argue. The company lost nothing; for though 
entirely unsystematic, and having no set philoso¬ 
phy which could have been developed into a 
school, he was fertile in ideas of deep spiritual 
insight and noble loftiness, and many leaders of 
thought, as Emerson, acknowledged him as a 
source of some of their best inspirations. In this 
characteristic of intellectual scrappiness, yet 
great molding influence, he may be compared 
with Coleridge and St. Simon. He was a leader 
among the Transcendentalists; and that he was 
an ardent Abolitionist goes without saying. His 
grounds in Concord represented his independ¬ 
ence of mind and whimsicality: they were 
fenced by himself with gnarled pine boughs of 
endless diversity of form, apparently picked up 
as he walked. He contributed ( Orphic Say¬ 
ings 5 to the Dial, of Boston (1839-42), and pub¬ 
lished many scattered papers; ( Tablets 5 (1868) ; 
( Concord Days, 5 recollections of that place 
(1872) ; ( Table Talk ) (1877) ; ( Sonnets and 
Canzonets 5 (1877). 

Alcott, Louisa May, American novelist, 
daughter of A. B. Alcott: b. Germantown, Pa., 29 
Nov. 1832 ; d. Boston, Mass.. 6 March 
1888, two days after her father. She was two 
years old when her parents moved to Boston; 
eight when they went to Concord. Her father 
was her chief teacher, on the system of his 
famous infant schools: as the latter developed no 
other geniuses, probably nature was responsible 
for hers. Thoreau also taught her for a time. 
She had always creative facility and sense of 
literary form, and began writing in early youth; 
at first for pleasure, then at 16 for periodicals 
to help support the struggling family, whose 
mainstay she continued all her life, her father’s 
superiorities not being of the money-making or¬ 
der. But for many years afterward she groped 
for her true field, starting with sensational sto¬ 
ries of no permanent merit. For ten years she 
was a school-teacher. In 1862 she went to 
Washington as a war hospital nurse, and wrote 
letters thence to her mother and sisters; on her 
return in 1863 she recast these into a volume en¬ 
titled ( Hospital Sketches, 5 as the easiest avail¬ 
able literary capital, not suspecting that she 
had found her kingdom. In these was first re¬ 
vealed her peculiar power of sketching common¬ 
place people and scenes in all their commonplace¬ 
ness, yet by the play of genial humor and rare 
selective art making them as charming as the 
best creations of the fancy. The success of these 
stimulated the publication of ( Little Women 5 
(written 1867, after return from a year’s Euro¬ 
pean trip for impaired health, published 1868), 
which sold 60,000 copies the first year, and after 
35 years remains one of the best copyrights in 
American literature. It raised her at once and 
justly to one of the front places in American 
authorship, and remains the one work of hers 


L ie world would much regret losing. In formal 
art it has no merits: there is no structure and no 
climax, merely detached scenes of an uneventful 
life; little delicacy of touch, though there are 
passages of much tenderness and pathos : but the 
healthy sense and stereoscopic lifelikeness make 
it rather an addition to people’s actual experi¬ 
ences than their memories of fiction; and the 
girls, despite the blunt portrayal of surface 
faults and even over-harsh lack of idealization, 
are loved like sisters by millions. It is the 
world-photograph of the New England home and 
the American girl. This was her great oppor¬ 
tunity : her own family and friends to (< com¬ 
pose 55 and adorn, with scant need for imagina¬ 
tion, of which she had little, or plot, in which 
she was very deficient. After this, with the 
necessity of inventing a set story, and her per¬ 
sonal life mostly wrought into her previous 
work, her limitations were strongly apparent: 
( An Old-Fashioned Girl 5 (1869), ( Little 

Men 5 (1871), and a series of later juveniles, 
though only less popular with the young than 
( Little Women, 5 add nothing to her real repu¬ 
tation. They are also deformed by two un¬ 
wholesome qualities: one derived from her fa¬ 
ther,— representing grown people mainly as 
vexatious interferences with children’s enjoy¬ 
ment, and the latter as quite capable of teaching 
wisdom to their elders; the other a proof how 
much feminine craving lay underneath her spin¬ 
ster life,— making love-sentiment a sauce to 
everything from the kindergarten up, and the 
world one vast scene of <( philandering. 55 But 
these pot-boilers had a higher motive and result 
than most money-earning, for they enabled her 
father to live his serene life. She adopted at 
different times a son of her sister, Mrs. John 
Pratt ( <( Meg 55 ) and the orphaned daughter of 
her artist sister, Mme. Nieriken ( <( Amy 55 ) ; and 
kept house for them and her father in vigorous 
New England fashion, caring for the latter like 
a baby. Fatigue and excitement during his last 
hours laid her low with a fatal brain fever. Be¬ 
sides the books above mentioned she published 
( Flower Fables or Fairy Tales 5 (1855); 

f Moods 5 (1864, revised 1881) ; a series, ( Aunt 
Jo’s Scrap Bag 5 (1871-82); < Work, a Story 
of Experience 5 (1873); ( Eight Cousins 5 

(1874); ( Rose in Bloom 5 (1876); < Silver 

Pitchers 5 (1876) ; ( Under the Lilacs 5 (1878) ; 

( Jack and Jill 5 (1880); ( Proverb Stories 5 

(1882); ( Spinning-Wheel Stories 5 (1884); 

( Lulu’s Library 5 (1885). 

Alcott, May (Mme. Ernest Nieriken), 
American artist, daughter of A. B. Alcott: b. 
Concord, Mass., 1840; d. 1879. She studied at 
the Boston School of Design, and under Krug, 
Rimmer, Hunt, Vautier, Johnston, and Muller. 
Thenceforward she lived variously in Boston, 
London, and Paris; after marriage chiefly in the 
last. She did good work in still-life painting, 
both oil and water-color, and copied Turner so 
ably that Ruskin had some of the work adopted 
for models at the South Kensington schools. 
She published ( Concord Sketches, 5 with a 
preface by her sister (1869) ; ( Art Studying 
Abroad 5 (1879). 

Alcoy, a town of Spain, in Valencia, 24 
m. N. by W. of Alicante, near the source of the 
Alcoy, in a hollow encircled by hills. There is 
a Roman bridge over the river, and the town has 


ALCUIN — ALDEHYDE 


a very picturesque appearance. Its chief manu¬ 
facture is paper, and it is likewise famed for 
sugar-plums. Pop. 32,000. 

Alcuin, or Flaccus Albinus, an English¬ 
man, renowned in his age for learning; the con¬ 
fidant, instructor, and adviser of Charlemagne. 
He was probably born in York in 735, and was 
educated under the care of Archbishop Egbert, 
and his successor .Elbert, with whom he went 
to the continent, and who afterward gave him the 
management of the school at York. Having 
gone to Rome to bring home the pallium (see 
Pallium) for Eanbert, the successor of .Elbert, 
Charlemagne became acquainted with him in 
Parma on his return; invited him, in 782, to his 
•court, and made use of his services in his en¬ 
deavors to civilize his subjects. In the royal 
academy he was called Flaccus Albinas. To se¬ 
cure the benefit of his instructions Charlemagne 
established at his court a school, called Schola 
Palatina, or the Palace School, and intrusted 
him with the superintendence of several monas¬ 
teries, in which Alcuin exerted himself to diffuse 
a knowledge of the sciences. Most of the 
schools in France were either founded or im¬ 
proved by him; thus he founded the school in 
the abbey of St. Martin of Tours, in 796, after 
the plan of the school in York. He himself in¬ 
structed a large number of scholars in this 
school, who afterward spread the light of learn¬ 
ing through the empire of the Franks. Alcuin 
took his leave of the court in 801, and retired to 
the abbey of St. Martin of Tours, but kept up a 
constant correspondence with Charles to the 
time of his death in 804. He left, besides many 
theological writings, several elementary works 
in the branches of philosophy, rhetoric, and 
philology; also poems, and a large number of 
letters, the style of which, however, is not pleas¬ 
ing and plainly betrays the uncultivated charac¬ 
ter of the age; nevertheless he is acknowledged 
as the most learned and polished man of his 
time. He understood Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. 
The best edition of his works is that published at 
Ratisbon (1777, 2 vols. folio). See Lorenz’s 
< Life of Alcuin^ translated into English (Lon¬ 
don, 1837). 

Alcyonaria (from Gk. alkyon[e]ion, bas¬ 
tard-sponge), a sub-class of coral polyps (An- 
thozoa ), including fan-corals, «dead men’s 
fingers,» organ-corals, the red coral used for 
beads and ornaments, and others. _ Eight tenta¬ 
cles around the mouth and the eight cells into 
which the body is divided are the characteristic 
elements of this group. See Coral. 

Alcyone, the brightest star of the Pleiades 
(q.v.). Also see Kingfisher. 

Al'dan, a river of E. Siberia, a tributary 
of the Lena, 1,200 m. in length, navigable for 
600 m. The Aldan Mountains run along paral¬ 
lel to it on the left for 400 miles. 

Aldana, Ramon, alda-na ra-mon', Mexican 
poet: b. 1832; d. 1882. Besides four dramas, 
among which are ( Honor and Happiness J and 
( Nobility of Heart,> he produced lyric poems and 
sonnets and contributed articles to journals. 

Aldborough, or Aldeburgh, a small sea¬ 
port and watering-place of Suffolk, 29 m. N.E. 
of Ipswich by rail. It was disfranchised in 1832; 
but in 1885 it received a new municipal charter. 
It has a quaint, half-timbered moot hall; and in 
the church is a bust of the poet Crabbe, who 


described the place in his poem, ( The Borough. ) 
It has a two-mile promenade and lobster and 
herring fisheries. Pop. 2,150. 

Aldeb'aran, a star of the first magnitude, 
forming the eye of the constellation Taurus or 
the Bull, the brightest of the five stars known to 
the Greeks as the Hyades. Spectrum analysis 
has shown it to contain antimony, bismuth, iron, 
mercury, hydrogen, sodium, calcium, etc. 

Al'dehyde ( (( dehydrogenated alcohol,® or 
alcohol which has been deprived of a portion 
of its hydrogen), a substance intermediate in 
composition between a primary alcohol and the 
corresponding acid. When an alcohol (q.v.) 
containing the molecular group CH 2 .OH, is acted 
upon by oxidizing agents, it loses two atoms of 
hydrogen from this group, and becomes trans¬ 
formed into a substance which no longer con¬ 
tains the hydroxyl group (OH), and which is 
known as the « aldehyde » of the alcohol from 
which it was produced. Air effects the desired 
oxidization readily, when in the presence of 
platinum black. If the formula of the original 
alcohol is R.CH 2 .OH, that of the corresponding 
aldehyde is R.CO.H. Aldehydes combine with 
bisulphites (or acid sulphites), producing com¬ 
pounds that are usually soluble in water, but 
insoluble in a solution of a bisulphite. Hence 
if a solution containing an aldehyde is shaken 
with a saturated solution of a bisulphite (such 
as HNaS 0 3 ), the aldehyde is all thrown down 
in the form of an insoluble compound, from 
which the aldehyde itself may afterward be 
liberated by treatment with dilute sulphuric acid 
and distillation by steam. Aldehydes are easily 
oxidized into their corresponding acids, and on 
account of their affinity for oxygen they act as 
powerful reducing agents. An aldehyde may 
also be reconverted into the alcohol from which 
it was obtained, by the action of sodium amal¬ 
gam. About 50 aldehydes are known, nearly all 
of which are volatile liquids. 

The general relation of the aldehydes to their 
corresponding alcohols and acids may be illus¬ 
trated by the following examples: The formula 
of methyl alcohol is CH3.OH, or H.CH2.OH. 
In the presence of platinum black, air oxidizes 
methyl alcohol in accordance with the following 
equation: 

H.CH2.OH + O = H 2 0 + H.CO.H. 

H.CO.H (or CHoO) is « formic aldehyde,® or 
« formaldehyde.® This rapidly absorbs oxygen 
and undergoes the change 

H.CO.H + 0 = H.C 00 H. 

Formaldehyde Formic acid 

Again, if ethyl alcohol (C 2 H 5 .OH, or CH 3 . 
CHo.OH) is treated in the same manner (or, 
better, if it is oxidized with a mixture of potas¬ 
sium bichromate and sulphuric acid), we have 

ch 3 .ch 2 .oh + o = ch 3 .co.h + h 2 o. 

Ethyl alcohol Acetic aldehyde 

If allowed to absorb oxygen, acetic aldehyde 
then undergoes the further transformation 

ch 3 .co.h + o = ch 3 .cooh. 

Acetic aldehyde Acetic acid 

Acetic aldehyde, or acetaldehyde. — When 
not qualified in any way aldehyde is under¬ 
stood to mean acetic aldehyde, the substance 
whose formation from ethyl alcohol has just 


ALDEN 


been described. Aldehyde (in this sense) is a 
colorless liquid with a suffocating smell, misci¬ 
ble in all proportions with water, alcohol, and 
ether, boiling at 7o° F., and having a specific 
gravity of 0.800 at 32 0 F. It is capable of exist¬ 
ing in several polymeric states, each having the 
same chemical composition as aldehyde, but dif¬ 
fering from it in appearance and behavior. 
Thus although aldehyde may be preserved for a 
long time if kept in contact with excess of acid, 
in its pure state it soon deposits a solid substance 
known as metaldehyde, which sublimes at 
250° F. without decomposition, and is recon¬ 
verted into aldehyde when confined and heated 
to 400° F. By treatment with sulphuric or hy¬ 
drochloric acid, aldehyde may be converted into 
a liquid known as paraldehyde, which boils at 
255 0 F. and has a vapor density indicating the 
formula 3(C 2 H 4 0). 

Aldehyde is used for silvering mirrors and 
other objects, on account of the property that it 
possesses (in common with other aldehydes) of 
throwing down a deposit of metallic silver when 
heated with a concentrated ammoniacal solution 
of silver nitrate containing a little caustic soda. 

Alden, Bradford R., American soldier: b. 
Meadville, Pa., 1800; d. Newport, R. I., 10 Sept. 
1870. Graduating at West Point 1831, he was 
instructor there 1833-40 after some camp and 
garrison life; then for nearly two years aide 
to Winfield Scott; after three years more of 
garrison duty was commandant at West Point 
1845-52. Sent to the far West for service in the 
Puget Sound Indian troubles, in 1853 he organ¬ 
ized and led an expedition against the Rogue 
River Indians of southwest Oregon; and in the 
fierce battle at Jacksonville 24 August, was per¬ 
manently disabled and forced to retire from the 
army. He was a man of culture and fine 
literary tastes. 

Alden, Henry Mills, American editor and 
author: b. Mt. Tabor, Vt., 11 Nov. 1836. He 
graduated 1857 at Williams College, in the 
class with Garfield and Horace E. Scudder; in 
i860 at Andover Theological Seminary, and re¬ 
ceived license to preach, but was never ordained. 
He settled in New York in 1861 ; was managing 
editor of ( Harper’s Weekly ) 1863-9, and has 
been editor of ( Harper’s Magazine ) since 1869. 
His earliest interests were classical, especially in 
regard to ancient thought, religion, and litera¬ 
ture : in the winter of 1863-4 be delivered 12 
lectures at the Lowell Institute, Boston, on ( The 
Structure of Paganism > ; his earliest writings 
published were two papers on the Eleusinian 
Mysteries, in the ( Atlantic Monthly ) ; and his 
classical scholarship is recognized as of a high 
type. In his editorial work he has sought to 
combine fresh intellectual outlook and the pres¬ 
entation of the latest results of scholarship 
with sound ethics and an elevating social tone; 
also to make the magazine American in the best 
sense and to bring forward new writers. He 
collaborated with A. H. Guernsey in ( Harper’s 
Pictorial History of the Great Rebellion* 
(1862-5); and has written ( The Ancient Lady 
of Sorrow,* poem (1872) ; ( God in His World 1 * 
(1890, anonymous), and a ( Study of Death ) 
(1895), widely read and admired. 

Alden, (Mrs.) Isabella McDonald 

( C( Pansy®), American juvenile writer: b. 
Rochester, N. Y., 3 Nov. 1841; married Rev. 


G. R. Alden 1866. She was educated at Ovid 
and Auburn, N. Y. While she has written fic¬ 
tion for adults, and ( The Prince of Peace,* a 
life of Christ, her chief note is as the author of 
the ( Pansy Books,* Sunday-school juvenile 
novels, about 60 volumes in all; and as editor of 
the juvenile periodical ( Pansy,* 1873-96. She 
has since been on the staff of the ( Christian 
Endeavor World * of Boston and the ( Herald 
and Presbyter ) of Cincinnati. Her home is 
Palo Alto, Cal. 

Alden, James, American naval officer: b. 
Portland, Me., 31 March 1810; d. San Francisco, 
Cal., 6 Feb. 1877. Becoming midshipman 1828, 
he accompanied the Wilkes expedition around 
the world 1838-42; commissioned lieutenant 
1841, he served through the Mexican War in 
all the leading seaboard engagements. The 
Puget Sound Indian troubles called him thither 
1855-6 for active duty. The Civil War found 
him in command of the steamer South Carolina, 
and he was sent to the Gulf and had a fight at 
Galveston, Tex.; later, in command of the sloop- 
of-war Richmond, he was at the passage cf 
Forts Jackson and St. Philip and the capture 
of New Orleans and Port Hudson. He became 
captain 1863, and commanded the Brooklyn in 
the battle of Mobile Bay (August 1864) and 
the assaults on Fort Fisher; commodore 1866, 
and given charge of the Mare Island (Cal.) 
navy yard 1868; in 1869 made chief of the 
bureau of navigation, and in 1871 promoted 
to rear-admiral and assigned to command of 
the European squadron. He was retired 1873. 

Alden, John, of the Plymouth colony: b. 
England, 1599; d. Duxbury, Mass., 12 Sept. 
1687. His name is familiarized by Longfellow’s 
poem ( The Courtship of Miles Standish.* He 
was originally a cooper of Southampton, was 
employed in making repairs on the Mayflower, 
and came over in her with the Pilgrim Fathers. 
By some accounts he was the first to step ashore 
at Plymouth. He married Priscilla Mullens: 
the tradition is (as used by Longfellow) that 
he had previously pleaded the cause of Miles 
Standish. He was for over 50 years a colo¬ 
nial magistrate, and highly esteemed for probity, 
sagacity, and resolution. All the distinguished 
Aldens of the United States are his descend¬ 
ants. 

Alden, Timothy, inventor: b. Barnstable, 
Mass., 1819; d. December 1858. He was one 
of many thousands of printers who have 
dreamed of inventing type-setting machines, and 
of hundreds who have attempted it. He labored 
on one from 1846 till death, a horizontal rotat¬ 
ing wheel with type-cells on its circumference, 
making receivers rotate with it to pick out the 
type, at the proper places. His brother Henry 
W. improved the machine after his death. 

Alden, William Livingston, American hu¬ 
morous writer and journalist: b. Williamstown, 
Mass., 9 Oct. 1837. He introduced the sport of 
canoeing into the United States. He was for a 
time United States consul-general at Rome. 
Among his principal writings are ( Domestic 
Explosives * (1877) ; ( Shooting Stars * (1878) ; 
( The Canoe and the Flying Proa 1 * (1878); 
( Moral Pirates 5 (1880): ( The Comic Liar ) 
(1882) ; ( Cruise of the Ghost ) (1882) ; ( Life 
of Christopher Columbus* (1882); ( A New 



EDWARD SINCLAIR ALDERMAN, 
President of Tulane University, New Orleans. 







































. 




. 
























I 





















' 


























ALDER 



1. Tip of Twig with Budding Catkins (Alnus glutinosa). 

2. Male Flowers. 

3. A Single Flower, showing Anthers. 

4. Female Flowers. 

5. Stamens of Female Flower. 


6 . Fruit. 

7. Fruit Case. 

8 . Empty Fruit Case. 

9. Twig, with Three Buds. 

10. Spray, with Fruit (Alnus incana). 
















ALDENHOVEN —ALDINE EDITIONS 


Robinson Crusoe^ (1888); ( Drewitt’s Dream ) 
(1902), etc. Since 1900 he has been London 
correspondent of the New York Times. 

Aldenhoven, a town of Prussia, Rhine 
province; 12 m. N.E. of Aix-la-Chapelle. Here 
the French, in 1793, under Dumouriez, were 
defeated by 50,000 Austrians under Prince Josias 
of Coburg, and were prevented from making 
their contemplated invasion of Holland. 

Alder, the common name for a genus of 
plants ( Alnus ), of the order Cupuliferce (oak 
family). In the eastern United States it is a 
very common shrub, branching freely from the 
roots, and forming dense clumps along the 
banks of streams and in other wet places. On 
the west coast it often attains a height of from 
40 to 60 feet in favorable locations. It is found 
in temperate and cold regions. The species 
familiar in England has a wood soft and light, 
but very durable in the water, and therefore 
well adapted to mill-work, sluices, piles of 
bridges, etc. Its bark and shoots are used for 
dye, and its branches for the charcoal employed 
in making gunpowder. The names black, red, 
and white-alder are often popularly applied to 
plants of other orders. 

Alderman, Edward Sinclair, American 
clergyman and educator: b. Wilmington, N. C., 
27 July 1861. He was graduated from Wake 
Forest College, N. C., in 1883 and the Southern 
Baptist Theological Seminary in 1886. He has 
held Baptist pastorates in Kentucky and has been 
president of Bethel College, Ky., from 1898. 

Alderman, Edwin Anderson, American edu¬ 
cator : b. Wilmington, N. C., 15 May 1861. He 
was educated at the University of North Caro¬ 
lina ; was superintendent of the public schools of 
Goldsboro, N. C., 1884-87; assistant state super¬ 
intendent of North Carolina, 1889-92* professor 
of English and history at the State Normal Col¬ 
lege, 1892-93; professor of the philosophy of 
education at the University of North Carolina, 
1893-96; president of the latter institution, 1896- 
1900; president of Tulane University, 1900- 
1904, when he assumed the presidency of the 
University of Virginia. He has been active 
in educational work in the Southern States 
and has written ( Life of William Hooper, 
Signer of the Declaration of Independence ) ; 
( School Historj of North Carolina ) ; etc. 

Alderman, a title pertaining to an office in 
the municipal corporations of Great Britain and 
the United States. In the United States the 
powers and duties of aldermen differ in the 
various States and cities. As a rule they are 
elected by popular vote and constitute the oource 
of municipal legislation. 

Alderman Lizard, or Chuckwalla, nick¬ 
names in California for a fat-bodied lizard (q.v.). 

Al'derney (French Aurigny), an island be¬ 
longing to Great Britain, on the coast of Nor¬ 
mandy, 10 m. due W. of Cape La Hogue, and 
60 from the nearest point of England, the most 
northerly of the Channel Islands. It is about 4 
m. long and ij4 broad, having an area of 
fully 3 sq. m. The coast is bold and rocky, 
the cliffs in many places rising from 100 to 
200 feet in height. In the interior the soil is 
fertile, producing excellent crops of corn and 
potatoes. About a third of the island is occu¬ 
pied by grass lands; and the Alderney cows are 


famous for the richness of their milk. The cli¬ 
mate is mild and healthy. The town of St. 
Anne is situated in a beautiful valley near the 
centre of the island. A judge, with six ju¬ 
rats, }) chosen by the people for life, and 12 
<( douzaniers,® representatives of the people, 
form a kind of local legislature; but the judge 
and jurats alone decide upon any measure, the 
douzaniers having only a deliberative voice. 
The French language still continues to prevail 
among the inhabitants, but all understand and 
many speak English. Alderney, Guernsey, Jer¬ 
sey, and Sark are the only parts of the Duchy 
of Normandy that have remained under the 
government of England since 1456. The Race 
of Alderney is a name given to the strait run¬ 
ning between the coast of France and this island. 
Six miles northwest from Alderney are the 
Casquets, a cluster of rocks, on the largest of 
which is a lighthouse and a fog-bell. Pop. 
(1901) 2,062. 

Aldershot, Camp at, a permanent camp 
for the army in England, commenced in 1854 
by the purchase, on the part of government, of 
an extensive tract of moorland known by the 
name of Aldershot Heath, lying on the confines 
of Surrey, Hampshire, and Berkshire. The ob¬ 
ject was to accustom the officers and soldiers 
to act in brigades and divisions, and to familiar¬ 
ize them with the operations of a campaign by 
accustoming them to camp life, and exercising 
them in all the evolutions which they might be 
required to perform when brought into actual 
contact with the enemy. The Basingstoke Canal 
divides the camp into a North and a South Camp 
(otherwise known respectively as Marlborough 
and Stanhope Lines). The accommodation pro¬ 
vided for the army consisted at first of wooden 
huts of the simplest construction; but these 
have been superseded by brick buildings, and 
altogether the money expended on the camp has 
amounted to upward of $20,000,000. 

A town has sprung up in the neighborhood 
of the camp, immediately beyond the govern¬ 
ment ground, on the edge of which the camp is 
established. The town of Aldershot is in 
Hampshire, to the south of the barracks. It 
contains several churches, hotels, numerous 
shops, and offers accommodation of various 
kinds, good and bad, to the soldiers: thus there 
are schools, newspapers, missions, literary insti¬ 
tutes, music-halls, public-houses, etc. Pop. 
(1901) 30,974 (including military). 

Ald'helm, an Anglo-Saxon scholar and 
prelate, bishop of Sherborne: b. 640 (?) ; d. 
709. He was a great fosterer of learning and 
builder of churches, and has left Latin writings 
on theological subjects. 

Aldine Editions, the bocks printed by 
Aldus Manutius and his family in Venice 
(1490-1597). They comprise the first editions 
of Greek and Roman classics; others contain 
corrected texts of modern classic writers, as of 
Petrarch, Dante, or Boccaccio, carefully collated 
with the MSS. All of them are distinguished 
for the remarkable correctness of the typogra¬ 
phy ; the Greek works, however, being in this 
respect somewhat inferior to the Latin and 
Italian. The editions published by Aldo Manu- 
zio (1450-1515), the father, form an epoch in 
the annals of printing, as they contributed in no 
ordinary measure to the perfecting of types. 


ALDOBRANDINI — ALDRICH 


No one had ever before used such beautiful 
Greek types, of which he got nine different kinds 
made, and of Latin as many as 14. It is to 
him, or rather to the engraver, Francesco of 
Bologna, that we owe the types called by the 
Italians Corsivi, and known to us as italics, 
which he used for the first time in the octavo 
edition of ancient and modern classics, com¬ 
mencing with Virgil (1501). Manuzio’s im¬ 
pressions on parchment are exceedingly beau¬ 
tiful ; he was the first printer who introduced 
the custom of taking some impressions on finer 
or stronger paper than the rest of the edition — 
the first example of this being afforded in the 
( Epistoke Grsecae 5 (1499). From 1515 to 1533 
the business was carried on by his father and 
brothers-in-law, Andrea Torresano of Asola, 
and his two sons — the three Asolani. Paolo 
Manuzio (1512-74), Aldo’s son, possessed an 
enthusiasm for Latin classics equal to that of 
his father for Greek; and he was succeeded by 
his son, the younger Aldo (X547 — 97) - The 
printing establishment founded by Aldo con¬ 
tinued in active operation for 100 years, and 
during this time printed 908 different works. 
The distinguishing mark is an anchor, entwined 
by a dolphin, with the motto either of <( Festina 
lente 55 or of (( Sudavit et alsit . 5) The demand 
which arose for editions from this office, and 
especially for the earlier ones, induced the 
printers of Lyons and Florence, about 1502, to 
begin the system of issuing counterfeit Aldines. 
The Aldo-mania has considerably diminished in 
later times. Among the Aldine works which 
have now become very rare may be mentioned 
the ( Horse Beatse Marise Virginis 5 of 1497, the 
( Virgil 5 of 1501, and the ( Rhetores Grseci, 5 
not to mention all the editions, dated and un¬ 
dated, from 1490 to 1497, which are now ex¬ 
tremely rare. See Renouard’s ( Annales de 
lTmprimerie des Aides 5 (1834), and Didot’s 
( Aide Manuce 5 (1873). 

Aldobrandi'ni, the name of a Florentine 
family, latterly of princely rank (now extinct), 
which produced one Pope (Clement VIII.) and 
several cardinals, archbishops, bishops, and men 
of learning. 

Aldobrandini Marriage, an ancient fresco 
painting belonging probably to the time of Au¬ 
gustus, discovered in 1606, and acquired by 
Cardinal Aldobrandini, nephew of Clement 
VIII., now in the Vatican. It represents a 
marriage scene in which 10 persons are por¬ 
trayed, and is considered one of the most 
precious relics of ancient art. 

Al'dred, or Ealdred, Anglo-Saxon prelate, 
bishop of Worcester and archbishop of York: 
b. 1000 (?); d. 1069. He improved the dis¬ 
cipline of the Church and built several eccle¬ 
siastical edifices. On the death of Edward the 
Confessor he is said to have crowned Harold. 
Having submitted to the Conqueror, whose 
esteem he enjoyed and whose power he made 
subservient to the views of the Church, he also 
crowned him as well as Matilda. 

Aldrich, Anne Reeve, American poet and 
novelist: b. New York, 25 April 1866; d. there, 
22 June 1892. She wrote ( The Rose of Flame 5 
(1889) ; ( The Feet of Love, 5 novel (1890) ; 
( Songs about Life, Love, and Death 5 (post¬ 
humous, 1892). Her early death was widely 
regretted from the brilliant promise of her work, 


especially in poetry: some of her lyrics of pas¬ 
sion and regret are among the most perfect of 
American poetic gems in symmetrical art. 

Ald'rich, Henry, dean of Christchurch, 
Oxford: b. 1647; d. 1710. He was distinguished 
as a writer on logic, as an architect, and as a 
musician. His < Compendium of Logic 5 was 
a text-book till quite recently. He adapted 
many of the works of the older musicians, such 
as Palestrina and Carissimi. 

Aldrich, James, American poet: b. Matti- 
tuck, L. I., 14 July 1810; d. New York, 9 Sept. 
1856. His best known poem is ( The Death- 
Bed, 5 an imitation of Hood, preserved in most 
anthologies. 

Aldrich, Nelson Wilmarth, American leg¬ 
islator: b. Foster, R. I., 6 Nov. 1841. A far¬ 
mer’s lad, with district-school education, he was 
clerk in a store from about 12 to 16; but, nat¬ 
urally studious and with a strong taste for 
mathematics, entered the East Greenwich Acad ¬ 
emy in 1857, and after graduation took a posi¬ 
tion in a large wholesale house in Providence, 
where he soon became a partner. In 1862 he 
was for nine months on garrison duty near 
Washington. In 1869 he was elected to tne 
Providence Common Council, where he became 
a leader as expert in finance and business, and 
a dextrous manager without compromise of 
right, and was its president 1871-3. In 1875 he 
was elected to the legislature, and in 1876 was 
Speaker of its House. In 1878 he was sent to 
Congress, taking his seat in 1879 ( Forty-second 
Congress) ; re-elected for the term 1881-3, he 
resigned in 1881, having been elected to the 
United States Senate on the 4th of October, 
to succeed Gen. Burnside, and has been three 
times re-elected,— in 1886, 1892, and 1898, prac¬ 
tically without opposition in his party. Dur¬ 
ing more than 20 years he has been known 
as "one of the chief Republican leaders, an au¬ 
thority on finance and political economy, and 
a champion of protection; rarely taking part in 
debate, but powerful in legislative work, a mem¬ 
ber of committees on civil service and finance, 
and chairman of the committee on rules for the 
Fifty-fifth Congress. He was president of the 
Providence Board of Trade in 1878. 

Aldrich, Thomas Bailey, author: b. Ports¬ 
mouth, N. H., 11 Nov. 1836; d. Boston, Mass., 
19 March 1907. He prepared for Harvard, but 
his father’s death (1852) prevented a college 
career. Held editorial positions on the New 
York Evening Mirror and N. P. Willis’ Tome 
Journal 5 till 1865. Edited ( Every Saturday, 5 
Boston, 1865-74, and ( The Atlantic Monthly, 5 
1881-90. In prose and verse he held himself 
to the highest ideals of literary art and work¬ 
manship. He wrote ( Cloth of Gold 5 (1874) ; 

( Lyrics and Sonnets 5 (1880) ; ( Friar Jerome’s 
Beautiful Book 5 (1881); ( Ballad of Baby 
Bell 5 (1856); ( Windham Towers 5 (1890); 
( Unguarded Gates and Other Poems 5 (1895) ; 
^Mercedes, a Drama 5 (1883) ; ( Story of a 
Bad Boy 5 (1870); ^Marjorie Daw and Other 
People 5 (1873) ; ( Two Bites at a Cherry, and 
Other Tales 5 (1893); ( A Sea Turn 5 (1902): 
/Flower and Thorn 5 ; ( Prudence Palfry 5 ; ( The 
'Oueen of Sheba 5 ; ( The Stillwater Tragedy 5 ; 
( The Sisters’ Tragedy 5 ; ( Judith and "Holo- 

fcrnes 5 .; ( Ponkapog Papers 5 (1903) ; <Judith of 
Bethulia. 5 a tragedy in four acts (1905) ; etc. 


ALDRIDGE —ALE 


Aldridge, Ira Frederick, American negro 
tragedian: b. (?) ; d. Lodz, Poland, 7 Aug. 
1867. The discrepancies about his birth and 
training are monstrous, and indicate invention 
on one side. One is that he was a mulatto, born 
near Baltimore about 1810, who picked up Ger¬ 
man from immigrants, became Edmund Kean’s 
servant, and developed stage talent under him in 
England, returned and made a theatrical failure 
in Baltimore 1830-1, then went back to England 
and became famous. The other is that he was 
son of a full-blooded negro pastor in New York 
city (Greene Street Chapel), an immigrant 
Senegal chieftain converted and educated, who 
sent his son to Glasgow University to study for 
the same profession, despite a passion for the 
stage justified by successful amateur perform¬ 
ances; but the boy (at this point the stories 
coincide) dropped theology and made his debut 
at the Royal Theatre as Othello. He took at once; 
and Kean made him Othello to his Iago in Bel¬ 
fast. He played Shakespearean roles in London 
till 1852, regarded as an excellent interpreter in 
all, but most liked in color-parts, such as Othel¬ 
lo, Aaron in ( Titus Andronicus,* Rolla, Zanga, 
etc. He then played in Brussels and Germany 
1852-5; the king of Sweden invited him to 
Stockholm in 1857. The Continent ranked him 
one of the foremost actors of the age, and the 
greatest sovereigns, with cities like Bern, show¬ 
ered honors and decorations on him and made 
him member of all sorts of learned societies. 
He married an Englishwoman. He was on his 
way to an engagement in St. Petersburg when 
he died. 

Aldrovandi, Ulisse, Italian naturalist: b. 
Bologna, 11 Sept. 1522; d. 10 May 1605. He 
aroused interest in the natural sciences at a 
time when they had been long neglected, wrote 
profusely on natural history subjects, estab¬ 
lished the Botanical Garden of Bologna, and, 
through his legacy to the Senate of Bologna of 
his collections, left behind him the germ of the 
great Bologna Museum. A short account of his 
life, together with a descriptive list of his pub¬ 
lished writings and manuscripts, may be found in 
< Notizie degli Scrittori Bolognesi,* Vol. I. 
(Bologna 1781). He was the first to collect an 
herbarium, in the modern sense of the word. 
He traveled widely, collecting plants and ani¬ 
mals, and preparing himself to write a great 
work on the animal life of the world. Of this 
work four volumes on ornithology and one on 
mollusks were issued before his death, and 10 
others, prepared by him from his material, were 
brought out afterward by his pupils and friends. 
Many of his manuscripts and drawings were 
preserved unpublished in the library of Bo¬ 
logna. 

Ale and Beer, well known and extensively 
used fermented liquors, the best of which is 
prepared from barley after it has undergone the 
process termed malting. Beer is a more gen¬ 
eral term than ale, being often used for any 
kind of fermented malt liquor, including, porter, 
though it is also used in a more special sig¬ 
nification. « The numerous varieties of malt 
liquors met with in commerce may be resolved 
into three great classes — ale, beer, porter. Ale, 
as the term is generally understood, is a pale 
liquor brewed from lightly-dried malt, and 
abounding more or less in undecomposed sac¬ 


charine matter and mucilage and the bitter and 
fragrant principles of the hop; characteristics 
which, however, it more or less loses by ma¬ 
turation and age. Beer is a fine, strong, well- 
fermented liquor, darker, less saccharine, and 
more alcoholic than ordinary ale. Porter is a 
dark-brown colored liquor, originally brewed 
from high-dried malt, but now generally made 
from pale malt, with a sufficient quantity of 
patent or roasted malt to impart the necessary 
color and flavor. Stout, brown stout, etc., are 
mere varieties of porter, differing from that 
liquor only in their superior strength and qual¬ 
ity. East India ale, bitter ale, etc., of the great 
brewers, are beverages which combine the pale 
color and fragrant bitter of ale (the latter 
usually in undue excess) with the ( dryness ) 
and maturity of beer. Table-ale or table-beer 
is a weak liquor, commonly containing three 
or four times the proportion of water usually 
present in ordinary beer or ale. In London 
porter is called beer, and indeed in all parts of 
the kingdom the prevailing beverage of this kind 
consumed by the masses, of whatever class, 
commonly goes by the name of beer. The three 
great classes of malt liquor above referred to 
are, independent of mere differences of strength, 
excellence, and commercial value, practically 
subdivided into an almost infinite number of va¬ 
rieties. Every county, every town, and almost 
every brewer is distinguished by the production 
of a different flavored beer, readily perceived 
and highly appreciated by their respective vo¬ 
taries ® (Cyclopaedia of Practical Receipts). 
These differences depend chiefly on the quality 
of the materials and the varying proportions 
in which they are employed, the temperature of 
the water used for mashing, the length of time 
the mash is boiled, the temperature at which 
fermentation is effected, and the extent to which 
it is allowed to proceed. The color of the beer 
depends on the color of the malt and the length 
of time occupied by the boiling. The pale ale 
is made from malt dried by steam or in the 
sun; the deep-yellow ale, from a mixture of 
pale, yellow, and brown malt; and the dark- 
brown beer from malt that has been highly 
dried in the kiln and partly carbonized, mixed 
with the paler sorts. Besides being made from 
barley, maize, wheat, and other grains, beer 
may be manufactured from a good many other 
amylaceous and saccharine substances, such as 
beet-root, potatoes, turnips, beans, cane-syrup, 
molasses, etc., but the best is that made from 
barley-malt. Some of these substances are ex¬ 
tensively employed in Germany, which has been 
celebrated as a beer-drinking country from the 
earliest times. Many different kinds of beer are 
there made, among the most important being 
the Bavarian summer or lager (that is, store) 
beer, and winter beer, the Bavarian bock beer, 
Berlin white beer, wheat lager beer, Broyhan 
beer (Hanover), Merseburg brown beer, etc. 
The Bavarian beer possesses excellent qualities 
and is distinguished from most of the beers of 
Germany and other countries by the valuable 
property of not turning sour on exposure to 
the air, so that it can be preserved , in half-full 
casks equally well as in full ones. This 
quality it owes to the way in which it is fer¬ 
mented, this being done by the untergahrung 
process, or process of fermentation from below. 
The malt-wort is set to ferment in open backs 


ALEMANNI — ALESSANDRIA 


with an extensive surface and placed in cold 
cellars with a temperature not higher than 46^ ° 
to 50°. The operation lasts three or four weeks, 
and the wort, instead of showing a large head 
of froth, is scarcely covered with any, the yeast 
sinking to the bottom in the form of a viscid 
sediment called the unterhefe, or bottom-yeast. 
This bottom-yeast is a different substance from 
the precipitate which falls to the bottom of the 
backs in the ordinary fermentation of beer. The 
summer or lager beer is brewed in the coldest 
months of the year, namely December, January, 
and February, and is stored up in air-tight 
cellars. The winter beer is intended for almost 
immediate consumption, and is hence called 
schenk (that is, pot or draught) beer. It is 
rather weaker than the summer beer. The Ba¬ 
varian bock beer is a double-strength beverage 
of the best lager description, with a somewhat 
darker color than the ordinary lager beer and a 
sweeter taste. Berlin white or pale beer 
( weissbier ) is brewed from one part of barley 
malt and five parts of wheat malt. 

The manufacture of ale or beer is of very 
high antiquity. Herodotus ascribes the inven¬ 
tion of brewing to Isis, and tells us that the 
Egyptians drank a liquor which they called 
zuthos, fermented from barley. Ale or beer 
was never used to a great extent in Greece or 
Italy, partly owing, no doubt, to the abundance 
of wine in these countries. Xenophon, in his 
Enabasis,* mentions it as being used among 
the inhabitants of Armenia, and the Gauls were 
also acquainted with it in early times. Ale or 
beer was in common use in Germany in the time 
of Tacitus. <( A 11 the nations,® says Pliny, (( who 
inhabit the west of Europe have a liquor with 
which they intoxicate themselves, made of corn 
and water (fruge madid a ). The manner of 
making this liquor is somewhat different in 
Gaul, Spain, and other countries, and it is called 
by many various names; but its nature and 
properties are everywhere the same. The peo¬ 
ple’ of Spain, in particular, brew this liquor so 
well that it will keep good for a long time. So 
exquisite is the ingenuity of mankind in grati¬ 
fying their vicious appetites that they have thus 
invented a method to make water itself intox¬ 
icate.® Our Teutonic ancestors would of course 
bring with them from the Continent their na¬ 
tional beverage, and accordingly we find ale 
mentioned in English history in very early times. 
It is mentioned in the laws of Ina, king of 
Wessex (680), and ale-booths were regulated 
by law in 728. It was customary in the reigns 
of the Norman princes to regulate the price of 
ale, and a statute passed in 1272 enacted that 
a brewer should be allowed to sell two gallons 
of ale for a penny in cities, and three or four 
gallons for the same price in the country. The 
use of hops in the manufacture of ale and beer 
seems to have been a German invention, and 
the name beer appears to have come from Ger¬ 
many to England with this practice (1524), after 
which (( beer® and <( ale® were used respectively 
for the hopped and the unhopped liquor. In 
1552 hop plantations had begun to be formed 
in England. Ale-houses were first licensed in 
1621, and in Charles II.’s reign duties amount¬ 
ing to 2s. 6d. a barrel on strong, and to 6d. on 
small ale or beer, were imposed for the first 
time (1660). From that time up to 1830, when 
it was entirely repealed, though the malt-tax re¬ 


mained, the duty on the barrel of strong beer 
varied, being in 1804 as high as io.y. Up to 
1823 beer was classed into strong beer and small 
beer, the former being beer of the value of 16^. 
and upward the barrel, the latter beer below this 
value. See also Brewing. 

Alemanni. See Alamanni. 

Aleardi, Gaetano, Italian poet and patriot: 
b. Verona 4 Nov. 1812; d. there 17 Julv 1878. 
From his boyhood he was devoted to the study 
of political and social questions, and was so 
active in the insurrection in Venetia (1848-9) 
that he was twice imprisoned by the Austrians. 
As a poet he has always been popular in Italy, 
and many editions of his works have been pub¬ 
lished. 

Alembert, Jean le Rond d\ a French 

mathematician and philosopher: b. Paris 16 
Nov. 1717; d. there 29 Oct. 1783- The illegit¬ 
imate child of Chevalier Destouches-Canon and 
the celebrated Madame de Tencin, sister of the 
archbishop of Lyons, he was abandoned in in- 
fancy near the church of St. Jean de Rond, a 
fact from which his Christian name was derived. 
After he had attained eminence his father rec¬ 
ognized him and gave him a pension. While 
still very young he displayed such precocity of 
talent that he was placed in the College Mazarin, 
where he became deeply interested in mathe¬ 
matics and philosophy, and, in fact, while he 
attempted to study both medicine and law, his 
inability to turn his mind to either of these pro¬ 
fessions determined him to become a mathema¬ 
tician. In 1740, he was admitted to membership 
in the Academy of Sciences, and, a year later, 
he published his celebrated ‘Treatise on Dy¬ 
namics. 5 Other scientific work followed rap¬ 
idly, and in 1750 he became associated with 
Diderot in the publication of the Encyclopedia, 5 
for which he wrote the introduction, the article 
on mathematics, and many of the biographies. 
In 1754 he became a member of the French 
Academy, and in 1772, having declined several 
pressing invitations to become royal tutor at the 
court of Russia, he was elected perpetual sec¬ 
retary of the Academy. His Elements of Phi¬ 
losophy^ in which he followed the principles of 
Locke to their ultimate conclusion, both in 
skepticism and materialism, had appeared in 
1759. Two editions of his works have been 
published: Paris, 1805, 18 vols. 8vo., and Paris, 
1821, 5 vols. 8vo. 

Alencar, Jose Martiniano de, celebrated 
Brazilian jurist and novelist: b. Ceara 1 May 
1829; d. Rio de Janeiro 12 Dec. 1877. Although 
prominent in his profession he is best known as 
a writer of fiction, his most popular works being 
( 0 Sertanejo,* <Iracema,> and ( 0 Guarany,* 
all of which are stories of local Indian and 
colonial life. 

Alessandria, Armistice of, the armistice 
under which the Austrian general, Melas, re¬ 
tired after the celebrated battle of Marengo, 16 
June 1800. By this act Gen. Melas abandoned 
to Napoleon every fortification in northern Italy 
west of the Mincio, a result which, according to 
the opinions of the historians, was a more seri¬ 
ous blow to the Austrian cause than an uncon¬ 
ditional surrender would have been. 


ALESUND — ALEXANDER 


Alesund, a town on the western coast of 
Norway. Its chief industry is codfishing. Pop. 
about 12,000. 

Aletia. See Cotton Insect Pests. 

Aleurone, a substance rich in nitrogen, found 
in the cells of seeds. In the legumes it is found 
imbedded in the grains of starch, but in grains it 
constitutes the inner nodule. It is sometimes 
called gluten (q.v.). 

Aleu'tian Islands, a chain of about 80 
small islands belonging to Alaska Territory, 
separating the sea of Kamchatka from the 
northern part of the Pacific Ocean and extend¬ 
ing nearly 1,600 miles from east to west be¬ 
tween Ion. 172 0 E. and 163° W.; total area, 
d,39i sq. m. Pop. (1900), about 2,500. They 
are of volcanic formation, and in a number of 
them there are volcanoes still in activity. Their 
general appearance is dismal and barren, yet 
grassy valleys capable of supporting cattle 
throughout the year are met with, and potatoes, 
turnips, and other vegetables are successfully 
cultivated. They afford also- an abundance of 
valuable fur and of fish. The natives belong 
to the same stock with those of Kamchatka. 
They are a strong hardy race, capable of endur¬ 
ing extremes of heat and cold. They are nom¬ 
inally Christianized, and are connected with the 
Greek Church of Russia. See Alaska. 

Alewife (possibly from aloofe, its Indian 
name), a small anadromous fish ( Pomolobus 
pseudoharengus ) found abundantly along the 
east coast of the United States, except at the 
extreme north and south. Somewhat earlier in 
the spring than its relatives, it goes up the riv¬ 
ers in multitudes to spawn. The eggs, which 
are voided in vast quantities, sink to the bot¬ 
tom and stick to rocks, etc. It is closely allied 
to both the herring and the shad, but it most 
resembles the shad in shape and color, though 
it is only from 8 to 10 inches long. It is less 
esteemed for its quality than the shad, but is of 
great importance as a food fish, and is taken by 
millions annually. This fish is called «gas- 
pereau» in St. Lawrence Bay, and «branch 
herring» and « sawbelly» locally elsewhere; 
but the «alewife» of Bermuda is an entirely 
different fish, the round pompano. 

Alexander, a name of various ancient 
writers, philosophers, etc. (1) Alexander of 
ZEgae; a peripatetic philosopher of the 1st cen¬ 
tury a.d. ; tutor of Nero. (2) Alexander the 
/Etolian; a Greek poet who lived at Alexandria 
about 285-247 b.c., reckoned as one of the seven 
poets constituting the tragic pleiad. (3) Al¬ 
exander of Aphrodisias, surnamed Exegetes; 
lived about 200 a.d.; a learned commentator on 
the works of Aristotle. (4) Alexander Corne¬ 
lius, surnamed Polyhistor, of the 1st century 
b.c. He was made prisoner during the war of 
Sulla in Greece and sold as a slave to Corne¬ 
lius Lentulus, who took him. to Rome, made 
him the teacher of his children, and restored 
him to freedom. The surname Polyhistor was 
given him on account of his prodigious learn¬ 
ing. The most important of his voluminous 
works was one in 42 books, containing histori¬ 
cal and geographical accounts of nearly all the 
countries in the ancient world. (5) A Greek 
rhetorician and poet, surnamed Lychnus; lived 
about 30 b.c., wrote astronomical and geo¬ 
graphical poems. (6) Alexander Numenius; 


a Greek rhetorician and teacher of elocution, 
of the 2d century a.d., two of whose works are 
historically known. (7) Alexander the Paph- 
lagonian; a celebrated impostor who lived about 
the beginning of the 2d century a.d., obtained a 
great influence with the people as an oracle; 
pretended to be yEsculapius reappeared. Lu¬ 
cian chiefly has made him known to us. (8) 
A Greek rhetorician of the 2d century a.d., sur¬ 
named Peloplaton, who vanquished Herodes 
Atticus in a rhetorical contest. (9) Alexan¬ 
der Philalethes ; a physician of the 1st cen¬ 
tury b.c., who succeeded Zeuxis as president of 
the famous Herophdean school of medicine. 
(10) Saint Alexander (d. 326 a.d.); the Pa¬ 
triarch of Alexandria from 312 a.d.; an oppo¬ 
nent of Arius; member of the Council of Nice 
(325 a.d.) ; commemorated in the calendar 26 
February. (11) Alexander of Tralles; an emi¬ 
nent physician of Lydia, of the 6th century a.d. ; 
author of two extant Greek works. 

Alexander, the name of eight Popes. 

1. Alexander I., bishop of Rome about 109 
a.d., recorded on the list of Popes by all the 
chronicles except Optatus Milevitanus. He 
confirmed, some say introduced, the rite of using 
unleavened bread for the Eucharist, of blessing 
water with salt, and certain rubrics in the mass. 
He died a martyr’s death. 

2. Alexander II., Anselmo Baggio, a na¬ 
tive of Milan; he lived for some time at the 
court of Henry III., and in 1056 or 1057 became 
Bishop of Lucca. In 1059 he became papal 
legate at Milan, and, 1 Oct. 1061, through the 
zeal of Hildebrand, he was raised to the papal 
throne, consequently the imperial party elected 
Bishop Cadalous of Parma, a rival Pope, as 
Honorius II. Alexander was driven by him in 
1062 from the vicinity of Rome. He then 
withdrew to Lucca, and on the decision of the 
contest by Bishop Burchard of Halberstadt he 
was sent by the German court to Italy and rec¬ 
ognized as Pope. At the Council of Mantua 
in 1604, with the assistance of Anno of Cologne, 
he got possession of Rome against his rival. 
His reign, under the influence of Hildebrand, 
carried out the reform of the churches and their 
emancipation from secular control. When 
Henry IV. wished a divorce from his wife Ber¬ 
tha, Alexander, through his legate, Cardinal 
Pietros Damiana, decided against him and sum¬ 
moned the king to Rome to answer for his 
crimes, but shortly after he died, 21 April 1073. 

3. Alexander III. (d. 1181), Rolando 

Ranuci; Pope, 1159-81. His career is histori¬ 
cally important because of his vigorous pros¬ 
ecution, in opposition to Frederick Barbarossa, 
of the policies begun by Hildebrand. Three 
anti-Popes, Victor IV., Pascal III., and Calix- 
tus III., had been confirmed in succession by 
the emperor. Alexander succeeded, and after 
the decisive victory at Legnanc compelled Fred¬ 
erick’s submission. The papal struggle was 
carried on in England by Thomas a Becket, end¬ 
ing in a victory for Alexander. William the 
Lion, of Scotland, was excommunicated for 
opposing him. Important decrees were issued 
by Alexander III., safeguarding ecclesiastical 
powers and privileges. 

4. Alexander IV., Pope 1254-61; a man of 
great gifts, which, however, were of little avail 
in his unfortunate times. His administration is 



ALEXANDER 


signalized by attempts to unite the Greek and 
Roman Churches, and the establishment of the 
Inquisition in France (1255). He was the 
nephew of Gregory IX. In his battle with Man¬ 
fred of Sicily, he suffered bitter humiliations 
and, deserted by his bishops, was obliged to es¬ 
cape from Rome. He died in Viterbo in 1261. 

5. Alexander V., Pietro Philargi, of Can- 
dia. He was for some time professor in Paris, 
and in 1402 was made Archbishop of Milan, and 
in 1404 cardinal. In 1409, after the deposi¬ 
tion of the rival Popes, Gregory XII. and Ben¬ 
edict XIII., he was elected Pope by the cardinals 
at the Council of Pisa, but was recognized 
by only a part of Christendom. He forbade 
the teaching of Wyclif in Bohemia, and prohib¬ 
ited Huss from preaching even in private chap¬ 
els. He died at the age of 70, and it was sup¬ 
posed by some, though without foundation, that 
he was poisoned by his successor, Balthasar 
Cossa (Pope John XXIII.). 

6. Alexander VI., Roderick Llangol, was 
born at Cativa, in the diocese of Valencia, in 
Spain, 1 Jan. 1431. He assumed the name Bor¬ 
gia when his uncle of that name became Pope 
as Calixtus III. After studying law he en¬ 
tered the papal court and was advanced rap¬ 
idly, becoming commendatory archbishop of 
Valencia, cardinal deacon, and vice-chancellor 
of the Church in Rome. Appointed cardinal- 
bishop of Albano in 1476, he was ordained 
priest in that year. By the unanimous consent 
of the cardinal electors he was crowned Pope 
ii Aug. 1492. His administration was a re¬ 
markable one. He cleared Rome of the ban¬ 
dits who had infested the city; held court every 
Wednesday; established the Congregation of 
the Index for the censorship of books; re¬ 
pressed the insolence and rapacity of the Roman 
nobility; put a stop to the falsification of ec¬ 
clesiastical documents; drew up measures for 
the reformation of ecclesiastical discipline; co¬ 
operated with European rulers in their projects 
against the inroads of the Saracens; effected 
peace between the kings of Spain and Portugal 
by repartitioning between them their discoveries 
in the New World; provided missionaries for 
preaching the gospel in newly explored coun¬ 
tries ; approved and confirmed several religious 
congregations; restored discipline in the Church 
in Flanders; suppressed magic in Germany and 
Bohemia; popularized the custom introduced by 
Calixtus III. of saying the Angelus at mid¬ 
day; encouraged arts, particularly painting and 
literature; put an end to the famines which had 
so often visited Rome; and issued many noted 
bulls, letters, and other papal documents, which 
alone show that he was a man of extraordi¬ 
nary genius and power. 

He is charged by historians like Guicciardini 
and Burchard and more modern writers who 
follow them, of licentiousness before his ordina¬ 
tion to the priesthood, of simony, nepotism, and 
cruelty as Pope. It is difficult to reconcile all 
the crimes attributed to him with his high qual¬ 
ities and distinguished deeds. Of late years 
the tendency of moderate historians is to ex¬ 
onerate him from many extreme charges, to 
extenuate the faults of his youth, and cast 
doubt on the serious accusations brought 
against him as Pope. 

7. Alexander VII., Fabio Chigi, of Siena, 
was during the treaties of peace at Munster and 


Osnabriick, papal nuncio in' Germany. He was 
chosen Pope 7 April 1665, through the influence 
of France. In 1161, in spite of the protests of 
the Jansenists, he confirmed the condemnation 
of the five Jansenist dogmas which had been 
condemned by his predecessor. Innocent X. 
Later he fell into controversy with Louis XIV. 
During his rule Rome was beautified in many 
directions, especially by the colonnade before 
St. Peter’s. He was himself a poet and friend 
of the arts and sciences. A collection of his 
poems appeared in 1656. 

8. Alexander VIII. (1610-91), Pietro Ot- 
toboni, of Venice; Pope 1689-91; assisted 
Italy in wars against the Turks. Through the 
purchase of the library of Queen Christina of 
Sweden he enriched the Vatican with 1,900 
precious manuscripts. The collection is known 
as the Ottobonian Library. 

Cambridge ( Modern History^ VoL I.; 
Hefele, ( History of the Councils J ; Parsons, 
( Studies in Church History > ; Pastor, ( His¬ 
tory of the Popes. } 

Alexander I., emperor of Russia, son of 
Paul I. and Maria, daughter of Prince Eu¬ 
gene of Wiirtemberg: b. 23 Dec. 1777; d. 1 
Dec. 1825. On the assassination of his father, 
24 March 1801, Alexander ascended the 
throne, and soon after a ukase was published 
for diminishing the taxes, liberating debtors, 
etc. One of the first acts of his reign was to 
conclude peace with Great Britain, against 
which his predecessor had declared war. In 
1803 he offered his services as mediator between 
England and France, and two years later a 
convention was entered into between Russia, 
England, Austria and Sweden for the purpose 
of resisting the encroachments of France on 
the territories of independent states. He was 
present at the battle of Austerlitz (2 Dec. 
1805), when the combined armies of Russia and 
Austria were defeated by Napoleon. Alexander 
was compelled to retreat to his dominions at 
the head of the remains of his army. In the 
succeeding campaign the Russians were again 
beaten at Eylau (8 Feb. 1807), and Friedland 
(14 June), the result of which was an interview 
a few days after the battle, on a raft anchored 
in the Niemen, between Alexander and Na¬ 
poleon, which led to the treaty signed at Tilsit, 
7 July. The Russian emperor now for a time 
identified himself with the Napoleonic schemes. 
The seizure of the Danish fleet by the British 
brought about a declaration of war by Russia 
against Great Britain and Sweden, and Alexan¬ 
der invaded Finland and conquered that long- 
coveted duchy, which was secured to him by 
the peace of Friedrichshamn (1809). In 1809- 
12 war was carried on against Turkey. The 
French alliance, however, he found to be too 
oppressive, and his having separated himself 
from Napoleon led to the French invasion of 
1812. In 1813 he published the famous mani¬ 
festo which served as the basis of the coalition 
of the other European powers against France. 
After the battle of Waterloo, Alexander, accom¬ 
panied by the emperor of Austria and the 
king of Prussia, made his second entrance into 
Paris, where they concluded (26 Sept. 1815), 
the treaty known as the Ploly Alliance. The re¬ 
maining part of his reign was chiefly taken up 
in measures of internal reform, including the 


ALEXANDER 


gradual abolition of serfdom, and the promo¬ 
tion of education, agriculture, commerce, and 
manufactures. 

Alexander II., emperor of Russia: b. 29 
April 1818; succeeded his father Nicholas in 
1855, before the end of the Crimean war. 
After peace was concluded the new emperor 
set about effecting reforms in the empire, among 
the first being the putting of the finances in 
order. The greatest of all the reforms carried 
out by him was the emancipation of the serfs 
by a decree of 2 March 1861. The czar also 
did much to improve education in the empire 
and introduced a reorganization of the judicial 
system. During his reign the Russian domin¬ 
ions in central Asia were considerably extended, 
while to the European portion of the mon¬ 
archy was added a piece of territory south of 
the Caucasus, formerly belonging to Turkey 
in Asia. A part of Bessarabia, belonging since 
the Crimean war to Turkey in Europe, but 
previously to Russia, was also restored to the 
latter power. The latter additions resulted from 
the Russo-Turkish war of 1877-8, in which 
the Turks were completely defeated, the Rus¬ 
sian troops advancing almost to the gates of 
Constantinople. Toward the end of the czar’s 
life several attempts at his assassination were 
made by Nihilists, and at last he was killed 
by an explosive missile flung at him in a street 
in St. Petersburg, 13 March 1881. He was 
succeeded by his son, Alexander III. 

Alexander III., emperor of Russia, son of 
Alexander II.; b. 10 March 1845; d. Livadia, 
1 Nov. 1894. He married the daughter of the 
king of Denmark in 1866. After his father's 
death, through fear of assassination, he shut 
himself up in his palace at Gatschina. Plis 
coronation was postponed till 1883, and was cel¬ 
ebrated with extraordinary magnificence, and 
with national festivities lasting several days. 
Through the fall of Merv, the subjugation of 
the Turkomans in central Asia was completed. 
In 1885 hostilities with England with regard to 
the defining of the frontier between the Rus¬ 
sian territories and Afghanistan for a time 
seemed imminent. In European affairs he 
broke away from the triple alliance between 
Russia, Germany, and Austria, and looked 
rather to France. He was aggrieved by the 
new Bulgarian spirit. His home policy was 
reactionary, though strong efforts were made 
to prevent malversation by officials, and stern 
economics were practised. The liberties of the 
Baltic provinces and of Finland were curtailed, 
the Jews were oppressed, and old Russian 
orthodoxy was favored. Several Nihilist at¬ 
tempts were made on his life, and throughout his 
reign he kept himself practically a prisoner in his 
palace. 

Alexander I., king of Scotland, fourth son 
of Malcolm Canmore; b. about 1078, in 1107 
succeeded his brother, Edgar, only, however, 
to that part of the kingdom north of the firths of 
Forth and Clyde; d. Stirling. 1224. He mar¬ 
ried Sibylla, a natural daughter of Henry 1. 
of England, and his reign was comparatively 
untroubled, though about 1115 he had to quell 
an insurrection of the northern clans. He 
founded the abbeys of Scone and Inchcolm 
and initiated a diocesan episcopate; while his 
determined resistance to the claims of York 


and Canterbury to supremacy over the see of 
St. Andrews did much to secure the independ¬ 
ence, not only of the Scottish Church, but of 
Scotland itself. 

Alexander II., king of Scotland: b. Had¬ 
dington, 1198; d. 1249. He succeeded his fa¬ 
ther, William the Lion, in 1214. He early dis¬ 
played that wisdom and strength of character 
in virtue of which he holds so high a place in 
history among Scottish kings. His entering 
into a league with the English barons against 
King John drew down upon him and his king¬ 
dom the papal excommunication; but two years 
later the ban was removed, and the liberties of 
the Scottish Church were even confirmed. On 
Henry III.’s accession to the English throne, 
Alexander brought the feuds of the two na¬ 
tions to a temporary close by a treaty of peace 
(1217), in accordance with which he married 
Henry’s eldest sister, the Princess Joan (1221). 
The alliance thus established was broken after 
her death without issue (1238) and the second 
marriage of Alexander with the daughter of a 
noble of France. In 1244 Henry marched 
against Scotland to compel Alexander’s hom¬ 
age ; but a peace was concluded without an 
appeal to arms. In 1249, while engaged in an 
expedition to wrest the Hebrides from Norway, 
Alexander died of fever on Kerrera, near Oban. 

Alexander III., king of Scotland'. b„ 1241; 
succeeded his father, Alexander II., 1239; d. 12 
March 1286. In 1251 he married the Princess 
Margaret (1240-75), eldest daughter of Henry 
III. of England. Very shortly after he had 
come of age his energies were summoned to 
defend his kingdom against the formidable in¬ 
vasion of Haco, king of Norway (1263), whose 
utter rout at Largs secured to Alexander the 
allegiance both of the Hebrides and the Isle of 
Man. The alliance between Scotland and Nor¬ 
way was strengthened in 1282 by King Eric’s 
marriage to Alexander’s only daughter, Mar¬ 
garet (1261-83) ; the untimely death of their 
infant daughter, Margaret, commonly desig¬ 
nated the Maid of Norway, on her way to take 
possession of her throne, was the occasion of 
many calamities to Scotland. During the con¬ 
cluding years of Alexander’s reign the kingdom 
enjoyed a peace and prosperity which it did not 
taste again for many generations. His only 
surviving son died without issue in 1284; and 
next year Alexander contracted a second mar¬ 
riage with Joleta, daughter of the Count de 
Dreux. 

Alexander I., king of Servia: b. 14 Aug. 
1876: son of King Milan I. In 1889 Milan 
abdicated and proclaimed Alexander king under 
a regency till he should attain his majority (18 
years). On 13 April 1893, when in his 17U1 
year, Alexander suddenly took the royal au¬ 
thority into his own hands and summarily dis¬ 
missed the regent. On 5 Aug. 1900 he married 
Mme. Draga Maschin. This marriage was ex¬ 
ceedingly unpopular by reason of the charac¬ 
ter of the new queen, and this fact, joined to 
her unwise attempts to advance her own fam¬ 
ily, induced a crisis which resulted in the as¬ 
sassination of the king and queen 11 June 1903 - 
See Servia. 

Alexander, Abraham, American agitator: 
b. North Carolina, 1718; d. 1786. His place in 
history is due to the fact that he was chairman 


ALEXANDER. 


of the convention which on 31 May 1775 passed 
the resolutions generally known as the (< Meck¬ 
lenburg Declaration of Independence? 

Alexander, Archibald, American clergy¬ 
man, of Scottish descent: b. Virginia, 17 April 
1772; d. Princeton, N. J., 22 Oct. 1851. He 
studied theology, and performed itinerant mis¬ 
sionary work in various parts of Virginia; be¬ 
came president of Hampton-Sidney College in 
1796, and pastor of a Presbyterian church in 
Philadelphia in 1807. On the establishment of 
Princeton Theological Seminary in 1812 he was 
appointed its first professor, a position which 
he held till his death. Among other works he 
published ( Outlines of the Evidences of Chris¬ 
tianity,> ( Treatise on the Canon of the Scrip¬ 
tures } (1826); ( History of the Patriarchs y 

O833) ; and ( History of the Israelitish Na¬ 
tion } (1852); his ( Moral Science* was post¬ 
humous. 

Alexander, Barton Stone, American sol¬ 
dier : b. Kentucky, 1819; d. San Francisco, Cal., 
15 Dec. 1878. He graduated from West Point 
1842, and became lieutenant in the engineer 
corps; as stich he superintended the building 
of Minot’s Ledge lighthouse off Boston Har¬ 
bor, the marine hospital at Chelsea, north of 
Boston, and the military asylum at Washington, 
besides repairs on fortifications. He assisted 
in constructing the defenses of Washington in 
the Civil War, took part in the first campaign 
about Manassas, and was brevetted major for 
conduct at Bull Run; and remaining with the 
Army of the Potomac was brevetted lieutenant- 
colonel for conduct at the siege of Yorktown in 
1862. In 1864 he was consulting engineer on 
Sheridan’s staff, and in March 1865 was brev¬ 
etted brigadier-general for services in the war. 
The next two years he was in charge of the con¬ 
struction of the public works in Maine; and 
in 1867 became senior engineer with rank of 
lieutenant-colonel. Thence till death he was a 
member of the Pacific board of engineers for 
fortification. 

Alexander, Cecil Frances (Humphrey), 
an Irish poet, born in County Wicklow, 
1818: d. 12 Oct. 1895. She was very active 
in religious and charitable works. She is best 
known as a writer of hymns and religious 
poems. Among the most noted are the hymns, 
( The Roseate Hue of Early Dawn * and ( All 
Things Bright and Beautiful? Her most 
famous poem is ( The Burial of Moses? 

Alexander, Edward Porter, American 
military engineer: b. Washington, Ga., 26 May 
1835. Graduating from West Point 1857, he 
was made second lieutenant in the engineer 
corps; resigned 1861, and entering the Confed¬ 
erate army served there till the surrender at 
Appomattox, April 1865; at first as chief of 
ordnance and chief signal officer in the Army 
of Northern Virginia, then as brigadier-general 
and chief of artillery in Longstreet’s corps, tak¬ 
ing part in the Wilderness and Spottsylvania 
and the siege of Petersburg. From 1866 to 
1870 he was professor of mathematics and en¬ 
gineering in the University of South Carolina; 
thence (1871-92) manager and president of some 
of the foremost Southern railroads, and is a 
rice-planter in South Carolina. He was a gov¬ 
ernment director of the Union Pacific R.R. 
1885-7 1 a member of the boards on navigation 


of the Columbia River and on the Chesapeake- 
Delaware ship canal 1892-4; and in 1891 en¬ 
gineer arbitrator of the boundary survey be¬ 
tween Nicaragua and Costa Rica. 

Alexander, James, American colonial law¬ 
yer and patriot: b. Scotland about 1690; d. 
New York, 2 April 1756. He was an engineer 
officer in Scotland; compelled to leave Great 
Britain for taking part in the Old Pretender s 
Rebellion of 1715, he came to Perth Amboy, was 
its first official recorder in 1718, and was shortly 
after appointed surveyor-general of New York 
and New Jersey. Studying law, he rose to dis¬ 
tinction at the bar. He engaged in political de¬ 
bate in the press; was temporarily disbarred 
for serving as counsel to a printer accused of se¬ 
dition, but was reinstated two years later; held 
many important public offices, including those of 
attorney-general and of secretary to the prov¬ 
ince of New York; acquired a large fortune, 
and was a zealous upholder of colonial liberties, 
— he died from the fatigues of a journey from 
New York to Albany while sick, to oppose a 
ministerial project threatening colonial rights. 
With Franklin and others he founded the 
American Philosophical Society. His son was 
the famous (( Lord Stirling * of the Revolution. 

Alexander, Sir James Edward, a British 
soldier and explorer: b. in Scotland in 1803; d. 
2 April 1885; served in the principal wars of 
his day, particularly distinguishing himself in 
the Crimean; conducted an exploring expedition 
into central Africa, and published several narra¬ 
tives of travel. He died 2 April 1885. 

Alexander, James Waddell, American 
clergyman, son of Archibald Alexander: b. 
near Gordonsville, Va., 13 March 1804; d. 31 
July 1859. He studied in Philadelphia, then 
graduated at Princeton and from its theological 
seminary. He held a pastorate at Charlotte C. 
H., Va., 1825-8, and the First Presbyterian 
Church in Trenton, N. J., 1828-30. Resigning 
from ill health, he became editor of the Phila¬ 
delphia Presbyterian. He was professor of 
rhetoric and belles-lettres in Princeton, 1833-44; 
pastor of the Duane Street Church, New York, 
1844-9; professor of ecclesiastical history and 
church government in Princeton Seminary, 
1849-51; from 1851 till death pastor of his old 
Duane Street Church, reorganized as the Fifth 
Avenue, corner 19th Street. 'He wrote much 
for religious and other periodicals, and for the 
Tract Society, and over 30 volumes for the 
American Sunday-School Union. He published 
also volumes of sermons; ( The American Me¬ 
chanic and Workingman * (2 vols. 1847) ; 

( Plain Words to a Young Communicant * 
(1854) ; a biography of his father (1854) ; < Dis¬ 
courses on Christian Faith and Practice* 
(1858) ; ( Thoughts on Preaching ) (1864) ; etc 

Alexander, John Henry, American scien¬ 
tist: b. Annapolis, Md., 26 June 1812; d. 2 
March 1867. Graduating from St. John’s Col¬ 
lege, Annapolis, 1826, he studied law, then en¬ 
gineering; and a plan for the survey of Mary¬ 
land he put before its legislature gained him the 
appointment of topographical engineer of the 
State, which he held till 1841, preparing annual 
reports which did much to enlist capital in de¬ 
veloping its coal and iron fields. He published a 
two-part ( History of the Metallurgy of Iron? 
1840-2. He was also associated in Hassler and 


ALEXANDER— ALEXANDER SEVERUS 


Bache’s coast survey. He made great efforts to 
establish a uniform standard of weights and 
measures in the United States, and published in 
1850 a c Universal Dictionary of Weights and 
Measures, Ancient and Modern.* In 1857 the 
United States government sent him to England 
as a delegate to the British commission on inter¬ 
national coinage, and his appointment to the 
directorship of the Philadelphia mint was only 
prevented by his death. He served on many 
commissions, and published very valuable re¬ 
ports; papers in the ( American Journal of Sci¬ 
ence and Arts,* etc. He was also at different 
times professor of physics in St. James’ Col¬ 
lege, Maryland, the University of Maryland, 
and the University of Pennsylvania. He also 
wrote volumes of religious verse, an unpublished 
dictionary of English Surnames,* etc., and 
edited scientific works. 

Alexander, John White, American artist: 
b. Alleghany City, Pa., 7 Oct. 1856. For three 
years he was connected with the art depart¬ 
ment of the Harpers, and then was three years 
abroad, studying at the National Academy of 
Fine Arts, Munich, and with Duveneck in Ven¬ 
ice and Florence. Upon his return to the 
United States he was active as a magazine illus¬ 
trator. Attention was first attracted to his 
paintings by his exhibit in the Salon of the 
Champ de Mars in 1893. He received the gold 
medal of the Philadelphia Academy of Fine 
Arts in 1897, and gold medals at the Paris Ex¬ 
position of 1900, and the Pan-American Ex¬ 
position, Buffalo, in 1901. In 1902 he was 
elected an academician of the National Acad¬ 
emy. He is represented in the Luxembourg and 
many American and European collections; and 
by six lunettes depicting ( The History of the 
Book 1 * in the east hall of the Congressional 
Library, Washington. 

Alexander, Joseph Addison, American 
Biblical scholar, son of Archibald Alexander: 
b. Philadelphia, Pa., 24 April 1809; d. 28 Jan. 
i860. He graduated first in the Princeton class 
of 1826, and with R. B. Patton founded Edge- 
hill Seminary there. He was adjunct professor 
of ancient languages at Princeton, 1830-3, then 
spent some years abroad in linguistic studies; 
from 1838 till death was professor at Prince¬ 
ton Seminary, 1838-50 of Oriental and Biblical 
literature, 1851-60 of church history and gov¬ 
ernment, 1859-60 of New Testament history 
and Biblical Greek. He was ranked among the 
foremost of American Bibliologists, an Orien¬ 
talist of high order, and a linguist of eminent 
variety and soundness. His exegetical works 
include commentaries on Isaiah (1846, 1847, 
1851), the Psalms (3 vols. 1850), Acts (1857), 
Mark (1858), all indebted to German sources. 
His sermons were collected in 2 vols. i860. 

Alexander, Mrs., pseudonym of Annie 
Hector (q.v.). 

Alexander, Romance of, a romance of the 
Middle Ages, based on a fabulous account of 
Alexander’s invasion of Asia, written by Cal- 
listhenes. In some form it makes a part of all 
the literatures of Europe and western Asia. 

Alexander, Sir William, Earl of Stirling, 
poet and statesman: b. 1567; d. London i6ao. 
Tutor to Prince Henry, son of James I.; 
knighted 1609; held various high offices under 


the crown and in 1621 received the famous and 
stupendous grant of land embracing what is 
now Canada and the best portion of the New 
England States, and given almost absolute au¬ 
thority in its government, a grant that roused 
bitter envy among his contemporaries. At the 
coronation of Charles I. (1633) Alexander be¬ 
came Earl of Stirling. His last years were 
embittered by great pecuniary reverses and he 
died insolvent. In strength of character, in¬ 
tegrity, and many-sidedness he was the great¬ 
est Scotchman of his time; took a conspicuous 
place as scholar, courtier, colonizer, and poet. 
As a poet he belongs to the type of Fulk Greville 
and Lord Brooke; his tragedies are labored; but 
some minor pieces like the ( Aurora* are ele¬ 
gant and musical. Milton read his works, and 
Addison praised them highly. The earliest 
editions of them bring high prices and are 
eagerly sought after. Chief among them are, 
( Tragedie of Darius ) (1603) ; ( A Paraenesis to 
the Prince ) (1604). 

Alexander, William, general in Revolu¬ 
tionary War, known as (( Lord Stirling®: b. 
New York, 1726; d. Albany 15 Jan. 1783. He 
entered the service as a colonel of militia, was 
taken prisoner at the battle of Long Island, 
where he commanded a brigade, and served 
through the New Jersey campaigns with Wash¬ 
ington. His claim to the title and estates of 
Stirling was disallowed by the English House 
of Lords in 1761, and on his return to America 
he took an active part in the troubles leading up 
to the Revolution. He was a member of the 
first board of governors of King’s College, now 
Columbia University. 

Alexander Archipelago, or Alexander 
Islands, a group of islands on the W. coast 
of North America, extending from 54 0 40' N. 
to 58° 25' N.; belong to Alaska Territory. The 
principal islands are Baranoff and Prince of 
Wales. 

Alexander Land, an area in the Antarctic 
Ocean, discovered by Bellinghausen in 1821. 
It is in lat. 68°, Ion. 70° to 75 0 . 

Alexander of Plales, a noted English phi¬ 
losopher and theologian: b. Hales, Gloucester¬ 
shire ; d. Paris 1245. One of the greatest of 
the schoolmen, he was among the first to study 
Aristotle from the point of view of the Arabic 
commentators. His chief work was ( The Sum 
of Theology ) (1475). 

Alexander of Rumania, Hospodar of 
Rumania: b. Husch 20 March 1820; d. Heidel¬ 
berg 15 May 1873. On 29 Jan. 1859 he was 
chosen hospodar at Jassy and on 17 February 
at Bukharest, with title Alexander John I. By 
abolishing serfdom and dividing landed proper¬ 
ties he benefited the peasantry, but his efforts 
toward centralization caused discontent, and on 
22 Feb. 1866 he was compelled to abdicate. 

Alexander Severus, Roman emperor (in 
full, Marcus Aurelius Alexander Severus) : 
b. Ace (the modern Acre), Phoenicia, 205 a.d. ; 
d. 235. He was the son of Genesius Marcianus 
and of Julia Mammsea, niece to the Emperor 
Severus. He was admirably educated by his 
mother, and was adopted and made Caesar by 
his cousin Heliogabalus, then but a few years 
older than himself, at the prudent instigation of 
their common grandmother, Maesa. That con- 


ALEXANDER THE GREAT 


temptible emperor, however, soon grew jealous 
of his cousin and would have destroyed him 
but for the interference of the praetorian 
guards, who soon after put Heliogabalus him¬ 
self to death and raised Alexander to the 
imperial dignity in his 17th year, 11 March 
222. Alexander adopted the noble model of 
Trajan and the Antonines, and the mode in 
which he administered the affairs of the empire, 
and otherwise occupied himself in poetry, phi¬ 
losophy, and literature, is eloquently described 
by Gibbon. On the whole, he governed ably 
both in peace and war; but whatever he might 
owe to the good education given him by his 
mother, he allowed her a degree of influence in 
the government which threw a cloud over the 
latter part of his reign. He himself finally be¬ 
came convinced that in this matter he had al¬ 
lowed his filial reverence to mislead him, and 
is said to have reproached his mother with his 
dying breath as the cause of the disaster which 
had befallen them both. Alexander behaved 
with great magnanimity in one of the frequent 
insurrections of the praetorian guards; but, ei¬ 
ther from fear or necessity, he allowed many 
of their seditious mutinies to pass unpunished, 
though in one of them they murdered their 
prefect, the learned lawyer Ulpian, and in an¬ 
other compelled Dion Cassius the historian, 
then consul, to retire to Bithynia. At length, 
after having defeated, in 232, the Persians un¬ 
der Artaxerxes, who wished to drive the Ro¬ 
mans from Asia, and undertaking an expedition 
into Gaul to repress an incursion of the Ger¬ 
mans, he was murdered with his mother in an 
insurrection of his Gallic troops, headed by the 
brutal and gigantic Thracian, Maximin, who 
took advantage of their discontent at the em¬ 
peror’s attempts to restore discipline. Alexan¬ 
der was favorable to Christianity, following the 
predilections of his mother, Julia Mammaea, 
and he is said to have placed the statue of 
Jesus Christ in his private temple, with those 
of Orpheus and Apollonius of Tyana. 

Alexander the Great, the third king of 

Macedon bearing the name which he made so 
famous: b. Pella, 356 b.c. ; d. Babylon, 323 b.c. 
His mother was Olympias, an Epirote princess, 
who traced her descent from Achilles. There 
is little reason to doubt that his father was 
Philip of Macedon, though the latter was not 
confident about his paternity, and though there 
is no evidence of any feelings between the two 
such as are expected to exist between father 
and son. On the contrary, Philip seems to 
have resented the imperial qualities of his son, 
which he was clever enough to see and appre¬ 
ciate ; and Alexander showed a precocious envy 
of his father’s neglected opportunities of con¬ 
quest, a feeling which the sagacious biographer 
Plutarch has noted and dwelt on. No open 
rupture took place till Philip repudiated Olym¬ 
pias to wed a Macedonian lady (Cleopatra ac¬ 
cording to Plutarch and others, but Eurydice 
according to Arrian). During the nuptial feast¬ 
ing Philip made at Alexander with his sword, 
while the son jeered at his father’s drunken 
fury and unsteady gait. In the assassination of 
Philip in 336 the repudiated and banished Olym¬ 
pias certainly had a hand, and we cannot be 
sure that Alexander was not an accomplice. 

The memorable year in which Alexander 
first appeared on the stage of universal history 


was 339 b.c. At the age of 16 the regency of 
Greece was entrusted to him by Philip when 
he set out on an expedition against Byzantium; 
and in that capacity it fell to his lot to lead his 
first army against an Illyrian rising, to found 
his first Alexandria in the upper valley of the 
Strymon, and to receive a deputation of envoys 
from the king of Persia,— a fit beginning for 
the miracle of precocity who was afterward to 
destroy Thebes at 21, to conquer Babylon at 25, 
and to die master of the world at 33. In the 
year after his appointment to the regency Alex¬ 
ander showed eminent military capacity at the 
battle of Chseronea (338), and, on the murder 
of Philip, ascended the throne in 336, before he 
had reached his 20th year. 

The brilliant natural gifts of Alexander had 
been developed under the tutelage of Aristotle. 
His personal beauty, with its ardent expressive¬ 
ness and flashing eyes, was very remarkable, and 
he was pre-eminent in horsemanship and all 
athletic accomplishments. A habit (or perhaps 
some peculiar muscular conformation of the 
neck) which gave his head a tilt toward the 
left shoulder imparted to him an air of hauteur, 
which gave a note of eminent distinction to 
manners of charming grace and affability. He 
was of an extremely trusting disposition. His 
position in ascending the throne was a difficult 
one. He had enemies on every side. The Illy¬ 
rians and Thracians were always watching an 
opportunity to attack Macedon, and indeed 
most of the Grecian states were ready, if pos¬ 
sible, to throw off the Macedonian yoke. Per¬ 
sia regarded the growth of Macedon with sus¬ 
picion; and finally his own Macedonian sub¬ 
jects were far from being united in approval 
of the career of conquest on which Philip and 
Alexander had both resolved to embark. 

His reign began with an act of cruelty such 
as was destined subsequently to become almost 
a matter of course on every change of rulers; 
his uncle and his half-brother were put to death, 
and the little daughter of Cleopatra, Philip’s 
widow, was butchered in the arms of her moth¬ 
er. In the autumn of 336 Alexander marched 
into Greece, and was confirmed in the chief 
command against Persia by the Amphictyones 
at Thermopylse. In 335 he advanced to the 
Haemus range (the Balkans), and showed great 
ability in his campaign against the Thracians, 
crossing the Danube — apparently out of mere 
bravado — in the face of the enemy without 
losing a single man. He had no real friends 
among the Greek states. The Thebans, hear¬ 
ing a false report of his death, became overt 
enemies, proclaimed their independence, and 
slew some Macedonian officers. Alexander ap¬ 
peared in Bceotia with amazing dispatch, and 
took Thebes by storm on the third day of the 
siege. This was the occasion on which, in the 
words of Milton, 

“ The great Emathian conqueror bade spare 
The house of Pindar.” 

Leaving Antipater to govern in Europe, he 
crossed over into Asia in the spring of 334 with 
30,000 foot and 5,000 horse. The Persian em¬ 
pire, the conquest of which he undertook, was 
at least 50 times as large as his own, and num¬ 
bered about 20 times as many inhabitants. It 
extended from the Hellespont to the Punjab, 
from Lake Aral to the cataracts of the Nile, 


ALEXANDER THE GREAT 


But it was a vast congeries of subject provinces 
having no internal bond, and no principle of 
cohesion but the will of the king. For 80 years 
it had been tending to dissolution in its western 
provinces, which were the most exposed to 
danger. As stages in this process may be men¬ 
tioned the revolt of Egypt under Amyrtseus in 
410, and that of the Cypriote Evagoras, which 
was not put down till 383; the numerous re¬ 
volts of satraps, of Greek cities, and of semi- 
Greek tyrants during the first half of the 5th 
century; and the attack on Persia made by 
Tachos, king of Egypt, in 361. It has been well 
remarked by Adolf Holm that the position of 
the Persian empire when attacked by Alexander 
had some resemblance to that of the Roman 
empire when overrun by the Germans. Both 
empires held together merely by the law of 
inertia; in both their strength lay not in their 
native elements, but in mercenaries taken from 
the very peoples, the Germans and the Greeks, 
who threatened respectively the safety of the 
two empires. Alexander proposed to himself 
nothing short of complete dispossession of Da¬ 
rius in favor of himself as captain-general of 
Hellas, and the establishment of his own Pan- 
hellenic empire in the room of the Persian. 
He was not led from point to point by this or 
that strategical reason. His business was not 
to leave Asia till every satrapy in the Persian 
empire acknowledged his sway. Even the burn¬ 
ing of the Persian capital Persepolis was prob¬ 
ably no act of drunken folly, as which it has 
often been described, but rather a signal and 
emphatic assertion of mastery and ownership, 
as of one who should say, (( The Persian empire 
is mine, to throw it into the fire if I please.® 
Alexander had no intention of remaining king 
of Macedon. His design was to be the Greek 
emperor of Europe and Asia; and this position 
in effect he assumed on the death of Darius. 
With this view throughout his whole career in 
Asia he sought as much as possible to fuse 
and commingle his Asiatic and European sub¬ 
jects, very much as England did in India. This 
was the project to which he was giving all his 
efforts at the time of his death. 

The first hostile army he encountered was 
on the Granicus River (an affluent of the Sea 
of Marmora). He crossed the Granicus, just 
as he afterward crossed the Pinarus at Issus, 
in full view of the enemy, hurled himself with 
all his force on their centre and completely 
broke it up. It was not his way to refrain 
from the pass in quart till he had first hit in 
tierce. His victories sometimes remind us of 
the oft-quoted C’est magnitique, mais ce n’est 
pas la guerre. He won by an impetuous dash 
a victory which a subtler strategy might have 
failed to achieve, just as his sword-cut at Gor- 
dium made away with the knot which his fin¬ 
gers could not undo. The victory at Granicus 
was attended with unprecedented results; Sar¬ 
des, Miletus, Ephesus, Halicarnassus submitted 
one after another, and he established in them 
democracies of the Greek type. In November, 
333, Darius, eager to meet the invader, hastened 
to the sea-coast near Issus (at the head of the 
Gulf of Iskanderoon). The tactics pursued at 
the Granicus had here again a successful issue. 
Darius fled, leaving his family and his treasures 
in the hands of the conqueror. The mother, 
wife, two daughters, and son of Darius were 
treated with a clemency which foreshadowed 


the ages of chivalry. An Asiatic conqueror 
would have put the males to death, probably 
with torture, and would have sent the females 
to his harem. Captive Greek generals he also 
spared and liberated. He took possession of 
Damascus, a city which even then could boast 
of a hoary antiquity, and secured all the towns 
along the Mediterranean Sea. His plan now 
was to occupy Egypt, and this was made easy 
by the capture of Tyre on 20 Aug. 332, after 
a siege of seven months. During the siege a 
message came from Darius offering Alexander 
10,000 talents, the hand of his daughter in mar¬ 
riage, and Asia as far as the Euphrates, if he 
would make peace. (( I would accept it if I 
were Alexander,® said his general, Parmenio. 
<( So would I,® replied Alexander, c( if I were 
Parmenio.® Gaza fell in November, 332, and 
Alexander, taking possession of Egypt, sacri¬ 
ficed to Apis and the Egyptian gods in Memphis, 
and held musical and athletic competitions after 
the Greek fashion in Tyre. Thus he conciliat¬ 
ed the affections of his subjects. Politically he 
organized Egypt as a province in a way which, 
as Arrian remarks, foreshadowed the Roman 
system, giving the civil administration first to 
two, and then to a single governor, while the 
troops were placed under several separate com¬ 
manders. It was now that Alexander founded 
the celebrated Alexandria —• destined in two 
generations to be the first city in the Levant — 
and marched through the Libyan desert to con¬ 
sult the oracle of Jupiter Ammon, whose son he 
claimed to be. 

Meantime Darius was collecting an army in 
Assyria; but before the decisive battle of Ar- 
bela he made overtures of peace to Alexander, 
whose answer was, (( I, Alexander, hold all thy 
treasure and all thy land to be mine,®—a 
verbal cutting of the Gordian knot. The Per¬ 
sian force encountered by the Greeks at Gau- 
gamela. near the ancient Nineveh, and about 
50 miles from Arbela (which strangely has giv¬ 
en its name to the battle ever since), is said to 
have numbered 1,000,000 infantry, 40,000 caval¬ 
ry, 200 scythed chariots, and 15 elephants. 
Alexander had only 40,000 foot and 7,000 horse, 
but he won a decisive victory on 1 Oct. 331. 
The Macedonians aimed at the faces of their 
adversaries, as the Caesarians afterward did at 
Pharsalus. Babylon and Susa opened their 
gates to the conqueror, who then entered Per¬ 
sepolis, the capital of the province of Persis, 
seized its immense treasures, and burned its 
palace and citadel to the ground. 

In the spring of 330 Alexander proceeded 
to Media in pursuit of Darius. That weak 
monarch was being carried about by Bessus, 
satrap of Bactria, who, on hearing of the ap¬ 
proach of Alexander, inflicted a mortal wound 
on Darius and fled, leaving him to die. Darius 
died before Alexander came up with him (July, 
330). The conqueror sent his body to Per¬ 
sepolis to be interred with royal honors. Af¬ 
ter taking possession of Hyrcania and Bactriana 
he was meditating still more gigantic plans, 
when he learned in the autumn of 330 that 
Philotas, the son of Parmenio, though cog¬ 
nizant of a conspiracy against his life, had not 
reported it. He put both Philotas and Par¬ 
menio to death. The execution of the former 
has been condemned, but is on the whole de¬ 
fensible; the murder of the latter is an inex¬ 
cusable act of brutal tyranny. About the end 


ALEXANDER — ALEXANDRA 


of 330 or the beginning of 329 he crossed the 
great range of the Caucasus (not the modern 
Caucasus, but the Hindu Kush) by a pass 
at an altitude of 13,200 feet — a march com¬ 
parable with that of Hannibal over the Alps. 
He reached the city of Bactra (Balkh), and 
made his way north as far as the Jaxartes or 
Tanais, where he founded a city, probably the 
modern Khojend. 

He remained in these regions till the summer 
of 327, spending the winter in Nautaca, on 
the right bank of the Oxus. Here occurred the 
murder of Clitus, and Alexander’s marriage 
with Roxana, daughter of Oxyartes, a satrap 
of Sogdiana. She had a son named after his 
father in 323. After the death of Alexander she 
compassed the destruction of his other wife, the 
daughter of Darius, and was killed with her 
son in 311 by Cassander. The murder of Clitus 
has been regarded as a great blot on the 
career of Alexander. But the circumstances 
in which he was placed greatly extenuate the 
act. The East believed in the divinity of Alex¬ 
ander, and such a belief was almost an essen¬ 
tial condition of the permanence of his empire. 
When one of his own officers openly denied and 
ridiculed the emperor’s pretensions at a state 
banquet he seriously imperiled the Hellenic raj. 
The empire of Alexander was never subject to 
a second single emperor. The destinies of the 
West awaited the struggle between Rome and 
Carthage. But his vast empire nowhere save in 
India reverted to the pre-Alexandrine type. 

Alexander now formed the idea of conquering 
India. He passed the Indus in 327, and formed 
an alliance with Taxiles, under whose guidance 
he reached the Hydaspes (modern Jhelum). 
This river he crossed after a severe struggle 
with Porus, in whom he met an opponent very 
superior to the Persian satraps who had hitherto 
confronted him or rather retreated before him. 
He then moved farther east and crossed the 
Acesines (Chenab) and the Hyraotes (Ravi), 
and reached the Hyphasis (Beas), which now 
joins the last river of the Punjab, the Sutlej, 
but which then flowed in a different channel. 
He never reached the Sutlej itself. The mur¬ 
murs of his army compelled him to return. 
The fine instrument which he had fashioned 
so dexterously broke in his hand. He re¬ 
crossed the Acesines to the Hydaspes, where 
he completed the cities of Nicsea and Bucephala 
(named after his famous horse Bucephalus), 
which he had already begun. He had only seen 
the fringe of India — the Punjab. The won¬ 
drous country of Brahma and Buddha never 
felt the sway of Secundar. It was the only 
land which, on his departure, reverted to its 
condition before his arrival. He was obliged to 
content himself with writing his name large 
across the histories of Hellenic, Semitic, Egyp¬ 
tian, and Iranian civilization. Alexander’s 
name does not appear in Sanskrit literature. 

When he had reached the Hydaspes he built 
a fleet, in which he sent part of his army down 
the river, while the rest proceeded along the 
banks. The city of the Malli, where Alexander 
was wounded, is probably Multan; Puttala is 
perhaps Haidarabad. The march of 500 miles 
through the hideous desert of Gedrosia (Ba¬ 
luchistan), and the voyage of Nearchus, have 
given much material to romancers and rhetori¬ 
cians. At Carmania he was joined by Craterus, 
who had marched through the Bolan Pass to 


Kandahar, and by Nearchus, whose voyage, 
then thought so marvelous a feat, is no more 
than the short steam run from Karachi to 
Bunder Abbas. From Carmania he went to 
Pasargadae, and thence to Susa, where he de¬ 
voted himself with great energy to the task of 
uniting as far as possible the Macedonian and 
Persian nations. He himself married two Per¬ 
sian princesses, and he gave rewards to those 
of his staff who followed his example in con¬ 
tracting Persian alliances. He sent home to 
Macedonia, with a present of a talent each, 
about 10,000 Macedonians who by age or wounds 
were incapacitated for service. These veterans 
were led by Craterus, who was sent to succeed 
Antipater as governor of Europe. Antipater 
seems to have fallen into disfavor, though in 
330 he had done service in defeating Agis, 
the Spartan king who threatened Megalopolis. 
It was of this exploit that Alexander contemp¬ 
tuously observed, (< So there has been a battle 
of the mice in Arcadia, while we have been 
conquering Asia.” 

In 323 Alexander arrived at Babylon, where 
he found numberless envoys from nations near 
and far, come to pay their homage to the young 
conqueror. He was engaged in very extensive 
plans for the future, including the conquest of 
Arabia and the reorganization of the army, 
when he fell ill of a fever, shortly after the 
death of his beloved Hephsestion, which had 
deeply affected him. He died in 323, after a 
reign of 12 years and 8 months. The day be¬ 
fore a rumor had gone abroad that the great 
general was dead, and that his friends were con¬ 
cealing the truth. The dying king caused his 
army to defile past his bed, and feebly w r aved 
them a last farewell. Alexander was a great 
administrator, a second Pericles in his devotion 
to work, an Alcibiades in his distinguished 
presence, a Phocion in his simplicity of char¬ 
acter. 

Alexander Yaroslavitch Nevski, a Russian 
hero and saint, the son of the Grand Duke 
Jaroslav: b. Vladimir, 1219; d. 1263. In or¬ 
der to defend the empire, which was attacked on 
all sides, but especially by the Mongols, Jaroslav 
quitted Novgorod and left the charge of the 
government to his sons, Fedor and Alexander, 
the former of whom soon afterward died. Alex¬ 
ander repulsed the assailants. * Russia, neverthe¬ 
less, came under the Mongolian dominion in 
1238. Alexander, when Prince of Novgorod, 
defended the western frontier against the Danes, 
Swedes, and Knights of the Teutonic Order. 
He gained, in 1240, a splendid victory on the 
Neva over the Swedes, and thence received his 
surname. He overcame in 1243 the Livonian 
Knights of the Sword, on the ice of Lake Peipus. 
After the death of his father in 1247 Alexander 
became Prince of Novgorod, and. on the death 
of his brother Andreas, Grand Prince of Vladi¬ 
mir. The gratitude of his countrymen has 
commemorated the hero in popular songs and 
raised him to the dignity of a saint. Peter the 
Great honored his memory by the erection of 
a splendid monastery in St. Petersburg, on the 
spot where Alexander gained his victory, and by 
establishing the order of Alexander Nevskoi. 

Alexandra Caroline Marie Charlotte 
Louise Julie, queen of England: b. 1 Dec. 
1844; daughter of Christian IX. of Denmark, 
and wife of Edward VII., whom she married 


ALEXANDRETTA— ALEXANDRIAN AGE 


10 March 1863. She has had three sons, two 
of whom are dead, and three daughters. 

Alexandretta (the ancient Alexandria ad 
Issum), a small seaport in Syria, on the S.E. 
coast of the Gulf of Iskanderoon. It is the nat¬ 
ural port of Aleppo and northern Syria. The 
town is rendered unhealthy by the surrounding 
marshes, but this has been partially remedied by 
draining one of the largest. The port is a fine 
bay, running southeast from the Gulf. The im¬ 
ports are chiefly grain, rice, and salt; the ex¬ 
ports, galls, silk, cotton, and dips or beshmet 
(a preparation from grapes, used by the natives 
as food). Pop. about 3,000. 

Alexandria (Iskanderieh of the Turks), 
an ancient city and seaport in Egypt, about 14 
miles west of the Canopic mouth of the Nile, 
on the ridge of land between the sea and the 
bed of the old Lake Mareotis. Ancient Alexan¬ 
dria was founded by, and named in honor of, 
Alexander the Great, in 332 b.c., on the site 
of a village called Rakotis or Racoudah. Its 
plan was sketched by the architect Dinocrates. 
It stood nearly on the site of the present town, 
though the configuration of the land has al¬ 
tered considerably since then, was 15 miles in 
circumference, and had 300,000 free inhabitants 
and at least an equal number of slaves. The 
Romans ranked it next to their own capital, 
and when captured by Amru, general of the 
Caliph Omar (a.d. 641) it contained <( 4,ooo 
palaces, 4,000 baths, 400 theatres or places of 
amusement, 12,000 shops for the sale of vege¬ 
tables, and 40,000 tributary Jews® (Gibbon). 
The city was regularly built and traversed by 
two principal streets, each 100 feet wide and 
one of them 4 miles long. It consisted of 
two quarters, Rakotis, or the people’s quarter, 
and Brucheion, or the quarter of the palace. 
One fourth of the area upon which it was 
built was covered with temples, palaces, and 
public buildings, the most conspicuous being 
the famous lighthouse upon the little island of 
Pharos, which was connected with the city by 
a mole; the splendid temple of Jupiter Serapis; 
the Library, at that time the richest in the 
world; the Museum, a kind of academy in 
which learned men of every description were 
entertained at the expense of the state; an im¬ 
mense hippodrome; numerous obelisks and pil¬ 
lars, among which were Pompey’s Pillar, or 
more properly Diocletian’s Pillar, and the two 
obelisks known as Cleopatra’s Needles. Pom¬ 
pey’s Pillar occupies an eminence 1,800 feet to 
the south of the present walls; its total height 
is 98 feet 9 inches; the Needles, of red granite, 
and 70 feet high, stood on the edge of the 
eastern harbor. One was taken to London in 
1878; the other stands in Central Park, New 
York. The city was bombarded by the British 

11 July 1882. (See Egypt.) 

The present city is chiefly built on the mole, 
which has been increased by alluvial deposits 
till it has become a broad neck of land between 
the two harbors. The European quarter swarms 
with cafes, shops, and theatres, lighted with gas. 
The castle stands near the old Pharos, and the 
handsome new lighthouse has a revolving light 
visible at a distance of 20 miles. Recent im¬ 
provements, undertaken at a cost of $10,000,000, 
are expected to make the western or the old har¬ 
bor by far one of the best and most spacious on 
the Mediterranean. There is railway communi- 
Vol. 1—18. 


cation with Cairo and Suez; the Mahmoudieh 
canal, made by Mehemet Ali, connects Alexan¬ 
dria with the Nile. Pop. (1902) about 400,000. 

Alexandria, Ind., a city in Madison co., on 
the Cleveland, C., C. & St. L., and Lake Erie 
& W. R.R.’s, 45 miles N.E. of Indianapolis. It 
is in a natural gas region and has large window 
glass and lamp chimney factories, and manu¬ 
factures of paper, steel, axes, and mineral wool. 
It has municipal water and lighting plants; 
churches, schools, banks, and daily, tri-weekly, 
and weekly newspapers. It was settled in 1837 
and is governed by a mayor, elected for four 
years, and a council of six members. Pod 
(1890) 715; (1900) 7,221. 

Alexandria, La., a town of Rapides parisl 
about 100 miles NAV. of Baton Rouge on the 
Red River, in the centre of the State, in the 
midst of a fine farming country. It is becom¬ 
ing quite a railroad centre, the following roads 
having entered the town: Texas & Pacific, St. 
Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern, Southern 
Pacific, St. Louis, Watkins & Gulf, Louisiana 
Railway & Navigation Co. It has a number ot 
institutions of learning, a $50,000 public school 
building, and a convent of the Sisters of Mercy. 
It has a number of miles of asphalt street pav¬ 
ing. The State has recently erected an insti¬ 
tution for the insane here. The town does a 
good wholesale and retail business, and has a 
good trade in molasses, hides, sugar, cotton, and 
lumber. Here in 1864 a dam was built by 
Lieut.-Col. Bailey, by which a Federal squadron 
during Banks’ expedition was enabled to pass 
the rapids. Pop. (1904) est. 10.000. 

Alexandria, Va., city, port of entry, and 
county-seat of Alexandria co.; situated on the 
Potomac River, the Pennsylvania & So. R.R.’s, 
and trolley line connecting with Washington, D. 
C., and Mt. Vernon; 6 m. S. of Washington. 
The river here expands to the width of a mile 
and gives the city an excellent harbor that will 
accommodate the largest vessels. The city is 
an important trade centre; has manufactures 
aggregating $20,000,000 annually, and is noted 
for its educational institutions, which include 
Washington High School, Potomac, Mt. Ver¬ 
non, and St. Mary’s Academies, and near by 
the Theological Seminary and High School of 
the Diocese of Virginia (Protestant Episcopal). 
There are four national banks, public school 
property valued at $35,000, and daily and weeklv 
periodicals, Gen. Braddock made his head¬ 
quarters here in 1775, and in 1861 Col. Ells¬ 
worth, an officer in Maj.-Gen. McDowell’s 
army, was shot after tearing down a Confeder¬ 
ate flag which floated from the Marshall House. 
Pop. (1900) 14,528. 

-Alexandria Bay, N. Y., a village in Jeffer¬ 
son co., on the Rome, W. & O. R.R., about 70 
m. N. E. of Oswego. It is a prominent resort 
of the Thousand Islands. Pop. (1900) 1,511. 

Alexandrian Age, or School, the school or 
period of Greek literature and learning that ex¬ 
isted at Alexandria in Egypt during the 300 
years that the rule of the Ptolemies lasted (323- 
30 b.c. ), and continued under the Roman su¬ 
premacy. Ptolemy Soter founded the famous 
library of Alexandria (see below) and his son, 
Philadelphus, established a kind of academy of 
sciences and arts. Many scholars and men of 
genius were thus attracted to Alexandria, and 


ALEXANDRIAN LIBRARY — ALEXANDRINE 


a period of literary activity set in which made 
Alexandria for long the focus and centre of 
Greek culture and intellectual effort. It must 
be admitted, however, that originality was not 
a characteristic of the Alexandrian age, which 
was stronger in criticism, grammar, and science 
than in pure literature. Among the grammarians 
and critics were Zenodotus, Eratosthenes, 
Aristophanes, Aristarchus, and Zoilus, prover¬ 
bial as a captious critic. Their merit is to 
have collected, edited, and preserved the exist¬ 
ing monuments of Greek literature. To the 
poets belong Apollonius, Lycophron, Aratus, Ni- 
cander, Euphorion, Callimachus, Theocritus, Phi- 
letas, etc. Among those who pursued mathe¬ 
matics, physics, and astronomy was Euclid, the 
father of scientific geometry; Archimedes, great 
in physics and mechanics; Apollonius of Perga, 
whose work on conic sections still exists; Nico- 
machus, the first scientific arithmetician; and 
(under the Romans) the astronomer and geog¬ 
rapher Ptolemy. Alexandria also was distin¬ 
guished in philosophical speculation, and it was 
here that the New Platonic school was estab¬ 
lished at the close of the 2d century after 
Christ by Ammonius of Alexandria (about 193 
a.d.), whose disciples were Plotinus and Origen. 
Being for the most part Orientals, formed by the 
study of Greek learning, the writings of the 
New Platonists are strikingly characterized — 
for example, those of Ammonius Saccas, Ploti¬ 
nus, Iamblicus, Porphyrius — by a mixture of 
Asiatic and European elements. The principal 
Gnostic systems also had their origin in Alex¬ 
andria. 

Alexandrian Library, a remarkable collec¬ 
tion of books, the largest of the ancient world, 
was founded by the first Ptolemy and fostered 
by his son. It quickly grew, and already in the 
time of the first Ptolemy, Demetrius Phalereus 
had 50,000 volumes or rolls under his care. 
During its most flourishing period, under the 
direction of Zenodotus, Aristarchus of Byzan¬ 
tium, Callimachus, Apollonius Rhodius, and 
others, it is said to have contained 490,000, or, 
according to another authority, including all 
duplicates, as many as 700,000 volumes. The 
greater part of this library, which embraced the 
collected literature of Rome, Greece, India, and 
Egypt, was contained in the famous Museum, 
in the quarter of Alexandria called the Bru- 
cheion. During the siege of Alexandria by Ju¬ 
lius Csesar this part of the library was destroyed 
by fire; but it was afterward replaced by the 
collection of Pergamos, which was presented to 
Cleopatra by Mark Antony. The other part of 
the library was kept in the Serapeum, the tem¬ 
ple of Jupiter Serapis, where it remained till the 
time of Theodosius the Great. When this em¬ 
peror permitted all the heathen temples in the 
Roman empire to be destroyed, the magnificent 
temple of Jupiter Serapis was not spared. A 
mob of fanatic Christians, led on by the Arch¬ 
bishop Theophilus, stormed and destroyed the 
temple, together, it is most likely, with the 
greater part of its literary treasures, in 391 
a.d. It was at this time that the destruction 
of the library was begun, and not at the taking 
of Alexandria by the Arabs under the Caliph 
Omar, in 641. There are strong reasons for be¬ 
lieving that no library then existed there. 

Cf. Petit-Radel, ( Recherrhes sur les Biblio- 
theques Anciennes et Modernes ) (1819); 


Ritschl, ( Die Alexandrinische Bibliothek } 
(1838): Weniger, ( Das Alexandrinische Mu¬ 
seum > (1875). 

Alexandrian Version, or Codex Alexan- 
drinus (Codex A.), a Greek manuscript of the 
Bible, now in the British Museum, of great im¬ 
portance in Biblical criticism. It is on parch¬ 
ment, with uncial letters, without breathings and 
accents or spaces between the words. It was 
written probably in the middle of the fifh cen¬ 
tury, and contains, in four volumes, small folio, 
the whole Greek Bible, two letters of Bishop 
Clement of Rome to the Corinthians, the genu¬ 
ine epistle and a fragment of the second, the 
spurious one, and eight psalms of Solomon, so 
called. The first three volumes contain the 
translation of the Old Testament; the fourth, 
the New Testament. A large part of the Gospel 
of St. Matthew and of the Second Epistle to the 
Corinthians, as well as a portion of the Gos¬ 
pel of St. John, are wanting. The patriarch of 
Constantinople, Cyrillus Lucaris, who in 1628 
sent this manuscript as a present to Charles I., 
said he had received it from Egypt; and it is 
evident from other circumstances that it was 
written there. But it cannot be decided with 
certainty whether it came from Alexandria 
(whence its name). It is said, however, to have 
belonged to the patriarch of Alexandria at the 
end of the nth century. John Ernest Grabe 
followed it in his edition of the Septuagint (Ox¬ 
ford, 1707-20, folio, 4 vols.). Dr. Woide pub¬ 
lished the New Testament (London, folio, 
1786), with types cast for the purpose, page 
for page and line for line, as in the manuscript 
itself. A somewhat more accurate text of the 
New Testament in ordinary Greek type (with 
the lacunse supplied) was published by R. H. 
Cowper in i860. Henry Hervey Baber edited 
a facsimile edition of the Old Testament (Lon¬ 
don 1816-28, 3 vols. folio.). In 1864 the com¬ 
plete text, along with three other of the oldest 
texts of the Bible, was published at Oxford, the 
work being arranged in parallel columns. An 
autotype facsimile of the whole codex in four 
volumes was published by the British Museum 
in 1879-83. The text of this manuscript is of 
most importance in the criticism of the Epis¬ 
tles of the New Testament; in the Gospels the 
text is not so good. 

Alexandrine, the name of a verse, which 
consists of 6 feet (or of 6p2 with female 
rhymes), equal to 12 syllables, the pause being 
in correct Alexandrines always on the 6th syl¬ 
lable ; for example, the second of the follow¬ 
ing verses (from Pope’s Essay on Criticism) ; 

“ A needless Alexandrine ends the song 
That, like a wounded snake, drags its slow length 
along.” 

The only complete English poem of literary im¬ 
portance written in this measure is Drayton’s 
( Polyolbion.* The concluding line of the 
Spenserian stanza is an Alexandrine. The 
French in their epics and dramas are confined to 
this verse, which for this reason is called by 
them the Heroic. The Alexandrine derives its 
name from an old French poem belonging to 
the middle of the 12th or the beginning of the 
13th century, the subject of which is Alexander 
the Great, and in which this verse was first 
made use of. 



MAHMOUDIEH CANAL, AT ALEXANDRIA, EGYPT 





















































. 




















































“ 













































ALEXANDROPOL — ALFALFA 


Alexandrite, a variety of the mineral 
chrysoberyl (q.v.). It occurs in twin crystals 
(trillings) and is chiefly remarkable for the fact 
that while by daylight its color is a dark em¬ 
erald to grayish-green, it assumes a beautiful 
columbine-red color by artificial light. Because 
of this property, and owing to its rarity and 
great hardness (8.5), it is highly prized as a 
gem. Its name, given in honor of Alexander II. 
of Russia, seems singularly appropriate when it 
is recalled that the gem is said to have been first 
discovered in the emerald mines of Takowaja, 
Siberia, on the very day on which the then heir 
apparent attained his majority, and further that 
the green and red colors of alexandrite are the 
national colors of Russia. The finest alexan- 
drites still come from Siberia, but good gems are 
occasionally found in Ceylon. 

' Alexandropol (formerly Gumri), a Rus¬ 
sian town and fortress in the trans-Caucasian 
government of Erivan, situated on a bare plateau 
near the highway from Erivan to Kars. There 
is accommodation in the military quarters for 
a force of 10,000 men. The town has several 
churches and caravanserais, and there are ex¬ 
tensive silk manufactories. Pop. 32,078. 

Alexia. See Aphasia. 

Alexiad, a life of the emperor Alexis 
Comnenus (q.v.) by the Princess Anna Com¬ 
nena, his daughter. This work, which is one of 
the most important authorities for the history 
of the closing years of the 11th century, is writ¬ 
ten in modem Greek and divided into 15 books. 
It gives a vivid picture of the First Crusade. 

Alexian Brothers. See Cellites. 

Alexis, a Greek comic poet, a native of 
Thurii, in Magna Grsecia, afterward an Athenian 
citizen: b. about 394 b.c., and is known to have 
lived as late at least as 288 b.c. He was the 
uncle and instructor of Menander, and is said to 
have written 245 plays. 

Alexis, Wilibald, pseudonym of Wilhelm 
Haring (q.v.). 

Alexis Mikhailovitch, second Russian 
czar of the line of Romanof. See Russia. 

Alexis Petrovitch, the eldest son of the 
czar Peter the Great and Eudoxia Lapuchin: 
b. in Moscow, 1690. He opposed the innova¬ 
tions introduced by his father, who on this 
account determined to disinherit him. Alexis 
renounced the crown, and when Peter set out 
on his second journey he made his escape in 
1717 to Vienna, where he sought the protec¬ 
tion of his brother-in-law, the German em¬ 
peror, and thence to Naples, under the pretext 
of going to his father, who had sent for him. 
At the command of Peter he returned; but the 
enraged czar, regarding his flight as an act 
of treason, disinherited him by a ukase of 2 
Feb. 1718; and when he discovered that Alexis 
was paving the way to succeed to the crown 
he not only caused all the participators of his 
project to be punished capitally or otherwise, 
but had his son also condemned to death, and 
the sentence read to him, as pronounced unani¬ 
mously by 144 judges. Although he was soon 
afterward pardoned, the fright and anxiety 
which he had experienced affected him so 
much that he died in the course of four days, 
7 July 1718. It is supposed by some that he 
was poisoned. He left a daughter and a son, 
afterward the emperor Peter II. 


Alexius (Comnenus), emperor of Constan¬ 
tinople: b. 1048; d. 15 Aug. 1118. He was the 
third son of John Comnenus, the emperor 
Isaac’s brother. Naturally clever, he was care¬ 
fully educated under the direction of his moth* 
er; and at the age of 14 took part in an en¬ 
gagement with some European adventurers 
commanded by a Scot called Russel de Balliol, 
of whom the youthful warrior afterward be¬ 
came an intimate friend. After several suc¬ 
cessive emperors had tasted for a brief season 
the (< bitter sweets }) of a nominal supremacy 
over a country torn by anarchy, Alexius, with 
the aid of the army, was proclaimed emperor* 
seized on Constantinople, which he permitted 
his soldiers to pillage, and shut up the nominal 
ruler in a monastery (1081). The empire was 
then in a deplorable state. The Turks were 
profiting by these intestine dissensions to seize 
upon the Asiatic provinces while Robert Guis- 
card and his Normans were menacing the west, 
and fierce swarms from beyond the Danube 
threatened the nearer provinces. However, 
Alexius did not despair; he sent supplies of 
money to his ally Henry IV. of Germany to en¬ 
able him to attack Rome, the Pope (Gregorj 
VII.) being a firm friend of the Norman lead' 
er. His Holiness had to flee, and Guiscard 
hastened to his aid, leaving in Greece his son Bo- 
hemond, who gained two victories over Alex¬ 
ius ; but famine and disease weakened the Nor¬ 
man army, which Robert could not rejoin, as he 
was detained in Italy by a revolt of his vassals. 
In 1084 he returned to the charge, and after 
gaining some advantages he suddenly died of an 
epidemic; although some ascribe his death to 
poison administered by one of Alexius’ secret 
agents. In consequence of this event the Nor¬ 
mans abandoned all their conquests, and Alex¬ 
ius turned his attention to the Turks and 
Scythians, whom, after an arduous struggle, he 
completely defeated. Scarcely was this accom¬ 
plished when, in 1096, the bands of the first 
Crusade arrived at Constantinople demanding 
aid, rudely menacing him in his own palace, 
and finally compelling him to join them. The 
alliance did not last long; a war broke out be¬ 
tween the emperor and the Crusaders, which 
ended in the defeat of the latter. The rest of 
Alexius’ life was employed in consolidating his 
conquests and restoring orderly government in 
his states, which were much disturbed by here¬ 
sies. He died at 70, after a reign of 37 years. 
He extended his empire; and for its defense he 
left to his successors a well-disciplined army, 
which he had wholly created himself. His¬ 
torians differ respecting his conduct and abili¬ 
ties; his daughter Anna wrote his life (the 
Alexiad). 

Alfalfa, also called Lucerne (q.v.) ( Mcdi - 
cago sativa), is a herbaceous plant belonging 
to the natural order Leguminosa. The leaves 
are pinnate-trifoliate; its flowers small, gener¬ 
ally purple in color, situated in the axillary 
spikes. The plant is a native of Asia, but has 
been cultivated in Europe since before the time 
of Christ. The Spaniards introduced it into 
South America, but it did not reach North 
America until some time between 1850 and 
i860, when it was introduced into California. 
Since then it has become the most extensively 
cultivated forage crop in the United States. 
Its adaptability to varying conditions of soil 


ALFARABI 


ALFONSO 


and climate gives it an extensive range, extend¬ 
ing from the arid lands of the West, where ir¬ 
rigation is required, to the richer soils of the 
East, and from sea-level to heights of over 7,000 
feet. It will not flourish in extremely damp 
or clayey soils. Its roots strike to great depths, 
so that it withstands droughts better than 
most of the forage plants. It is cut when com¬ 
ing into bloom, and yields from 3 to 12 tons of 
hay to each acre. In some regions it is cut 
every month in the year. It is particularly val¬ 
uable as a green manure, as it takes nitrogen 
from the air, and its deep-growing roots draw 
from the lower soils large quantities of lime, 
phosphoric acid, potash, and other minerals 
useful as crop foods. Alfalfa is relished by 
cattle whether green, as hay, or as ensilage, 
but to secure the best results it should be fed 
with root crops and grain, which add the in¬ 
gredients needed for a well-balanced ration. 
Alfalfa is subject to two fungus diseases, one 
on the leaf and another on the root, either of 
which, if not checked, will spread and ultimately 
ruin the field. The ( Farmers' Bulletins,* is¬ 
sued by the Department of Agriculture at 
Washington and the various State Experimen¬ 
tal Stations, give full information on the cul¬ 
ture of the plant and the treatment of its 
diseases. 

Alfarabi, an eminent Arabian philosopher 
of the 10th century, was a native of Farab, in 
Asia Minor, his proper name being Abu Nasr 
Mohammed ben Mohammed ben Tarkhan; died 
at Damascus in 950. His works consist of 
treatises on different parts of the Aristotelian 
philosophy. He excelled in music and phi¬ 
lology as well as in philosophy; and one of 
his most famous works is a kind of encyclo¬ 
paedia, in which he gives a brief account and 
definition of all branches of science and art. 
The manuscript of this is in the Escurial. His 
works were printed at Paris in 1638. 

Alfieri, Vittorio, Count: b. Asti, in Pied¬ 
mont, in 1749, of a rich and distinguished fam¬ 
ily. His early education was very defective, 
like that of most men of his rank and country 
at that time. He died 8 Oct. 1803. At the age 
of 16 he joined a provincial regiment which 
was only called together a few days during the 
year. For some years he led a restless and dis¬ 
satisfied life, traveling in Italy, France, Eng¬ 
land, Holland, and then through the countries 
of northern Europe. He next left the military 
service, and driven by ennui tried among many 
other things to write dramatic poetry, and met 
with great success, his first play, ( Cleopatra,* 
put on the stage in 1775, being received with gen¬ 
eral applause. He now determined at the age 
of 27 years to devote all his efforts to at¬ 
taining a position among writers of tragic po¬ 
etry. Sensible of his deficiencies, he went to 
work zealously to educate himself. In seven 
years he composed 14 tragedies, studied Latin 
and Tuscan, and even, in his 48th year, made 
himself master of Greek. At Florence he be¬ 
came intimate with the Countess of Albany, 
wife of Prince Charles Edward Stuart, a daugh¬ 
ter of the House, of Stolberg. His passion 
had the effect of stimulating him to strive more 
earnestly after poetic fame. To continue his 
labors in a free and independent manner, he 
broke the last tie that bound him to his coun¬ 


try ; and making over all his fortune to his sis¬ 
ter, save a moderate income for himself, he 
lived by turns in Florence and Rome. Prince 
Charles now dying, Alfieri married his widow, 
and changed his places of abode to Alsace and 
Paris. He was at Paris when the Revolution 
broke out, but after 10 Aug. 1792, returned to 
Florence. In the troubles of that stormy time 
he lost his books and the greater part of the 
complete editions of his tragedies, published by 
Didot in five volumes. He worked hard to the 
day of his death. He was buried in the Church 
of Santa Croce, at Florence, between Macchia- 
velli and Michael Angelo, where a beautiful 
monument by Canova covers his remains. Al- 
fieri’s tragedies are full of lofty and patriotic 
sentiments, but the language is bare and stiff, 
and the plots barren. Nevertheless he is the 
first tragic writer of Italy, and has served as 
a model for those who have followed him. His 
comedies display the same faults in a yet more 
glaring manner. His ( Abel * is the most suc¬ 
cessful of all his dramatic works. This he 
called a tramelogedia — a name as novel as the 
work itself, which is intermediate between 
tragedy and opera. Besides his dramas, Alfieri 
composed an epic poem, lyrics, satires, and poet¬ 
ical translations from the ancient classics. His 
autobiography, a striking exhibition of his char¬ 
acter, appeared after his death. His complete 
works were published at Padua in 1809-11, in 
37 volumes. 

Alfonsine Tables. See Alfonso X. 

Alfon'so, the name of a number of Por¬ 
tuguese and Spanish kings. 

Alfonso I., the Conqueror, first king of 
Portugal, son of Henry of Burgundy, the con¬ 
queror, and first Count of Portugal: b. mo; 
fought successfully against the Spaniards and 
the Moors; named himself king of Portugal, 
and was recognized as such by the Pope; d. 1185. 

Alfonso I., king of Naples and Sicily. 
See Alfonso V. (of Aragon). 

Alfonso V., the African, king of Portugal, 
succeeded his father, Edward I., 1438. Con¬ 
quered Tangiers; d. 1481. During his reign 
Prince Henry the Navigator continued the im¬ 
portant voyages of discovery already begun by 
the Portuguese. Under him was drawn up an 
important code of laws. 

Alfonso X., king of Castile and Leon, sur- 
named the Astronomer, the Philosopher, or the 
Wise: b. 1226; succeeded to the throne 1252; 
d. 1284. Being grandson of Philip of Hohen- 
staufen, son of Frederick Barbarossa, he 
endeavored to have himself elected emperor of 
Germany, and in 1257 succeeded in dividing the 
election with Richard, Earl of Cornwall. On 
Richard’s death in 1272 he again unsuccessfully 
contested the imperial crown. Meantime his 
throne was endangered by conspiracies of the 
nobles and the attacks of the Moors. The 
Moors he conquered, but his domestic troubles 
were less easily overcome, and he was finally 
dethroned by his son Sancho, and died two 
years, after, 1284. Alfonso was the most learn¬ 
ed prince of his age. Under his direction or su¬ 
perintendence were drawn up a celebrated code 
of laws, valuable astronomical tables which go 
under his name (Alfonsine Tables), the first 
general history of Spain in the Castilian tongue, 
and a Spanish translation of the Bible. 


ALFONSO —ALFRED THE GREAT 


Alfonso V., king of Aragon: b. 1385; d. 
1458. He was the son of Ferdinand I. of Ara¬ 
gon, the throne of which he ascended in 1416, 
rilling also over Sicily and the island of Sardinia. 
Queen Joanna of Naples had promised to make 
him her heir, but at her death in 1435 had left 
her dominions to Rene of Anjou. Alfonso now 
proceeded to take possession of Naples by force, 
which he succeeded in doing in 1442, and 
reigned till his death in 1458. He was an en¬ 
lightened patron of literary men, by whom, in 
the latter part of his reign, his court was 
thronged. 

Alfonso XII., king of Spain. He was the 
only son of Queen Isabella II. and her cousin, 
Francis of Assisi, was born in 1857 and died in 
1885. He left Spain with his mother when she 
was driven from the throne by the revolution 
of 1868, and till 1874 resided partly in France, 
partly in Austria. In the latter year he studied 
for a time at the English military college, Sand¬ 
hurst, being then known as Prince of the As¬ 
turias. His mother had given up her claims 
to the throne in 1870 in his favor, and in 1874 
Alfonso came forward himself as claimant, and 
in the end of the year was proclaimed by Gen¬ 
eral Martinez Campos as king. He now passed 
over into Spain and was enthusiastically re¬ 
ceived, most of the Spaniards being by this 
time tired of the republican government, which 
had failed to put down the Carlist party. Al¬ 
fonso was successful in bringing the Carlist 
struggle to an end (1876), and henceforth he 
reigned with little disturbance. He married 
first his cousin, Maria de las Mercedes, daugh¬ 
ter of the Duke de Montpensier; second, Maria 
Christina, Archduchess of Austria, whom he 
left a widow with two daughters, a son (Al¬ 
fonso XIII.) being born posthumously. 

Alfonso XIII., king of Spain, son of Al¬ 
fonso XII. and Maria Christina, daughter of 
Karl Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria: b. 
after his father’s death, 17 May 1886, succeeding 
by his birth, being a male, his eldest sister. His 
mother was made queen regent during his 
minority. On 17 May 1902 the young king for¬ 
mally acceded to the throne and took the oath 
prescribed by the constitution, the queen re¬ 
gent having taken official leave of the ministry 
on the 12th. The United States was represent¬ 
ed at the ceremony by special envoy. He mar¬ 
ried 31 May 1906 Princess Ena of Battenburg. 

Alford, Henry, an English poet and mis¬ 
cellaneous writer, philologist, critic, artist, and 
preacher: b. London, 7 Oct. 1810; d. in Can¬ 
terbury, 12 Jan. 1871. He became Dean of 
Canterbury in 1856. An accomplished man, his 
literary work attracted attention in several de¬ 
partments. Besides sermons and university 
lectures, he wrote < The School of the Heart, 
and Other Poems’ (1835), his most popular 
volume of verse; ( The Queen’s English 

(1866). He was best known by his celebrated 
edition of the Greek New Testament (1844-52), 
which, incorporating the results of German Bib¬ 
lical scholarship, formed a landmark in New 
Testament study in England and America. He 
was the first editor of the < Contemporary Re¬ 
view.’ 

Alfred, N. Y., a village of 756 population, 
in Allegany co., on the Erie R.R., 12 m. from 
Hornelisville. It is noted as being the head¬ 


quarters in America of the Seventh-Day Bap¬ 
tists, and as the seat of Alfred University, a 
co-educational (non-sectarian) institution, organ¬ 
ized in 1836 as a school, incorporated as a uni¬ 
versity in 1857. Professors and instructors, 26; 
students, 215; volumes in the library, 12,136; 
value of grounds and buildings, $90,000; 800 
graduates; total endowment is $450,000. 

Alfred, or Aluredus, of Beverley, chron ¬ 
icler: flourished 1143. His ( Nine Books of 
Annals or History of the British Kingdoms to 
1129’ is largely devoted to the fabulous history 
of Britain. It is of no use to the historical 
student, as it adds nothing to what is found in 
earlier authorities. The best manuscript of the 
work is among the Hengwet MSS., and has 
never been printed. Hearn printed an inferior 
Bodleian MS. in 1716. 

Alfred the Great, king of the West-Saxons, 
was born in 848, at Wantage in Berkshire. He 
was the youngest son of ^Kthelwulf, succeeding 
to the throne in 871, after the three short reigns 
of his brothers yEthelbald, ^Ethelberht, and 
Aithelred. The day of his death was Oct. 26; 
the year is doubtfully 900 or 901, the weight of 
the evidence favoring the earlier date. • • 

Of the early years of Alfred little is known. 
The indications are that he was a favorite son. 
For at the age of five he was sent to Rome by his 
father, where Pope Leo ^hallowed Alfred as 
king and took him as his bishop’s son” (Asser, 
Chronicle’). The allusion to Alfred as (( bishop’s 
son” refers to his confirmation, the Pope stand¬ 
ing as his sponsor according to a not unusual 
practice of the times. The allusion to his 
hallowing as king is less clear; since his three 
older brothers were still alive, it probably refers 
to some titular dignity conferred upon him. 
Two years later Hikhelwulf himself went to 
Rome and Alfred accompanied him. On the 
return journey in 856, H'hhelwulf stopped at 
the court of Charles the Bald and was there 
married to Judith, the emperor’s 12-year-old 
daughter. The familiar story of Alfred’s learn¬ 
ing to read probably falls in the period before 
the second pilgrimage to Rome. It is found in 
Asser, who states that Alfred ^remained illit¬ 
erate” (illiteratus permansit ) to his 12th year 
or more, although he knew many Saxon poems 
by heart. By ^illiterate” Asser undoubtedly 
means ignorant of Latin. Alfred could certainly 
read Anglo-Saxon before his 12th year, and the 
mother who, according to the story, promised a 
book of Anglo-Saxon poems to that one of her 
sons who first learned to read it to her, was 
without question Alfred’s own mother, Osburh. 
It was not until after his accession that Alfred 
acquired a knowledge of Latin. Asser states 
that at Alfred’s marriage festivities, in 868, he 
was attacked by a grievous illness which afflicted 
him for 20 years or longer. This story has 
obviously been exaggerated for hagiological pur¬ 
poses, although it probably has some foundation 
in the fact that Alfred was never in robust 
health. 

Alfred first appears in public life in the year 
866, as the assistant of his brother vEthelred in 
repelling the attacks of the Danes. In the 
midst of these Danish wars Alfred succeeded to 
the throne, nine general engagements being 
fought in this year. Alfred’s own wars with 


ALGiE — ALGARVE 


the Danes centre in two great campaigns. As 
result of the first the Danes, in 878, promised 
to leave Wessex and their king, Guthrun, 
received Christian baptism. It was in this cam¬ 
paign that Alfred retreated to /Ethelney in the 
fens of Somerset. Later tradition has added 
many unauthentic details to this episode, notably 
the story of the cakes and that of Alfred’s 
playing as a disguised harper in the camp of 
the Danes. After 14 years of comparative peace, 
the Danes returned to the attack. In the mean¬ 
time, however, Alfred had strengthened his army 
and his defences. At one brilliant engagement 
after another the Danes were defeated, and in 
897 they fled into East Anglia and Northumbria 
and oversea into France. For the remaining 
years of Alfred’s life, Wessex was at peace. 
The < Chronicle > says, in recording Alfred’s death, 
that he was king over all the English people 
except that part which was under the power of 
the Danes. But practically all England north 
of the Thames was in the Danelagh, and Alfred’s 
authority extended only over Wessex and a part 
of Mercia. In saving Wessex, however, Alfred 
had saved England for the English people; for 
it was from Wessex as a centre that his success¬ 
ors began the task of reconquering England 
from the Danes. 

In his years of peace, Alfred was engaged in 
strengthening and organizing his army, in sys¬ 
tematizing the government of the country, and 
in laying those plans for advancing the intellec¬ 
tual interests of his people which make him so 
much more than merely the soldier. Unable to 
find teachers in England, Alfred brought scholars 
from abroad, and with their aid planned to have 
translated into English all those Latin books 
which he thought it most needful that his people 
should know. Alfred himself bore the greater 
part of this burden. His first translation was 
one of Pope Gregory’s 'Pastoral Cared made 
about 894. This was followed by the ‘Universal 
History'of Orosius, and Bede’s ‘Ecclesiastical 
History/ though there is some question whether 
or not this latter work proceeded directly from 
the hand of Alfred. These were followed by his 
interesting version of Boethius’ ‘Consolation of 
Philosophy/ His last work was a translation 
and adaptation of writings of Augustine 
and Gregory. Other undertakings undoubtedly 
due to Alfred’s influence are a translation of 
Gregory’s ( Dialogues > (the preface of which was 
written by Alfred), the ‘Anglo-Saxon Chronicle’ 
(see English Chronicles), and a translation of 
the Psalter. Popular tradition has ascribed a 
number of other works to Alfred which belong 
to much later periods. Asser refers to Alfred’s 
‘Handbook/ a commonplace book or anthology, 
but this work is no longer extant. Historians 
agree in placing a high estimate on the character 
and achievements of Alfred. Freeman (‘Nor¬ 
man Conquest/ I. 49) calls him “the most 
perfect character in history®; Ranke (‘Welt- 
geschichte/ VI, II, 46) declares him to be 
“one of the greatest figures in the history of the 
world.® It should be borne in mind, however, 
that it is not the magnitude of Alfred’s military 
achievements, nor the extent of the country 
which he governed, that lift him into the 
ranks of the world’s great men, but the beauty 
and moral grandeur of his character. In him 
were combined the virtues of the scholar and 
the patriot, the efficiency of the man of affairs 


with the wisdom of the philosopher and the 
piety of the true Christian. His character, public 
and private, is without a stain, and his whole life 
was one of enlightened and magnanimous service 
to his country. 

Bibliography .—The primary sources of in¬ 
formation concerning Alfred are Asser’s ‘Life 
of King Alfred > (ed. W. H. Stevenson. Oxford 
1904) ; the ‘Chronicle > (ed. Earle and Plummer, 
Oxford 1892-1899) ; and the translations from 
Gregory, Bede, and Boethius, texts of which are 
contained in Grein-Wiilker, ‘Bibliothek der 
angelsachsischen Prosa/ Numerous modern 
lives of Alfred have been written, the best being 
that by Plummer (Oxford 1902). 

George P. Krapp, 

Instructor in English, Columbia University. 

Algae, a term popularly restricted to marine 
cryptogamous plants or seaweeds, but which 
may be generally defined as comprehending 
all aquatic flowerless plants, whether growing 
in fresh or salt water, belonging to the class 
Thallophytes. The only absolute distinction 
between the Algae and the remaining Thal¬ 
lophytes or Fungi is that the former contain 
chlorophyll, while the latter do not. The higher 
forms have stems bearing leaf-like expansions, 
and they are often attached to rocks by roots. 
A stem is most frequently absent. The plants 
are nourished through their whole surface by 
the medium in which they live. They vary in 
size from the microscopic diatoms to forms 
whose stems resemble those of forest trees, and 
whose fronds rival the leaves of the palm. 
They are entirely composed of cellular tissue, 
and many are edible and nutritious, as carra¬ 
geen or Irish moss, dulse, etc. Kelp, iodine, 
and bromide are products of various species. 
Coulter distinguishes four groups: the blue- 
green algae (Cyanophycece ), green algae ( Chlo - 
rophyccce ), brown algae (Phceophycece ), and red 
algae (Rhodophycece). 

Algar'di, Alessandro, one of the chief 
Italian sculptors of the 17th century: b. 1602; 
d. 1654. He lived and worked chiefly at Rome; 
executed the tomb of Leo XI. in St. Peter’s, and 
a marble relief with life-size figures over the 
altar of St. Leo there. 

Algarotti, Francesco, al-ga-rot'e, fran- 
ches'ko, Count, Italian author: b. Venice 12 
Dec. 1712; d. Pisa 3 March 1764. His ‘Plu¬ 
rality of Worlds ) (1733), a popular exposition 
for ladies of Newton’s philosophy, established 
his fame. Till 1739 he lived much in France 
and became intimate with Voltaire. The study 
of French literature and contact with its leading 
representatives exercised a marked influence on 
his style. His contemporaries greatly respected 
his art judgments, and his ‘Essays on the Fine 
Arts/ in Italian (Germ. tr. 1760), show keen 
discernment. Frederick the Great held him in 
high regard, created him count, and ordered a 
monument built to his memory in Pisa. The 
best edition of his works is in 17 vols., Venice, 
1791-4. 

Algarovill'a, the seed-pods of one or two 
South American trees (genus Prosopis ), valu¬ 
able as containing much tannin. 

Algarve, or Faro, a maritime province of 
Portugal, extending across the southern coast 
of the kingdom, bounded north by the prov- 


ALGAZZALI—ALGEBRA 


ince of Alemtejo, east by the Spanish province 
of Huelva, south and west by the Atlantic 
Ocean. It has a mountainous surface, with some 
fertile tracts, in which excellent oil, wine, figs, 
and almonds are produced, and a coast indented 
with good bays and harbors. Its tunny and 
sardine fisheries are productive. Faro is its 
capital. The area is 2,099 sq. m. Pop. 229,000. 

Algazzali, or Alghazzali, Abu Hamed Mo¬ 
hammed, an Arabian philosopher, Persian by 
birth: b. Tus in Khorasan in 1058 or 1059; d. 
1111. He first taught theology at Bagdad, but 
left his chair and traveled in Syria, and lived for 
some time in Damascus, after which he returned 
to Persia and resumed teaching. The details 
of his life given by biographers are numerous 
but contradictory. He was one of the most 
prolific of the Arabian authors. One of his 
writings, called the ( Destruction of the Philos¬ 
ophers, > was answered by Averroes in a book 
entitled the ( Destruction of the Destruction. } 
He also wrote several moral treatises. Algaz¬ 
zali, as a disciple of the Sufis, was an opponent 
of the prevailing Aristotelian philosophy of the 
day, and predisposed to the mystical dogmas of 
emanation, to which, after a keen and critical 
study of philosophy, he entirely resigned him¬ 
self. See Dugat’s ( Histoire des Philosophes et 
des Theologiens Musulmans ) (Paris, 1878). 

Algebra, Elementary. Any determinate body of 
entities or symbols subject to a logically consistent 
system of laws of operation or combination gives 
rise to a theory called an algebra. Accordingly 
there are various algebras, as the algebra of 
quaternions, the algebra of logic, linear algebra, 
the algebra of relations, the algebra of opera¬ 
tions or of groups, multiple algebra, etc., and 
two algebras may differ in respect to either 
content or form or both. The subject-matter 
of ordinary algebra, with which this writing is 
concerned, consists of the entities known as num¬ 
bers, whether real or complex (imaginary), the 
interrelations and properties of the entities and 
the laws in conformity with which they admit 
of combination or operation. As appears from 
the definition, the use of symbols to denote the 
entities, relations, and operations is not essen¬ 
tial to the conception of algebra, although to 
its development such use is, on grounds of 
economy, practically indispensable. The evolu¬ 
tion of the number system, one may say of the 
number concept in its wider generality, has been 
very slow and very long. For an account of 
the' historical development and for citation of 
its literature, the reader is referred to the article 
History of Elementary Algebra. On the 
scientific side, algebra has no more escaped the 
minute refinements of modem criticism than 
have other branches of mathematics or of science 
and thought in general. Speaking generally, the 
desideratum has been to apply the Razor of 
Occam to hypothesis and to deduce the doctrine 
from the smallest number of the simplest and most 
fundamental data. All mathematics, all science, 
originates in common sense. It has been justly 
said that mathematics is common sense refined, 
etherealized. It is the aim of this article, in so 
far as space limitations allow, to present the 
elements of algebra in that aspect, to exhibit it 
as growing under the stimuli of need and curiosity 
from a soil of common experience, as the prod¬ 
uct of powers that are universal among men. 

Elementary Faculties and Motions. Every 


normal person has the power to form the notions, 
thing and things ; the notion, thing composed of 
things, i.e., the notion of collection or assem¬ 
blage (see General Theory of Assemblages)', and 
the notion of correspondence, of associating a 
thing or things with a thing or things, as a name 
with an object. These notions are neither 
absolutely simple nor absolutely fundamental 
(possibly there are no such notions), but rela¬ 
tively they are very simple and very funda¬ 
mental, and it will be seen that they play an all- 
important role as basis of the concept and 
doctrine of number. 

Simple Properties of Assemblages. —For ex¬ 
planation of the terms element, assemblage, 
one-to-one correspondence, equivalence (or 
sameness of power) of assemblages, part and 
proper part, see General Theory of Assem¬ 
blages. Assemblages will be denoted by large 
Roman, elements by small Greek, letters. De¬ 
partures from that rule will be such as need 
cause no obscurity. The questionable <( notion }) 
of assemblage of all things is not here admitted. 
Hence no A contains everything. If a thing 
not in A be put in, there arises B = A +{ 3 , where 
A (plus) denotes the introduction of /?, and = 
means that B and A +/? are the same. The in¬ 
verse, removing /? from B, yields B—{ 3 =A, 
where — (minus) means such removal. The 
elements common to A and B constitute their 
intersection. Thus, if A is all red flowers and 
B is all roses, the intersection of A and B is all 
red roses. Any proper part B of A is the inter¬ 
section of B and A. In that case, A+B=A; 
e.g., all rectangles + all squares = all rectangles. 
If A is the intersection of B and C, then 
B +C =B A(C — A); the parenthesis signifies that 
C — A is to be taken as a whole; e.g., all men 
+ all Europeans = all men + (all Europeans — 
European men). But (B AC) — A is not the 
same as B+(C — A), for plainly (all men-fall 
Europeans) — all European men is not the same 
as all men-fall Europeans. If, however, B and 
C have no intersection and A is part of C, then 
(B AC) — A = B A(C —A); and, if C is part of B, 
and A is part of C, then B — (C — A) =(B —C) A A. 
In all cases, (A +B) A C = A + (B AC), A AB =B 
A A. If A^B, i.e., if A and B are equivalent, and 
if a is not in A and (3 not in B, then A + a ^ B + ( 3 . 
So, too, are A — a and B — /? if a is in A, /? in B, 
and if A^B. 

Cardinal Number Defined. —It is essential to 
distinguish between power and sameness of 
power or equivalence. The power ( Machtigkeit) 
of an A is the new assemblage yielded by disre¬ 
garding (abstracting from) both the character and 
the order of A’s elements. (See General Theory 

of Assemblages.) The new assemblage, A, is 
called the (cardinal) number of A. The num¬ 
ber of A is thus an orderless assemblage of 
characterless elements (units). Every A has an 

A ; and all equivalent A ’s have the same A , and 

conversely. Hence the number A of an A is 
sometimes said to be or to characterize the class 
of all assemblages equivalent to A. How many 
elements in A or any equivalent assemblage? 

Answer: A. 

Greater and Less Cardinals. —In respect to A 
and B, it may happen that: (i) A has no proper 
part equivalent to B, but B has a proper part 
eo fivalent to A; (ii) B has no proper part 


ALGEBRA 


equivalent to A, but A has a proper part equiva¬ 
lent to B ; (Hi) A has a proper part equivalent 
to B and B has a proper part equivalent to A ; 
(iv) neither A nor B has a proper part equiva¬ 
lent to the other. If one of the relations holds 
for A and B, it holds for A' and B' whenever 
A ^ A' and B — B' . If (Hi) or (iv) is valid for 
A and B, it follows that A — B, thence that 


multiplication of equal factors is called in- 

- 

volution, and the process of obtaining A is 

described as raising A to the Bth power. From 
the definitions involved, the following relations, 

7 , . , =B =C =B+C 

laws of exponents, are found: A -A = A ; 


A = B, and conversely; where = means that the 
cardinals are equal, or the same. If (i) is valid, 

A and B are not equivalent, B is said to be 

greater than A, A less than B; symbolically, 

B>A, A<B. Relation (it), essentially the 
same as (i) , needs no further remark. Hence 
any two cardinals are either equal or one is 
greater (or less) than the other. 

Addition of Cardinals. —Suppose A and B to 
have no intersection. Their union, assemblage 
composed of all and only the elements of A 

and B, is denoted by (A, B). Plainly (A, B) 

depends only on A and B; for (A, B) — (A', B') 


= C =C — = C —B C —B • C 
A -B = (A-B) ; (A ) =A 

Ordinary Cardinals. —If A contains but a single 


thing a, A is named one, denoted by i; i.e., 

A = i. The symbol = between two assem¬ 
blage symbols means that these denote the same 
assemblage. Let A 1 s=(A, cq), union of A, or a, 

and another thing cq. Then A 1 is denoted by 

2 and named two. In like manner A 2 is named 
three and denoted by 3, in case A 2 = (A lf a 2 ), 
a 2 being different from' a and cq. Continuation 
of the process yields the series 1, 2, 3, 4, ... , 
v, . . . , of symbols, and the corresponding series, 
one, two, three, four, ..., of names, of the num¬ 


whenever A — A' and B^B'. (A, B) is called 

the sum of the summands , or addends, A and B; 

symbolically, A +B — (A, B) , an equation for¬ 
mally defining addition or summation of cardinals. 
How many things in A and B together? An¬ 
swer: A +B As a cardinal is order less, addi¬ 
tion is commutative: A+B=B-\-A. For the 
same reason, it is associative: A+(B+C) 
— (A -j-B) + C. 

Multiplication. —Associate each element a of 
A with each element /? of B. Denote the assem¬ 
blage of all pairs so arising by (A-B). (A -B) 

( A'-B ') whenever A^A' and B-^-B'; hence 

(A-B) is determined by A and B; (A-B) is 
called the product of the factors A and B; sym¬ 
bolically, A-B=(A-B), definition of multiplica¬ 
tion of the multiplicand A by the multiplier B. 
A single /? taken with each a yields an assem¬ 
blage A' of pairs such that A'—A. Each /? 
eives such an A': in all there are B such A/’s; 
the union of these is (A-B); hence A-B = 

A+A+... where there are B summands. 
Hence multiplication is summation of equal 
addends. A cardinal number being orderless, it 
readily appears that multiplication of cardinals 

is: commutative, A-B=B-A; associative. 

A - (B - C) = (A - B) - C ; and distributive. A - (B + C) 

= A-B+A-C; W'here, e.g.. (B-C) means that 

the product within ( ) is multiplier of A. 

Involution. —The continued product of B equal 

factors A is denoted by A B ; i.e., A-A-A...=A B . 
Here B is named exponent of A. The continued 


bers A, A lt A 2 , A 3 , . . . Each of these num¬ 
bers has a next after it and, except 1, a next 
before it. It admits of proof that the numbers 
of the series have the properties: no two of 
them are equal; each is greater than any pre¬ 
ceding one, less than any following one; if j/ 
is next before v, v = i/ + i; there is no cardinal 
number at once > v and < v + 1; no number of 
the series is greater than every other; there is 
a least cardinal, viz., 1. Any word with its 
predecessors of the count word series, one, 
two, . . . , constitute an assemblage equivalent 
to that whose cardinal the word names; hence, 
in counting, the word last used tells the number 
of things counted, no matter in what order. 

Distinction of Finite and Infinite .—If A + 1 =A, 

A is said to be infinite or transfinite ; in the con¬ 
trary case,. finite . Denote by N the assemblage: 
1, 2, 3, ... , v, . . . Every element of iV is a 
finite cardinal, and every finite cardinal is in A 7 . 

But N itself is transfinite for, (N, a) N, where 
a is not in N: we may pair a with 1, 1 with 2, . . . 

Hence (N , a), or A + i,=A 7 ; i.e. , the number 
of the part A is equal to the number of the 
whole (N, a). The so-called self-evident truth, 
the whole is greater than any of its parts, is 
generally false. It is always valid for finite 
assemblages, never for infinites. It serves as 
discriminant of the two classes. 

The foregoing sketch will serve to indicate 
briefly something of the simplicity, depth, and 
generality of the modern doctrine of the’ car¬ 
dinal number. 

Need of Generalization of Number Concept. _ 

The numbers in N, the finite cardinals, con¬ 
stitute the foundation of arithmetic and algebra. 
These numbers are necessary but not^suffi- 
cient. They afford answers to hosts of questions 
about themselves, but at the same time they 
stimulate curiosity to ask other hosts that they 
cannot answer. What number added to itself 
gives 4? What number multiplied by itself 
gives 9? For these N has the answers. Not 
so, however, if we replace 4 and 9 by 5 and 10. 
If a and b are any two numbers in N, we may 
















ALGEBRA 


ask: what is their sum? a+b = ? Their prod¬ 
uct? a-6 = ? (or a& = ? or aXb = ?) What is 
the oth or 6th power of 6 or a? b a = ? a* = ? 
A contains the answer to every such question 
of addition or multiplication or involution. But 
the inverse operations, subtraction, division, and 
evolution, yield questions about the cardinals 
that the latter do not suffice to answer. To 
answer all such questions, to render the inverse 
operations always possible, it is necessary to in¬ 
vent or create new entities to meet the demands. 
These entities, once created, constitute a new 
assemblage. The union of this with N is then a 
new enlarged assemblage or domain of numbers. 

Subtraction, Creation of Negatives. —If A is a 
finite assemblage, B a proper part of A, and R 
the assemblage left on suppressing B, then, if 

A = a, B = 6, R—c, we write c=a—b , formal 
definition of subtraction of subtrahend b from 
minuend a, yielding the difference c, or a — b. 
From this definition and that of addition, it 
follows that c+b=a. As A is finite and B is 
proper part of A, a> b . What if B = A? Then 
R is empty, and c is not in N. We write zero (o) 
for c, so obtaining a — a = o. Calling zero a num¬ 
ber and treating it like the cardinals, we have 
a+o=a, a — o=a. Consider the relation 
c=a—b. If b>a, the relation has no defined 
meaning, for c is neither zero nor in N. We give 
it a meaning. Note that c is to be such that 
c+6 =a. Let n be any_number in N, and define 
n to be such that n+h=o. The number h is 
called a negative integer, usually written with 
the bar in front; thus,— n; in contradistinction, 
n is called positive, and often written +n. To 
every positive integer corresponds a negative. 
The sum of any such pair is zero. If c = a —6, 
where b> a, c now has definite meaning: c is 
in N', the assemblage of negative integers. For 

example, if <7 = 2— 7, c — —• 5, or 5, for <7 + 7 = 2, 
5+5 + 2= °+ 2=2 - 

The growth of the number concept is note¬ 
worthy: first, the numbers in N; next, zero 
giving the assemblage E = (N, o); then the 
negatives, giving E' =(E, N'), which suffice to 
answer every subtraction question about finite 
cardinals, or positive integers. 

Extension of Old Operations to New Numbers. 
—Curiosity grows by what it feeds upon. 
Having secured the invention of zero and nega¬ 
tive integers, it asks: how operate on them? 
How combine any two of the numbers now in 
hand, whether new or old? For the new num¬ 
bers new rules, any logically consistent set, 
might be adopted. So would result another 
algebra. That would be lawful but not expe¬ 
dient. Expedience counsels, though necessity 
does not compel, the retention and extension of 
the old rules; as, a+b=b+a, etc. Expedience 
prevails. The consequences, though formally 
obtainable, are for beginners best found by 
some concrete device, as the plotting of the 
numbers on the a right line: 


— ^ — 2 — 1 o + i H* 2 + 3 • • • 

For addition and subtraction the new prob¬ 


lems are: 

(1) 

(2) 

( 3 ) 

( 4 ) 

( 5 ) 

( 6 ) 


— 5 +2 = ? 
+ 2 +(-5) 

— 2 + ( — 5) 

-2-\ +5) 
+ 2 —( — 5 ) 

— 2 — ( — 5) 


— a+b = ? 

+ b + ( - a) = ? 

— 6 + ( — a) = ? 

— b — ( + a) = ? 
+ 6 -(-a) = ? 
-b-(-a) = ? 


Zero is obviously either (both) positive or (and) 
negative. Old question: 5+2 = ? a+6=? 

Answer by stepping: begin at 5 or a, step right- 
ward, 2 or b steps: old rule. To answer (1), 
follow old rule: begin at —5, etc. Hence, 

— 5 + 2 = — 3; but by old rule, commutative law, 

— 5 + 2 = 2 + ( — 5), hence 2 + ( — 5) = — 3 ; but by 

definition, 2 — 5 = — 3, hence 2 + ( — 5) = 2— 5; the 
reasoning is independent of the particular in¬ 
tegers used; hence — a+b =b + (— a) =6— a; i.e., 
to add a negative is to subtract corresponding 
positive. Analogously one may find: — 6 + (— a) 
= -b-a= — (6+a); 6 — (— a) = 6+a; — b — (—a) 
= — 6+a=—(6—a). For multiplication, solu¬ 
tions of the like problems are similarly obtain¬ 
able: ( — a) -b = 6 • ( — a) = — (a-b ); (—a) -(—6) 

= ( — 6) • ( — a) = (a• 6) = a6; o-6=6-o=o-( — b) = 
(-6)-o=o=o-o. If a be in N or N', and if 
a = 2 -6, where b is in N or N', a is called even; 
otherwise, odd. If a is in N' and b in N, then, 
from the definitions involved, it is seen that 
ab is in N or in N' according as b is even 
or odd; symbolically, (—a)b = + ab, if b is even, 
and (—a)b = —ab, if b is odd. In particular, 
( — 1)^ = 1 or —1 according as b is even or is 
odd: ( — a)b = ( — x)&a&, b even or odd. Exten¬ 
sion of the old involution notion and its rules 
to the new numbers yields new symbols such 
as a 0 , (—a) 0 , a~b, (—a)~b, . . . , and correspond¬ 
ing formal relations such as ( — a)b- ( — a)~c 
= ( —a)b-c f . . . ; of which the meaning in other 
terms will appear at a subsequent stage. 

Operation of Division, the Concept of Fraction. 
—The numbers in E' suffice to answer all addi¬ 
tion, subtraction, and multiplication questions 
about themselves, but other questions remain, 
unanswerable in such terms. E' does not 
enable us to answer the inverse of every multi¬ 
plication question even about the positive in¬ 
tegers, much less about all the numbers in E'. 
The inverse of multiplication is named division. 
Given a and b, any numbers of E', multiplica¬ 
tion asks: a-b = ? The answer is in E'. Given 
a and c, of E r , division asks: o*(?) =c; for ex¬ 
amples, 4*(?)=8, 4(?) =9. In general E f fails 
to answer. To meet the demand, a new entity, 
named fraction, to be thenceforth regarded as a 

Q 

number, is created by the definition: a- — = c, 

CL 

C C 

or —a =c. The fraction — is often written c/a 
a a 

or c:a or c-fa; <7 is numerator or dividend, a is 

denominator or divisor, c and a are the terms; 

c is said to be divided by a, and — is the quotient 

of <7 by a, or ratio of c to a. Plainly, the defini- 

c c 

tion fails to determine —, when 0=0; for if — = b, 

a a 

c=b-a, but 6-o=«*o. Hence zero is not ad¬ 
missible as denominator (divisor). 

Rational Numbers .—The positive and negative 
integers, zero, and the fractions are together 
said to constitute the assemblage of rational 
numbers. Obviously all the rationals are (con¬ 
ceivable as) fractions; for, if a be an integer 

or zero, a -1 =a, but — • 1 — a, whence a =—. The 

1 1 

rules for combination of rationals are consistent 
extensions of those found for the special ra¬ 
tionals composing E'. As to signs: 


+ & 
+ b 



+ a 
~b 


— a 

+ 6 : 








ALGEBRA 


+ rr —a 
+ b + +b 


T 


+ (3 

~^-b 


— a 
^b’ 


a \ 
+ b~) 


i 


(r$- 


and so on as for integers. Formulae, or rules, for 
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and divi¬ 
sion of rationals (including those not in E') 


a c _ ? 


are readily obtained. For example, 


a 


Let i- r =x\ then by the definitions involved 

b a 

and the commutative, distributive, and asso¬ 
ciative laws, one has: 


{rj)- bd - x - bd] (r b ) {j- d] ~ x - bd: 


ac =x-bd\ • bd = ac ; T~j-bd = x-bd] 
bd bd 


TTj=x] rule for multiplication. Again, 


bd 


, a c i 

let t -h~r =x ’, then 
b d 


(a c\ 

K b + d) 


■bd =x-bd; 


a c 

-rbd + -rbd = x-bd; ad +bc =x-bd: 
b d 

ad + be , , , 7 ad + be . , , , 

bd = ad + be ; ———• ■ bd — x • bd\ 


bd 


bd 


ad + be 


a c 

=X] b + j~ 


ad +bc 


rule for addition 


bd ’ b d bd 
(including subtraction). Analogously may be 

found that it+ ~r = ir • — i.e., division is con- 

b d b c 

vertible into multiplication. The absolute or 
numerical value of a rational is its value regard¬ 
less of sign; e.g., the numerical value of —4 is 4. 

Plainly, ~ =^, = ^; numerically, ^ is greater 

than, equal to, or less than -j according as the 

like relation subsists between ad and be. In 
respect to numerical value, there is a rational and 
hence an infinity of rationals between every two 
numerically unequal rationals. Any positive is 
said to be algebraically greater than any negative. 

Evolution, Radicals, Surds .—The sum, differ¬ 
ence, product, or quotient (division by zero 
being excluded) of any two rationals is a ra¬ 
tional. As to these operations, the domain of 
rationals is closed. Not so, however, if we 

admit evolution. Let be any rational, and n 

( a\ n 

—j = ? 

The answer is a rational. But, n being a positive 

Q 

integer and being rational, evolution inverts 
the question and asks for a number k such that 

Q 

k n = t. In general no rational answers. For 
d 

example, no rational satisfies the relation k 2 = — 1 
or the relation k 2 =2. To meet such needs a 

<yi — 

new entity, yr, r being rational and n a posi- 
tive integer, is created by the definition: ( yr) n =r. 


Tl ~~ 

The entity or symbol yr is named radical, 
or nth. root of r. The previously unanswerable 

T- U n 
d 


question is now answerable: k = 


ft —* 

is even and r negative, yr is called imaginary 
(see Theory of Functions of Complex Vari¬ 
able); in particular, \/ — i, or simply V — 1, 
denoted by i, is called imaginary unit. If n 
is odd and r negative, or if n is odd or even 

and r positive, yr is said to be real. Obviously 
any rational is conceivable under the form 

CVrY ; ^.g., 3 =( x/ 3) 2 = ( V 7 ) 3 ,etc. Often,too, 


yr is rational; e.g., v / 4~=2, 1^27=3. If \^~r 

is real but not a rational, it is named surd of 

order n\ e.g., V2 is a surd of 2d order. That 

V2 is not rational is readily shown. It is 
plainly no integer. If, then, it is rational, 

\/T = where b> 1 numericallv and 7- is in its 
b b 

lowest terms, i.e., a and b are prime * to each 

other, i.e., have no common factor except 1 

a 2 

or — 1; then 26=^-, an integer equal to a non¬ 


integer. 

Generalized Exponents .—By means of the new 
numbers, zero, negatives, fractions, radicals 
(including surds), the notion of exponent, de¬ 
fined for positive cardinals, admits of generali¬ 
zation to include such forms as a 0 , a^, a~ 2 , etc. 
The question is: What do such forms signify? 
In themselves they are meaningless. It is man 
who gives them meaning, subject to the condi¬ 
tion that his algebra shall be self-consistent. 
It will be sufficient to indicate the process. 
For (positive) cardinals, am-a n =am+n m This 
law is imposed in case a is any number , new or 
old. Similarly for (a^)n = a mn anc j a m . 5 w=(a 6 )»«. 

am 

It readily appears that — =am— n, where m > n 


and a is not zero. What signifies ab , b being a 

I 

positive integer? Assume that ab satisfies the 

I I 

law, am■ a n = am+n _ Then ab ■ ab .. . . (to b factors) 

b / 1 \ b 


7- + -T + . • • (to b terms) -r : . ( -7A 

= ab b =a^=a 1 =a; -i.e.. \abJ — 


a. 


but (y a) b = a, 
V ~3 =(- 3 ) 5 . 


hence ab = ya; e.g., \/2 =2^, 

b c _ 

It similarlv follows that ac = y a b 


= {.V a ) . In like manner, a°-ab =a°+& =ab , but 
1 -ab=at>, hence a° = i. Once more, let b be a 
positive integer or fraction, then a~b.ab=ab~b 

= a° = i; multiplying by -j-, a~b = It then 

requires and admits of proof that the exp; nent 
laws hold good in case the exponents are any 
rationals. The case where the exponents are 
not rationals remains for consideration, ret]Hir¬ 
ing another order of ideas of which some account 
follows. 

Irrational Numbers .—It has been seen that 
the surds are irrational. They may be defined 
by a more general method, available for the 


* See Theory of Numbers. 
















ALGEBRA 


definition of additional irrationals. For ex¬ 
ample, the arithmetic process (here assumed) 

for extracting square root yields for V2 the 
endless decimal 1.41421 . . . ' Consider the two 
endless sequences of rationals: (1) 1, 1.4, 1.41, 
1.414, 1.4142, . . . ; (2) 2, 1.5, 1.42, 1.415. 

1.4143, . . . Every number of (1) is < every 
number of (2); it is possible to find in (1) a 
number m and in (2) a number n such that 
«—m<r, r being a positive rational small at 
will, chosen in advance. Hence (1) and (2) 
are said to define, by approaching near at will, 
some Definite, d, as their common limit. Plainly 
d is in neither (1) nor (2). What is d? The 
sequences (3) and (4) obtained by squaring the 
numbers of (1) and (2) are clearly related to 

2 as (1) and (2) to d; hence d is V2. That is, 

the irrational \/~2 is definable as limit of rational 
sequences. Compare (see Elementary Pure 
Geometry) the definition of n, (irrational) ratio 
of circumference to diameter of circle. The 
defining method just exemplified is, in generality, 
as follows: Let A and B be any two sequences 
of rationals such that: («) every number of 
B is > every one of A; (ii) given any positive 
rational r, small at will, there are in A and B 
numbers a and b such that 6—a<r. Then 
A and B have a common limit , some definite , d. 
Such d may be rational, as 2 in case of (3) and 
(4). If d be not a rational, it is named irrational 
number. The rationals and the irrationals to¬ 
gether constitute the assemblage of real numbers 
(see Theory of the Real Variable). If a and 

b are real and i = \/ — 1, numbers of the form 
a+ib are called complex (see Theory of the 
Complex Variable). The complex numbers 
a A hi and a—bi are said to be conjugate. It is 
found that the real and complex numbers obey 
the formal laws of operation that control com¬ 
bination of rationals. 

Terms, Expressions, Factors, etc. —In algebra 
numbers, real or complex, are commonly called 
quantities. Any lawful combination, however 
complicate, of number symbols represents a 
number or quantity, and is named algebraic ex- 

a 


pression, as 5, 3a, x/f (a* — %fx?), —— -y=r» The 

r-sy w 

parts of an algebraic expression that are con¬ 
nected by the sign + or — are called terms. 
Two or more terms enclosed in parentheses () 
or brackets [] or braces {f or written under a 
vinculum are treated as a whole; thus, 

2 —( 4+6 ) =2 — 10, 3X7—5=3X2, x—[y— \z — 

(x — y — z )}] =x [y \z — (x — y +z )}] =x—[y — {z 
—x+y—z}] = x—[y+x—y\ = x—x= o. An ex¬ 
pression of more than one term is a polyno¬ 
mial or multinomial. Expressions of one, two, 
three terms are respectively monomial, bino¬ 
mial, trinomial; thus, a — (b—c ) is binomial, 
though its equivalent, a — b+c, is trinomial. 
The term fraction is extended to any expression 
in the form of a fraction (as above defined). 
An expression may be integral as to some of 
its symbols and fractional as to others; thus 

- is integral as to x and y, but frac- 

z 3 

tional as to z and w. The like distinction holds 
in respect to rational and irrational : thus 


is rational as to y, irrational as to 
x and z. In the indicated product of two or more 
symbols, as 4 X?abx, any partial product is the 


coefficient of the complementary product; thus 
4 and habx are coefficients of each other; simi¬ 
larly, for 4XI and abx, for yX$x and ab, etc. 
An expression that is rational and integral as 
to some symbol, as x, is said to be of degree n 
in that symbol if its greatest exponent in any 
term is n; thus a 2 x 5 +ba 3 x 3 — 4x0* A 1 is of de¬ 
gree 5 in x, of degree 6 in a, and of degree 1 
in b. An expression rational and integral in 
two or more symbols is said to be of degree 5 
in those symbols (together) if 5 is the largest 
sum of the exponents of those symbols in any 
term; thus a 2 b 3 c — $a 3 b 4 c 2 — jb 2 c 3 is of degree 
9 in a, b, c (together). In general, each of two 
or more expressions is called a factor of their 

product. In this general sense, a * and a- are 


a J b 

factors of a 2 , and so, too, are -7- and —. 

o a> 


In a 


17 n 

> 

nth 
, nth 
In par- 


more restricted sense, the factors of an expres¬ 
sion rational and integral as to some letter must 
themselves be rational and integral as to that 
letter; thus some factors of a 2 b—a 3 b are a, a 2 , 
b, ab, a 2 b, 1 — a, for division by any of these 
yields a quotient rational and integral as to a 
and b. In such cases, factors of lowest degree 
in any symbol are called simple factors (in that 
(symbol). A factor of two or more expressions 
is called a common factor of them. The common 
factor of highest degree is called the highest 
common factor ( H.C.F. ); thus the Il.C.F. of 
a 3 b 2 and a 2 b 3 is a 2 b 2 ; of a 2 —b 2 and ac+bc, it 
is a+b. Every expression is a multiple of its 
factors. A multiple of two or more expressions 
is called a common multiple of them; it is their 
lowest common multiple ( L.C.M .) if it is the 
common multiple of lowest degree; thus, the 
L.C.M. of a ab 2 c 2 and a 2 bc 3 is a 2 b 2 c 3 ; of 
(x—a)(x— b) 2 (x—c) 3 and (x — a) *(x — b)(x — c) it 
is (x — a) 4 (v — b) 2 (x — c) 3 . It is readily proved 
that the product of two expressions is equal 
to that of their H.C.F. and L.C.M. If E is 
any algebraic expression, then E 2 , E 3 , 
are respectively the second, third, . 
powers of E, and E is the square, cube, 
root respectively of E 2 , E 3 , . . . , E n . 
ticular, E 2 and E 8 are the square and the cube 

of E. Thus ax 2 ' is the square root of a 2 x i , —■ 

is the cube root of a 3 b~ 3 , x\—y* is the square 
root of (x^ — yi) 2 , or x+y — 2X^y*. 

Ratio, Proportion, Variation. —The fraction 

is the ratio of a to b, often written a: b, of which 

oc 

a is antecedent and b is consequent. If a= - 

y 

pf fCUU 

and b=L then a:b=—. A ratio is commen- 
w yz 

surable or incommensurable according as it is or 
is not a rational number; thus, 2:5 is com¬ 
mensurable, but V~2:1, ratio of diagonal to side 
of square, is incommensurable. Plainly, ratio 
theory is fraction theory. It is easily proved 

., a c e , a A c A c A ■ • • a 

that if . . , then ~£ +d +f +. . . ~b ’ 

unless b +d+f +. . .=0. If a, b, c, and d, 

taken in order, are in proportion, often written 
a:b::c:d, or a:b=c:d, a and d being the ex¬ 
tremes and b and c the means. In such case 
ad = bc, and conversely. If a:b=b:c, i.e., if 
b 2 =ac, b is a mean proportional to a and c, and 










ALGEBRA 


c is a third proportional to a and h. If a:h = c:d, 
then a+b:b=c+d:d, a—b:b=c—d:d, whence 
a -\-b:a—b = c -\-d\c —d\ i.e., a, b, c, d are in pro¬ 
portion by composition , by division , and by both. 
A quantity x varies directly as y, symbolically 
x (X y, if the ratio of every two values of x is 
equal to the ratio of the corresponding y values. 
If x (X i :y, x varies inversely as y. li x cc yz, 
x varies as y and z jointly. Examples: if x is 
distance traveled and y is rate, x oc y; if x 
is volume of given mass of gas (at constant 
temperature) and y is pressure on it, x oc i :y 
(Boyle’s Law); if x is the area of triangle and 
.v and z are base and altitude, x oc yz. If x oc y, 
x=cy, where c is some constant; if x oc i:y, 
x =c:y; if x cc yz, x =cyz, if x oc y and oc i :z, 
x=cy\z\ if x oc y and y cc z, x ex z, x +y cc z, 

x—yeez, \/xy oc z\ if x oc y and z oc w, xz oc yw; 
if x oc y, x k CC y k , k any exponent; if x oc y when z 
is constant, and x oc z when y is constant, then 
x OC yz when y and 0 both vary. It is seen that 
variation is a kind of generalized doctrine of pro¬ 
portion. 

The Notion and Notation of Function. —A 
quantity which may take different values is a 
variable. Two variables so related that to a 
value of either there corresponds one or more 
values of the other are called functions of each 
other (see Infinitesimal Calculus;. Any 
algebraic expression is a function of the symbols 
it involves, and conversely; for example, 2X 2 + 3 
is a function of x, and conversely. A function 
of a symbol as x is often denoted by the symbol 
fix) or Fix) or <f>(x) or the like and read /-func¬ 
tion of x, and so on. If f{x) = 2X 2 — 4, then 
/(o) =-4, /( — i) = -2, f(a) = 2a 2 —4, etc. The 
function symbol has reference to the form of the 
function, and in the same argument or discussion 
the same symbol may not be used for two 
different functions. Of great importance are 
the integral (entire) polynomials, of which the 
general form for a single variable x is f n (x) =a 0 x n 
+ a x x n ~ l + a 2 x n ~ 2 -f. . . + a n - x x + a n . The coeffi¬ 
cients a 0 , a x , ... , a n are regarded as arbitrary 
constants. Accordingly f x {x) =a^x + a x , said to 
be linear or of first degree; f ? (x) = a 0 x 2 + a x x +a 2 , 
the general quadratic expression or expression of 
second degree; f 3 =a 0 x 3 +. . . + a 3 , the general 
cubic, f i {x)=apc i + ...+a A , the general biquad¬ 
ratic, etc. The general expressions become par¬ 
ticular or special on assigning specific (numerical) 
values to the (literal) coefficients. In any f n (x) 
any value may be given to x, the corresponding 
value of f n (x) is then determined. The inverse 
problem of determining all values of x for which 
fn(x) shall have a prescribed value is far more 
difficult. ' A value of x for which f n (x) is zero 
is said to cause f n (x) to vanish. To every ex¬ 
pression f n (x) corresponds an equation, f n (x) =0, 
of 1st, 2d, . . . , nth degree, according as n = i, 
2, . . . , n. The equation imposes a condition 
on x, restricting its variability, allowing it only 
such values as make f n (x) vanish. (The variable 
in an equation is called the unknown quantity.) 
Any such value is a root of the equation. The 
equation f n (x) =0 has n and only n roots (see 
Theory of Equations). To solve an equation 
is to find its roots. A linear equation a 0 x + a x =0 

has one root, --, and it may always be found 

a 0 

by adding — a x to both members a 0 x+a x and o 


and then dividing the sums by a 0 . The re¬ 
sult of the addition is the equation a^x = 
— a,. Obviously any term may be trans¬ 
posed from either member of an equation to 
the other if at the same time the sign of the 
term be reversed. Presently we shall see 
how to solve quadratic, cubic, and biquadratic 
equations. 

Factor and Remainder Theorems .—Obviously 
f n (x) may contain a factor of the form x—a; 
e.g., x — 2 is a factor of re 2 —4. If f n (x) has 
x — a for factor, then f n {x) = (x — a)Q, where Q 
is the quotient of f n (x) divided by x — a. Hence 
under the supposition f n (x) vanishes when a is 
put for x. The converse is the factor theorem: 
If f n (x) vanishes on replacing the variable re by 
a number a, then re— a is a factor of f n { re). 
Proof: divide f n (re) by re — a until the remainder 
A does not contain re. Then f n (x) =(re — a)Q +R; 
put a for re, then / n (a) =(o —o)Q+R, but / n (a) =0, 
hence R= o, hence f n (x) =(re — a)Q. At the same 
time is proved the remainder theorem: Division 
of fni re) by re — a yields / n (a) for remainder. By 
the factor theorem it is seen that x n —a n is 
divisible by x — a, for on putting a for re, x n — a» 
= a n —a n =o. Put a for re in x n +a n ] the result 
is not zero; hence re — a is not a factor of re n +a«. 
If n is odd, re+a is a factor of x n +a n for 
( — a)n +a n = o for n odd. 

The Quadratic Equation. —The general quad¬ 
ratic equation are 2 + bx + c = o can be solved as 
follows: The roots of an equation are not altered 
by adding a constant to both members or by 
multiplying both by a constant. Dividing both 

b 2 b 2 

members by a, then adding —5-- to the left 


4a 2 4a 2 


member, we obtain (re 
factoring, 


+£)*- 


\ re f — + ■— \Zb 2 - 4 ac \ ■! x+ — — —\Zb 2 -4ac \ =0. 
I 2a 2a )( 2a 2a ) 


If the product of two or more integral factors 
is zero, one of them must be zero and the 
equation is satisfied if any one of them is zero. 
Hence the roots of the quadratic are the roots of 
the linear equations obtained by equating to zero 
the foregoing factors. The roots r x and r 2 are: 

r i =~i-b + Vb 2 -4ac),r 2 =—i-b-Vb 2 - 4 ac). 

Thus it is seen that every quadratic equation 

has two and but two roots. Their sum 

b c 

H + r 2 = —- and their product r 1 r 2 =—, a special 
a a 

case (see Theory of Equations) of the law 
connecting the roots and coefficients in the 
general equation f n (x) =0. If the coefficients 
are real, the roots are both imaginarv when and 
only when the discriminant b 2 — 4 ac<o, or nega¬ 
tive. If b 2 — 40c = o the roots are equal ;’if b 2 — 4 ac 
is a perfect square, they are rational. 

The Cubic Equation, Cube Roots of Unity. —Let 
* 3 = i, then * 3 —1=0; factoring left member, 
(x — i)(xd +x + 1) =0. Hence the cube roots 
of unity are 1, co x -|(-i + ^^3), w 2 =i(-i 

— V ~3); aJ i an( I <0 2 are imaginary (complex); 
oj : 2 = oj ? , o ) 2 = (o ,, w x 3 = cof = 1; writing oj for oj x , 
the cube roots of 1 are co, to 2 . Any number a 

has three cube roots, fya, oj^/a, w ? ^/a~; thus the 
cube roots of 8 are 2, oj2 and to 2 2. The general 
cubic may be written x 2 Fax 2 +bx +c = 0. On 













ALGEBRA 


putting y -for x, the cubic becomes 

3 

3 . /; ° 2 \ , / a b 2a *\ 

y+ { b ~) y+ [ c ~T + E) = °’ 

pr y 3j rpy + q = o lacking the second term and 
called the reduced cubic. It is sufficient to 
solve the reduced cubic, for the roots of the 


Q 


original are then found by the relation x=y - . 

3 3 

Let y = z ——, then s 6 + qz 3 = o. This is 

3 - 2 7 

quadratic in z 3 , yielding z 3 = — — ±X / "Q ^where 

"T+f?)’ ^ /_ 

From the fact that z has six values, it must 
not be inferred that y has six; for the two 

P 3 

values Si 3 and z 3 of s 3 are such that z 3 z 3 = — —; 

2 7 

hence the six s-values, z lf z 2 , toz 1} a> 2 z 2 , a>z 2 , <o 2 z l , 
yield but three y-values, corresponding to the 

P 

relations z x z 2 = ojz x ■ co 2 z 2 = oj 2 z 1 ■ wz 2 = — — . For ex- 

3 


ample, y ,£ -z 2 — 

3"i 3 Z 2 


= A +-2- 

3 


If 


Z X = \/ then z 2 = \/ -j-'/Q, 


and the y -values are: 

yi -1/ - f + + V - ~ ~ V Q - 

y 2 = oj\/ + VQ + oj 2 \/ — v/Q, 

y 3 = oj 2 \/ — — T- s/Q + — — — \/. \j. 

It can be readily shown for real p and q that one of 
the y’s is real and the other two are conjugate 
imaginaries if Q be +, that all are real and two 
are equal if Q=o, and that all are real and dis¬ 
tinct if Q is —. The last case is called irre¬ 
ducible because the root formula, involving 
imaginaries, is practically valueless. In this 
case the roots may be found by help of the 
trigonometric functions (see Trigonometry) as 
follows: Let Q = — r 2 sin 2 #, —\ q=r cos 6 , then 

r=\/ — p 3 : 27, cos 0 = — %q:\/— p 3 :2-j. The 
value of 6 may be found by trigonometric table. 
Hence 

— \q + VQ - i/r cos 0 +ir sin 0 

= ^/r{ cos 0 + 2kz) + i sin 6 -f 2^71)} 

and 

V-iq-'/Q 

= $/rjcos + 2&7O —i sin +2kiz), 
k=o, or 1. The y formulae then give 
y = 2 $/r cos %(0 + 2 ^ 7 :). 

The Biquadratic, or Quartic .—In general form 
this is x*+px 3 +qx 2 +rx+s = o. The equivalent 
reduced quartic, x K +ax 2 +bx +c = o, is found by 

replacing x by x To solve the reduced 


quartic, let x = u+y + z, then x*-2x 2 (u 2 +y 2 +z 2 ) 

— 8 uyzx + (u 2 +y 2 +z 2 ) 2 —4 (u 2 y 2 +y 2 z 2 +z 2 u 2 ) =0; 
if this be identical with the reduced quartic, 
a = — 2(u 2 +y 2 +z 2 ), b=—Suyz, c = (u 2 + y 2 -\-z 2 ) 2 

— 4 (u 2 y 2 +y 2 z 2 -yz 2 u 2 ). Owing to relations be¬ 
tween the roots and coefficients of any equation 
(see Theory of Equations), the roots of the 

auxiliary cubic t 3 + — t 2 + — -— t — — = o are n 2 

2 16 64 

y 2 , z 2 . Denoting them by /, m, n, we have 

A'= ±\//± Vm± Vn, apparently eight values of 
x, but really only four because the product 
uyz=—b" L 8. If b is_positive the values of x 
are — \/1 — \/m —Vn, — V/q-v/Vn + Vn, V/ — 

V7n + V77, V l + y/m — V 7 n; if b is negative, they 
are the negatives of the former. 

Historical and Critical Note. —As seen, the 
general equations of 4th and lower degrees are 
soluble by means of radicals or root extraction. 
It was naturally but incorrectly supposed that 
the same means would prove available in case 
of the general quintic and equations of higher 
degree, and one of the great problems of the 
eighteenth century was to solve the quintic in 
a manner analogous to that employed above 
for the quartic, cubic, and quadratic. In 1770 
Lagrange proved that the method was not 
adequate for that purpose, as it gave for auxiliary 
equation an essentially general one of sixth 
degree. By Abel, Wantzel, and Galois (see 
Galois Theory of Equations) it was shown 
to be impossible to solve by radicals any 
general equation of degree above 4. Subse¬ 
quently Hermite proved that the roots of the 
general quintic are expressible in terms of 
elliptic functions. The quadratic, cubic, and 
quartic are solvable by other methods than 
those given above, but all are essentially the 
same. The solution of the general quadratic 
was known to the Arabs in the ninth century. 
The solution of x 3 +px +q = o was discovered by 
Scipio Ferreo in the beginning of the sixteenth 
century. It was rediscovered a few years later 
by Tartaglia. The solution given above is 
known as Cardan’s, but it is known that Cardan 
learned it from Tartaglia. Ferrari, a pupil of 
Cardan’s, solved the quartic. The solution, 
given by Bombelli in his algebra (1579), is some¬ 
times attributed to him. Descartes gave a 
different solution in 1637. The solution pre¬ 
sented above is Euler’s, having been found by 
him in 1770. 

Higher Equations .—Although the general equa¬ 
tions of the 5 th and higher degrees are not 
solvable by radicals, many particular equations 
of such degrees are thus solvable; e.g., x 8 — 1 =0 
breaks up into two quartics, x i — i = 0, x iJ ^i = 0. 
In works on the theory of equations (see Theory 
of Equations) various methods, chief of which 
is Horner’s, are given whereby the commensur¬ 
able roots of any equation having numerical 
coefficients can be found and the incommen¬ 
surable roots can be found to any required degree 
of approximation. 

Simultaneous Equations. —The general linear 
equation in two variables or unknowns, as x 
and y. is ax +by = c. Solved for one of the 
variables, say x, in terms of the other, the equa- 


;ion becomes x 


c — b'V 

--. It is seen that x and y 

a 

ire functions of each other: to any value of 
:ither corresponds a value of the other. Any two 






















ALGEBRA 


corresponding values constitute a pair satisfying 
the equation. There are infinitely many such 
pairs satisfying a given equation of the kind in 
question, as many pairs as there are numbers. Ob¬ 
viously there are hosts of pairs not satisfying a 
given equation. All the pairs satisfying a given 
equation constitute a system of pairs. Two equa¬ 
tions a x x + b x y = c x , a 2 x + b 2 y = c 2 are different unless 
a l :a 2 = b l :b 2 = c x :c 2 . Have the two systems de¬ 
termined by two different equations any pairs 
m common? The answer is, one pair. It can 
be found as follows: Multiplying the former 
equation by b 2 , the latter by — b x , adding and 
solving for x, x = ( b 2 c x —b x c 2 ): (a x b 2 —a 2 b x ) ; analo¬ 
gously, y = (a 2 c l —c 1 a 2 ):(a 1 b 2 — a 2 b 1 ). This and 
only this pair of values of x and y satisfies both 
equations. In combining the equations, ^ and y 
were regarded as the same in both. Two or 
more equations in two or more unknowns are 
called simultaneous when the unknowns are 
treated as representing the same numbers in all 
the equations. In the foregoing solution the 
^-equation was found by eliminating y between 
the given equations. The elimination was ac¬ 
complished by addition. It might have been done 
otherwise, as by comparison, i.e., solving each 
equation for y and equating the y-values so ob¬ 
tained, or by substitution, i.e., solving one of the 
equations for y and substituting the y -value so 
found for y in the other equation. In any of 
these ways or by combinations of them one 
may find a triplet of values satisfying three 
arbitrary equations in three unknowns, x, y, z: 
eliminate, say z, between two of them and then 
between the remaining one and one of the others; 
so result two equations in x and y, to be handled 
as above. The method is obviously extensible 
to the case of n equations in n unknowns. In 
general, n linear equations in n unknowns are 
satisfied simultaneously by but a single set of 
values of the unknowns, but in special cases by 
more than one set. The latter happens only 
when the coefficients satisfy some special condi¬ 
tion or conditions. Under certain conditions n or 
more equations in n— i unknowns may be satisfied 
by a same set of values. Thus ax + b = o and 
ex +d = o have the same root when and only when 
be — ad = o; ayx-\-b x y -\-c x =o, a 2 x + b 2 y + c 2 = o, 
a 3 x + b 3 y + c 3 = o , are simultaneously satisfied or 
are consistent when and only when a l b 2 c 3 +a 2 b 3 c l 
+ a 3 b 1 c 2 — a 3 b 2 c x —a 2 b x c 3 —a 1 b 3 c 2 = o. For the ex¬ 
pression of such conditions, and the solution of 
sets of linear equations, by means of deter¬ 
minants, seethe article Determinants and works 
therein cited. 

Simultaneous equations involving the un¬ 
knowns to degrees higher than the first may 
sometimes be solved. Consider, for example, 
the pair of equations: ax +by +c = o, dx 2 +ey 2 
+ fxy +gx+hy+k = o; from the former y = 

— (c+ax)\a; substituting that y-value for y 
in the second given equation, a quadratic in x 
is found; this gives two a;- values; substituting 
these in the given linear equation, the two 
corresponding values of y are found. The corre¬ 
sponding values must be properly paired', thus 
the equations $x+4y — 5=0 and 2 x 2 —xy+y 2 

— 22=0 give x = 2, and —109:53, y——i and 
148:53; the proper pairing is * = 3,3/=— 1, and 
x = — 109:53, T 7 = 1 4S ; 5 3; the equations are not 
satisfied by # = 3, y = i 48:53, for example. Once 
more, the two quadratics x 2 + 3XV = 2 8, xy + yy ? = 8 
give, on division (member by member) and clear¬ 
ing of fractions, 2 (x 2 + 3 xy ) = 7 (xy + 4y 2 ); whence 


x = yy or — 73/: 2. For .v = 43*, the second given 
equation furnishes 4y 2 +4y 2 = 8 and y = 1 or — 1, 
whence x = y or —4; using x=— , jy\2 in like 
manner, one finds y = + 4 or — 4 and # = — 14 or 14; 
in all four pairs of values corresponding thus: 

x = 4, y ~ 1; x= -4, y- -1; * = 14, y= - 4; 

x = —14, y — 4. In general, an equation of rath 
degree and one of nth degree in two un¬ 
knowns are both satisfied by mn pairs of num¬ 
bers. The solution of such a pair involves, in 
general, the solution of an equation of degree 
mn. 

Permutations and Combinations .—Any arrange¬ 
ment (in a row) of r things (regarded as belong¬ 
ing to a set of n things) is called a (straight) 
permutation of the n things r at a time. Two 
permutations are the same when and only when 
they consist of the same things in the same 
order. The number of different (possible) per¬ 
mutations of n things r at a time is often de¬ 
noted by n Pr■ To find this number, think of 
any one of the n P r -i permutations of n things 
r —1 at a time. There remain n—r +1 things. 
Put one of these after the things of the given 
permutation. There so results a permutation of 
the n things r at a time. It readily follows that 
nPr — nPr —1 ’ {ri r + I ) , nPr—i = nPr —2 ’ (n r + 2 ) , 

• n P2 = nPi‘(n — i), n P \—ri. Multiplying 

these equations member by member, it is 
found that n P r = w(n —i). . . (n— r + i). If 
r = n, n Pn — n\, where n\ (or I n) means 1X2X3 

X. . . Xw and is read factorial n. It can be 
readily proved that the number P of permuta¬ 
tions of n things (a, b, c, . . .) n at a time, p of 
the things being a’s, q of them b's, . . . , is 
n I 

P = ——— . If the order in a permutation of 

n things r at a time be disregarded, the result 
is a combination of n things r at a time. Two 
combinations are the same if they consist of 
the same elements. A common symbol for the 
number of combinations of n things r at a time 
is n C r . By permuting the r things of a com¬ 
bination in every way, r! permutations arise. 
It follows that n C r • r ! = n P r , whence n C r = n P r :r\. 
Since, on taking r things from n things, there 
remain n — r things, it is seen that n C r = n C n —r- 

Arithmetical Progression .—An A.P. is a series 
of numbers such that the difference between any 
two adjacent terms is the same as that between 
any other two adjacent terms. The general A.P. 
is: a, a+d, a + 2d, .... a+ii — id. The theory 
involves five elements: the common difference, 
d; the first term, a; the last, /; the number of 
terms, n; and the sum of the terms, s. Given 
any three of the elements, the remaining two 
can be found. Since e C 3 = io, there are but 20 
problems to solve, giving rise to as many 
formulas. The formula for l in terms of a, 
d, and n obviously is / = a 4 - n — 1 d. To find 5 
in terms of a, l, and n, let 5 =a + (a -\-d) +(a + 2d) 
T. . . 4 - (/ — 2d) +(/ — d) T l ; then 5 = / -j- (/ — d) 
+ (/ — 2d) -f-. . . + (a — 2d) +(a —d) -t-a; adding, 

Yl 

2s = n(a + 1 ), whence 5 = ~ (a + 1 ). The remaining 
eighteen formulas, completely exhausting the sub¬ 


ject, are: / = — %d + ^zds + (a -£d) 2 ; l = 2 ~—a; 

YL 

, s (n — i)d , f , - lya 

/ = —+ v -—; 5 = %n(2a -f n — id ); 5= - 

n 2 ' 2 

P’ — q4 __ 

+ —-7—; 5 = \n(2l — n — id); a = l - n — id; 











ALGEBRA 


= ~ - K n ~ i)^; a = Jd ± V(l + £d) 2 - 2tA; 

7 


25 


a = —-/; d = (l — a) (n — 1); d = 2(5 — an) 

- 7 -n(n — 1); d = (/ 2 — a 2 ) -4-(25 — / — a); d = 2(nl~s) 
~ n(n— 1); n = 1 + (l—g)-j-d; n = {d — 2a± 

\/(2a —d ) 2 + 8 tl?) -7- 2d; « = 25 -r(a + /); n = 

( 2 /+d±^/( 2 /-|-d ) 2 — 8 ds) -T-2d. 

Geometric Progression .—A G\P. is a series of 
numbers such that the ratio of any one to the 
next is equal to the ratio of any other one 
to its next. Accordingly, the general form of 
a G.P. is: a, ar, ar 2 , . . . , ar n ~ l . Again, there 
are five elements to be considered: the first 
term, a; the last, T, the ratio, r; the number 
of terms, n; and the sum of the terms, 5. In 
terms of any three of the five elements, either 
of the remaining elements can be expressed. 
Accordingly the theory of the G.P. involves 
the solution of but twenty problems. Most im¬ 
portant of these are the problems, to express L 
in terms of a,r, and n, and to express 5 in terms 
of a, r, and n. It is plain that /, or the nth term, 
is l = ar n ~ 1 . To find 5, let 5 = a + ar + ... + ar n ~ 2 
+ ar n ~ l \ then rs =ar+ ar 2 +. . .+ar n ~ l +ar n ', 
subtracting, and dividing by 1 — r, it is found 

, a(i—r») a-rl . . 

that 5= -=-. I he remaining eigh- 

1 — r 1 — r 

teen formulas are easily obtained. If r be nu¬ 
merically less than 1, the G.P. is said to be a 
decreasing G.P .; otherwise, not. In case of a 
decreasing G.P., it is possible to sum the series 
to infinity, a phrase requiring explanation. 
An endless series, a lt a 2 , . . . , is said to be infinite, 
i.e., to contain an infinite number of terms. A 
series that has an end, a last term, is finite. 
Let s n denote the sum of the first n terms of an 
infinite series. If the series be such that there 
is a finite number L from which, by taking n 
large enough, s n may be made to differ by less 
than any prescribed amount and to which s n , 
as n continues to increase, approaches nearer 
and nearer in value, then L is named limit of 
s n as n increases endlessly, the series is said to be 
convergent (see Series) and L is called the sum 
(to infinity) of the series. Observe that here 
file word sum is used in a new sense, viz., as 
limit of a sum (in old sense). Now consider the 
infinite G.P., a, ar, ar 2 , . . . , ar^~ l , ar », 

The sum s n of the first n terms, by the foregoing 

a ar n 

formula for s, is: s n = -—-. If the G.P. 

1 —r 1 —r 

is a decreasing one, r< 1 numerically, r n ap¬ 
proaches zero 'as limit as n increases without 

bound, and hence s n has —— for limit, the G.P. 

1 — r 

is a convergent series, and its sum to infinity is 


their sum. The geometric mean of a and h is a 
number c such that the series a, c, b is a G.P. 

Hence — = —, whence c = \/ab; i.e., the geometric 

mean of two numbers is the square root of their 
product. The harmonic mean of a and b is c, 
where c is such that the series a, c, b is an H.P. 

Hence —, — , is an A.P. Hence — —— = i- —— , 
a c b c a b c ’ 

whence c = ——r. Denote by A, G, and H re- 
a+b 

spectively the arithmetic, the geometric, and 
the harmonic means of a and b. Then A = £(a + b), 

G = \^ab, H = a 2 _|_fc - It is readily seen that 

H =G 2 :A, whence G = V / AH ; i.e., the geometric 
mean of two numbers is the geometric mean of 
their arithmetic and their harmonic means. 

The Binomial Theorem or Expansion .—If a and 
b are any numbers and n is any positive integer, 

<yi( yi — j \ 

(a -\~b) n = a n + na n ~ x b + —- -a n ~‘*b 2 + . . . 

1-2 

n(n — i)(n — 2) . . . (n— r + 1 ) , 

+ —-—----- -a r b n ~ r +. . . 

I- 2 - 3 -. . .-r 

-\-nab n ~ x +b n , 

an expansion containing n + % i terms. F01 proof of 
the relationship see article Mathematical Induc¬ 
tion. It can be proved by algebraic means, 
most readily by Maclaurin’s formula (see Cal¬ 
culus), that, if a is numerically greater than b 
and n is any real number, the same expansion 
as that above given is valid, i.e., (a +6)™= a™ 
+ na n ~ l b-\-. . . , which, however, contains an in¬ 
finite number of terms, except in the case where 
n is a positive integer. The equation is called 
the binomial theorem. It was discovered by 
Sir Isaac Newton, but its correctness was not 
proved by him. One of the simplest of its 
countless applications is its application to the 
problem of finding correct to any required degree 
of approximation any real root of any real number. 
For example, suppose it is desired to know the 
real cube root of 25 correct to five decimal 
places. We may proceed as follows: 

25 =( 2 5 ) i = ( 2 7 - 2 ) i== ( 3 3 ~ 2 ) i = ( 3 3 ) i 

-K 3 3 ) _? ( 2 ) -£( 3 3 )~ S 22 -A( 3 3 )~ l23 -. • • 

2 4 4 ° 

3 ^ • 3 2 9.3 5 81 • 3 8 " " " " 2 • 92402. 

The Number e and the Series for e x .—If n be 
numerically greater than 1, the foregoing theo¬ 
rem yields the equations 


a 


1 —r 


For example, the sum of the infinite 


series, 1, i, . . • , is s = 




= 2 . 



Harmonical Progression. —An H.P. is a series 
of numbers such that the series of their recip¬ 
rocals is an A.P. Hence the typical H.P. is 

TXT T 

of the form 


*(*Hr) (*-£) 


4-... 


Hence 


a ’ a+d’ a + 2d’ * * * ’ a + (n — i)d' 
It is obvious that every problem involving an H.P. 
is convertible into a problem involving an A .P. 
If a and b be any two numbers, their arithmetic 
mean is a number c such that the series a, c, b 
is an A.P. Hence c — a = b—c, whence c = + b); 

i.e., the arithmetic mean of two numbers is half 


1 +1 +■ 


_L (r- 

n \ n) \ n f 

i _ P 


X 


+ . . 
































ALGEBRA 


This equation is valid for every value of n 
numerically greater than i. The limits ap¬ 
proached by its members as n increases be¬ 
yond every finite value are equal; i.e., 


i i 
I +1 +-T 

2 ! 3 ! 


X x 3 X 3 

— i +x H——. H-•. +. . . . 

2 ! 3! 


The series on the right is convergent for every 
finite value of x\ in fact, for any given value 
of x, the series after a certain number of terms 
converges more rapidly than any decreasing 
G.P. The series on the left is a special case 
of that on the right, viz., x — i. The limit of 
the sum of the first n terms of the series on the 
left, i.e., its sum (to infinity) is denoted by e\ 
accordingly the equation may be written: 

x 2 x 3 

e x — 1 +x - 1 —- H—- + . . . The meaning is that the 

2! 3! 

number e raised to a power indicated by a given 
value of x is the sum to infinity of the series 

for that value of x. Since 0 = 1+1+^+—-; + . 

2! 3! 

its approximate value can be readily calculated. 
That value, correct to ten decimal places, is 
e = 2.7182818284. The number e , one of the 
most important of all numbers, is incommen¬ 
surable, i.e., not exactly expressible as a 
rational fraction, and it is transcendental, i.e., 
not a root of an equation ax n +bx n ~ 1 +. . . = o, 
where the coefficients a, b, . . . are integers (see 
General Theory of Assemblages). 

Logarithms .—Let a be any positive number 
greater than 1. If a x =N, x is named loga¬ 
rithm of N to the base a; symbolically, #=log a A 7 , 
or, if the base is supposed known, simply 
x = log N. If a be fixed, # and N will vary 
each with the other, each is a function of the 
other. Since a 0 = 1, log 1=0 no matter what 
the base. But in general the logarithm of a 
given number will vary with the base; thus, 
since 2*--=16, 4 2 = i 6 , log 2 i6=4, log 4 i6=2. The 
general connection can be readily found thus: 
let a x =N and b y =N, then log a A=# and log&/V 


y; 


also a x = b y , a = b x , log£>o 


_ y_ _ log&vV . 


x 


\og a N' 

whence lo gbN = log a N-\og a b. Calling a an old 
and b a new base, it is seen that the logarithm 
of a given number to a new base is equal to 
the product of the logarithm of the number to 
the old base and the logarithm of the new base 
to the old base. Let a x =N, a?=M, then 
a*+y = NM ; hence the logarithm of a product 
is the sum of the logarithms of the factors. 
Again, (a x ) K =N K =a KX ; whence it is seen that 
the logarithm ot the /cth power of a number is k 
times the logarithm of the number. Once more, 


a 


— = a x ~y ; that is, the logarithm of a fraction is 


equal to that of the numerator minus that of the 
denominator. Logarithms to the base 10 are 
called common logarithms or Briggsian logarithms, 
after Briggs, who introduced them in 1615. 
These are used in practical computation, but 
in theoretical work logarithms are referred to 
the number e, the Napierian base, so called after 
Napier (1550-1617), the inventor of logarithms. 

Let N be any number and n any positive in¬ 
teger. Then log 10 (AL io n ) =lo g 10 N +n log 10 io =n 
+ log 10 A; and log, 0 (A' io») = log 10 iV - wlog 10 io 
= — n+log 10 Ak Now multiplication or division 
by a power of 10 has only the. effect of moving 
the decimal point, while the logarithm of the 
product, as just seen, is equal to that of the 


multiplicand (or dividend) increased (or de¬ 
creased) by an integer. Accordingly, if two 
numbers differ only in the position of the decimal 
point, their logarithms differ only in respect to 
the integral part (called the characteristic), the 
fractional part (called the mantissa) being the 
same in both. In that fact resides the chief 
practical advantage of the Briggsian system. 
For example, if log 10 2.23 = .3483, it follows 
that log 10 22.3 = 1.3483; and_ log 10 .00223 =log ]0 
(2.23 -Fio 3 ) = -3 +.3483, or 3.3483, as negative 
characteristics are often written. It is easy to 
see that the characteristic of a logarithm is + n 
if the number has n + i figures before the deci¬ 
mal point, and is — n if the number is a pure 
decimal in which the point is followed by n—i 
zeros. Thus, log 10 235o6.c>54 =4 + a pure decimal, 
and log 10 .0008953 =4 +a pure decimal. 

Exponential and LogarithmSeries, Calcula¬ 
tion of Logarithms. —On replacing x in the series 
for e x by x log e a, there results the exponential 

series, a x = 1 + (lo g e a)x + (log c a) 2 '^- +. . . In this 


replace x by y and a by 1 +x. The result is, 
(1 +x)y = 1 +y log e (i +x) + . . . Also, if x be 
numerically less than 1, the binomial theorem 
gives (1-\-x)v = 1+yx +. . . These series being 
equal for all values of y, the coefficients of like 
powers of y are equal (see Undetermined Coeffi¬ 
cients, below). Hence, for x<i numerically, 

OC^ X^ X^ 

loge( i +x) =x— + '—— 1 -{---. . . , the loga- 

2 3.4 5 

ritlimic series. Replacing # by —x, log e (i —x) 

/y 2 /y 3 /v-4 /y5 

= -*. . The logarithmic 
- 3 4 d 

series converges slowly for all but small values 
of x. It is on that account ill adapted to the 
computation of Napierian logarithms. A series 
better adapted to such calculation is, however, 
readily obtained as follows: From the last two se 

ries it follows that log e -- -= 2 [x ~\ -b — + ...). 

1 -x \ 3 5 / 


m — n J , 1 x m ,, 

Put x = —— , so that -= —, then 

m+n 1 —x n 



m — n 
m + n 




a rapidly converging series that may be used for 
the calculation of logarithms as follows. For 
m = 2 and n = i, we get log e 2 = o+ 2j^+^(^) 3 + .. {. 
whence log e 2 = .693147 (correct to six decimal 
places). For m = 3 and n'= 2, the series gives 
lo ge3 = loge 2 + 2 ii+Hi) 3 -K • • I =1.098612. Tak¬ 
ing m = 5 and *£ = 3, it is found that log e 5 = 
1.609438 Then log e 4 = 2 log e 2, log e 6=log e 2 
+ log e 3, log e 8 =3 loge2. and so on. In particular 
logeio =log e 2+loge5 = 2.302585. Since log, 0 ,V 
= (logeAO(logeio), it is seen that the common 
logarithm of any number may be found from 
the Napierian logarithm of that number by 
multiplying the latter logarithm by 2.302585. 
This last is called the modulus of common loga¬ 
rithms. It is obviously possible to calculate 
logarithms that shall be correct to any pre¬ 
scribed number of decimal places. Logarithms 
correct to 3 or 4 places are sufficiently accu¬ 
rate for all ordinary computations, though 
tables correct to 5, 6, 7 and even 10 or more 
places are often employed By means of any 
such table can be found the logarithm of any 
given number, and conversely The number 
corresponding to a given logarithm is often called 
the antilogarithm. The advantage of loga- 










ALGEBRA 


rithraic over ordinary computation is easily 
seen. Thus to find the product of two or more 
numbers, it suffices to add their logarithms and 
then to take the antilogarithm of the sum. To 
extract any root, say the 7th, of any number, 
it suffices to divide the logarithm of the number 
by 7 and to take the antilogarithm of the quo¬ 
tient. To find the quotient of two numbers, 
it suffices to subtract the logarithm of the divisor 
from that of the dividend and to take the anti¬ 
logarithm of the difference. The cologarithm of 
a number is the logarithm of the reciprocal; 

thus, colog n=log — = log 1 — log n — o — log n; 

n 

hence to subtract a logarithm is equivalent to 
adding the corresponding cologarithm. 

Undetermined Coefficients. — Reference was 
made above to this subject, of which some 
account will now be given. Let f{x)=aQ. r n 
+ a x x n ~ 1 + a 2 x n ~ 2 +. . . +a n _^ + a n , a rational in¬ 
tegral function of degree n in x. It can be proved 
and is here assumed that any such function 
vanishes for some value of the variable. If 
f(rf) =0, then, by the factor theorem, f{x) 
ss{x—rf)f'{x), where f'{x)=a oV n-1 +... If 

f'{r 2 ) = o, then f'{x) = {x — r 2 )f"{x), where 
f"{x) —a ^ 71 - 2 +. . . , and hence f(x) = (x — rf) 
{x — r 2 )f"{x). By the argument here exemplified 
it is proved that f(x) may be put in the form 
f{x) = a 0 (x — rf) {x — r 2 ) . . . {x — r n ). Each of the 
n numbers r,, r 2 , . . . , r n causes f{x) to vanish; 
hence the n numbers are roots of the equation 
f{x) =0. It can be easily seen that the equation 
f{x) = o cannot have more than n different roots 
unless its coefficients are each zero; that is, f{x) 
cannot vanish for more than n different values of 
x unless a 0 = a x = . . . = a n = o. For if f{r n+ f) = o, 
then o 0 ( r »i+i ^1) (^"ti+i ^2) • • • ^n) 

but by hypothesis no ( )=o, hence a 0 = o, and 
f{x)=a 1 x n ~ 1 As the latter is to vanish 
for more than n — 1 values of x, a x = o . In like 
manner it would follow that a 2 = o, . . . , a n =o. 
But if the coefficients are each zero, f{x) van¬ 
ishes for every value of x. If f{x) vanishes for 
more than n values of x, it vanishes for all 
values of x. Now suppose that a^c n + a 1 x n ~ l 
+. . . + a n is to be equal to 6 0 v n + b l x n ~ 1 +. . . + b n 
for all values of x, then the function (a 0 — b 0 )x n 
+ (a 1 — bf)x n ~ l + . . . +(a» — h n ) must vanish for 
every value of x, and, consequently, o 0 = 6 0 , 
a i= 6 . . . , a n = b n . Hence two rational inte¬ 
gral functions of degree n in x are equal for all 
values of v, i.e., are identical , when and only when 
the coefficients of like powers of x are equal. 
This proposition enables us to solve many prob¬ 
lems involving the determination of undetermined 
coefficients . For example, suppose it required to 
find the sum of the squares of the first n integers. 
Assume the identity i 2 + 2 2 +...-f(w — i)"+n 2 
= a 4. b n 4. cn t + dn 3 + en 4 + fn h +. . . , where the 
coefficients a, b, . . . are to be determined. Re¬ 
placing n by n + i, we obtain i 2 +2 2 +. . .+n 2 
4- (n + i) 2 = a + b{n + 1 ) + c{n + i) 2 + d{n + i) 3 
-f- e(n 1) 4 4-. . . By subtracting corresponding 
members of the identities, there results the iden¬ 
tity n 2 + 2 n + 1 = 6+ 2 cn + c + 3 dn 2 + 3 dn + d 
+ 4en 3 + 6 en 2 +4en + e +. . . As this relation is 
to be valid for every value of n, coefficients of 
like powers of n must be equal. Hence e = o, 
f = 0, . . . , 1 — 2 >d> 2 = 3d + 2 C, 1 = b +c +d; hence 
b=i, c = h, d=%. Accordingly, i 2 + 2 2 +...+ 
( n _ 1 y +n 2 = a +$n + %n 2 +$n 3 , true for every 

value of n, hence for n — 1, and hence a — o. 
Therefore i 2 + 2 2 + . . . +n 2 =jn(n + i)(2n + i). 

Vol. 1—19- 


Part-fractions. —The so-called principle of un¬ 
determined coefficients has frequent application 
in the solution of the problem, to decompose a 
given fraction into part-fractions (commonly 
called partial fractions) whose sum shall be the 
given fraction. Any fraction whose terms are 
rational integral functions of x may be thus de¬ 
composed. The method of procedure may be 
made sufficiently clear by a few examples. 
It will be observed that the problem is in a sense 
the inverse of the problem of summing fractions. 

2 cj 

For example, the sum of — , 


x 


is 


x+4 


or 


3(i -x)' 

x + 4 


and 


— 1 


2X — x 2 — x 3 x(i—x)(2+x)' 


3(2 +x) 
The inverse 


problem is: given the latter fraction, to find 
its components. It is plain that the only frac¬ 
tions whose denominators are linear and whose 
sum is a fraction of the proper denominator and a 

linear numerator are —,-, and-. Hence 

x 1 —x 2 +x 


we assume : 


x+4 


2X —X i 


a 

3 = I— 

X s X 1 


H-, whence 


■x 2 +x 


x + 4 =a( 1 — x)(2 +x) +bx(2 +x) +cx( 1 —x), 

which is to be valid for all values of x. Expand¬ 
ing the right-hand member and equating corre¬ 
sponding coefficients on right and left, we obtain: 
4 = 2a, 1 = — a + 2b + c } o=— a+b— c; whence 

a = 2, c=~ and the component frac- 

tions are seen to be —, , ■ -7—;—r. For 

x 3C 1 -*) 3( 2 + x ) 

^•^2 _|_ — J 

another example, we may take F — ^ _+ i 7 2 (v + 2) ' 

A little reflection suffices to show that the assump- 

, . _ a b c 

tion to be made is b =- V —:—r* 

x — I \X— 1) KX+2) 

Then 4V 2 + $x — 1 = a(x — i) 2 + b(x — i)(^ + 2) 
+ c(x + 2); equating coefficients and solving the 
resulting equations, it is found that a = i, 6=3, 
c = 2. In case a factor of the given denominator 

is repeated k times, as in (mx+ fy (px+q y the 

assumption to be made is: given fraction 


a. 


+ 


a n 


mx+ n ' ( mx+n ) 2 
If A' is of the form 


+ . .. + 


a k 


+ 


(mx + n) K ( px+q )* 

N 


then assume F = 
ax +b 

+ 


(mx 2 +nx +l) K (px +q) s (gx + h) ’ 

ax+b ax + b 

+ 7 -•> . . + •■ 


mx 2 +nx+l ' ( mx 2 +nx+l ) 2 

„ + etc., as before. If N is of 

{mx 2 +nx + l) K 

degree equal to or higher than that of the 
given denominator, F is converted by division 
into an integral function + a fraction the degree 
of whose denominator exceeds that of its numera¬ 
tor. The latter fraction is then decomposed 
by the methods above indicated. 

Indeterminate {Undetermined, Evanescent, Illit- 

f{x ) 

sory) Forms. —In case of a fraction, (f{x ) = , 

it may happen that both terms vanish for some 

value of x, as x=a, yielding the form which, 

as division by zero is meaningless, is itself with¬ 
out meaning and is commonly called indetermi¬ 
nate. In such case we are free (logically) to 
give the form a meaning, any meaning or value 
whatever. But while all meanings (values) 
are allowable, not all are expedient. For ex- 



























ALGEBRA, HISTORY OF THE ELEMENTS OF 


x — a 

ample, - has a definite value for every 

x — a 

.ar-value except x — a. For this value the frac- 

o 

tion takes the form To this we might assign 

o 

the value of 5 or — 3, or any other. But such a 

choice would be motiveless. On the other hand, 

2 2 
x —a 

- — x ; + a for all values of x except a; 

x — a 

for this critical value a , the right member takes 
a definite value, 2 a, which is accordingly sug¬ 
gested as the value to be naturally assigned to 
the indeterminate form in this case. The de¬ 
cisive motive for this choice lies yet deeper: it 
is that as jt varies through a sequence of values, 
say ci —J— a -j- ci | 3>. .., having a . as limit, 
the corresponding sequence of fraction-values, 
2 a+b 20-t-i, 20 + !, approaches 2a as 

limit. Accordingly, if <P(x) assumes the form 
o 

- for x = a, the value assigned to 0(a) is the 

o . 

limit value which the sequence of fraction-val¬ 
ues approaches as x approaches a through any 
sequence of .r-values for each of which 0(.r) 
has a definite value. The fraction <P(x) may be 
such that as ;r approaches a, f(x ) approaches 
a definite value other than zero and that F(x) 

x — a + 4 

approaches zero. Such a fraction is - . 

x — a 

In such case the fraction-value obviously be¬ 
comes larger and larger, surpassing every pre¬ 
scribed number, a fact commonly expressed by 
saying that as approaches a, 4>{x) approaches 
positive or negative infinity (00 or — 00) accord¬ 
ing as the numbers in the fraction sequence are 
positive or negative. If, as x approaches a, 
both f(x ) and F(x) approach 00, then, for 

CO 

x — a , <P(x) assumes the indeterminate form —. 

00 

o 

But it may be made to take the form -, since 

o 

f {x) + F(x)=(i + F(x)) + (i-*-f(x)) Other 
indeterminate forms also reducible to the form 
o 

are 0.00, 00.0, 00—00, oo°,o°°. For further 
0 

treatment see Calculus. 

The boundary of what is or should be called 
elementary algebra is ill defined alike in theory 
and in practice, and beside the topics dealt 
with in this article other subjects are briefly 
treated in some of the elementary text-books. 
Of such additional subjects, the more important, 
as chance or probability, the complex variable, 
and theory of numbers , series , and others, are 
subjects of special articles in this work. Rela¬ 
tively meager, merely introductory, text-books 
of algebra are sometimes quite absurdly de¬ 
scribed in their titles as (( complete,® and others 
that might be called advanced are improperly 
characterized as (( higher.® The better usage 
has appropriated the term higher algebra to 
the doctrine of invariants and covariants (q.v.). 

Bibliography. —Text-books of elementary al¬ 
gebra, good, bad, and indifferent, are very nu¬ 
merous. The most scientific work on the subject 


is that by Weber and Wellstein: <Elementare 
Algebra und Analysis.* The most comprehen¬ 
sive elementary English text-book is Chrystal’s 
( Algebra^ 2 vols. Cassius J. Keyser, 

Professor of Mathematics, Columbia University. 

Algebra, History of the Elements of. 

Taking the definition of algebra as given in the 
article under that title (q.v.), the history of the 
subject goes back to the early Egyptians. In a 
certain hieratic papyrus now in the British 
Museum, copied by one Ahmes ( Aahmesu, the 
moon-born), about 1700 b.c., from a work writ¬ 
ten some centuries earlier, several traces of alge¬ 
bra appear. There are symbols for addition, 
subtraction, and equality, and eleven examples 
of linear equations with one unknown quantity 
are given. The unknown quantity is called hau, 
or heap, the first example involving an equation 
being (< Heap, its seventh, its whole, it makes 

x 

nineteen® that is, ——f- x = 19 . A number of 


applied problems are also given, and Ahmes 
shows some familiarity with arithmetic and geo¬ 
metric progressions. Such was the stagnation of 
the later Egyptians, however, that algebra never 
advanced beyond this point, on the banks of the 
Nile, at least until Greek influence established 
the famous school of Alexandria. 

The Greek mind turned to the science of 
form rather than to that of number (see Geom¬ 
etry, History of the Elements of), and con¬ 
sequently but few evidences of algebra are found 
in Greece during the golden age of philosophy. 
Whenever a need for algebra is met it is always 
for the solution of some geometric problem, and 
whenever a solution is effected it is usually by 
some device involving geometry. One of the 
earliest evidences of an algebraic symbolism is 
seen in a problem of Aristotle’s, in which he 
represents quantities by means of letters, letting 
A stand for the moving force, B for that by 
which it is moved, T for the distance, A for the 
time, and so on. About the same time Hippoc¬ 
rates (q.v.) called the square of a number 
divans (power), from which the Latins de¬ 
rived the name potentia, which appears in our 
language as poiver. Euclid (q.v.), c. 300 b.c., 
proved geometrically certain fundamental laws 
of algebra, such as a(b + c)= ab + ac, ( a + b) 2 
= a 2 + 2ab + b 2 , (a — b) 2 = d* — 2 ab + b 2 , and 
( a~\~b)(a — b) — a 2 — b 2 . The equation of 
the second degree was also known to the 
Greeks, and they were able to solve the general 
case by the aid of proportion. Archimedes 
(q.v.) is even said to have solved one case of 
the cubic, and he undoubtedly knew a consider¬ 
able amount about series. 

It was not, however, until the time of 
Diophantus (q.v.), c. 300 a.d., that Greek alge¬ 
bra attained any standing as a separate science. 
This great mathematical genius improved the 
symbolism, divorced the subject from geometry, 
and created the ancient science of indeterminate 
equations, a science called in his honor <( Dio- 
phantine Analysis.® 

For reasons above suggested, algebra flour¬ 
ished more naturally in the Orient than in 
Greece. The first Hindu, algebraist of any im¬ 
portance was Aryabhata, who was born at Pa- 
taliputra, on the Upper Ganges, in 476 a.d. Part 
of his <( Aryabhattiyam® is devoted to algebra, 
and covers the fundamental operations, rules for 





ALGECIRAS 


square and cube roots, progressions, permuta¬ 
tions, equations of the first and second degrees 
with one unknown quantity, and some treatment 
of indeterminate equations. Aryabhata differs 
from Diophantus in that he considers algebra 
from a broader standpoint, treating it rather as 
a theory of elementary functions than as the 
science of a particular form of the equation. 

The next great algebraist in the East was 
A 1 Khowarazmi (q.v.), c. 800 a.d., so called 
from his birthplace, Kharazm, the territory of 
the modern Khiva. With him algebra takes a 
still different meaning. It is no longer the 
theory of indeterminate equations of Diophantus, 
nor is it chiefly the theory of elementary func¬ 
tions of Aryabhata, but it becomes primarily the 
general theory of equations. Indeed the title 
of his work ( ilm al-jabr wa’ 1 muqabalah,* 
means the science of redintegration and equation, 
a title from which only the words al-jabr have 
survived, giving the accidental name of algebra 
to the subject. A 1 Khowarazmi solved three 
types of the quadratic, in modern symbolism 
x 2 + ax = b, x 2 — ax— b, x 2 + b = ax, thus 
showing his inability to generalize, a failing 
with all writers before the 17th century. 

It was two centuries before another writer 
of prominence appeared. About 1010 a.d., A 1 
Karchi, like A 1 Khowarazmi of the Bagdad 
school, wrote a treatise in which he shows famil¬ 
iarity with the works of his predecessors rather 
than great genius himself. Like many of the 
older writers, he gives attention to those rules 
for approximating roots, so necessary before the 
time of decimal fractions. Stated in modern 
symbolism his rule for square root is Ya = 

a — w 2 _ 10—9 

w +-; that is, VTo = 3 +-— 3 t> 

2 w- f-1 6+1 

whence V10 was often used forw. He also gives 


the rule Vo + b ± V4 ab = Vo ± Vb, and a rule 
for S n 3 . 

In the 12th century two Oriental writers 
of prominence appear, Omar Khayyam (q.v.) the 
Persian, who died in 1123, and Bhaskara the 
Hindu, who was born in 1114. Omar solved one 
case of the cubic, and was the first to treat 
equations above the second degree in a sys¬ 
tematic manner. The binomial theorem with 
positive integral exponents was also known to 
him. His algebra, published in Paris both in 
Arabic and in French, made Omar known in 
the West as an algebraist some time before 
FitzGerald made him celebrated as a poet. 

Bhaskara wrote on both arithmetic and alge¬ 
bra, and his work has long been known in 
Europe through Colebrook’s English translation. 
Among the features of his algebra is the state- 
a 

ment that —=00, and the solution of the quad- 
o 

ratic by the reduction of ax 2 + bx + c — o to 
the form {2ax -\-b) 2 ~ — 4 ac ~\~ b 2 , a device 
known in England as the Hindu Method. 

The rise of modern elementary algebra took 
place in Italy in the 16th century. It was 
at this time that the cubic was solved by Tar- 
taglia (q.v.), the publication being made by 
Gardan (q.v.) in his Ars Magna in 1545 - The 
solution of the quartic soon followed, after which 
the quintic occupied the attention of algebraists 
until its solution was proved to be impossible by 


the operations of elementary algebra, in the 
19th century. A common name for algebra 
at this time was <( L’arte maggiore® (the greater 
art, whence the Latin title of Cardan’s treatise), 
arithmetic being called by contrast (( L’arte me- 
nore® (the lesser art). The unknown quantity 
was called, in Latin, res, whence the Italian 
translation cosa (thing). On this account the 
science was called the Coss in the early German 
schools, and the name (( Cossic Art® was not un¬ 
common among the English writers of about 
1600. The mere processes and solutions of ele¬ 
mentary algebra were fairly perfected by the 
close of the 16th century, and little besides 
the symbolism was needed to make the subject 
what it is to-day. 

The title of Father of modern elementary 
algebra is frequently given to Vieta (q.v.). He 
was the first to devise a systematic and fairly 
satisfactory scheme of literal notation, using 
vowels for the unknown quantities and con¬ 
sonants for the knowns. For example, he used 
A where we use x, Aq (A quadratics) for our 
x 2 , Ac for x 3 , Aqq for x*, and so on. He also 
recognized that a letter may represent both a 
positive and a negative number, and both an 
integer and a fraction, a generalization not rec¬ 
ognized by his predecessors, and one that was 
perfected later by Descartes. Vieta was also 
the first to recognize the advantage of making 
the second member zero in considering an equa¬ 
tion. His work greatly influenced the English 
algebra as set forth by Harriot (q.v.), who ac¬ 
knowledged his indebtedness to him. Mention 
should also be made of the work of Clavius, who 
did much to meet the demand for a usable text¬ 
book at this period. 

The final touch was put upon the elementary 
science by Descartes (q.v.), who suggested and 
used our modern literal notation, and who per¬ 
fected the generalizations begun by Vieta. His 
introduction of the graphic treatment of equa¬ 
tions not only revolutionized mathematics in 
general, but materially assisted in the under¬ 
standing of the elements. 

Since Descartes’s time there have been cer¬ 
tain improvements in the symbolism of elemen¬ 
tary algebra, the theory of approximate solutions 
of numerical higher equations has been created, 
chiefly through the efforts of Newton, Euler, 
and Horner (qq.v.), the binomial theorem has 
been generalized for negative and fractional ex* 
ponents, principally by the labors of Newton, 
the theory and the symbolism of determinants 
(q.v.) have been developed, the various number 
systems met in algebra (notably the complex 
number) have been placed upon a scientific basis, 
and in general the foundation theories of the 
science have been greatly strengthened. 

Bibliography .—Eisenlohr, ( Ein mathemat- 
isches Handbuch der alten EgypteH (Leipsic 
1877) ; Heath, ( Diophantos ) (Cambridge 1885) ; 
Matthiessen, ( Grundziige der antiken und mod- 
ernen Algebra der litteralen Gleichungen ) 
(Leipsic 1878) ; Cantor, ( Geschichte der Mathe- 
matiks ) (Leipsic 1880-98, various editions). 

David Eugene Smith, 

Professor of Mathematics, Teachers College, 

Columbia University, New York. 

Algeciras, or Algesiras, a seaport of Spain, 
on the west side of the Bay of Gibraltar, and 
7 m. N.W. of Europa Point. The old town, 
once possessed of great strength, but now in 









ALGER— ALGERIA 


ruins, stood on the Isla Verde; the modern 
town stands on the mainland, on an acclivity ris¬ 
ing rapidly from the shore, and though un¬ 
walled is defended by a fort. A brisk coasting- 
trade is carried on by the inhabitants. Near 
Algeciras were fought two naval engagements 
in July, 1801. In the first the English admiral 
Saumarez failed in an attack on the French 
fleet, which was strongly posted in the bay 
under the protection of the batteries on shore 
(6 July), but in the second he defeated the com¬ 
bined French and Spanish fleets (12 July). 
Pop. 13,000. See Morocco, History. 

Alger, Cyrus, an American inventor: b. 
West Bridgewater, Mass., 11 Nov. 1781; d. 
Boston, 4 Feb. 1856. He learned the iron foun¬ 
dry business, and in 1809 established himself in 
South Boston, where he soon made himself 
widely known by the excellence of the ordnance 
he manufactured. He supplied the United States 
government with a large quantity of cannon¬ 
balls during the War of 1812; produced the 
first gun ever rifled in America, as well as 
the first perfect bronze cannon; and supervised 
the casting of a mortar which was the largest 
gun of cast-iron that had then been made in 
the United States. Subsequently lie made im¬ 
provements in the construction of time fuses 
for bomb-shells and grenades; patented a meth¬ 
od of making cast-iron chilled rolls; and was the 
original designer of the cylinder stove. 

Alger, Horatio, an American writer of ju¬ 
venile books: b. Revere, Mass., 13 Jan. 1834; d. 
Natick, Mass., 18 July 1899. He graduated at 
Harvard in 1852, settled in New York in 1866, and 
became interested in the condition of self-sup¬ 
porting boys, described in his series of more than 
50 books, including ( Ragged Dick,* ( Tattered 
Tom) ( Luck and Plucky which became very 
popular. Other works: ( Nothing to Do: A 
Tilt at Our Best Society,* a poem (1857) ; 
< Helen Ford,* a novel (i860) ; a series of ju¬ 
venile biographies of Webster, Lincoln, Garfield, 
etc.; and ( The Young Salesman* (1896). 

Alger, Russell Alexander, an American 
merchant, capitalist, and politician: b. Lafayette, 
O., 27 Feb. 1836; d. Washington, D. C., 24 Jan. 
1907. He served in the Civil War, rising from 
a captaincy to the rank of brevet major-general 
of volunteers. He was governor of Michigan 
from 1885 to 1887; a candidate for the Repub¬ 
lican presidential nomination in 1888; com¬ 
mander-in-chief of the Grand Army of the Re¬ 
public (1889-90) ; and became secretary of 
war in President McKinley’s cabinet in 1897. 
Almost from the beginning of the Spanish- 
American war of 1898 he was the object of 
much public censure for alleged shortcomings 
in the various bureaus in his department, and 
this pressure became so strong and widespread 
that he resigned his office in 1899 after an in¬ 
vestigation committee had exonerated him. 
From 27 Sept. 1902 till his death he was sena¬ 
tor from Michigan. In 1901 he published ( The 
Spanish-American War.> 

Alger, William Rounseville, Unitarian 
clergyman: b. Freetown, Mass., 30 Dec. 1822; d. 
Boston, Mass., 7 Feb. 1905. Graduated at Har¬ 
vard Theological School 1847; filled pastorates in 
Roxbury, Mass., Boston; New York, Denver, 
Chicago, Portland, Me. Works: ( Poetry of 
the Orient* (1856) ; ( Critical History of the 
Doctrine of a Future Life ) (1861) ; ( Genius of 


Solitude* (1861); < Friendships of Women * 

(1867); ( Life of Edwin Forrest* (2 vols. 

1878) ; ( Symbolic History of the Cross > 

(1881). 

Alge'ria, a French colony in north Africa, 
having on the north the Mediterranean, on the 
east Tunis, on the west Morocco, and on 
the south (where the boundary is ill-defined) the 
Desert of Sahara; area, 122,878 sq. m., or in¬ 
cluding the Algerian Sahara, 257,000. The 
country is divided into three departments — Al¬ 
giers, Oran, and Constantine. 1 he coast-line is 
about 550 m. in length, steep and rocky, and 
though the indentations are numerous the har¬ 
bors are much exposed to the north wind. The 
country is traversed by the Atlas Mountains, 
two chains of which — the Great Atlas, border¬ 
ing on the Sahara, and the Little, or Maritime 
Atlas, between it and the sea — run parallel to 
the coast, the former attaining a height of 7,000 
feet. The intervals are filled with lower ranges, 
and numerous transverse ranges connect the 
principal ones and run from them to the coast, 
forming elevated table-lands and enclosed val¬ 
leys. The rivers are numerous, but many of 
them are mere torrents rising in the mountains 
near the coast. The Shelif is much the largest. 
Some of the rivers are largely used for irriga¬ 
tion, and artesian wells have been sunk in some 
places for the same purpose. There are, both 
on the coast and in the interior, extensive salt 
lakes or marshes ( shotts ), which dry up to a 
great extent in summer. The country border¬ 
ing on the coast, called the Tell, is generally 
hilly, with fertile valleys; in some places a flat 
and fertile plain extends between the hills and 
the sea. In the east there are shotts that sink 
below the sea-level, and into these it has been 
proposed to introduce the waters of the Medi¬ 
terranean. The climate varies considerably ac¬ 
cording to elevation and local peculiarities. There 
are three seasons: winter from November to 
February, spring from March to June, and sum¬ 
mer from July to October. The summer is very 
hot and dry. In many parts of the coast the 
temperature is moderate and the climate so 
healthy that Algeria is now a winter resort for 
invalids. 

The chief products of cultivation are wheat, 
barley, and oats, tobacco, cotton, wine, silk, and 
dat^s. Early vegetables, especially potatoes and 
pease, are exported to France and England. A 
fibre called alfa, a variety of esparto, which 
grows wild on the high plateaus, is exported in 
larg; quantities. Cork is also exported. There 
are valuable forests, in which grow various sorts 
of pines and oaks, ash, cedar, myrtle, pistachio- 
nut, mastic, carob, etc. The Australian Eu¬ 
calyptus globulus (a gum-tree) has been suc¬ 
cessfully introduced. Agriculture often suffers 
much from the ravages of locusts. Among wild 
animals are the lion, panther, hyrena, and jackal; 
the domestic quadrupeds include the horse, the 
mule, cattle, sheep, and pigs (introduced by the 
French). Algeria possesses valuable minerals, 
including iron, copper, lead, sulphur, zinc, anti¬ 
mony, marble (white and red), phosphate, and 
lithographic stone. 

The trade of Algeria has greatly increased 
under French rule, France, Spain, and England 
being the countries with which it is principally 
carried on, and three fourths of the whole being 
with France. The exports (besides those men- 


ALGHERO —ALGOA BAY 


tioncd above) are olive oil, raw hides, wood, 
wool, tobacco, oranges, etc.; the imports, man¬ 
ufactured goods, wines, spirits, coffee, etc. The 
manufacturing industries are unimportant, and 
include morocco leather, carpets, muslins, 
and silks. French money, weights, and measures 
are generally used. The chief towns are Al¬ 
giers, Oran, Constantine, Bona, and Tlemcen. 
There are about 2,000 miles of railways opened; 
there is also a considerable network of telegraph 
lines. 

The two principal native races inhabiting Al¬ 
geria are Arabs and Berbers. The former are 
mostly nomads, dwelling in tents and wandering 
from place to place, though a large number of 
them are settled in the Tell, where they carry 
on agriculture and have formed numerous vil¬ 
lages. The Berbers, here called Kabyles, are 
the original inhabitants of the territory and still 
form a considerable part of the population. 
They speak the Berber language, but use Arabic 
characters in writing. The Jews form a small 
but influential part of the population. Various 
other races also exist. Except the Jews all the 
native races are Mohammedans. There are now 
a considerable number of French and other col¬ 
onists, provision being made for granting them 
concessions of land on certain conditions. There 
are over 260,000 colonists of French origin 
in Algeria, and over 200,000 colonists natives of 
other European countries (chiefly Spaniards and 
Italians). Algeria is governed by a governor- 
general, who is assisted by a council appointed 
by the French government. The settled portion 
of the country, in the three departments of Al¬ 
giers, Constantine, and Oran, is treated much 
as if it were a part of France, and each depart¬ 
ment sends two deputies and one senator to the 
French chambers. The rest of the territory is 
under military rule. The colony costs France 
a considerable sum every year. Pop. (1902) 
estimated about 4,500,000. 

Industries .— The wine business at the pres¬ 
ent day constitutes the largest industry in Al¬ 
geria. Until very recently it had been going up 
by leaps and bounds, many large fortunes hav¬ 
ing been made. During 1900 and 1901, how¬ 
ever, the price of wine steadily decreased on 
account of the abnormal yield in France, and 
great losses were consequently incurred by those 
who were forced to dispose of their vintage. 
In 1902, the crops in France having been great¬ 
ly damaged by late frosts, wet, and severe 
hailstorms, the wine-growers partially recouped 
their losses. The amount of wine exported 
from Algeria during 1897 was 781,558 gal¬ 
lons; in 1898, 796,049 gallons; in 1899, 945,- 
879 gallons; and in 1900, 549,131 gallons. The 
other principal products are alfa, cereals, cork, 
vegetable hair, locust beans, olive oil, fruits, and 
vegetables, and Italian pastes. The area which 
alfa occupies in the three departments of Alge¬ 
ria is estimated at more than 12,000,000 acres. 
The principal district, called the (( Alfa Sea,^ is 
210 miles by 95 miles and is bounded on the 
N. by the Tell, on the W. by Morocco, on the 
S. by the mountains of Ksowes, and on the E. 
by the Hodna. The producing area is much 
greater than that actually cut; nevertheless, in 
order to prevent the loss which would result 
from bad working, the governor-general issued 
an order in 1888 limiting the cutting, sale, and 
export of alfa. The average production of an 


acre of alfa is estimated at 8 cwt. after drying 
and sorting. In 1900 Algeria exported 1,650,- 
235 cwt. of wheat, 1,188,153 cwt. of oats, 1,773,- 
569 cwt. of barley, and 27,496 cwt. of maize. 
The barley is much in demand in Europe for 
malting purposes. Algeria produces excellent 
hard wheat, giving a flour rich in gluten, and 
consequently very good for the manufacture of 
Italian pastes and semolina. This industry is 
annually increasing ; the existing works are en¬ 
larging and improving their machinery, modern 
methods of shop management are being intro¬ 
duced, and the output of the various establish¬ 
ments to-day rivals that of France and other 
countries. 

Consult: Wilkin, ( Among the Berbers of Al¬ 
geria •* ; Nugent, ( A Land of Mosques and 
Marabouts > ; Morell, ( Algeria y ; Playfair, ( The 
Scourge of Christendom.* 

Algerine War. See Barbary Powers, 
U. S. Treaties and Wars With the. 

Alghero, or Algheri, a fortified town and 
seaport on the W. side of the island of Sardi¬ 
nia, in the province of Sassari, and 17 m. 
S.W. of the town of that name. The port is 
not good, but 7 m. W. of it is Porto Conte, 
the best harbor in the island. The town is the 
seat of a bishop and possesses a handsome ca¬ 
thedral. The inhabitants are mainly employed 
in wine-growing and coral-fishing. Pop. 10,50c. 

Algiers (French, Alger), a city and sea¬ 
port on the Mediterranean, capital of the French 
colony of Algeria, is situated on the W. side 
of the Bay of Algiers. It stands on the slope of 
a hill facing the sea, from which its array 
of white houses, rising in the form of an am¬ 
phitheatre, presents an imposing appearance. 
The old town, which is the higher, has an 
Oriental aspect. Its crowning point is the Cas- 
bah, or ancient fortress of the deys, about 500 
feet above the sea. Its streets are narrow,, 
crooked, and dirty. The houses are strong, 
prison-like edifices, with iron-grated slits for 
windows, looking into central quadrangles en¬ 
tered by a low doorway. The modern town, 
which occupies the lower slope and spreads 
along the shore, is handsomely built, with broad 
streets adorned with arcades and having ele¬ 
gant squares. It contains the government build¬ 
ings, the barracks, the commercial warehouses, 
the residences of the governor-general and the 
government officials, and the superior courts of 
justice. The Place du Gouvernement and the 
Place Bresson here are the two chief squares of 
the city. The fine Boulevard de la Republique 
runs along the sea-front, overlooking the bay 
and harbor. Algiers is the seat of an arch¬ 
bishop. It has a cathedral and a number of 
churches (one of them being an English church) 
and mosques. There are schools of law, med¬ 
icine, science, and letters, and a lyceum; also 
a library and museum. It is defended by sea- 
batteries and other works. The French have 
been at great expense in improving the port 
and providing docks. Pop. about 100,000. 

Algoa Bay, a bay on the S.E. coast o{ 
Cape Colony, Africa; about 420 m. E. of the 
Cape of Good Hope. At its entrance, formed 
by Cape Woody on the N.E. and Cape Recife 
on the S.W., it has a width of 33 miles. Its 
shelter is very valuable, as there is no other 
refuge for ships during the N.W. gales. The 


ALGOL — ALHAMBRA 


usual anchorage is off Port Elizabeth, at the 
mouth of the Baakens, where there is now a 
large and increasing trade. 

Algol', a star in the constellation Perseus 
(head of Medusa), remarkable as a variable 
star, changing in brightness from the second 
to the fourth magnitude. 

Algo'ma, a district of Canada, on the N. 
side of Lake Superior, forming the N. W. 
portion of Ontario, rich in silver, copper, iron, 
etc. 

Algona, Iowa, city and county-seat of 
Kossuth County, on the Iowa Cent., Chicago & 
N. W., and Chicago, M. & St. P. R.R.’s about 
123 m. N. by W. of Des Moines, on a branch of 
the Des Moines River. The city has four banks, 
handsome public buildings, and flourishing man¬ 
ufactures of foundry and machine-shop products, 
wooden-ware, bricks and tiles. Pop. 3,000. 

Algonkian System, the name given in the 
United States to a great series of rocks that 
succeeds the basal system of the Archaean and 
is overlaid by the strata of the Palaeozic system. 
The rocks of the Algonkian system are devel¬ 
oped on an enormous scale in the Lake Su¬ 
perior region, where they comprise limestones, 
sandstones, quartzites, shales, slates, and schists, 
all more or less disturbed and bearing evidence 
of having been subjected to metamorphism. 
They also include dikes and beds of igneous 
rocks, and great copper and iron ore deposits, 
which are among the richest in the world. A 
few fossil remains have been found, but little 
is known as to the life conditions during the 
Algonkian period. 

Algonquian, or Algonkian Stock, a North 
American group once comprising forty or more 
separate languages, and embracing a larger area 
than any other on the continent, stretching in 
a solid block from Labrador to the Rockies and 
from Hudson’s Bay to Pamlico Sound and the 
Cumberland River at least, except the enclaves 
of Iroquois in and around New York State, 
and of Beothukan in Newfoundland. Outlying 
tribes were the Shawnee or Shawano to the 
south; and to the west the Cheyenne and Arapa¬ 
hoe, which clove their way through the heart of 
the Sioux across the Missouri and into the Black 
Hills region, and later to Colorado and Wy¬ 
oming, their advance westward being checked 
by the Shoshone group. They numbered sev¬ 
eral hundred tribes, or (( villages,® entirely in¬ 
dependent ; many in which several such villages 
were grouped together; and several confed¬ 
eracies of tribes united in a loose bond for 
mutual aggression or defense, though never with 
any real central government. The chief con¬ 
federacies were the Abnaki or Abenaki of 
Maine and New Brunswick; the Pennacook 
of New Hampshire, and the adjacent parts of 
Maine and Massachusetts; the Powhatan of 
Virginia and Maryland; the Illinois or Illini 
of that region and adjacent Wisconsin, Iowa, and 
Missouri; the Siksika (Blackfeet, etc.) of north¬ 
ern Montana and adjacent Canada; the Chey¬ 
enne and Arapahoe, already mentioned; and the 
Sac and Fox, first at the mouth of the Ottawa, 
then in northern Wisconsin. (See each title.) 
Of the individual tribes, the most important 
remaining were the Micmac, Amalecite, Massa- 
chuset, Wampanoag, Narraganset, Nipmuc, Pe- 
quot, Mohegan, Mohican, Metoac, and Wap- 


pinger on the North Atlantic coast; Munsi, 
Leni-Lenape or Delaware, Shawano, Nanticoke, 
Conoy, Mattamuskeet, on the South Atlantic 
coast; Nascapi, Montagnais, Algonquin, Ottawa, 
Muskegon, Cree, Ojibwa, Misisaga, Miami, 
Piankishaw, Kickapoo, Pottawotomi, Meno- 
mini, in the interior; and Atsina in the West. 
Tradition places the original home of all these 
tribes on the North Atlantic coast. 

From their being the first to come in contact 
with the English settlers, and the history of 
English settlement for two centuries being a 
steady record of fierce conflict with and bloody 
reprisals from and on them, more is known of 
their minor names and those of their great 
chiefs — Powhatan, Opechancanough, Philip, 
Pontiac, Tecumseh, Black Hawk, etc.— than of 
any others except the Iroquois, and their lan¬ 
guages are better studied. 

Constant wars with the English, French, and 
Dutch colonists depleted their numbers. Filled 
at first with the idea of freeing the soil from 
the whites, they afterward degenerated into 
mere mercenaries, fighting on either side for 
revenge or gain. After the War of 1812, in 
which they took the side of the British, the 
United States government resolved to send 
them as far west as possible. After 1840 few 
of them remained east of the Mississippi. In 
Canada they were not removed from their 
homes, but were limited as to territory. War 
and disease have thinned their number until 
only about 43,000 remain in the United States, 
and 38,000 in Canada; there are a few hundred 
refugees in Mexico. 

Algonquin (properly Algomekin, <( other- 

siders ®) a once powerful Indian tribe along 
the Ottawa River and Lake Nipissing, Canada. 
Decimated by the Iroquois, some of them with 
other Indian waifs took refuge along the Up¬ 
per Lakes and assumed the name of Ottawas 
(q.v.), bringing forth the greatest Indian of 
history, the mighty Pontiac (q.v.) ; others kept 
their name and were protected by the French 
in mission villages. It was French missionaries 
who discovered almost at their first coming 
that the Algonquin language was a type com¬ 
mon to what is now called the Algonquian stock. 
The chief body of the remaining tribe numbers 
nearly 1,000, in villages of Quebec and Onta¬ 
rio; about 250 more are confederated with the 
Iroquois at Gibson, Ont., and Lake of Two 
Mountains, Que. 

Alhama, a town of Spain, .on the Motril; 
25 m. S.W. of the town of Granada. This place 
is celebrated for its warm medicinal (sulphur) 
baths and drinking-waters, and also for its ro¬ 
mantic situation between craggy mountains. The 
principal bath was a Moorish edifice, the smaller 
was circular in form and probably a Roman 
erection. The town was thrown completely 
into ruins by an earthquake shock in 1884. 
Washington Irving, in his ( Chronicle of Gra¬ 
nada^ gives a spirited account of the taking of 
Alhama, (( the key of Granada,® from the Moors, 
by Rodrigo Ponce de Leon, Marquis of Cadiz’ 
in February 1482. 

Alhambra ( Kelat-al-hamrah , the red castle), 
the citadel of Granada when that city was one 
of the principal seats of the empire of the Moors 
in Spain. The wall which surrounded it still 
stands flanked by many towers, and has a cir- 



SECTION 'N PALACE—Alhambra 


















































































































































































































































































































































































































































































' 

















































































































ALHAMBRA —ALI BEY 


cnit of 2/ miles. Within it were included sev¬ 
eral important buildings, besides dwelling- 
houses ; but the building to which the celebrity of 
the site is due is the Alcazar, or royal palace 
of the kings of Granada, seated on the northern 
brow of a lofty eminence which commands a 
full view of the city of Granada, and, beyond 
it, of a charming country, bounded in the dis¬ 
tance by a line of hills. It is a place equally 
interesting to the artist, the antiquarian, and 
the historian. The erection of the greater part 
of the present building seems to have occupied 
almost the whole of the first half of the 14th 
century. It consists mainly of two oblong rec¬ 
tangular courts, the one (which was seriously 
damaged, if not ruined, by fire in Septem¬ 
ber 1890), called the court of the Fish-pond or 
of the Myrtles, 138 by 74 feet, and terminating 
at its northern end in an apartment 35 feet 
square, richly ornamented ; the other, called the 
Court of the Lions, 115 by 66 feet, and so 
named from the white marble fountain in the 
centre supported by twelve lions. An exact 
repetition of this court, on two thirds of the 
scale of the original, was made by Mr. Owen 
Jones in the Crystal Palace. It is surrounded 
by an arcade, with small pavilions at each end, 
consisting of 128 columns supporting arches of 
the most delicate and elaborate finish, still very 
perfect and retaining much of their original 
beauty. From the character of many of the 
arches in various portions of the palace they 
are most appropriately called stalactitic. They 
are formed on a peculiar system with plaster 
bricks of various forms in a manner universally 
adopted in the buildings of the Moors. The 
construction of the arches is remarkable for its 
simplicity. Over the columns, which are of 
white marble, and which were probably gilded, 
are brick piers carrying rough brick arches; 
above these tiles are placed diagonally, forming 
diamond-shaped open work, running through 
the thickness of the walls, and a brest-summer 
of timber supporting the weight above. To these 
rough arches are attached the various enrich¬ 
ments, and against the tiles are placed the per¬ 
forated plaster ornaments which give a singu¬ 
larly light appearance to the arches, and create 
very beautiful effects from the rays of light 
cast through the openings on the wall behind 
them. 

Alhambra, The, by Washington Irving. 
(1832. Revised, enlarged, and rearranged, 
1852.) This Spanish Sketch-Book grew out of 
the experiences and studies of Irving while an 
actual resident in the old royal palace of the 
Moors at Granada. Many of the forty sketches 
have their foundation only in the author’s fancy, 
but others are veritable history. 

Ali, a'le, cousin and son-in-law of Mo¬ 
hammed, the first of his converts, and the 
bravest and most faithful of his adherents; b. 
602; d. 661. He married Fatima, the daughter 
of the prophet, but after the death of Moham¬ 
med (632) his claims to the caliphate were set 
aside in favor successively of Abu-Bekr, Omar, 
and Othman. On the assassination of Othman, 
in 656 a.d., he became caliph, and after a series 
of struggles with his opponents, including Aye- 
sha, widow of Mohammed, finally lost his life 
by assassination at Kufa. A Mohammedan 
schism arose after his death, and has produced 


two sects. One sect, called the Shiites, put Ali 
on a level with Mohammed, and do not acknow¬ 
ledge the three caliphs who preceded Ali. They 
are regarded as heretics by the other sect, called 
Sunnites. The Maxims and Hymns of Ali are 
yet extant. See Caliph. 

Ali, pasha of Yanina, commonly styled 
Ali Pasha, a bold and able, but ferocious and 
utterly unscrupulous Albanian, b. 1741, son of an 
Albanian chief who was deprived of his terri¬ 
tories by rapacious neighbors. By his enterprise 
and success and entire want of scruple he got 
possession of more than his father had lost, 
making himself master of a large part of Al¬ 
bania, including Yanina, which the Porte sanc¬ 
tioned his holding, with the title of pasha. As 
a ruler he displayed excellent qualities, putting 
an end to brigandage and anarchy, making 
roads, and encouraging commerce. He extend¬ 
ed his sway by subduing the brave Suliotes of 
Epirus, whom he conquered in 1803 after a 
three years’ war. Aiming at independent sover¬ 
eignty, he intrigued alternately with England, 
France, and Russia. Latterly he was almost 
independent of the Porte, which at length de¬ 
termined to put an end to his power; and in 
1820 Sultan Mahmoud pronounced his deposi¬ 
tion. Ali resisted several pashas who were sent 
to carry out this decision, only surrendering at 
last in 1822 on receiving assurances that life and 
property should be granted him. Faith was not 
kept with him, however; he was killed and his 
head cut off and conveyed to Constantinople, 
while his treasures were seized by the Porte. 

Alias, in law, a term used to indicate the 
names under which a person who attempts to 
conceal his true name is ascertained to have 
passed during the successive stages of his ca¬ 
reer. An alias writ is a writ issued where one 
of the same kind has been issued before in the 
same cause. 

Ali Baba, the principal figure in the 
famous ( Arabian Nights’ Entertainments> tale 
of ( Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves.* He over¬ 
hears the thieves opening the door of their 
cavern by the use of the magic words <( Open 
sesame.® He does the same in their absence and 
appropriates as much of their wealth as he 
can carry. Cassim, his brother, enters the cave 
later, but having forgotten the magic word is 
presently found by the robbers and killed. They 
make an attempt to slay Ali Baba, but are de¬ 
feated by the slave Morgiana, who pours boiling 
oil in the jars in which the robbers are hidden. 

Ali Bey, a ruler of Egypt: b. in the Cau¬ 
casus in 1728, was taken to Cairo and sold as a 
slave, but having entered the force of the 
Mamelukes, and attained the first dignity among 
them, he succeeded in making himself virtually 
governor of Egypt. He now refused the custo¬ 
mary tribute to the Porte and coined money in 
his own name. In 1769 he took advantage of a 
war in which the Porte was then engaged with 
Russia, to endeavor to add Syria and Palestine 
to his Egyptian dominion, and in this he had 
almost succeeded when the defection of his 
own adopted son Mohammed Bey drove him 
from Egypt. Joining his ally Sheikh Daher in 
Syria, he still pursued his plans of conquest 
with remarkable success, till in 1773 he was 
induced to make the attempt to recover Egypt 
with insufficient means. In a battle near Cairo 


ALIBI —ALIEN AND SEDITION ACTS 


his army was completely defeated and he him¬ 
self taken prisoner, dying a few days afterward 
either of his wounds or by poison. 

Alibi, in law, a plea that the person ac¬ 
cused of having committed a crime was else¬ 
where at the time when the breach of the law 
occurred. If he substantiate this, he is said 
to prove an alibi. In Scotland the defendant 
must give notice of a special defense of alibi, 
stating where he was when the crime was com¬ 
mitted. In England and the United States this 
notice is not required. If the accused can make 
it appear that at the time when the crime 
charged is alleged to have been committed (it 
being of a nature to require his personal pres¬ 
ence) he was in another place, his innocence 
will be established, because of the obvious im¬ 
possibility of the same person being in two 
places at once. This species of defense is con¬ 
stantly resorted to in trials for crime. One 
of the principal rules in the application of this 
species of evidence is that the time relied on, 
and in which the value of the evidence mainly 
consists, must correspond closely with the time 
at or during which the offense is proved to have 
been committed. If, time having been fixed to a 
particular day, hour, and minute, the person 
accused can show that at that exact time he 
was in another place, his innocence is at once 
made apparent. 

Alicante, a seaport of Spain; capital of 
the province of Alicante; the ancient Lucentum. 
It is situated at the foot of a cliff 850 feet high, 
crowned by the fort of Santa Barbara. It has 
one of the best harbors on the Mediterranean, 
and carries on a considerable trade, exporting 
wine, fruit, esparto grass, etc. It was bom¬ 
barded in 1873 by two vessels sent out by Car¬ 
tagena insurgents. Prof. Freeman, the English 
historian, died here in 1892. An American 
consul has been stationed at Alicante for some 
years. Pop. (1900) 50,495- 

Alicata, or Licata, a-le-ka'ta, le-ka'ta, the 
most important commercial town on the south 
coast of Sicily, at the mouth of the Salso, 24 
m. E.S.E. of Girgenti, with a considerable trade 
in sulphur, grain, wine, oil, nuts, almonds, and 
soda. It occupies the site of the town which 
the tyrant Phintias of Acrogas erected and 
named after himself, when Gela was destroyed 
in 280. Pop. 15,966. 

Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland, by 

Lewis Carroll (Charles L. Dodgson). Alice, a 
bright little girl, is the heroine of the tale and by 
following an extraordinary rabbit into a rabbit 
hole, she finds herself in a land where unreal 
things seem real. Her mistakes at first barely 
save her from drowning in her own tears; but 
she presently meets many queer animal friends 
besides a crusty old Duchess, a mad Hatter, a 
sleepy Dormouse, and a March Hare, with whom 
she has strange experiences, and finally they 
take her to play croquet with the Queen of 
Hearts. During a trial by jury at the court 
of the Queen, Alice becomes excited and calls 
every one there nothing but a pack of cards. 
As they rise into the air and come flying down 
upon her, she awakes to find herself on a bank 
where she had fallen asleep. A sequel to the 
story is ( Through the Looking-Glass, > (1871). 

Alien, any person not legally within the 
jurisdiction of a country as one of its citizens. 


By the laws of the United States the children 
of male citizens, whether born within the coun¬ 
try or abroad, are held to be citizens; but all 
other foreign-born individuals are aliens until 
made citizens by naturalization. In the United 
States aliens are nominally prohibited from ac¬ 
quiring title to real estate, but in practice they 
may own lands subject to proceedings by the 
State to determine the fact of alienage; and, 
moreover, in nearly all the States there are spe¬ 
cial provisions removing such restrictions from 
resident aliens who are in the course of natural¬ 
ization. The rights of aliens to hold personal 
property and carry on trade are the same as 
those of citizens. In time of war, however, 
aliens belonging to the country of the enemy 
cannot make contracts with citizens or resort 
to the courts except as accorded such privileges 
by special treaties. In the United States, if an 
alien dies without making a will and without 
leaving any known heirs, his estate immediately 
vests in the State without office found. An alien 
may sue and be sued; he may be tried for 
crime, and has a right to labor and to trade. 
No State can pass a law refusing rights tc 
aliens which are secured by treaty. A law of 
this kind would be void, for the reason that 
every treaty made by the authority of the 
United States is superior to the constitution and 
laws of any State. Naturalized aliens are sub¬ 
ject to political disabilities as follows: They 
are permanently disqualified for election as 
President or Vice-President, and cannot become 
members of the National Senate or House of 
Representatives until they have been citizens for 
nine or seven years respectively. In Great 
Britain there is no discrimination whatever be¬ 
tween aliens and subjects as far as property 
rights are concerned. It is held by British law 
that the children of aliens born in Great Britain 
are natural-born subjects. In all Christian coun¬ 
tries the tendency of legislation concerning 
aliens shows increasing liberality, although it is 
still the policy of the Latin nations, in their 
colonies, to limit materially the trade advan¬ 
tages of foreigners. 

Alien and Sedition Acts, in American po¬ 
litical history, four acts passed by the Federalist 
party in Congress in the summer of 1798, under 
John Adams, which were the immediate cause 
of the first nullification proceedings in the 
South (see Kentucky Resolutions; Nullifi¬ 
cation; Virginia Resolutions), and one of the 
causes which alienated enough votes, from the 
Federalists to drive them out of power sooner 
than was inevitable. (For the genesis of the 
alien acts see also American Party.) The 
embittered exiles who flocked here from 1790 
on were doubly obnoxious to the Federalists: 
both as scurrilously offensive journalists, often¬ 
times, and as hostile to all attempts to punish 
France for her wanton aggressions on American 
commerce. In 1797 the House was Republican, 
the Senate Federalist; the latter attempted to 
pass measures for defense against France, which 
the former steadily voted down. At length, in 
1798, the publication of the <( X. Y. Z.» corre¬ 
spondence, showing the rottenness of the French 
Directory, shamed the defenders of France and 
incensed the moderates into supporting the 
Federalists, who, having now a majority in 
both houses, first enacted three laws concerning 
aliens: (1) 18 June, making the residence be- 


ALIENATION OF ESTATES — ALIMENTARY SYSTEM 


fore naturalization fourteen years instead of 
five, and the term after declaration of intentions 
five instead of three; alien enemies not to 
be allowed naturalization; registration of all 
aliens on arrival, under penalties, and entry on 
such register the only proof admitted on apply¬ 
ing for naturalization. (2) 25 June, empowering 
the President for two years to order out of 
the country any aliens he thought dangerous or 
engaged in conspiracies. (3) 6 July, legalizing 
the apprehension or deportation of all resident 
aliens when war was declared against the United 
States. These acts were denounced by the 
Republicans on three grounds, two of State 
rights and one general: as invading the Consti¬ 
tutional rights of the States to permit such 
immigration as they chose up to 1808 (really 
intended to apply only to slaves) ; that it as¬ 
sumed national powers over persons under the 
jurisdiction of their States; and that it violated 
the right of trial by jury. It was on these 
points that Jefferson and Madison drew up the 
Kentucky and Virginia legislative resolutions; 
the former of which, on its repetition in 1799, 
named nullification as the proper remedy. 
Second, on 26 June, Lloyd of Maryland intro¬ 
duced a bill (1) declaring France an enemy of 
the United States, and any one who should 
uphold her or give her aid or comfort guilty of 
high treason; (2) defining treason; (3) impos¬ 
ing $5,000 fine and six months’ to five years’ 
imprisonment on any one conspiring to oppose 
or impede United States measures, intimidate 
United States officers, stir up insurrection, etc.; 
(4) imposing a fine of not over $2,000 and im¬ 
prisonment for not over two years for any utter¬ 
ance or writing tending to justify France, or to 
defame United States officials as hostile to 
popular liberties, etc. It passed the Senate by a 
heavy majority; the House made important 
changes in it and passed the altered bill by a 
scratch. These changes were: (1) Canceling the 
first two sections altogether; (2) substituting 
for the fourth, the publishing or printing any 
false, scandalous, or malicious writings to bring 
the Government, Congress, or President into 
contempt or disrepute, excite popular hostility 
to them, incite resistance to United States laws 
or encourage hostile designs against the United 
States, etc. To these, which gave Federal 
judges power to make any opposition to the 
ruling party a felony, Bayard of Delaware got 
two clauses added which drew their teeth: the 
first making the truth a good defense and juries 
the judges of the fact; the second restricting 
the term of operation to 4 March 1801—that is, 
till a new administration came in, so that it 
should expire with the Federalists if they went 
out, and the Republicans thus lose the eclat 
of repealing it. It would naturally be supposed 
that the Alien Acts, which affected only a few 
foreigners and no internal liberties, and which 
as a fact remained entirely unenforced, would 
have caused little commotion in the Republican 
party; and that the Sedition Act, which struck 
at all liberty of free speech or publication, and 
was contrary to the very basis of free govern¬ 
ment, and under which at least six prosecutions 
and most scandalous performances of one Fed¬ 
eral judge took place, would have provoked 
almost a civil war. The facts are an instructive 
historical lesson against transferring the ideas 
of one age to another. The Republicans dis¬ 
liked the use of prosecutions under the Sedi¬ 


tion Act as a party weapon, and resented Judge 
Chase’s partisan decisions; but it was only as 
directed against themselves, not as against civil 
liberty, that they reprobated it,— neither party 
had attained to that ideal,— and their chief 
rhetoric and defiance was directed against the 
harmless acts which tried to prevent their sup¬ 
porting France. It was in crystallizing the spirit 
of State resistance to national power that the 
acts have their main importance. 

Alienation of Estates, comprises any 
method whereby estates are voluntarily resigned 
by one and accepted by another, whether that 
be effected by sale, gift, marriage settlement, 
devise, or other transmission of property by 
the mutual consent of the parties. 2 Bl. Com., 
§ 287; 55 N. J. L. 417. The term alienation is 
particularly applied to absolute conveyances of 
real property. 1 N. Y. 290, 294. 

Alienations by deed may be by convey¬ 
ances at common law; which are either original 
or primary, being those by means of which the 
benefit or estate is created or first arises; or 
derivative or secondary conveyances, being those 
by which the benefit or estate originally created 
is enlarged, restrained, transferred, or extin¬ 
guished ; or they may be by conveyances under 
the statute of uses. The original conveyances 
are the following: feoffment, gift, grant, lease, 
exchange, partition. The derivative are release, 
confirmation, surrender, assignment, defeasance. 
Those deriving their force from the statute of 
uses are covenants to stand seized to uses, bar¬ 
gain and sale, lease and release, deeds to lead 
cr declare the uses of other more direct convey¬ 
ances, deeds of revocation of uses. 2 Bl. Com. 
ch. 20; 2 Washb. Real Prop. 600. 

Alienist. See Psychiatry. 

Ali Ferrough Bey, Turkish diplomatist: b. 

Constantinople, 1865. After serving as secre¬ 
tary of embassy at Paris, London, and Bucha¬ 
rest, as well as councilor of embassy at St. 
Petersburg, he was promoted to the post of 
minister-plenipotentiary and envoy-extraordinary 
to the United States. Besides histories of 
Arabia and Turkey he has published ( Public 
and Private International LawP 

Aligarh, or Alighur, a town in India, in the 

Northwest Provinces, in the executive district of 
the same name, 53 m. N. of Agra. Aligarh is 
merely a fortress, the town being Coel, distant 
about two miles and connected with Aligarh by 
a beautiful avenue. It was formerly of import¬ 
ance and was more recently one of Dowlet Rao 
Sindia’s principal depots for military stores. 
The fort is square, with round bastions, ditch, 
and glacis, and a single entrance, protected by a 
strong ravelin. It was taken in 1803 by Lord 
Lake, Sindia’s commander, Perron (a French¬ 
man) having previously surrendered, and the 
whole district was then added to the British pos¬ 
sessions. Since that time the fort has been much 
improved, and the town made the station of a 
civil and judicial establishment. Pop. of Coel 
(1901) 70,127. 

Aliment. See Food; Nutrition. 

Alimentary System, or Gastro-intestinal 
System, is the collection of organs in animals 
that is chiefly concerned in the processes of 
digestion and nutrition. It is, in man, a highly 
complicated tube of some thirty or more feet 
in length, beginning at the mouth, then the 


ALIMONY — ALISON 


pharynx, the oesophagus leading into the stom¬ 
ach, which organ is a dilated and pouch-like 
portion of the tube. From the stomach the tube 
is narrowed into the small intestine, there being 
some twenty to twenty-five feet of this, divided 
into three parts, the duodenum, the jejunum, 
and the ileum. These three parts are distin¬ 
guished the one from the other by means of 
their minute histological structure. At the end 
of the ileum the tube once more dilates, a pouch 
is formed, the appendix vermiformis being situ¬ 
ated here, and the large intestine or colon 
begins. This passes up the right side of the 
abdomen, constituting the ascending colon; 
crosses over under the liver high up in the 
abdomen, about on the level of the umbilicus, 
the transverse colon; then descends on the left 
side, to turn at the lower iliac region abruptly 
backward and into the centre of the body to 
form the short rectum. The tube terminates at 
the anus, guarded by two circular muscles 
known as the sphincters. The number of ac¬ 
cessory glands and organs that empty their 
secretions into the intestinal system is very 
great. The most important are the salivary 
glands in the mouth, the digestive glands of the 
stomach, the liver and pancreas, the secretions 
of which enter by a common duct just below 
the stomach, and the intestinal glands. Mucous 
glands are found throughout the entire length 
of the intestinal system. 

The structure of the different portions of the 
tube is similar, but variations in function pro¬ 
duce slight modifications, especially in the mus¬ 
cular coats. In general there is a layer of 
mucous membrane on the interior of the canal; 
this is surrounded by a connective-tissue sup¬ 
porting framework, and is further strengthened 
by a varying amount of unstriped muscular 
tissue. The details of structure will be con¬ 
sidered in the descriptions of the several organs. 
(See Intestine; Stomach.) The work of the 
alimentary system in the complicated chemical 
processes of digestion is more fully described in 
various other articles. See Digestion ; Metab¬ 
olism ; Nutrition. 

Alimony, in law, the allowance, awarded 
out of her husband’s estate, to which a wife is 
entitled on separation or divorce. Jurisdiction 
in this matter in England rested with the ec¬ 
clesiastical court until 1857, when it was con¬ 
ferred upon a court of divorce. In the United 
States it is vested in the courts of equity. 
Alimony may be granted by the court during 
litigation, in which case it is known as pendente 
life (during the suit) ; or at the conclusion of 
the suit, when it is called permanent. The 
former enables the wife to pursue the litigation, 
whether proceedings have been brought by or 
against her. The amount granted lies within 
the discretion of the court and depends upon a 
variety of considerations, and is governed by no 
fixed rules. The ability of the husband to pay 
is of most importance in determining the 
amount, and in estimating his ability his entire 
income will be taken into consideration, whether 
derived from his property or his personal ex¬ 
ertions. So far as any general rule can be 
drawn from the decisions and practice of the 
courts, the proportion of the joint income to be 
awarded for permanent alimony is said to range 
from one half to one third, while in case of 
alimony pending suit it is not usual to allow* 


more than one fifth, and usually a smaller pro¬ 
portion will be allowed out of a large estate than 
out of a small one. Permanent alimony is a pe¬ 
riodical allowance awarded to the wife if the 
termination of the suit is favorable to her. By 
a writ of ne exeat (let him not depart) the 
court can prevent the husband from leaving the 
State without leaving sufficient security for pay¬ 
ment. The writ of ne exeat has been expressly 
abolished in many of the States of the Union, 
but its place has been filled in almost every 
instance by a similar procedure. In New York 
a system of arrest and bail has been substituted 
for the writ. If the husband should remove to 
another State the wife can enforce her claim in 
the Federal courts. See Marriage and Divorce 

Alis, Hippolyte Percher, al-e, ip-o-let par- 
sha, French novelist and journalist: b. Couleu- 
vre, 7 Oct. 1857. Besides journalistic work, he 
has written several <( naturalistic }) novels, in¬ 
cluding ( Hara-Kiri> (1882) ; ( A Daughter of 
the Soil } (1885); ( Some Foolish People } 

(1889). 

Alishan, Leo M., al-e-shan', Armenian 
poet and historian: b. Constantinople, 30 July 
1820; studied in Venice, took orders there 1840, 
was given a chair in the College Raphael, and 
made its director 1848; head of the Armenian 
college in Paris 1858, director of St. Lazare in 
Venice 1865. Armenians regard him as their 
leading poet. His complete poems were pub¬ 
lished 1857-67. He issued ( Popular Songs of 
the Armenians 5 (1867); ( Historical Mono¬ 

graphs > .(1870); ( History and Geography of 
Armenia J (1885), seized and suppressed by the 
Turkish authorities. 

Alisma'ceae, the water-plantain family. 
Sagittaria (arrowhead). See Arrowhead 
Water Plantain. 

Al'ison, Rev. Archibald, Scottish theolo¬ 
gian and writer on aesthetics: b. Edinburgh, 
1757 > d. there 1839. Studied at Glasgow and 
Oxford, entered the English Church, and (1800) 
settled as the minister of an Episcopal chapel 
at Edinburgh. He published two volumes of 
sermons, and a work entitled ( Essays on the 
Nature and Principles of Taste > (1790), in 

which he maintains that the beauty of material 
objects depends upon the associations connected 
with them. 

Al'ison, Sir Archibald, Scottish lawyer 
and writer of history, son of the above: b. 
Shropshire, 1792; d. near Glasgow, 1867. He 
was educated at Edinburgh University, and in 
1814 was admitted to the Scottish bar. After 
several years passed in Continental travel he was 
appointed advocate-depute, which post he held 
till 1830. In 1832 he published ( Principles of 
the Criminal Law of Scotland,* and in 1833 
( The Practice of the Criminal Law.* Was ap¬ 
pointed sheriff of Lanarkshire in 1834, and re¬ 
tained this post till his death. He was made 
a baronet in 1852. His chief work, < The His¬ 
tory of Europe, from 1789 to 1815,* was first 
issued in 10 vols. 1833-42, the narrative being 
subsequently brought down to 1852, the begin¬ 
ning of the second French empire. 

Alison, Sir Archibald, Jr., Scottish gen¬ 
eral: b. Edinburgh, 21 Jan. 1826; d. London, 
5 Feb. 1907. He was educated at Glas¬ 
gow and Edinburgh, and after entering the 
English army served in the Crimea and India 


ALIZARIN — ALKALOIDS 


He distinguished himself while second in com¬ 
mand of the Ashantee expedition, 1873-74, and 
also in the war in Egypt in 1882, becoming 
lieutenant-general in that year. He retired in 
1893. 

Aliza'rin (from alizari, the commercial name 
of madder in the East), a substance having the 
formula CMHeOa. (OH) 2 , formerly obtained from 
the root of the madder ( Rubia tinctoria) , but 
now artificially produced from coal-tar and the 
lefuse from the distillation of crude petroleum. 
It is used as a dye, for producing the color 
known as (( turkey red.** Alizarin is of in¬ 
terest to the chemist not only on account of 
its industrial importance, but also because it was 
the first vegetable coloring matter to be pro¬ 
duced artificially; and the year 1868, in which 
its synthesis was effected by W. H. Perkin, 
therefore marks the beginning of a new era in 
industrial chemistry. In the manufacture of 
alizarin, anthracene (C14H10) is first prepared 
from coal-tar, and by oxidation (which it read¬ 
ily undergoes under the influence of potassium 
bichromate or other oxidizing agent) is trans¬ 
formed into anthraquinone, CiJLCh. The next 
step is to sulphonate the substance so formed. 
Anthraquinone is remarkably stable toward sul¬ 
phuric acid, but combination can be effected by 
strongly heating a mixture of the two, and a 
solution of mono- and disulphonic acids of an¬ 
thraquinone is the result. The excess of 
sulphuric acid is then removed, and the sulphonic 
acids are heated with caustic potash to about 
350° F. The mass gradually darkens till it 
becomes almost black, at which stage it dissolves 
in water with the formation of a rich purple so¬ 
lution, from which alizarin can be precipitated 
in abundance by the addition of sulphuric acid. 
A similar process was also devised by Perkin, 
in which the first step is the formation of di- 
chloranthracene, CuHsCE, by treating anthracene 
with chlorine. Subsequent treatment of this 
body with sulphuric acid gives anthraquinone 
disulphonic acid, Ci4H 6 0 2 (HS0 3 )2. This is 
fused with potash, as described above, and the 
alizarin precipitated with sulphuric acid as be¬ 
fore. Anthrapurpurin is formed, simultaneously 
with alizarin, in the processes given above. Its 
behavior as a dye is similar to that of alizarin, 
but it gives a brighter red. Pure alizarin, as 
obtained by sublimation, crystallizes in yellow¬ 
ish-red crystals, only slightly soluble in alcohol 
or water, but readily dissolving in alkalis. 
Chemically, alizarin is known as dioxyanthra- 
quinone. 

Alkahest, or The House of Claes, The 

( ( La Recherche de VAbsolu J —The Search for 
the Absolute), is a striking novel by Honore de 
Balzac. The central character, Balthazar Claes, 
is a wealthy chemist, the dream of whose life 
is to solve the mystery of matter. Gradually 
the quest becomes a fixed idea, for which money, 
family, health, sanity, are sacrificed, and Claes 
dies heart-broken and defeated. As foils to 
him stand his devoted wife and his eldest 
daughter Marguerite, noble women, the latter 
one of the finest creations of Balzac's genius. 
They sympathize sorrowfully yet tenderly with 
his ideal, and bear with true heroism the misery 
to which his mad course subjects them. The 
story belongs to that series of the Human 
Comedy known as « Philosophical Studies,» and 
appeared in 1834. 


Al'kali (from the Arabic, al, «the,» and 
qaliy, « ashes »), a term originally used for the 
soluble part of « pot-ashes,» but since extended 
to include the hydrate or oxid of any of the 
metals lithium, sodium, potassium, caesium and 
rubidium, or of the radical ammonium. The 
alkalis possess strongly basic properties, and 
(with the exception of ammonia) rapidly ab¬ 
sorb carbon dioxid from the air, when moist, 
passing into the form of carbonates. They are 
all soluble in water, and nearly all of their com¬ 
pounds are also soluble. The real nature of the 
alkalis was first conclusively proved by Sir 
Humphry Davy when in 1807 he decomposed 
potash and soda by means of the electric cur¬ 
rent. Alkalis in concentrated solution exert a 
powerfully corrosive action on the skin, and 
even in very dilute solution they alter the color 
of certain vegetable infusions very markedly. 
This property is utilized for detecting free al¬ 
kalis in solutions under examination, strips of 
bibulous paper impregnated with red infusion 
of litmus being moistened with the fluid to be 
tested. An exceedingly small amount of free 
alkali will transform the red color to a blue. 
The alkali metals are all monovalent. 

The early chemist distinguished another class 
of substances, somewhat resembling the alkalis, 
as the «alkaline earths.» These include the 
oxids of calcium, strontium, and barium. The 
alkaline earths are basic in nature, and differ 
from the alkalis chiefly in being less soluble. 
Magnesium is sometimes included among the 
alkaline earths, but it falls more naturally into 
the zinc group. See Antacid; Soils. 

Alkalim'etry, that branch of chemistry 
which treats of the quantitative estimation of 
alkalis present in a given solution. See Anal¬ 
ysis, Chemical. 

Alkaloids, organic bases, forming definite 
salts with acids and resembling in some respects 
the metals of the alkalis, hence the name. A 
number of basic nitrogenous compounds of 
marked physiological action and somewhat anal¬ 
ogous in their chemical composition. It has 
been proposed to limit the word alkaloid to the 
group of basic nitrogenous principles found 
in plants, the somewhat similar bodies found in 
animals being termed ptomains (q.v.) and leu- 
comains (q.v.). (See Animal Alkaloids.) 
Some even class as alkaloids a series of feebly 
basic compounds prepared synthetically from 
the anilines, antipyrine, etc. Alkaloids are here 
considered in their strict sense as basic nitro¬ 
genous principles, products of the metabolism of 
plants. 

Distribution. —Alkaloids are widely distrib¬ 
uted throughout the plant kingdom; many plants 
contain them, and some plants contain a large 
number; opium, Papaver somniferum, for in¬ 
stance, contains a dozen or more alkaloids. The 
Cinchona family also contains many. In such 
cases, however, the alkaloids are, as a rule, very 
closely related in their chemical structure. Cer¬ 
tain plant families contain many, others a few 
or none. Most of the alkaloids are found in the 
Dicotyledons, a few only are found in the 
Monocotyledons, Colchicum, and perhaps some 
of the Liliacece. The cryptogams do not seem to 
contain alkaloids in the true sense of the word, 
although ergot was supposed to contain some 
principles closely resembling alkaloids. The 


AL-KHOWARAZMI — ALKMAAR 


Papavcracecc, Solanaccce, and Ranunculacecc are 
particularly rich in alkaloids. The Leguminosece, 
Rubiacece, and Umbellifera? contain many, while 
the large families of the Composites and Labia- 
iece contain very few. For the most part similar 
alkaloids are found in related plants, yet a few 
widely separated plants contain similar alkaloids, 
berberin being an example. As to their loca¬ 
tion in the plants themselves, alkaloids are found 
mostly in the fruit and seeds; many are found in 
the barks, and some in the roots. They are 
formed for the most part in the actively grow¬ 
ing portions of the plant and are probably 
katabolic products of the plant metabolism. 
They are usually found in solutions combined 
with some plant acid in the cell sap, sometimes 
dissolved in oils or mucilage, and in many 
instances are stored up in secretory passages 
in the plant. As to the role that the alkaloids 
play in the plant economy it is difficult to state 
positively: they do not seem to be utilized by 
the plant as a source of energy and in some 
instances are even poisonous to the plant itself. 
One of the services they perform for the plant 
is to aid it in the struggle for existence by 
being poisonous to animals. The large quanti¬ 
ties found in seeds is evidence for the support 
of this view. 

For the most part alkaloids are solid, non¬ 
volatile, crystalline bodies, a few being liquid 
and volatile, that is, arecolin, nicotin, coniin, 
spartein. The former contain carbon, hydrogen, 
nitrogen, and oxygen. The three latter liquid 
alkaloids contain no oxygen and have a marked 
odor; the solid alkaloids possess no odor. With 
few exceptions the alkaloids are insoluble (or 
soluble with great difficulty) in water. 

Chemically the alkaloids are divisible into 
five provisional groups, although it was at one 
time held that only those bodies belonging to 
the Pyridin group should be considered as alka¬ 
loids. These groups as classed by Briihl are 
(i) the Pyrrolidin group — containing an alka¬ 
loid from the coca leaf, hygrin; (2) the Pyridin 
group, which contains a large number, pilocarpin, 
pilocarpidin, arecolin, arecain, coniin, conydrin, 
piperin, nicotin, atropin, hyoscamin, cocain, 
pelleterein, spartein, cystisin, and others; (3) 
Chinolin group — containing cinchonin, quinin, 
cinchonidin, strychnin, brucin, curarin, and 
others; (4) Isochinolin group — containing the 
opium alkaloids, morphin, papaverin, narcotin, 
codein, thebain, hydrocotarnin, hydrastin, can- 
nabin, berberin, corydalin; (5) alkaloids of 
undetermined relationship, a few only being of 
other than chemical interest, ergotinin, colchicin, 
veratrin, cevadin, jervin, rubijervin, aspidosper- 
min, yohimbin, anhalonin, lupinin, gelsemin, 
aconitin, pseudoaconitin, japaconitin, delphinin, 
emetin, etc. 

The internal chemical construction of all 
the alkaloids is extremely complex; for many 
it is unknown. Most are tertiary bases: a few 
are similar to the secondary amines in structure. 
Ammonia bases are also present in many. Many 
alkaloids acted on by strong alkalies are broken 
up into two components, a basic body and a ni¬ 
trogen free, mostly aromatic acid. Most of the 
alkaloids react similarly to oxidizing agents; 
nitric acid, chromic acid, potassium ferrocya- 
nide, and potassium permanganate are the most 
active. The last makes an efficient chemical 
antidote for many of them. A few alkaloids 


have been made synthetically. In the making, 
however, a related base has been necessary. 

Physiologically the alkaloids are for the most 
part veFy active. Some have very little action, 
berberin, for example, while aconitin is one of 
the most toxic of substances. Nearly all of 
them have a marked affinity for nerve struc¬ 
tures, on which a few have markedly poisonous 
action: some of them attacking the sensory 
nervous elements more particularly (aconitin, 
cocain) ; others exerting their greatest activity 
on the motor nervous structures, sometimes in 
the muscle plates (coniin, curarin) causing 
paralysis; others in the motor cells in the 
anterior horn cells of the spinal cord (strych¬ 
nin). Still others exert their influence on the 
nerve cells of the brain (morphin, hyoscyamin). 

History. —The history of the discovery of the 
alkaloids is about one hundred years old. Der- 
osne of Paris first isolated from opium in 1803 
a salt (< of opium,® as he termed it. This was 
a mixture of morphin and narcotin, and in 
1806 Sertiirner, a pharmacist of Hanover, first 
definitely discovered morphin. It was not until 
1817, however, that the discovery was noticed. 
Following this in rapid succession different alka¬ 
loids were isolated,— narcotin and emetin in 
1817, veratrin and strychnin in 1818, brucin and 
piperin in 1819, caffein, cinchonin, and quinin 
in 1820, and by 1835 at least 30 alkaloids were 
known. At the present time there are more than 
200 known, and new ones are being discovered 
rapidly; detailed study of more important alka¬ 
loids will be found under their respective heads. 
See Animal Alkaloids ; Plants ; Poisons. 

Bibliography. —Hntroduzione alio Studio de- 
gli Alcaloidi^ Icilio Guareschi; translated into 
German as ( Die Alkaloide,* by Kuntz Krause, 
is one of the most important of modern works. 
Also see ( La Constitution Chimique des Alca- 
loides VegetauxP by Ame Pictet (2d ed. 1897) ; 
<Die Pflanzen-AlkaloideP by J. W. Briihl 
(1900). For studies of location in plants, see 
Rusby & Jelliffe, ( Morphology and Histology 
of Plants ) (1899, with bibliography). 

Al-Khowarazmi, Arabian mathematician of 
the 9th century. He was the librarian of Al- 
Mamun at Bagdad, and also worked in the Bag¬ 
dad Observatory, where he carried on his astro¬ 
nomical and mathematical researches. Among 
his writings is a geographical treatise, <Rasm 
Al-ArdC giving the latitude and longitude of 
all places mentioned. He also wrote several 
mathematical treatises, including one on Hindu 
arithmetic, and ( A 1 Jabr wa’l Muqabalah,* dis¬ 
cussing the quadratic equation and other alge¬ 
braic problems; both of these were later trans¬ 
lated into Latin, the latter giving algebra its 
name. See Algebra, History of Elements of, 
and Arithmetic, History of. 

Alkmaar, a town of the Netherlands, in 
the province of North Holland, on the North 
Holland canal, and 20 m. N.N.W. of Amster¬ 
dam. It is regularly built, and its appearance 
has been much improved by the conversion of 
its ramparts into public walks. Its finest public 
buildings are the 15th-century church of St. 
Lawrence and a richly decorated Gothic town- 
house. It has manufactures of salt, sail-cloth, 
etc., and an extensive trade in cattle, corn, but¬ 
ter, and cheese. Among interesting events in its 
history are its successful defense against the 
Duke of Alva in 1573, and the invention of dam- 


ALKORAN — ALLAN 


ask-weaving by a citizen, Paschier Lammertyn, 
in 1595- To the west stood the castle of the 
counts of Egmont. Pop. (1900) 18,275. 

Alkoran. See Koran. 

Alkyl, the radicals of the alcohols (for 
example, methyl CH 3 ; ethyl, C 2 H 5 ; and propyl, 
C3H7) are collectively called alkyls. (See 
Alcohol.) A compound of an alkyl with a 
halogen is called an alkylogen; and the me¬ 
tallic alcoholates are frequently called alkox- 
ids, since they may be regarded as double oxids 
of a metal and an alcohol radical. 

All Hallows College, Drumcondra, Dublin, 
Ireland. The foreign missionary college of All 
Hallows, as its name implies, was instituted for 
the exclusive object of educating priests for the 
foreign missions, for the purpose of supplying 
with missionary priests those parts of the world 
where the Gospel had never been preached. The 
missionaries, however, going forth from its 
halls, were to have as a primary claim on their 
attention, the spiritual needs, to speak in native 
parlance, of the <( Irish of the dispersion,® who, 
owing chiefly to the effects of bad laws, had 
begun at that period to emigrate in large num¬ 
bers from Ireland. All Hallows was founded 
in the year 1842 by the Rev. John Hand, a native 
of the diocese of Meath, Ireland, then a young 
man, but a few years previously ordained at 
Maynooth. It was formally opened on All 
Saints’ Day of that year with only one student, 
a very small beginning indeed, but it increased 
in numbers and resources till it is now probably 
one of the great foreign missionary colleges 
in the world. It is at present, and has been for 
some time past, in charge of the Vincentian 
Fathers, and was never in a more flourishing 
condition. It shelters within its walls some 300 
students, all destined for the foreign missions. 
It is pleasantly situated at Drumcondra, one of 
the suburbs of the metropolis, on a demesne of 
rich land, obtained for it through the efforts 
of Daniel O’Connell, at that time Lord Mayor 
of Dublin. A large number of Catholic priests 
in the United States received their philosophical 
and theological training at All Hallows. 

Rev. John Reynolds, 
Brooklyn, N. Y. 

Al'lactite, a mineral found in Sweden, and 
crystallizing in small monoclinic prisms or tab¬ 
lets having the composition 7MnO.As2O5.4H2O. 
Its hardness is 4.5 and its specific gravity 
about 3.84. It exhibits double refraction to a 
marked degree, and varies in color from red 
to green, according to the direction from which 
it is viewed. This property has given it its 
name, <( allactite,® being derived from a Greek 
word meaning «to change.® The variability in 
color is due to the varying absorption, of the 
ordinary and extraordinary rays of the incident 
light. See Physical Crystallography. 

Allah, in Arabic, the name of God, a word 
compounded of the article al, and the word 
Elah, which signifies <( the Adored® and (< the 
Adorable,® and synonymous with the singular 
of the Hebrew word Elohint. Allah akbar 
(God is great) is a Mohammedan war-cry. 

Allahabad, an ancient city of India, capital 
of a division and district of the same name, as 
well as of the whole of the northwest provinces, 
72 m. W. of Benares. The native town con¬ 
sists largely of mud houses. Its English suburb 
of Canningtown has much more of a European 


aspect. Among the remarkable buildings of 
Allahabad are a large triangular fort, occupy¬ 
ing a point of land formed by the junction 
of the Ganges and Jumna; the Jumna Musjid, 
or great mosque; the mausoleum of Khosru; 
All Saints’ Church; the Roman Catholic cathe¬ 
dral ; the Muir Central College founded in 1874, 
the chief educational establishment of the north¬ 
west provinces; the Mayo Memorial and town 
hall. Allahabad is one of the chief resorts of 
Hindu pilgrims, who come partly to visit a sa¬ 
cred cave under the Chali Saturn temple (whence 
it is said there is a subterranean passage to 
Benares), but chiefly to have their sins washed 
away by bathing in the waters of the sacred 
rivers of Ganges and Jumna at their junction, 
where believers see a third river, the Saraswati 
(which is in reality lost in the sands at a dis¬ 
tance of 400 miles from Allahabad), mingle its 
current with those of the other two. A great 
fair held on 14 December is much attended by 
pilgrims. There are few manufactures. Alla¬ 
habad forms a junction in the railway system 
between Bengal and Central India, and its trade 
is rapidly increasing. In the mutiny of 1857 it 
was the scene of a serious outbreak and mas¬ 
sacre. Pop. (1901) 175,750. The division of 
Allahabad contains the districts of Cawnpur, 
Futtehpur, Hamirpur, Banda, Jhansi, Jalaun, 
Lalitpur, and Allahabad. The agriculture of the 
division is greatly promoted by a canal 310 miles 
long, connecting the Ganges and the Jumna. 
About five sixths of the surface is under cultiva¬ 
tion, the principal crops being rice, pulse, wheat, 
tobacco, etc. Pop. (1901) 1,548,737. 

Allan, Sir Hugh, founder of the Allan 
line of steamships: b. Scotland, 29 Sept. 1810; d. 
Edinburgh, 8 Dec. 1882. A clerk with limited 
education, he emigrated to Canada in 1824, was 
clerk in Montreal stores, became captain in 
the rebellion of 1837, and in 1838 succeeded his 
late employer as a partner in the shipping and 
shipbuilding business. In 1853 his firm began 
building iron screw steamships, and their first 
vessel, the Canadian, made its first voyage in 
1855, two more being used as transports in 
the Crimean war. The Allan Line, after many 
disasters, gained a permanent footing, and has 
been a large element in developing Canadian 
prosperity. Sir Hugh was one of the projectors 
of the Canadian Pacific Railway, and prominent 
in the political investigations to which it led. 
He was a director in banking, telegraph, gold 
mining, and other large business enterprises, 
and was knighted in 1871. 

Allan, Sir William, a distinguished Scot¬ 
tish artist: b. 1782; d. 1850. He was a fellow 
student with Wilkie in Edinburgh, afterward 
a student of the Royal Academy, London; then 
went to Saint Petersburg and remained for 10 
years in the Russian dominions. In 1814 he 
returned to Scotland and publicly exhibited his 
pictures, one of which ^Circassian Captives’) 
made his reputation. He now turned his atten¬ 
tion to historical painting and produced scenes 
from Scottish history and battle scenes; among 
them two pictures of the battle of Water¬ 
loo, one from the British, the other from the 
French position, and delineating the actual scene 
and the incidents therein taking place at the 
moment chosen for the representation. One of 
these Waterloo pictures was purchased by 
the Duke of Wellington. He traveled ex- 


ALLAN — ALLEGHENY 


tensively, visiting Italy, Greece, Asia Minor, 
Spain, and Barbary. In 1835 he became R.A., 
in 1838 president of the Scottish Academy; in 
1842 he was knighted. 

Allan, William, American military writer: 
b. Virginia, 1837; d. 1880. He was a lieutenant- 
colonel in the Confederate army during the Civil 
War. His works are: ( Jackson’s Valley Cam¬ 
paign (1862) ; ( The Battle-Fields of Virginia* 
(1867) ; and ( The Army of Northern Virginia. 5 

Al'Ianite, a mineral, isomorphous with 
epidote, and containing rare metals of the Ce¬ 
rium and Yttrium groups. It is variable in com¬ 
position, but is essentially a silicate of these 
metals, combined with aluminum, iron, and 
calcium. It occurs in Norway and Finland, and 
in the United States in Massachusetts, Connect¬ 
icut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, 
Virginia, and North Carolina; also in Canada. 
It was named for Thomas Allan, of Edinburgh, 
who described it in 1808. (Also called orthite.) 

Allan'toin, a-lan'to-in, a substance found 
in the allantoic fluid of the cow, in the urine of 
sucking calves, in the leaf buds of the maple, 
and in the bark of the horse-chestnut tree. 
It is readily soluble in alcohol and crystallizes 
in monoclinic prisms having the formula 
C4H6N4O3. It may be formed by treating uric 
acid with boiling water and Pb0 2 . Compounds 
of allantoin with several of the metals are 
known. 

Allantois, a structure appearing during 
the early development of vertebrate animals — 
reptiles, birds, and mammalia. It is largely 
made up of blood-vessels, and, especially in 
birds, attains a large size. It forms the inner 
lining to the shell, and may thus be viewed as 
the surface by means of which the respiration 
of the embryo is carried on. In mammalia the 
allantois is not so largely developed as in birds, 
and it enters largely into the formation of the 
placenta. 

Allegan, Mich., town and county-seat of 
Allegan County, 33 m. S. of Grand Rapids. It 
is situated on the Kalamazoo River and on the 
Cincinnati N., Lake Shore & M. S., and the Pere 
M. R.R.’s. It is in the midst of a fertile re¬ 
gion, and a large dam on the river a few miles 
above the village affords valuable water power. 
Among its industries are mills of various kinds, 
carriage works, furniture factories, etc. It con¬ 
tains a public library, two banks, court house, 
city hall, and public schools. First settled in 
1834. Pop. (1905) 3,941. 

Allegation is the assertion, declaration, or 
statement by a party of what he can prove. 
Under the reformed method of procedure adopt¬ 
ed in nearly, if not all of the States of the 
Union, the general rule that the allegations in 
the pleadings and the proof must correspond 
has been greatly relaxed. Under our present 
system a failure to prove an immaterial aver¬ 
ment cannot in general be a material variance 
at the trial, and will be disregarded. If the 
substance of the issue be proved it is sufficient. 
If a contract, for instance, agree in substance 
and legal effect with that stated in the com¬ 
plaint, the variance will be disregarded. 

Alleghanies, a name sometimes used to 
designate the entire Appalachian mountain sys¬ 
tem, but more properly applied to the western 


range of this system in Pennsylvania, Mary¬ 
land, Virginia, and West Virginia. They begin 
near the New York and Pennsylvania border — 
the Catskills forming a northern outline — and 
extend in a southwesterly direction into West 
Virginia, where the line of elevations is con¬ 
tinued by other ranges across Tennessee. In 
the northern part the mountains have an ele¬ 
vation of about 2,000 feet (over 4,000 feet in the 
Catskills), but they gradually increase in alti¬ 
tude southward until in Virginia they rise to 
4,500 feet above the sea. Throughout their ex¬ 
tent they present a remarkably even crest-line 
with few gaps and isolated peaks. On the east¬ 
ern side the slope is abrupt to the bottom of 
the ‘ longitudinal valley from 50 to 100 miles 
wide, which is limited on the east by the paral¬ 
lel range of the Blue Ridge; on the west the 
elevations fall off more gradually. The range 
forms the water-parting between the streams 
draining into the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf 
of Mexico. The former receives the drainage 
from the eastern slope principally through the 
Delaware, Potomac, and James Rivers, while 
the Ohio River collects most of the waters on 
the western side. The range has been formed 
by uplift and folding of sedimentary strata, 
the abrupt edges of which are turned toward the 
east. Limestone, sandstones, and conglomerates 
are the predominant formations and range from 
the Cambrian to the Carboniferous systems. Im¬ 
mense coal-seams occur in the higher part of 
the series, forming the basis of a great mining 
industry. See Appalachians. 

Allegheny, Pa., a large manufacturing and 
residential city opposite Pittsburg on the right 
or north bank of the Allegheny river and 
stretching down along the Ohio river, here 
formed by the confluence of the Allegheny river 
with the Monongahela; connected with Pitts¬ 
burg by three wooden and five modern steel 
bridges crossed by numerous electric rail¬ 
ways. Is the home city for a large proportion 
of the business men of Pittsburg. Although 
having separate municipal governments Pitts¬ 
burg and Allegheny form practically one great 
city of over half a million people; their business 
interests being based upon the same natural ad¬ 
vantages and the same railroad and river trans¬ 
portation facilities being common to both. 

Interior .— Allegheny has a river frontage of 
six and one-half miles and an area of over 
5,000 acres. Originally laid out upon a small 
plateau slightly elevated above the river, it has 
gradually spread out over the surrounding hills 
which rise seven hundred feet above the river 
or thirteen hundred feet above sea level. The 
hi”! districts now made accessible by electric 
railways form a desirable home section. The 
city owns its own electric lighting plant and 
pumps its water from the Allegheny river at 
Montrose nine miles above the city. Has 180 
miles of streets, over 100 miles paved, over 80 
miles of sewers and 140 miles of water mains. 
There are two public parks, Allegheny Park, of 
100 acres, in the centre of the city, and River- 
\iew Park in the northern district. 

The most noteworthy monuments are the 
Anderson monument at the corner of Federal 
and Ohio streets, the two most important thor¬ 
oughfares, the Humboldt, Armstrong, Wash- 


ALLEGHENY COLLEGE—ALLEGIANCE 


ington and Hampton battery in the Allegheny 
parks and the Soldier’s on a height to the west. 

Education. —An efficient public school sys¬ 
tem is maintained at a cost of about $400,000 a 
year. There are 27 public school buildings val¬ 
ued at over $2,000,000 and attended by 30,000 
pupils. 

Is the seat of the Western (Presbyterian), 
United Presbyterian, and the Reformed Presby¬ 
terian Theological Seminaries, and the Western 
University. The latter was founded in 1819 and 
is now attended by over 700 students. Under 
its control is the famous Allegheny Observatory 
located on a height in Riverview Park. In con¬ 
nection with the public schools a public library 
of some 20,000 volumes is maintained, located in 
the High School Building. The Carnegie Free 
Library of nearly 60,000 volumes, the first of 
the large number of libraries founded bv the 
munificence of Andrew Carnegie, is located on 
one of the corners of the public square and is the 
most conspicuous building in the city. 

Religion. — There are in churches, the most 
prominent edifices being St. Peter’s (R. C.), 
Trinity (Ev. Luth.), North Avenue (M. E.), 
Emanuel (Prot. Epis.), and Sandusky Street 
(Baptist). 

Benevolent Institutions. —Three modern well- 
equipped hospitals are maintained, viz., Alle¬ 
gheny General, Presbyterian, and Saint John’s 
(Lutheran). Of orphan asylums and other 
benevolent institutions the most important are 
The Home of the Friendless, The Orphan Home 
for Colored Children, The Orphans’ Home on 
Ridge Avenue, and the Saint Joseph’s (R. C.) 
Orphan Asylum. Also the seat of the Western 
Penitentiary. 

Trade and Manufacturing. — The system of 
slack water navigation now under construction 
by the United States government on both the 
Allegheny and Ohio rivers make this an im¬ 
portant shipping centre especially for coal and 
other bulky products. The heaviest manufac¬ 
tures are those developed by Pennsylvania’s 
coal and iron, foundries and blast furnaces, roll¬ 
ing mills, locomotive and car works, machinery, 
stoves and furnaces, plumbers’ goods ; other prod¬ 
ucts are glass, white lead, and colors. There 
are also large flour mills and four large pickling 
and preserving establishments. At one time the 
city was the centre of the tanning industry of 
the United States and still has many large tan¬ 
neries in operation. In 1900 there were reported 
893 manufacturing establishments, with 20,804 
employes and an output valued at $54, 1 36,967, 
paying $10,352,502 for wages and using $50,122,- 
503 capital. 

Finances. — The assessed valuation in 1904 
was over $95,000,000. The city’s expenditures 
are over $2,500,000 a year, of which $400,000 goes 
for schools and $150,000 each for the police and 
fire departments. There are ten banks with an 
aggregate capital and surplus of 87,000,000. 

Government. — The executive power ?s vested 
in a mayor elected for a three year term. The 
mayor appoints all the minor city officials and 
employes. The legislative power is vested in the 
city council of two chambers. 

History and Population — The settlement 
was laid out in 1788 and incorporated as a bor¬ 
ough in 1828. The first settlers consisted largely 
of Scotch-Irish, later reinforced by a large in¬ 
flux of German immigrants. In 1840 it had a 


population of 10,089 and was granted a city 
charter. Its population according to the census 
of 1900 was 129,896 and its estimated population 
now (1906) is 145,000. Its greatest disasters 
were in 1874: a fire on July 4th wholly or par¬ 
tially destroyed 199 buildings, and three weeks 
later a heavy local flood swept away much prop¬ 
erty and cost 124 lives. Edward E. Eggers, 
Librarian Carnegie Free Library, Allegheny. 

Allegheny College, a co-educational 
(Methodist Episcopal) institution in Meadville, 
Pa.; organized in 1815 reported at the end of 
1905: Professors, 16; students, 290; volumes in 
the library, 20,000; grounds and buildings val¬ 
ued at $200,000; productive funds, $450,000; in¬ 
come, $42,500; graduates, 1,386. 

Allegheny River, a river of Pennsylvania 
and New York; a headstream of the Ohio. It 
rises in Potter County, Pa., and joins the Mo- 
nongahela at Pittsburg. Among its tributaries 
are French Creek and Clarion and Kiskiminitas 
rivers. Its length is 400 miles, and it is navi¬ 
gable for about 150 miles above Pittsburg. 

Allegiance is the obligation of fidelity 
and obedience which an individual owes to the 
government under which he lives, or to his 
sovereign in return for the protection he re¬ 
ceives. It may be an absolute and permanent 
obligation, or it may be qualified and tempo¬ 
rary one. The citizen or subject owes an abso¬ 
lute and permanent allegiance to his govern¬ 
ment or sovereign, or at least until, by some 
open and distinct act, he renounces it and be¬ 
comes a citizen or subject of another govern¬ 
ment or another sovereign. While domiciled in 
this country the alien owes a temporary and 
local allegiance which continues during the 
period of his residence. 

Publicists and statesmen everywhere recog¬ 
nize this obligation of temporary allegiance 
by an alien resident in a friendly country. In 
the case of Thrasher, a citizen of the United 
States resident in Cuba, who complained of in¬ 
juries suffered from the government of that is¬ 
land, Mr. Webster, then secretary of state, made 
in 1851 a report to the President in answer to a 
resolution of the House of Representatives, in 
which he said: (( Every foreigner born, residing 
in a country, owes to that country allegiance and 
obedience to its laws so long as he remains in 
it. as a duty upon him by the mere fact of his 
residence and that temporary protection which 
he enjoys, and is as much bound to obey its 
laws as native subjects or citizens. This is the 
universal understanding in all civilized states, 
and nowhere a more established doctrine than 
in this country.® 

Acquired allegiance is that kind of allegiance 
which binds a citizen who was born an alien, 
but has been naturalized. 

Local allegiance is that which is due from 
an alien while resident in a country, in return 
for the protection afforded by the government. 

Natural allegiance is that which results from 
the birth of a person within the territory and 
under the obedience of the government. It was 
at one time a fundamental principle of the com¬ 
mon law of England that natural allegiance was 
perpetual and could not be renounced without 
consent of the sovereign. The same doctrine 
was maintained in the United States for some 
years. This principle has, however, been re- 


ALLEGORY — ALLEN 


pudia'ed by statute in both countries. The act 
of Congress enacted 27 July 1868 declared that 
«the right of expatriation is a natural and in¬ 
herent right of all people, indispensable to the 
enjoyment of the right of life, liberty, and the 
pursuit of happiness. The British Naturaliza¬ 
tion Act of 1870 has practically the same provi¬ 
sions. The fourteenth amendment to the Con¬ 
stitution of the United States provides that 
« all persons born or naturalized in the United 
States and subject to the jurisdiction thereof 
are citizens of the United States and of the 
State wherein they reside.® The consequence 
of this amendment is that the individual owes 
allegiance to the State in which he resides, and 
to the Federal government, his duty to the lat¬ 
ter being paramount. 

Allegory (from Greek alio, something else, 
and agorenein, to speak), a figurative represen¬ 
tation, in which the signs (words or forms) sig¬ 
nify something besides their literal or direct 
meaning, each meaning being complete in itself. 
In rhetoric, allegory is often but a continued 
simile. Parables and fables are a species of 
allegory; for example, the beautiful parable in 
one of the tales in the ( Arabian Nights,* in 
which the three religions, the Mohammedan, 
Jewish', and Christian, are compared to three 
similar rings, bequeathed to three brothers by 
their father. Sometimes whole works are alle¬ 
gorical, as ( Reynard the Fox,* Spenser’s 
( Faerie Queened and Bunyan’s ( Pilgrim’s 
Progress.* When an allegory is thus continued 
through long works it is indispensable to its 
success that not only the allegorical meaning 
should be appropriate, but that the story should 
have an interest of its own in the direct mean¬ 
ing apart from the allegorical signification. 
There was a time when every poem was taken 
as an allegory; even such works as those of 
Ariosto and Tasso were tortured from their 
true meaning and made to pass for allegorical 
pictures. No poet has made use of allegory 
in a more powerful and truly poetical manner 
than the great Dante. Allegory is often made 
use of in painting and sculpture as well as in 
literature. 

Allegri, Gregorio, an Italian composer and 
a singer in the papal chapel, considered one of 
the most excellent composers of his time: b. 
Rome about 1580 (according to others 1590) ; 
d. there 1652. His « Miserere » has particularly 
distinguished him. It is even now regularly 
sung during Passion Week in the Sistine Chapel 
at Rome. Its subject is the fifty-seventh psalm 
(which in the Latin version begins with the word 
Miserere) , and is composed for two choruses in 
five- and in four-part harmony. This composi¬ 
tion was once esteemed so holy that whoever 
ventured to transcribe it was liable to excom¬ 
munication. In 1770 Mozart, then only 14 
years of age, disregarded this prohibition, and 
after two hearings made a correct copy of the 
original. 

Allegro, an Italian word signifying gay, 
and used in music to express a more or less 
quick rate of movement. The degrees of quick¬ 
ness are indicated by additional qualifying 
words or by derivatives of the word allegro. 
Thus allegretto or poco allegro means rather 
lively; allegro moderato, commodo, giusto, mod¬ 
erately quick; allegro maestoso, quick but with 


dignity; allegro assai and allegro molto, very 
quick; allegro con brio or con fuoco, with fire 
and energy ; allegrissimo, with the utmost ra¬ 
pidity. Pin allegro is a direction to play or sing 
a little quicker. Presto indicates a still quicker 
rate than allegro, but there is usually also this 
difference between the presto and allegro move¬ 
ments, that the former demands nothing more 
than rapid execution, while the latter requires to 
be performed with expression as well as quick¬ 
ness. The first movement of a symphony and 
other similar compositions is called the allegro. 
See Music. 

Alleine, Joseph, English nonconformist 
clergyman: b. Devizes, 1634; d. Taunton, 17 
Nov. 1668. Educated at Oxford, he became as¬ 
sistant at St. Mary Magdalene’s Church, Taun¬ 
ton, in 1655, but was ejected for nonconformity 
in 1662. He was the author of <An Alarm to 
the Unconverted.* 

Allemontite, a tin-white, metallic mineral, 
regarded as a native alloy of arsenic and anti¬ 
mony. SbAs 3 . It usually occurs in fine-gran¬ 
ular or mammillary forms. Its hardness is 3.5 
and specific gravity about 6.20. It js found at 
Allemont in France, also in Bohemia and Ger¬ 
many. 

Allen, Alexander Viets Griswold, Protes¬ 
tant theologian: b. Otis, Mass., 4 May 1841. 
Graduated Kenyon College, O., 1862, Andover 
Theological Seminary, 1865; rector St. John’s 
Episcopal Church, Lawrence, Mass., 1865-7; 
professor of church history, Episcopal Theo¬ 
logical School, Cambridge, since 1867. A prom¬ 
inent leader in modern religious thought; he 
has written ( Continuity of Christian Thought* 
(1884) ; ( Life of Jonathan Edwards* (1889) ; 
< Religious Progress* (1893) ; < Christian In¬ 

stitutions* (1897) ; <Life and Letters of Phil¬ 
lips Brooks* (1900). 

Allen, Alfred, author and playwright: b. 
Alfred, N. Y., 8 April 1866. He graduated at 
Alfred University, studied at the Johns Hop¬ 
kins and Columbia universities and the Ameri¬ 
can Academy of Dramatic Arts in which last he 
is now a professor. His plays are ( Jack the 
Giant Killer* ; ( A Burglar Honeymoon* ; 

< Playmates* ; and ( Head of the House* ; all 
have been produced on the stage. Novels: ( The 
Heart of Don Vega* ; ( Judge Lynch* ; ( The 
Cup of Victory* (with Richard Hovey). 

Allen, Charles Grant Blairfindie. See 

Allen, Grant. 

Allen, Charles Herbert, American diplo¬ 
matist : b. Lowell, Mass., 15 April 1848. He gradu¬ 
ated at Amherst 1869; associated with his father 
in the lumber business in Lowell; served in 
both branches of the State legislature, and in 
Congress in 1885-9; was defeated as Republican 
candidate for governor of Massachusetts, 1891 ; 
.and succeeded Theodore Roosevelt as assistant 
secretary of the navy in May 1898. On the pas¬ 
sage by Congress of the Porto Rico tariff and 
civil government bill, in April 1900, the Presi¬ 
dent appointed him the first civil governor of 
Porto Rico: he resigned July 1901. 

Allen, David Oliver, missionary: b. Barre, 
Mass., 1800; d. Lowell, Mass., 17 July 1863. 
He was graduated at Amherst College in 1823; 


ALLEN 


and became a missionary in western India 1827- 
53. He established schools in the province of 
Bombay, wrote tracts ins Mahratta, and edited a 
new translation of the Bible in that language. 
He also wrote a < History of India, Ancient and 
Modern P (1856). 

Allen, Ebenezer, American soldier: b. 
Northampton, Mass., 17 Oct. 1743; d. 26 March 
1806. He emigrated to Vermont in 1771, and 
was made a lieutenant in Col. Seth Warner’s 
regiment of <( Green Mountain Boys.® In 1776 
he was a delegate to the conventions in the New 
Hampshire grants, and in 1777 to those which 
declared the State independent and framed its 
Constitution. In July of that year he was made 
captain in Herrick’s battalion of « Rangers,» and 
took an active part in the battle of Bennington; 
in September he captured Mount Defiance; and 
he took fifty prisoners among the troops retreat¬ 
ing from Ticonderoga. He afterward became 
major and continued to win distinction during 
the war. He lived at Burlington in his later 
years. 

Allen, Edward Patrick, an American 
Roman Catholic clergyman: b. Lowell, Mass., 
17 March 1853. He worked in the Lowell mills 
as a boy, acquiring his early education at an 
evening school and from local priests; graduated 
at Mount St. Mary’s College, Emmitsburg, Md., 
in 1878; took a course in theology; was ordained 
a priest in 1881 ; was president of Mount St. 
Mary’s College in 1884-797; and on 16 May 1897 
was consecrated fifth bishop of Mobile, Ala. 

Allen, Elisha Hunt, American legislator 
and diplomat: b. New Salem, Mass., 28 Jan. 
1804; d. 1 Jan. 1883. Graduating at Wil¬ 
liams College, 1823, he became a lawyer at Brat- 
tleboro, Vt., but soon removed to Bangor, Me., 
and was a member of the Maine legislature 
1834-41, and speaker in 1838. He was elected rep¬ 
resentative to Congress in 1841. Removing to 
Boston in 1847, he was elected to the Massachu¬ 
setts legislature in 1849. Appointed consul at 
Honolulu in 1852, he held that post till 1856, and 
thence till 1876 was chancellor, minister of 
finance, and chief justice of the Hawaiian king¬ 
dom. Several times during that period and from 
1876 onward he was its minister to the United 
States and died in Washington, dean of the dip¬ 
lomatic corps. 

Allen, Elizabeth Akers (Chase), Ameri¬ 
can poet: b. Strong, Me., 9 Oct. 1832. She 
was married in i860 to Paul Akers, the sculptor, 
who died in 1861; and in 1865 to E. M. Allen 
of New York. Her first volume, ( Forest Buds/ 
appeared under the pen name of «Florence 
Percy® (1855). Other works: ( The Silver 
Bridge and Other Poems 5 (1866) ; a volume of 
< Poems > (1866), which contains ( Rock Me 

to Sleep, Mother > (her authorship of this pop¬ 
ular ballad, once disputed, is proved in the New 
York Times, 27 May 1867) ; < The High Top 
Sweeting and other Poems ) (1891), Sunset- 
Song } (1902). 

Allen, Ethan, American soldier: b. Litch¬ 
field, Conn., 10 Jan. 1737; d. 13 Feb. 1789. 
About 1769 he removed to Bennington, Vt. The 
Vermont territory had been given by the Crown 
to both New Hampshire and New York under 
conflicting grants; and when the disoute was 
settled (1764) in favor of New York, Gov. 
Wentworth of New Hampshire had already 

Vol. 1— 20 . 


granted 128 townships, and continued to grant 
others up to the Revolution. New York at once 
proceeded to re-grant the same territory, but the 
indignant settlers drove out the surveyors, ap¬ 
plying the (< beech seal® (fresh-cut rods) to 
enforce their withdrawal. The English gov¬ 
ernment ordered the status quo to be respect¬ 
ed by New York, and further disorders averted 
by granting only ungranted lands; the New 
York authorities continued to send surveyors, 
their grantees persisted in attempting to take 
possession of their lands, and the New Hamp¬ 
shire grantees continued to eject both deputy 
sheriffs and claimants by armed force and to 
chastise them besides. Allen at once took part 
in the dispute and soon became a leader: an 
athletic and adventurous giant, he was now in 
his element. In 1770 he was appointed agent 
for the settlers at Albany, where they were to 
plead their rights; the decision went against 
them, and a fresh attempt being made to enforce 
New York rights, the settlers raised a regi¬ 
ment for defense, called <( Green Mountain 
Boys,» of which Allen was made colonel. 
Tryon of New York, historically more re¬ 
nowned for vanity and bad temper than ability 
or success, proclaimed him an outlaw and of¬ 
fered £150 for his capture; but under Allen, 
Seth Warner, and other able partisan chiefs 
the settlers held New York at bay. Allen in 
1774 answered publications in defense of the 
New York claims by a tract defending the Ver¬ 
monters, reprinted in 1779. When the Revolu¬ 
tion broke out Congress ordered Arnold to 
raise troops and seize the British fortresses on 
the New York border; but the Vermonters fore¬ 
stalled them by collecting a force of (( Green 
Mountain Boys » at Castleton, Vt., under Allen’s 
command, which on 10 May 1775, captured Ti¬ 
conderoga and its garrison without a combat, 
and shortly after Crown Point and Skenes- 
borough (Whitehall), giving them a mass of 
stores and the command of Lake Champlain. 
This action moved Congress to grant them the 
same pay as Continental soldiers, and to recom¬ 
mend the New York Assembly to employ them 
in the army under their own officers. Allen and 
Warner journeyed thither and asked admittance 
to the session; and after some grumbling over 
receiving proclaimed felons a heavy majority 
voted to admit Allen, and later to raise a regi¬ 
ment of Green Mountain Boys. Allen wrote a 
letter of thanks, and proposed an invasion of 
Canada, which was rejected. He then joined 
Schuyler’s army as a volunteer, was sent on 
secret missions to Canada, meeting on the last 
one Col. John Brown, who agreed to join him 
in an invasion of Canada. Fort Chambly was 
captured; but Brown left Allen in the lurch at 
the attack on Montreal, and Allen was taken 
prisoner 25 September and sent to England. He 
was chained and treated with great severity, but 
after some months was sent to Halifax, N. S., 
and exchanged 6 May 1778. On returning to Ver¬ 
mont he was appointed commander o-f the mi¬ 
litia, and Congress made him lieutenant-colonel 
in the regular army. The old land-grant feud 
still raged, and in the attempted British intrigue 
(1780-3) to have Vermont annex itself to Can¬ 
ada as a protection against New York. Allen 
paralyzed British military action by professing 
to consider a bribe for favorable action; later he 
was charged with treason, but the charge was 


ALLEN 


not sustained. He settled in Bennington and 
finally in Burlington, where he died. He was a 
member of the legislature; and after the war 
was a delegate to Congress, where he worked 
for the admission of Vermont as a State, which 
it had been by self-proclamation since 1777. It 
was not till 1789, however, that New York 
waived its claims, and Allen did not live to 
see the result. He wrote the story of his cap¬ 
tivity (1779) ; and ( Reason the Only Oracle of 
Man > (1784), being a deist of the Paine stripe. 
(See Sparks’ ( Life,> and Henry Hall’s ( Ethan 
Allen, } 1892.) 

Allen, Frederick De Forest, classical 
scholar: b. Oberlin, Ohio, 1844; d. Cambridge, 
Mass., 4 Aug. 1897. He graduated at Oberlin 
College 1863, and studied at Leipsic. From 
1866 to 1880 he held professorships in the uni¬ 
versities of Tennessee, Cincinnati, and Yale. 
In 1880 he accepted the chair of classical 
philology at Harvard, holding it until his death. 
He published an edition of Euripides’ ( Medea > 
(1876), ( Remnants of Early Latin > (1880), a 
revision of Hadley’s ( Greek Grammar J (1884), 
and ( Greek Versification in Inscriptions } 
(1880) ; besides contributing many papers to 
classical journals and editing numerous classics. 

Allen, Fred Hovey, author and Congrega¬ 
tional clergyman: b. Lyme, N. H., 1 Oct. 1845. 
He graduated at Hartford Theological Semi¬ 
nary and studied abroad. Later he became pas¬ 
tor at Boston and Abingdon, Mass., and edi¬ 
tor of the Suffolk County Journal, Boston, 
and a lecturer on art. He has published: 
( Modern German Masters > (1885) ; ( Recent 
German Art } (1885); ( Great Cathedrals of 

the World > (1886); ( Popular History of the 
Reformation 5 (1887); and edited numerous 

art works. 

Allen, George William, Canadian states¬ 
man : b. Toronto 1822. Called to the bar in 1846 
he became senator in 1867. For many years he 
was chairman of the Committee on Banking and 
Commerce. In 1891 he became member of the 
Queen’s privy council for Canada. He pre¬ 
sented the city of Toronto with the ground on 
which is built the Canadian Institute. He was 
for a long time chancellor of the University of 
Toronto. 

Allen, Grant (Charles Grant Blair- 
findie Allen), essayist, novelist, naturalist: b. 
Kingston, Canada, 24 Feb. 1848; d. London, 25 
Oct. 1899. He graduated at Oxford in 1871, and 
for a time was professor of logic and philosophy 
in Jamaica, but spent the greater part of his life 
in England. Widely known as a scientist in 
several departments, he aimed to popularize sci¬ 
ence, and his brilliant style contributed greatly 
to his success in this respect. His score or so 
of novels and works of light fiction attained 
great popularity, but though entertaining have 
only an ephemeral value. His outspoken agnos¬ 
ticism is reflected in many of his writings. In 
science his chief titles are, ( Physiological y£s- 
thetics 5 (1877) ; ( The Color Sense* (1879); 
< Evolutionist at Large * (1881) ; ( Flowers and 
Their Pedigrees* (1883); ( Charles Darwin* 
(1885); ( Force and Energy* (1888); ( Story 
of the Plants ) (1896) ; ( Evolution of the Idea 
of God* (1897). In fiction the following were 
most widely read, ( This Mortal Coil * (1888) ; 
( The Great Taboo * (1890) ; ( The Duchess of 


Powysland * (1891) ; ( The Woman Who Did * 
(1895); ( The British Barbarians* (1895); 

( Under Sealed Orders ) (1896). 

Allen, Harrison, anatomist: b. Philadel¬ 
phia, 17 April 1844; d. there, 14 Nov. 1897. 
He graduated M.D. at the University of Penn¬ 
sylvania 1861; was assistant surgeon in the 
United States army 1862-5; professor of 
comparative anatomy and medical zoology in 
the University of Pennsylvania 1865-78, and 
of physiology 1878-95. He was the author 
of numerous articles and books on the subjects 
connected with his professorship, and of ( Stud¬ 
ies in the Facial Region ) (1874) > ( Analysis of 
the Life Form in Art * (1875); ( System of 
Human Anatomy * (1880). 

Allen, Henry, religious enthusiast: b. New¬ 
port, R. I., 14 June 1748; d. Northampton, N. H., 
2 Feb. 1784. He was founder of the sect known 
as <( Allenites ** and made numerous converts in 
Nova Scotia. He asserted that Adam and Eve 
before the fall had not corporeal bodies, that 
the Bible is to be interpreted wholly in a 
mystic or spiritual sense, and denied the doc¬ 
trine of the resurrection of the body. He was an 
eloquent preacher and published some sermons 
and hymns. 

Allen, Henry Watkins, American soldier 
and public officer: b. Prince Edward County, Va., 
29 April 1820; d. 22 April 1866. He removed in 
early youth to Missouri, where he was sent to 
Marion College; he subsequently became a 
teacher in Grand Gulf, Miss., studied law and 
entered practice there. He raised a company 
for Houston’s Texas war against Mexico; and 
after the war was over resumed practice, and was 
sent to the legislature in 1846. Settling in 
Baton Rouge, he was elected to the Louisiana 
legislature in 1853. In 1859 he went to Italy, to 
share her struggle for independence against 
Austria; but arriving after it was over, made a 
tour of Europe, which he described in ( Travels 
of a Sugar Planter.* He was elected to the leg¬ 
islature in his absence. He was one of the 
Southern Whigs who joined the Democrats after 
the party break-up caused by the Kansas-Ne- 
braska bill. At the opening of the War 
he was commissioned by the Confederacy lieu¬ 
tenant-colonel ; later colonel, and military gov¬ 
ernor at Jackson. He was wounded at Shiloh; 
constructed fortifications at Vicksburg; was dis¬ 
abled at Baton Rouge; made brigadier-general 
September 1864 ; and shortly after elected gov¬ 
ernor of Louisiana. He was a vigorous and 
efficient magistrate, with almost dictatorial 
powers. After the War he migrated to Mexico 
and started the (English) Mexico Times in the 
city of Mexico, where he died. 

Allen, Horace N., American minister: b. 
Delaware, Ohio, 23 April 1858. He graduated at 
Ohio Wesleyan University, and after a medical 
course went to China as Presbyterian missionary. 
Going to Korea in 1884 he was in Seoul at the 
time of the coup d’etat of that year and saved 
the life of a prince related to the queen; he was 
thereupon made court physician and allowed to 
establish a hospital under government orders. 
He came to Washington in 1887 with the first 
Korean legation, and returned in 1890 as United 
States secretary of legation; won great confi¬ 
dence for sagacity and acquaintance with Korea 
and in 1897 was made United States minister 


ALLEN 


there. He has written < Korean Tales) (1889) ; 

( Chronological Index of Foreign Relations of 
Korea from Beginning of Christian Era to 20th 
Century> (1900, supplement 1903) ; ( Korea: 

Fact and Fancy) (1904) ; transactions of the 
Foreign Society of Korean 

Allen, Horatio, American engineer: b. 
Schenectady, N. Y., 1802; d. 1889. Graduating 
at Columbia University in 1823, in 1826 he was 
resident engineer on the summit level of the 
Delaware & Hudson Canal, and was sent to Eng¬ 
land in 1828 to buy locomotives for its proposed 
railway. In 1829 he made the first locomotive 
trip in America at Honesdale, Pa., with the 
( Stourbridge Lion.) He was chief engineer, 
1829-34, of the South Carolina Railway, then the 
longest line in the world; and in 1838-42 was 
chief assistant engineer of the Croton Aqueduct. 
He was chief engineer and afterward president 
of the Erie Railway, consulting engineer of the 
Panama Railway and the Brooklyn Bridge; 
president of the American Society of Civil En¬ 
gineers 1872-3. He invented the swivel car-truck. 

Allen, Ira, younger brother of Ethan 
(q.v.) and a (( Green Mountain Boy®: b. Corn¬ 
wall, Conn., 21 April 1751; d. 7 Jan. 1814. He 
went to Vermont in 1772 and was an active sup¬ 
porter of Ethan in the beech seal® proceedings. 
He was a member of the Vermont legislature 
1776-7, and of the Vermont Constitutional Con¬ 
vention 1778; was its first secretary of state, 
then its treasurer, and surveyor-general. He 
was in the battle of Bennington, 1777. In 1780-1 
he was a Vermont commissioner to Congress to 
contest the New York land claim. In 1789 he 
aided in organizing the University of Vermont; 
and in 1792 was a delegate to the convention that 
ratified the United States Constitution after Ver¬ 
mont’s admission as a State. In 1795, as senior 
major-general of militia, he went to France and 
bought arms to be sold to the State; but in re¬ 
turning was captured by an English cruiser, 
taken to England, and charged with supplying 
the Irish rebels with arms, and only won his 
suit after eight years. Imprisoned in France in 
1798 he returned to the United States in 1801. 
He wrote <The Natural and Political History 
of Vermont) (London 1798) ; Statements Ap¬ 
pended to the Olive Branch) (1807). 

Allen, James Lane, American novelist: b. 
near Lexington, Ky., 1849. He was educated at 
Transylvania University in his native State and 
was successively an instructor in Kentucky 
University and Bethany College, West Virginia. 
I11 1886 he removed to New York city and has 
since devoted himself entirely to literary pur¬ 
suits. In his short stories and novels he has 
usually employed a Kentucky background, and 
his finished literary style, though somewhat too 
highly elaborated for the taste of the average 
reader, has been much admired by the more 
critical. His prose is characterized by a 
markedly poetic cast, and his realism is of that 
profounder kind which concerns itself with es¬ 
sential truths rather than with photographic 
fidelity to local types. His published books com¬ 
prise: ( Flute and Violin ) (1891) ; ( The Blue 
Grass Region and Other Sketches ) (1892) ; 
'John Gray, a NoveP (1893); ( A Kentucky 
CardinaP (1894); ( Aftermath> (1895).; ( A 
Summer in Arcady) (1896) ; ( The Choir In¬ 
visible) (1897); ( The Reign of Law) (1900); 
( The Mettle of the Pasture) (1903). 


Allen, Jerome, American educator: b. 
Westminster West, Vt., 1830; d. 1894. He grad¬ 
uated at Amherst 1851; was professor and prin¬ 
cipal of several Western institutions thence till 
1885; professor of pedagogy at the University of 
New York 1887-93. He was the chief agency 
in founding the New York School of Pedagogy 
and became its dean in 1889. He wrote a 
( Handbook of Experimental Chemistry); 

( Methods for Teachers in Grammar) ; ( Mind 
Studies for Young Teachers) ; and tempera¬ 
ment in Education.) 

Allen, Joel Asaph, naturalist: b. Spring- 
field, Mass., 19 July 1838. He studied under 
Agassiz at Harvard; took part in scientific ex¬ 
peditions to Brazil, the Rocky Mountains, and 
Florida 1865-9; was chief of the scientific party 
accompanying the Northern Pacific railroad 
survey 1873; and curator of vertebrate zo¬ 
ology in the American Museum of Natural His¬ 
tory, New York, since 1885. He is author 
of ( Monographs of North American Rodentia) 
(with E. Coues, 1877) ; ( History of North 
American Pinnipedes) (1880); editor of bul¬ 
letin of Nuttall Ornithological Club) (1876-83), 
and of its successor, ( The Auk) (1884-1901) ; 
bulletin and Memoirs of the American Museum 
of Natural History) (1889-1905). 

Allen, Sir John Campbell, Canadian jurist: 
b. Kingslear, N. B., October 1817; d. Frederic¬ 
ton, N. B., 27 Sept. 1898. He was member of 
the New Brunswick House of Assembly 1856- 
65; solicitor-general 1856-7; speaker 1863-5; at¬ 
torney-general 1865. He opposed the confed¬ 
eration of the Maritime Provinces and Canada. 
He was chief justice of the supreme court 
1875-96, and was knighted by the queen 1889. 
His ( Law Reports) (6 vols.) and rules of the 
supreme court and acts of assembly relating to 
the practice of the courts are ranked highly. 

Allen, John Romilly, English civil engi¬ 
neer and archaeologist: b. London, 9 June 1847. 
Educated at Rugby and King’s College, London, 
he became resident engineer on Baron de Reu¬ 
ter’s Persian railways, and on the construction 
of the docks at Leith and at Boston, Lincoln¬ 
shire. Has lectured on archaeology at Edin¬ 
burgh and at University College, London. His 
books are: ( Design and Construction of Dock 
Walls) (1876) ; ( Christian Symbolism in Great 
Britain) (1887) ; ( Monumental History of the 
Early British Church) (1889) ; ( Early Christian 
Monuments of Scotland) (1903). 

Allen, Joseph Henry, Unitarian clergyman 
and author: b. Northborough, Mass., 21 Aug. 
1821; d. Cambridge, Mass., 20 March 1898. He 
graduated at Harvard 1840, and at its divin¬ 
ity school 1843, and filled pastorates at North- 
borough, Roxbury, Mass., Washington, D. C., 
Bangor, Me., and other places till 1878. For 
twelve years he was editor of the ( Christian Ex¬ 
aminer.) He was also lecturer on ecclesiastical 
history at Harvard 1878-82, editor of the ( Uni- 
tarian Review) 1887-98, and a prolific writer on 
religious and philosophical subjects. His chief 
works are: ( Ten Discourses on Orthodoxy) 
(1849) ; ^Hebrew Men and Times) (1861) ; 
( Christian History in its Three Great Pe¬ 
riods) (3 vols. 1880-2) ; bositive Religion) 
(1892); ( Unitarianism Since the Reforma¬ 
tion) (1894) ; translations of Renan’s ( Anti- 


ALLEN 


Christ,* ( Origins of Christianity,* and his¬ 
tory of the People of Israeli A Latin grammar 
and other schoolbooks, prepared in collaboration 
with Prof. J. B. Greenough, are extensively 
used. 

Allen, Karl Ferdinand, Danish historian: 
b. Copenhagen, 23 April 1811; d. there, 27 Dec. 
1871. He became professor of history and 
northern archaeology at the University of Co¬ 
penhagen in 1862. His principal works are: 
( Handbook of the History of the Fatherland ) 
(1840), very democratic in tone, and ( History of 
the Three Northern Kingdoms > (1864-72). 

Allen, Richard, preacher: b. 1760; d. Phil¬ 
adelphia, 26 March 1831. He organized the first 
church for colored people in the United States 
and was elected first bishop of the African 
Methodist Episcopal Church, 1816. 

Allen, Robert, American soldier: b. Ohio 
about 1815; d. Geneva, Switzerland, 1886. 
Graduating at West Point in 1836, he was second 
lieutenant in the Seminole war, assistant quar¬ 
termaster in the Mexican war, brevetted major 
for conduct at Cerro Gordo, and was in the bat¬ 
tles that led to the capture of the City of Mexico. 
Appointed chief quartermaster of the Pacific di¬ 
vision, he was transferred to Missouri at the 
outbreak of the Civil War, with headquarters in 
St. Louis, in charge of supplies and transporta¬ 
tion for armies in the Mississippi Valley. He 
was made colonel in 1862, brigadier-general 
of volunteers 1863, brevet brigadier-general in 
the regular army 1864, brevet major-general 
1865. From November 1863 to 1866 he was 
chief quartermaster of the Mississippi Valley 
with headquarters at Louisville, outfitted Sher¬ 
man’s march across country to Chattanooga, 
and the Kentucky, Virginia, and North Carolina 
expeditions. After serving a second time as 
chief quartermaster of the Pacific division he 
was retired in 1878. 

Allen, Thomas, landscape and animal 
painter: b. St. Louis, 19 Oct. 1849. He studied 
at Washington University, graduated at Royal 
Academy of Diisseldorf, and studied in France 
three years. Has frequently exhibited at the 
Paris salons and was a judge of awards at the 
World’s Fair, Chicago, 1893. He was chairman 
of the International Jury of Awards at the 
Louisiana Purchase Exposition 1904. 

Allen, Viola, American actress: b. 1867; 
made her debut at the age of 15 at Madison 
Square Theatre, N. Y., in ( Esmeralda.* She 
has played leading classical, Shakespearean, and 
comedy roles. Between 1893-1900 created and 
played parts in ( Sowing the Wind,* ( The 
Masqueraders,* ( Under the Red RobeP and 
starred in Flail Caine’s ( Christian,> F. M. Craw¬ 
ford’s ( In the Palace of the King,* Hall Caine’s 
( The Eternal City-* (1902), Shakespearean roles 
f 1 903-5) ; Cymbeline ) (1906). 

Allen, Walter, American author and journal¬ 
ist: b. Boston, Mass., 21 March 1840; d. Newton 
Highlands, Mass., 7 Feb. 1907. He graduated 
at Yale in 1863; served in paymaster’s depart¬ 
ment of the navy, 1864-5; was connected with 
leading newspapers in Portland, Me., Cincin¬ 
nati, Boston and New York, was appointed by 
President Hayes to investigate the condition of 
the Ponca Indians. He was assistant editor of 
Webster’s International Dictionary and author 
of ( Governor Chamberlain’s Administration in 
South Carolina* and ( Life of Gen. U. S. Grant. ) 


Allen, William, Cardinal, English ecclesi¬ 
astic : b. 1532 in Lancashire, studied at Oxford 
and was Fellow of Oriel College. Owing to the 
persecution of Catholics under Queen Elizabeth 
he left England, and in 1568 he, with the assist¬ 
ance of Dr. Vendeville, founded an English 
College at Douay, where aspirants to the priest¬ 
hood might obtain the instruction denied to them 
at home. During the first five years of its 
existence, this college trained and sent back to 
England over 100 priests. Another of his claims 
to the gratitude of English-speaking Catholics 
is that while professor at Douay, in collaboration 
with Gregory Martins and Richard Bristow he 
translated the Bible from the Latin Vulgate 
into English. This translation is known as 
the Douay Bible (q. v.) and is the one generally 
used by Catholics in England and America. 

Allen, William, American preacher and 
miscellaneous writer: b. Pittsfield, Mass., 2 
Jan. 1784; d. Northampton, Mass., 16 July 
1868. He became president of Dartmouth Uni¬ 
versity in 1817, and was president of Bowdoin 
College 1820-39. Of numerous works, both in 
prose and verse, the best known is ( American 
Biographical and Historical Dictionary* (3d ed. 

1857)- 

Allen, William, American public official: 
b. Edenton, N. C., 1806; d. 11 July 1879. He 
studied law at Chillicothe, Ohio, was admitted 
to the bar at 21, and in three years had become 
noted as a coming leader. In 1832 he was 
elected (Democratic) member of Congress by 
one vote, the youngest member of the Twenty- 
second Congress. He was a leading champion 
of his party; took an active part in the 1836 can¬ 
vass for Van Buren, and was given the United 
States senatorship by the Democrats at the earli¬ 
est age of any senator before or since. He was 
re-elected in 1843, and in 1848 was tendered the 
nomination for the Presidency by the supporters 
of both Cass and Van Buren, but refused from 
loyalty to Cass. After the expiration of his 
term Mr. Allen took no further part in public 
life for nearly a quarter of a century, till 1873, 
when he was elected governor of Ohio; again 
nominated in 1875 as a ^rag-money** champion, 
he was defeated by Rutherford B. Hayes. His 
stentorian voice gave him the Congressional 
nickname of the (( Ohio Gong® ; and he is cred¬ 
ited with the famous slogan of the cam¬ 
paign of 1844 on the question of the northwest¬ 
ern boundary, <( Fifty-four forty or fight.® 

Allen, William Francis, historian and es¬ 
sayist: b. Northborough, Mass., 5 Sept. 1830; d. 
9 Dec. 1889. He graduated Harvard in 1851; 
studied at Berlin, Gottingen, and Rome, 1854-6; 
was professor of Latin and history in the Uni¬ 
versity of Wisconsin 1867-89 and is noted as a 
scholar of wide and varied attainments, equally 
strong in the linguistic, historical, and archae¬ 
ological sides of hi's subjects. A list of his 
writings covers thirty i2mo. pages. Three 
of especial interest may be found in the Transac¬ 
tions of the American Philological Association 
for the years given: ( The Battle of Mons 
Graupius ) (1880); c Lex Curiata de Imperio y 
(1888) ; ( The Monetary Crisis in Rome, a.d. 
33 ) (1887). 

Allen, William Henry, American naval 
officer: b. Providence, R. I., 1784; d. 1813. He 
entered the navy in 1800 and served in some of 
the greatest naval battles in American history. 


ALLEN —ALLIANCE OF THE REFORMED CHURCHES 


For bravery displayed on the Chesapeake and 
United States he was made commander of the 
brig Argus in June 1813. He did great damage 
to English commerce in the Irish Channel, cap¬ 
turing in a month 27 ships. In a few days the 
Argus was taken by the English brig Pelican. 
In the battle Allen was shot, died soon after¬ 
ward, and was buried with military honors in 
Plymouth, England. 

Allen, William Vincent, American politi¬ 
cian : b. Midway, O., 28 Jan. 1847. He was edu¬ 
cated at public schools and Upper Iowa Univer¬ 
sity; was a private 32d Iowa infantry in the 
Civil War; was admitted to the bar'31 May 
i860; was senator from Nebraska 1893-9 anil 
again by appointment from 18 Dec. 1899 to 27 
March 1900. Pie was chairman of the Populist 
national convention of 1896. 

Allen, Willis Boyd, American writer: b. 
Kittery Point, Me., 9 July 1855. Besides a col¬ 
lection of verse, entitled ( In the Morning,> he 
has written several books for young people, in¬ 
cluding ( The Red Mountain of Alaska,> ( Pine 
Cones,> (1885) ; ( Silver Rags ) (1886), < Kelp, ) 
( Navy Blue ) (1888) ; ( The Mammoth-Hunters. ) 

Allen, Zachariah, American inventor: b. 
Providence, R. I., 15 Sept. 1795; d. 17 March 
1882. He was graduated at Brown University 
in 1813, and was admitted to the bar in 1815, 
but soon turned his attention to manufacturing. 
He traveled ir Europe 1825, to study manu¬ 
facturing methods, and on his return published 
the Practical Tourist. 5 He invented in 1821 
the first hot-air furnace for household use; in 
1833 the automatic cut-off valve for steam en¬ 
gines;'and later an improved fire engine, ex¬ 
tension rollers, and a storage system for water¬ 
power. He first suggested the system of mu¬ 
tual mill insurance, and drafted laws to regu¬ 
late the sale of explosive oils. He was the 
first to compute the motive power of Niagara. 
He was a member from 1822 and president 
from 1880 of the Rhode Island Historical So¬ 
ciety. He published ( The Science of Mechan¬ 
ics > (1829) ; ( Philosophy of the Mechanics of 
Nature 5 (1851) ; ( Solar Light and Heat, the 
Source and Supply 5 (1879) ; etc. 

Allen-a-Dale, the friend and confidant of 
Robin Hood in the Robin Hood ballads. 

Allenites. See Allen, Henry. 

Allentown, Pa., city and county-seat of Le¬ 
high County on the Lehigh Valley, the Phila¬ 
delphia & Reading, and the Central of New 
Jersey R.R.’s, six miles S.W. of Bethlehem, 18 
miles S.W. of Easton, and 55 miles N.W. of 
Philadelphia. It was founded about 1752 by 
William Allen, Esq., Chief Justice of the Prov¬ 
ince of Pennsylvania, father-in-law of Gover¬ 
nor John Penn, and a great friend of the Penn 
family, from whom he derived his grants of land, 
and named Allentown in honor of its founder. 
Here Colonel James Bird displayed much hero¬ 
ism in the wars against the Indians; here, dur¬ 
ing the Revolution, the bells now in Christ 
Church, Philadelphia, were concealed by the 
Americans; and here, in 1799, John Fries(q.v.), 
of <( Fries Rebellion 55 notoriety, fomented the 
German opposition to the (( window tax. 55 In¬ 
habited at first by a few wealthy and unenter¬ 
prising Germans, and by the influence of the 
neighboring towns cut off for several years 
from the different post routes, it remained un¬ 
progressive until, in 1811, by the division of 
Northampton County, it became the seat of 


justice of Lehigh County, and by an act of the 
Legislature passed 18 Mar. 1811, was incorpo¬ 
rated as Northampton Borough. With its ad¬ 
vance to the rank of a county-seat, the town 
improved rapidly, and its accessibility to de¬ 
posits of limestone, iron ore, zinc, cement, etc., 
added to its increasing importance in trade 
and wealth. An inadequate water supply, 
one of its chief drawbacks, was removed in 
1828 by the organization of a water company, 
and the city now owns and operates 
water-works. In 1838 the original name of the 
town was restored, and in 1867 it received a 
special charter. Allentown now ranks second 
only to Paterson in the United States c or the 
manufacture of silks, and has considerable 
manufactures of iron and steel, furniture, ce¬ 
ment, thread, and cigars. The large court¬ 
house, fine hospital, spacious prison, and other 
public buildings are of hewn limestone. The 
numerous educational establishments include 
Muhlenberg College, a Lutheran institution 
founded in 1867; the Allentown College for 
Women; a theological seminary, and a mili¬ 
tary institute. The city is governed under a 
charter of 1889 by a council divided into an 
upper house of 11 members and a lower house 
of 22 members, presided over by a mayor, who 
is elected triennially. The city’s annual income 
is about $450,000. The inhabitants are largely 
of German descent, and German is still com¬ 
monly spoken. Pop. (1890) 25,228; (1900) 

35416 . 

Allerton, Isaac, one of the ( Pilgrim 
Fathers 5 : b. England about 1583; a. New 
Haven, Conn., 1659. He was one of the most 
influential members of the Plymouth Colony, 
but on account of some disagreement with his 
associates he removed to New Amsterdam in 
1631, and later to New Haven. Mary Allerton, 
his daughter, was the latest survivor of the 
original Mayflower company. 

All Hallows. See All Saints’ Day. 

Alliaceous Plants. See Allium. 

Alliance, O., city of Stark co., situated on 
the Mahoning River, at the junction of the 
Alliance & Mahoning, Lake Erie, Pittsburg, 
Fort Wayne & Chicago, and other R.R.’s, 56 
miles S.S.E. of Cleveland. It is in a thriving 
agricultural region, and is a busy industrial 
centre with manufactures of agricultural im¬ 
plements, white lead, terra cotta ware, and ex¬ 
tensive steel works, manufacturing heavy ma¬ 
chinery, structural iron work, boilers, cranes, 
gun carriages, steam hammers, and drop lorg- 
ings. The first settlement, made in 1838, was 
known at Freedom until 1850, when the name 
was altered to Alliance. Its principal educa¬ 
tional establishment, Mount Union College, a 
Methodist Episcopal institution, was founded in 
1846. Alliance, incorporated as a city under a 
charter of 1854, is governed by a mayor, elected 
every two years, and by a council of 12 mem¬ 
bers. Pop. (1890) 7,607; (1900) 8,974. 

Alliance of the Reformed Churches Hold¬ 
ing the Presbyterian System, a voluntary or¬ 
ganization popularly styled the Presbyterian 
Alliance, formed in London in 1875. Its coun¬ 
cils have much moral significance but possess 
no legislative authority. Rather more than 90 
Presbyterian bodies are represented, in the Alli¬ 
ance, with some 25,000,000 adherents in all parts 
of the world. The first General Council of the 


ALLIBONE — ALLIGATOR 


Alliance met in Edinburgh in 1877; and subse¬ 
quently Philadelphia, 1880; Belfast, 1884; Lon¬ 
don, 1888; Toronto, 1892; Glasgow, 1896; Wash¬ 
ington, 1899; Liverpool, 1904. 

Allibone, Samuel Austin, bibliographer 
and librarian: b. Philadelphia, 17 April 1816; d. 
Lucerne, Switzerland, 2 Sept. 1889. For a time 
he engaged in mercantile pursuits; was book- 
editor of the American Sunday-School Union, 
1867-73; and in 1879 was appointed librarian of 
the Lenox Library, New York. He is best 
known by his ( Critical Dictionary of English 
Literature and British and American Authors y 
(3 vols. 1854-71), a monumental work that cost 
him 20 years of labor. It contains notices of 46,- 
499 authors, with extracts from reviews of their 
works, and 40 classified indexes of subjects. It 
is an indispensable reference work for libraries 
and students. A supplement containing over 37,- 
000 authors, by John Foster Kirk, appeared in 
two volumes, 1891. Others of Allibone’s works 
are: ( Poetical Quotations from Chaucer to 
Tennyson } (1873); ( Prose Quotations from 

Socrates to Macaulay > (1876) ; ( Great Authors 
of all Ages: Selections* (1880). 

Allice, or Allis (Fr. alose, from Lat. alau- 
sa) , the larger European shad ( Alosa vulgaris ), 
about 20 inches long. There is but one other 
shad in Europe, the twaite. In the Rhine val¬ 
ley both are called maffisch. See Shad; Twaite. 

Allier, al-le-a, a central department of 
France, intersected by the river Allier and partly 
bounded by the Loire; surface diversified by off¬ 
sets of the Cevennes and other ranges, rising in 
the south to over 4,000 feet, and in general richly 
wooded. It has extensive beds of coal as well 
as other minerals, which are actively worked, 
there being several flourishing centres of mining 
and manufacturing enterprise; mineral waters 
at Vichy, Bourbon, L’Archambault, etc. Large 
numbers of sheep and cattle are bred. Area, 
2,822 miles. Capital, Moulins. Pop. 500,000. 

Allier , a river of France, tributary of the 
Loire, rising in the department of Lozere and 
flowing northward about 200 miles through Lo¬ 
zere, Upper Loire, Puy de Dome, and Allier. 

Allies, Jabez, English antiquary, and one 
of the earliest writers on folklore: b. Sulsley, 
22 Oct. 1787; d. 29 Jan. 1856. He devoted his 
life to the study of the antiquities in his native 
county, embodying the results in his monumental 
work, ( The Ancient British, Roman, and Saxon 
Antiquities and Folklore of Worcestershire* 
(1852). 

Alligator, the name of a genus of croco¬ 
dilian reptiles derived from a corruption of the 
Spanish el lagarto, <( lizard,® from the Latin 
lacertus, a lizard. Alligators differ from croco¬ 
diles mainly in having relatively short and broad 
snouts and by the circumstance that as a rule 
the first and fourth tooth on each side of the 
lower jaw enter into pits in the upper jaw, 
whereas those of crocodiles slide outside of the 
jaw and are visible. The caymans of South 
America may be included in the general term. 
These reptiles are confined mainly to the rivers 
of the New World, in which they typically rep¬ 
resent the crocodiles of the eastern hemisphere, 
but there is one species in China ( Alligator si¬ 
nensis) first made known in 1879, and resembling 
the South American species. The best-known 


species are the alligator of the southern States 
(Alligator mississippiensis) ; the cayman of 
Surinam and Guiana (A palpebrosus ), and the 
spectacled alligator (A. sclerops), found in Bra¬ 
zil. In the water a full-grown alligator is a 
formidable animal, on account of its great size 
and strength. These reptiles swim with wonder¬ 
ful celerity, impelled by their long, laterally- 
compressed, and powerful tails. On land their 
motions are proportionally slow and embar¬ 
rassed, owing to their weight, the shortness of 
their legs, and generally unwieldy proportions. 
It grows to the length of 15 or possibly 20 feet, 
and is covered above by a dense armor of horny 
scales. 

Under the throat of this animal are two 
openings or pores, the excretory ducts from 
glands which pour out a strong, musky fluid, 
giving the alligator a peculiarly unpleasant smell. 
In the spring of the year, when the males are 
under the excitement of the sexual propensity, 
they frequently utter a loud roar, which, from its 
harshness and reverberation, resembles distant 
thunder, especially where numbers are at the 
same time engaged. At this period frequent and 
terrible battles take place between the males, 
which terminate in the discomfiture and retreat 
of one of the parties. The females make their 
nests in a curious manner, on the banks of rivers 
or lagoons, generally in the marshes, along 
which, at a short distance from the water, the 
nests are arranged somewhat like an encamp¬ 
ment. They are obtuse cones four feet high, 
and about four feet in diameter at the base, built 
of mud and grass. A floor of such mortar is 
first spread upon the ground, on which a layer of 
eggs, having hard shells and larger than those 
of a common hen, are deposited. Upon these 
another layer of mortar, seven or eight inches in 
thickness, is spread, and then another bed of 
eggs; and this is repeated nearly to the top. 
From 100 to 200 eggs may be found in one nest. 
It is not ascertained whether each female 
watches her own nest exclusively, or attends to 
more than her own brood. It is unquestionable, 
however, that the females keep near the nests 
and take the young under their vigilant care as 
soon as they are hatched, defending them with 
great perseverance and courage. The young 
may be seen following the mother through the 
water like a brood of chickens following a hen. 
When basking in the sun on shore, the young are 
heard whining and yelping about the mother, not 
unlike young puppies. In situations where alli¬ 
gators are not exposed to much disturbance the 
sites of the nests appear to be very much fre¬ 
quented, as the grass and reeds are beaten down 
for several acres around. The young, when first 
hatched, are very feeble and helpless, and are 
devoured by birds of prey, soft-shelled turtles, 
etc., as well as by the male alligators, until they 
grow old enough to defend themselves. As the 
eggs are also eagerly sought by vultures and 
other animals the race would speedily become 
extinct but for the great fecundity of the fe¬ 
males. 

The alligator is generally considered as dis¬ 
posed to retire from man, but this is only where 
they are frequently disturbed. In situations 
where they are seldom or never interrupted they 
have shown a ferocity and perseverance of the 
most alarming character in attacking individuals 
in boats, rearing their heads from the water 


ALLIGATOR-APPLE — ALLITERATION 


and snapping their jaws in a threatening manner. 
At present alligators, though still numerous in 
the remoter parts of Florida and Louisiana, are 
no longer regarded as very dangerous. Their 
numbers annually decrease, and at no distant 
period they must be nearly, if not quite, exter¬ 
minated. In the winter the alligators spend a 
great part of their time in deep holes, which 
they make in the marshy banks of rivers, etc. 
They feed on fishes, reptiles, small quadrupeds 
(dogs if they can get them), or carrion, and 
though very voracious are capable of existing a 
long time without food. Compare Crocodile; 
and see Cayman ; Jacare. 

Alligator-apple. See Custard-apple. 

Alligator-fish, one of the Agonidce, a fam¬ 
ily of fish whose slender bodies are armored by 
large bony plates. One species 12 inches long 
(Podothecus acipenserinus ) is found on the 
northern Pacific coast. 

Alligator-gar, the immense greenish col¬ 
ored gar ( Litholepis tristcechus ) found in the 
southern States and southward through North 
America, and sometimes measuring 10 feet. See 
Gar. 

Alligator-lizard, any member of the genus 
Sceloporus, which, although iguanid, has many 
small species without the typical iguanid charac¬ 
teristics. They abound in Mexico and the south¬ 
western, United States, and one species ( Scelo¬ 
porus undulatus ) is the familiar <( fence lizard ® 
of the colder States. Though often inconspicu¬ 
ously colored on the back except for black cross- 
lines, the throat and inferior surfaces are gen¬ 
erally striking in color, and frequently there are 
light lines along the sides. They are often 
ignorantly called poisonous, but all are harmless. 

Alligator-pear, or Avocado-pear, a tree, 
Per sea gratissima, of the natural order Lauracea, 
indigenous to subtropical and tropical America 
and widely cultivated in warm countries for its 
more or less pear-shaped, purple- or green¬ 
skinned fruits, each of which contains a single 
seed embedded in a yellowish-green edible mar¬ 
row-like pulp. Wherever it grows the alligator- 
pear is highly prized as a salad and is usually 
served with pepper, salt, and vinegar, or with 
wine and spice, but natives of temperate climates 
usually have to acquire a taste for it. It is rich 
in oil, which may be used in soap-making and in 
lighting. The seeds yield a black dye. Little 
beyond the selection of chance seedlings has 
been done to obtain improved varieties. Seed¬ 
lings are easily raised and begin to bear in about 
five years if planted in good soil in warm places. 
Except in southern Florida and southern Cali¬ 
fornia the avocado-pear does not produce pala¬ 
table fruit in the United States. The American 
market, therefore, which is limited to. the larger 
cities is mainly supplied from Hawaii, Mexico, 
and the West Indies. The fruit is sometimes 
called midshipmans butter and aguacate. 

Alligator-terrapin, -tortoise, or -turtle, 
the snapping-turtle; more particularly, a. very 
large species ( Macrochelys lacertina ) which is 
eaten and esteemed as a delicacy in the lower 
valley of the Mississippi. It sometimes weighs 
50 pounds. 

Allingham, Helen (Paterson), English art¬ 
ist: b. 26 Sept. 1848. Received her art educa¬ 
tion in the Royal Academy Schools, and 


married the Irish poet, William Allingham 
(q.v.) in 1874. She has drawn much in black 
and white for the ( Graphic> and other periodi¬ 
cals. She has published: ( Happy England ) 
(1903) ; ( The Homes of Tennyson* (1905). 

Allingham, William, Irish poet: b. Bally- 
shannon, Ireland, 19 March 1824; d. Hampstead, 
18 Nov. 1889. From 1846 to his retirement in 
1870 he held various posts in the Irish customs 
service. He was sub-editor of ( Fraser’s Maga¬ 
zine^ 1870-4, when he succeeded James Anthony 
Froude as editor, and conducted it with ability 
until 1879. At its best Allingham’s poetry is 
excellent, being simple, clear, and graceful, and 
whether pathetic, sportive, or descriptive is al¬ 
ways characterized by delicate artistic expres¬ 
sion. His best work is in the volume called 
( Day and Night Songs* (1854). ( Laurence 

Bloomfield in Ireland ) (1864), a long poem which 
has been called <( the epic of Irish philanthropic 
landlordism,® has a wealth of fine description, 
but was not a public success. Other volumes 
are, ( Poems* (1850), ( The Ballad Book* 

(1864), ( Songs, Ballads, and Stories * (1877). 
( Collected Poetical Works > (6 vols. 1888-93). 

Allison, William Boyd, American legis¬ 
lator : b. Perry, Ohio, 2 March 1829. A farmer’s 
son, he received an excellent education, first at 
Allegheny College, Pa., then at Western Reserve 
College, Ohio. Studying law, he practised in 
his native State till 1857, when he removed to 
Dubuque, Iowa. An ardent Republican and a 
trusted local political leader, he was sent as a 
delegate to the Republican national convention 
in Chicago in i860, which nominated Lincoln. 
In the early part of the Civil War he served on 
the governor’s staff, and was actively engaged in 
raising troops for the Union army. In 1863 he 
was elected to Congress, and served by suc¬ 
cessive re-elections till 1869; on 4 March 1873 
he was elected to the United States Senate, and 
has been four times re-elected, in 1878, 1884, 
1890, 1896 and 1904, his 34 years of service 
making him one of the oldest as he has always 
been among the most influential leaders. He has 
served on many important committees; and as 
chairman of the Finance Committee in 1878 was 
the chief author of the bill that committee re¬ 
ported for the purchase of silver bullion, usually 
known as the Bland-Allison Act, for the pur¬ 
chase of silver bullion (see Bland Silver Bill), 
a compromise from the free-coinage bill of Con¬ 
gressman Bland. He has repeatedly been a 
strong candidate in Republican national conven¬ 
tions for the presidency; and was offered the 
secretaryship of the treasury by both Garfield 
and Harrison. In 1892 he was a representative 
of the United States at the Brussels Monetary 
Conference. 

All is True, a play attributed to Shake¬ 
speare. The burning of the Globe Theatre (29 
March 1613) while the piece was being played 
destroyed the manuscript. Parts of the drama 
were incorporated into the play of ( Henry 
VIII. : > 

Alliteration, the succession or frequent oc¬ 
currence of words beginning with the same con¬ 
sonant. In the older Scandinavian, German, and 
Anglo-Saxon poetry it served instead of rhyme. 
It is found in early English poetry with the same 
function. As thus used it. had a certain regu¬ 
larity of accent and emphasis. In ( Piers Plow- 


ALLIUM — ALLOPHANE 


man > the line is constructed with two hemi- 
stichs, the former with two words beginning 
with the alliterative letter, and the latter with 
one, thus: 

“ Her robe was full rich with red scarlet engreyned.” 

The poetry of widely separated nations exhib¬ 
its this device, it being found both in India and 
in Finland. It still remains in Icelandic poetry. 
Early in the 17th century English writers ran to 
great extravagance in the use of alliteration, 
both in prose and poetry. It is said that preach¬ 
ers from their pulpits addressed their hearers as 
(< chickens of the church ® and <( sweet swallows 
of salvation.® No other device of composition 
so easily lends itself to fanciful conceits or in¬ 
genious trifling. The ease with which devices 
may be marshaled would hardly tend to make 
the ordinary reader appreciative of Churchill’s 
description of himself as one 

“ Who often, but without success, had prayed 
For apt alliteration’s artful aid.” 

But the couplet itself is a striking proof of its 
own truth, for it shows that the poet did not 
know what alliteration is: it must be of con¬ 
sonants, not vowels, and even so his a’ s are alike 
only to the eye, not the ear. All good poets 
have used it to lend musical beauty or emphasis 
to their verse, though it can be over-used or mis¬ 
used. Following are a few from the chief 
American poets: 

“ And the spark struck out by that steed in his / 7 ight 
Kindled the land into flame with its heat.” 

Longfellow. 

“ It carves the bow of beauty there, 

And the ripples in rhymes the oar forsake.” 

Emerson. 

“ Of trailing winds, and naked woods.” Bryant. 

“And bark! bow clear bold chanticleer, 

fFarmed with the new wine of the year.” 

Lowell. 

“ Stole with soft steps the shining stairway through.” 

Holmes. 

“What a tale of terror now their turbulency tells!” 

Poe. 

“Across the mournful marbles play.” Whittier. 

Allium, a genus of about 250 perennial, 
rarely biennial, bulbous herbs of the natural or¬ 
der Liliacecc, mainly indigenous to the colder 
parts of the northern hemisphere. The leaves 
are generally long and narrow, often, however, 
cylindrical and hollow; the flowers in umbels, 
often with bulblets among them. Many of the 
species are economically important; for instance, 
Allium cepa, the onion; Allium sativum, garlic; 
Allium porrum, leek; Allium ascalonicum, shal¬ 
lot; Allium schoenoprasum, chive; Allium sco- 
rcdoprasum, rocambole, each of which is treated 
separately under its common name. Several un¬ 
cultivated members of the genus are also used 
as food in countries where they grow wild. 
Allium vineale, wild onion or wild garlic, a Eu¬ 
ropean species introduced into the United States, 
is a troublesome weed, especially in New Eng¬ 
land pastures, since it imparts a strong flavor 
of garlic to the milk of cows feeding upon it. 
(See Garlic.) Many species are natives of the 
United States, but none of them have been cul¬ 
tivated for food; some, however, are planted for 
ornament. Perhaps the most common eastern 
species are Allium cernuum, Allium canadense, 
and Allium tricoccum, the last generally known 
as the wild leek, a broad-leaved species which 


grows in moist woods, from Maine to North 
Carolina and westward to Wisconsin. Some of 
the hardy species are grown for ornament in 
gardens; for example, Allium moly and Allium 
roscum, from Europe; Allium victorialis, from 
Siberia; Allium acuminatum, from the western 
States. Others, especially Allium neapolitanum, 
a tender European species, are often grown in 
greenhouses. 

Allmers, Hermann Ludwig, al-merss, 
her'man lut'vik, German poet and author: b. 
Rechtenfleth, 11 Feb. 1821. His ( Idle Days in 
Rome ) (1869; 9th ed. 1896) was widely read. 
Others are: ( Captain Bose ) (1882); ( Fromm 
und FreP (1889), a volume of religious poems; 
( From an Old and Young Past Time ) (1895) ; 
( Collected Works } (Oldenburg, 6 vols. 1891-5). 

Allmouth, a fish. See Goosefish. 

Alloa, a river port of Scotland, pleasantly 
situated on the north side of the Forth, 5 m. 
from Stirling, and in the county of Clackman¬ 
nan. It is irregularly built, but contains some 
good streets and buildings, including the parish 
church, the county court-house, the town-hall, 
and the public baths. It carries on several 
manufactures, chief of which are ale, whiskey, 
woolen yarn, and bottles. There are some large 
collieries in the neighborhood. Alloa has an ex¬ 
cellent harbor, from which it exports coal, ale, 
and fire-brick, and imports timber, hemp, oak- 
bark, grain, etc. A new wet dock was opened 
in 1881. The river is here crossed by a viaduct 
of the North British Railway. There is an an¬ 
cient tower in the vicinity, once the residence of 
the Erskine family. Pop. (1901) 11,417. 

Allobroges, the name of a people who 
lived in ancient Gallia Narbonensis and occu¬ 
pied the country below the Lake of Geneva and 
the Rhone, now included in Savoy and the 
French province of Dauphine. They long 
struggled for their independence against the 
Romans, but were finally subjugated by Fabius 
Maximus. 

Allocution, an address, a term particularly 
applied to certain addresses made by the Pope 
to the cardinals. 

Allodium ( (( without vassalage®). Applied 
to lands, allodium, or allodial tenure, signifies an 
estate held by absolute ownership, without re¬ 
garding any superior to whom any duty is due 
on account thereof. The title to land in the 
United States is essentially allodial, and every 
tenant in fee simple has an absolute and un¬ 
qualified dominion over it; still, in technical 
language, his estate is said to be in fee, a term 
implying a feudal relation, although such a re¬ 
lation has ceased to exist in any form, while in 
many of the States of the Union the lands have 
been declared to be allodial. 

Allopathy. See Therapeutics, 

Al'lophane, al'6-fan; from the Greek 
alios, (< other,® and phanos, ^appearing,® in allu¬ 
sion to its change of appearance before the 
blowpipe, a native silicate of aluminum, hav¬ 
ing the formula AhSiOs ~T 5H2O, and occurring 
in thin, amorphous, brittle incrustations, with a 
hardness of 3. and a specific gravity of about 
1.87. It is found in a great variety of colors, 
d<ue to the presence of other minerals. In the 
United States it occurs in Massachusetts, Con¬ 
necticut, Pennsylvania, and Tennessee. 


ALLOSAURUS — ALLOY 


Allosaurus, an extinct carnivorous dino¬ 
saur of gigantic size, inhabiting North America 
during the Jurassic Period. It was one of the 
largest of flesh-eating animals, exceeding 30 
feet in length, and comparable with an elephant 
in bulk. The animal was a biped with long 
hind legs, small fore legs not reaching the 
ground, and long massive tail. The jaws are 
three feet long, with pointed, sharp-edged teeth, 
and the toes armed with large sharp claws, 
those of the fore foot being especially powerful. 
The hind feet somewhat resemble those of 
birds. Fossil skeletons of herbivorous dino¬ 
saurs frequently show deep scratches and scor¬ 
ings on the softer edges of the bone, and 
broken-off teeth of Allosaurus are very often 
found associated with them, showing that this 
animal preyed on the carcasses of his huge 
herbivorous contemporaries; it was well adapt¬ 
ed also by its teeth and claws to attack them 
when alive, and was probably their especial foe. 
See Dinosaur. 

Allotropy, a-lot'ro-pi, or Allotropism 

(from the Greek alios, ^another,® and tropos, 
(< manner®), the property exhibited by certain 
substances of existing in two or more different 
states distinguished from each other by differ¬ 
ent properties. The most familiar case of allot¬ 
ropy is afforded by carbon, which exists in a 
number of allotropic modifications, of which 
charcoal, graphite, and the diamond are famil¬ 
iar examples. Allotropy is not exhibited by the 
metals to any marked degree (see, however, 
Silver). Sulphur exhibits many allotropic 
forms, of which the following are the best 
known: (1) It occurs in rhombic crystals, hav¬ 
ing a sp. gr. of 2.07, melting at 235 0 F., and 
soluble in carbon disulphid; (2) in monoclinic 
crystals, having a sp. gr. of 1.96, melting at 
243 0 F., and soluble in carbon disulphid; (3) in 
an amorphous plastic state, insoluble in car¬ 
bon disulphid ; (4) immediately above its melting- 
point it is thin, clear, and amber-cclored; (5) 
at about 400° F. it becomes thick and dark; and 
(6) at about 650° F. it is again thin, but re¬ 
mains dark. 

Ozone is a familiar allotropic form of oxy¬ 
gen, produced when the silent electric discharge 
is allowed to act upon oxygen. It is known 
that the molecule of oxygen contains two atoms, 
and that the molecule of ozone contains three 
atoms. This suggests that allotropy, in all 
cases, may be due to a similar change in the 
number of atoms present in a molecule; but so 
little is known of the ultimate structure of sol¬ 
ids and liquids that speculation of this sort is 
of no great value. 

Most of the non-metallic elements have allo¬ 
tropic modifications, and remarkable cases of 
allotropy are observed among chemical com¬ 
pounds. In the case of a compound, two states 
of a substance having the same chemical compo¬ 
sition are said to be isomeric when their con¬ 
stituents are combined by different modes of 
atomic linkage; and they are said to be. allo¬ 
tropic when the kind of atomic linkage is the 
same in both cases. See Isomerism. 

Allouez, a-16-a', Claude Jean, French 
Jesuit missionary: b. France, 1620; d. Indiana, 
1690. He explored portions of the valley of the 
Mississippi and the Lake Superior region, 
founding the Mission of the Holy Ghost on 


Lake Superior in 1665, and continuing at Kas- 
kaskia the mission established there by Mar¬ 
quette. See autobiography included in the 
( Jesuit Relations 1 * (1900). 

Alloway, Thomas Jefferson, a Canadian 
surgeon: b. 1847; was graduated at the Medi¬ 
cal Department of McGill University in 1869; 
spent a year in advance study in London; served 
three years in the British navy; and in 1894 
became gynaecologist-in-chief to the Montreal 
General Hospital and assistant professor of 
gynaecology in McGill University. Dr. Alloway 
has made a world-wide reputation. 

Alloway, a parish of Scotland, now in¬ 
cluded in Ayr parish. Here Burns was born 
in 1759, and the (( auld haunted kirk® near his 
birthplace was the scene of the dance of 
witches in ( Tam o’ ShanterL 

Allox'an, a-lok'san, a substance produced 
by the action of dilute nitric acid upon uric 
acid, and having the formula C4H2N2O4. It is 
freely soluble in water and crystallizes in the 
trimetric system when a saturated solution is al¬ 
lowed to cool, and in monoclinic prisms when 
deposited by evaporation from a warm solution. 
It is converted into alloxantin (C8H4N4O7) by 
the action of SnCl 2 and other reducing agents, 
and into alloxanic acid (C4H4N2O5) by the ac¬ 
tion of the fixed alkalis. Ammonia combines 
with it to form murexid, a substance that was 
used about the middle of the 19th century for 
dyeing silk and wool purple and red, but which 
was soon displaced by the aniline colors. 

Alloy' (Latin, ad to, and ligare, to bind), 
an intimate and apparently homogeneous mix¬ 
ture of different metals, usually prepared by 
combining the constituents in a state of fusion. 
From the earliest times alloys have been used 
for coins, implements, and works of art; but 
notwithstanding this fact no general and de¬ 
tailed theory of their nature and properties has 
yet been given. There is some evidence that 
certain metals form definite chemical combina¬ 
tions with one another when mixed in proper 
proportions, and until recently it was thought 
that alloys consist of certain definite com¬ 
pounds of this sort mixed with more or less 
of one or more of the constituent metals in 
the free state. While this may be the case, the 
modern tendency is strongly toward regarding 
alloys as solutions of metals in one another. 
See Solution. 

Some metals will not mix when melted, or 
will not mix in all proportions; and even when 
a desired mixture can be obtained in a state of 
fusion it not infrequently happens that a more 
or less complete separation of the constituent 
metals occurs at the moment of solidification. 
Attempts have therefore been made to prepare 
alloys by other methods. In some cases it has 
been found possible to obtain true alloys by 
mixing the constituents in a pulverized or finely- 
ground state, and then consolidating them under 
great pressure. In other cases alloys can be 
formed by the simultaneous electro-deposition of 
their constituents, or by the electro-deposition 
of alternate thin layers of those constituents. 
The success of this latter method depends upon 
the known fact that a metal deposited electro- 
lytically often penetrates, to a measurable 
depth, the one upon which it is deposited. At 
the present time the alloys used in the arts are 


ALL SAINTS’ BAY; ALL SAINTS’ DAY 


produced almost exclusively by fusion; the va¬ 
rious other methods that are known being con¬ 
fined to the laboratory. 

The physical properties of alloys can seldom 
be inferred from those of their constituent 
metals. Thus speculum metal is brittle, like 
glass, although both copper and tin (which are 
its sole constituents) are ductile. A very small 
change in the composition of an alloy will often 
make a marked difference in its physical proper¬ 
ties ; and such apparently trifling circumstances 
as the order in which the components are added 
are also frequently of the greatest importance. 
The melting point of an alloy is usually lower 
than the melting points of its constituents would 
appear to indicate; but even this is not an in¬ 
variable rule. If all possible combinations are 
made by fusing together a given pair (or 
group) of metals in all proportions, by a con¬ 
stant method of manipulation, it is commonly 
found that there is one particular alloy that has 
a lower melting point than any other combina¬ 
tion of the same metals. The alloy having this 
property is known as the “eutectic® alloy of the 
metals that it contains. 

By a similar systematic variation in the pro¬ 
portion of the components we can find out what 
alloy of any given metals possesses any particular 
physical attribute to a maximum or mini¬ 
mum degree. Thus Thurston has made an elab¬ 
orate investigation of the strength of the copper- 
tin-zinc (or “kalchoid®) alloys, and has shown 
that the strongest of these contains 57 per cent 
of copper, 1 per cent of tin, and 42 per cent 
of zinc. An alloy having 56 per cent of copper, 
2 per cent of tin, and 42 per cent of zinc has 
nearly the same strength, however, and is more 
generally useful because of its greater ductility. 
Thurston has called the compositions, copper, 58 
to 54; tin, y 2 to 2 J2 ; zinc, 44 to 40, the “maxi¬ 
mum bronzes.® Tobin bronze, containing 58.22 
per cent of copper, 2.30 per cent of tin, and 39.48 
of zinc, belongs in this class, and has shown a 
tenacity as high as 66,500 pounds per square inch 
of original sectional area. Like Thurston’s 
“maximum bronze,® Tobin’s alloy can be forged 
or rolled at a low red heat, or worked cold. 
When cold-rolled its tensile strength may be 
raised to 104,000 pounds per square inch without 
any serious corresponding loss of ductility. 

Properly speaking, neither Tobin’s alloy nor 
Thurston’s is a “bronze.® Strictly, bronze is an 
alloy of copper and tin, and brass is an alloy of 
copper and zinc; but in practice small amounts 
of zinc are often added to the bronzes, and 
small amounts of tin to the brasses, so that 
there is no longer any hard and fast line be¬ 
tween the two. 

Guillaume, of the International Bureau of 
Weights and Measures, has recently obtained 
some remarkable results with alloys of nickel 
and iron, which afford excellent illustrations of 
the fact that little can be safely inferred concern¬ 
ing the properties of an alloy from those of its 
constituents. Thus it was found that an alloy 
containing about 25 per cent of nickel is prac¬ 
tically non-magnetic, being as insensible to the 
action of a magnet as copper, although iron and 
nickel are the two most magnetic substances 
known. Alloys containing 24 per cent (or less) 
of nickel are magnetically irreversible, in the 
sense that they do not lose and regain their 
magnetism at the same temperature. Thus alloy 


containing 24 per cent of nickel loses its mag¬ 
netism at a cherry-red heat, and does not be¬ 
come magnetic again until it has been exposed to 
a temperature in the neighborhood of 3 2 
Equally remarkable results were obtained in 
studying the coefficients of expansion of nickel- 
steel. It was found, for example, that an alloy 
containing 36 per cent of nickel has a coefficient 
of expansion which is almost negligible, even 
in refined scientific work. This particular alloy 
has been called “invar,® because its length is 
so nearly invariable under the influence of heat. 
Nearly every pendulum clock that is made in 
Germany to-day has its pendulum rod made of 
invar, except possibly some of the cheapest 
grades. (For further information concerning 
nickel-steel alloys see the Engineering Maga¬ 
zine^ October 1901, page 79; and the ( American 
Machinist,* 8 Jan. 1903, page 67.) The gen¬ 
eral composition of some of the commoner al¬ 
loys is given in the following table, but it should 
be remembered that these proportions (which 
are expressed in percentages by weight) are 
variable in practice to a certain extent: 


COMPOSITION OF COMMON ALLOYS. 


Name 

Copper 

Tin 

Zinc 

Lead 

Other 

Metals 

Gun metal. 

9 i 

9 




Bell metal. 

75 

25 




Phosphor bronze.. 

92% 

7 



% phosphor. 

Aluminum bronze. 

QO 




10 aluminum 

Valve metal. 

08 

10 

2 



Brass (common) . 

66% 


33 ^ 



Muntz metal. 

60 


40 



Delta metal. 

56 


42 


2 iron 

Brazing metal.... 

5 o 

12% 

37 'A 



(soft) 






Brazing metal.... 

5 ° 


5 o 



(medium) 






Brazing metal.... 

75 


25 



(hard) 






German silver. . . . 

60 


20 


20 nickel 

Speculum metal.. 

67 

33 




Common solder... 


50 


5 o 


Fine solder. 


66% 


33 ^ 


Babbitt metal.... 

3 




8 antimony 

Pewter /. 


80 


20 


Britannia metal.. 


90 



10 antimony 

Type metal. 




80 

20 antimony 

Aich metal. 

59 


39 


2 iron 

Dutch metal. 

«5 


15 



Newton’s metal.. 


19 


3 i 

50 bismuth 

Rose’s metal. 


25 


25 

50 bismuth 


Both the gold and the silver coins of the 
United States contain 90 per cent of pure metal. 
The silver coins contain 10 per cent of copper, 
and the gold coins contain 10 per cent of copper 
alloy, not more than one tenth of which can be 
silver. 

(See Thurston’s ( Brasses, Bronzes, and Oth¬ 
er Alloys,* New York 1893, for valuable and 
extensive information on alloys containing cop¬ 
per, zinc, lead, and tin. For alloys of nearly 
constant electrical resistance see Resistance, 
Electrical. 

All Saints’ Bay, or Bahia de Todos os 
Santos, a bay on the coast of the State of 
Bahia in Brazil, forming an excellent natural 
harbor. On its east side stands the port of Ba¬ 
hia. The neighboring country is well adapted 
for the cultivation of rice and sugar-cane. 

All Saints’ Day, a festival instituted by 
Pope Boniface IV., early in the 7th century, 
on the occasion of his transforming the Roman 


























ALL SORTS —ALL’S WELL 


heathen Pantheon into a Christian temple or 
church, and consecrating it to the Virgin Mary 
and all the martyrs. It is kept by the Roman 
Catholic Church, and by churches in communion 
with the Church of England on i November, 
and by the Greek Church on the Sunday after 
Whitsunday. It is designed, as its name implies, 
to honor all departed saints, and was formerly 
called All-hallows. In many American churches 
a custom has grown up of making the Sunday 
nearest i November the occasion of a service in 
memory of those who have died during the 
year. 

All Sorts and Conditions of Men, a novel 
by Sir Walter Besant. The famous People’s 
Palace of East London had its origin in this 
story; and because of it Besant was knighted. 
The story concerns chiefly two characters,— 
the very wealthy orphan, Angela Messenger, and 
Harry Goslett, ward of Lord Joscelyn. Miss 
Messenger, after graduating with honors at 
Newnham, resolves to examine into the con¬ 
dition of the people of Stepney Green, in the 
Whitechapel region, where she owns great pos¬ 
sessions. To indicate to the working women 
of East London a way of escape from the mean¬ 
ness, misery, and poverty of their lives, she 
sets up among them a co-operative dressmaking 
establishment, she herself living with her work- 
girls. Her goodness and wealth bring happi¬ 
ness to many. The book ends with the 
opening of the People’s Palace, and with the 
heroine’s marriage to Harry Goslett. 

All Souls’ College, Oxford, was founded 
in 1437 by Henry Chichele, archbishop of Can¬ 
terbury, for a warden, 40 fellows, 2 chaplains, 
and clerks. The present arrangement of fel¬ 
lowships was fixed by statutes which came into 
operation in 1882. 

All Souls’ Day, the day on which the 
Catholic Church commemorates all the faithful 
deceased. It was first enjoined in the nth 
century by Odile, Abbot of Cluny, on the 
monastic order of which he was the head, and 
soon afterward came to be adopted by the 
Church generally. It is observed on 2 No¬ 
vember. 

Allspice, or Pimenta, is the dried berry of 
a West Indian species of myrtle (Myrtus pi¬ 
menta) which grows to the height of 20 feet 
and upward, and has somewhat oval leaves 
about 4 inches long, of a deep shining green 
color, and numerous branches of white flowers, 
each with four small petals. This tree is by 
some botanists referred to the genus Eugenia 
and called E. pimenta. Others again constitute 
a genus Pimenta, the present species being P. 
officinalis. In the whole vegetable creation 
there is scarcely any tree more beautiful or more 
fragrant than a young pimenta-tree about the 
month of July. Branched on all sides, richly 
clad with deep green leaves, which are relieved 
by an exuberance of white and richly aromatic 
flowers, it attracts the notice of all who ap¬ 
proach it. About the month of September, and 
not long after the blossoms have fallen, the ber¬ 
ries are in a fit state to be gathered. At this 
time, though not quite ripe, they are full grown 
and about the size of peppercorns. They are 
gathered by hand. The berries are spread in 


the sun to be dried, an operation that requires 
great care, from the necessity of keeping them 
entirely free from moisture. By the drying they 
lose their green color and become a reddish 
brown ; the process is known to be complete by 
their change of color and by the rattling of the 
seeds within the berries. They are then packed 
into bags or hogsheads for the market. When 
the berries are quite ripe they are of a dark pur¬ 
ple color and filled with a sweet pulp. Pimenta 
is thought to resemble in flavor a mixture of 
cinnamon, nutmegs, and cloves, whence it has 
obtained the name allspice. For its use in medi¬ 
cine see Condiments. 

Allston, Margaret. See Bergengren, Anna ; 
Farquhar, Anna. 

Allston, Theodosia Burr. See Burr, The¬ 
odosia. 

Allston, Washington, American painter 
and author: b. Waccamaw, S. C., 5 Nov. 1779; 
d. Cambridge, Mass., 9 July 1843. He graduated 
at Harvard, 1800; studied art in Europe, 1801-9; 
resided in England, 1811-18; and opened a studio 
in Boston, Mass., 1818. His painting ( The 
Dead Man Revived ) was awarded a prize of 200 
guineas. Other well-known works are, ( The 
Prophet Jeremiah ) ; ( Spanish GirP ; ( Spalatro’s 
Vision of the Bloody Hand ) ; ( Belshazzar's 

Feast, } and portraits of Benjamin West, Cole¬ 
ridge, and himself. He has a high reputation 
as a colorist and has been called the (( American 
Titian.His writings comprise, ( The Sylphs 
of the Seasons > (1813) ; ^MonaldiP a romance 
of Italian life (1841), and ( Lectures on Art, 
and Poems J (1850). See Ware’s ( Lectures on 
the Works and Genius of W. Allston ) (1852), 
and the < Life ) by Flagg (1892). 

All’s Well that Ends Well, a play by 
Shakespeare, the story of which came to the 
poet from Boccaccio through Paynter’s ( Palace 
of Pleasured It tells how Helena de Narbon 
forced her love on a handsome and proud young 
French nobleman, Bertram de Rousillon, with 
whom she had been brought up from childhood. 
It is a tale of husband-catching by a curious 
kind of trick; but Shakespeare endows Helena 
with such virtues that we excuse and applaud 
her action. Hence all’s well that ends well. 
She heals the king, asks for and accepts Ber¬ 
tram as her reward, and is married. But the 
proud boy flies to the Florentine wars on his 
wedding-day, leaving his marriage unconsum¬ 
mated. Helena returns sorrowfully to Rousil¬ 
lon, and finds there a letter from her husband 
to the effect that when she gets his ring upon 
her finger and shows him a child begotten of his 
body, then he will acknowledge her as his 
wife. She undertakes to outwit him and re¬ 
claim him, and leaving Rousillon on pretense of 
a pilgrimage she has it reported that she is dead. 
In reality she goes to Italy and becomes Ber¬ 
tram’s wife in fact, and not mere name, by the 
substitution of herself for the pretty Diana with 
whom he has an assignation arranged. There is 
an entanglement of petty accidents and incidents 
connected with an exchange of rings, etc. But 
finally Helena makes good before the king her 
claim of having fulfilled Bertram’s conditions; 
and she having vowed obedience, he takes her 
to his heart. Shakespeare has followed his 
original closely, but the Countess, the Clown. 
Lafen, and Parolles are creations of his own. 


ALLUVION —ALMA COLLEGE 


Alluvion, the legal designation of land 
gained from the water by gradual changes in 
the shore line. In English law the form of the 
word generally used is alluvion, and in Scotch 
iaw alluvio. In both of these the enactment is, 
that if an ^eyott,® or little island, arise in a 
river midway between the two banks, it belongs 
in common to the proprietors on the opposite 
banks; but if it arise nearer one side it then be¬ 
longs to the proprietor whose lands it there ad¬ 
joins. If a sudden inundation cut off part of 
a proprietor’s land, or transfer the materials to 
that of another, he shall be recompensed by ob¬ 
taining what the river has deposited in another 
place; but if the process be a gradual one there 
is no redress. In the United States the proprie¬ 
tor of the bank increased by alluvion may law¬ 
fully claim the addition, this being regarded as 
the equivalent for the loss he may sustain from 
the encroachment of the water upon his land. 
Sea-weed which is thrown upon a beach, as par¬ 
taking of the nature of alluvion, belongs to the 
owner of the beach. 2 Johns. N. Y. 322. But 
sea-weed below low-water mark on the bed of 
a navigable river belongs to the public. 9 Conn. 
38. See Accretion ; Avulsion. 

Alluvium, a word formerly applied to the 
gravel, mud, sand, etc., deposited by water sub¬ 
sequently to the Noachian deluge. It was op¬ 
posed to diluvium, supposed to be laid down by 
the deluge itself, or, in the opinion of others, by 
some great wave or series of waves originated 
by the sudden upheaval of large tracts of land 
or some other potent causes, different from the 
comparatively tranquil action of water which 
goes on day by day. 

Now alluvium is especially employed to des¬ 
ignate the transported matter laid down by fresh 
water during the Pleistocene and Recent periods. 
Thus it indicates partly a process of mechanical 
operation and partly a date or period. It should 
not be forgotten that the former has gone on 
through all bygone geological ages and has not 
been confined to any one time. Many of the 
hardest and most compact rocks were once 
loosely cohering debris laid down by water. 
The most typical example of alluvium may be 
seen in the deltas of the Nile, Ganges, Missis¬ 
sippi, and many other rivers. Some rivers have 
alluviums of different ages on the slopes down 
into their valleys. The more modern of these 
belong to the Recent period, as do the organic or 
other remains which they contain, while the 
older (as those of the Somme, Thames, Ouse, 
etc.), which are of Pleistocene age, enclose more 
or less rudely chipped flint implements, with 
the remains of mammals either locally or every¬ 
where extinct. Though in many cases it is pos¬ 
sible clearly to separate alluviums of different 
ages, yet the tendency of each new one is to 
tear up, redistribute, and confound all its prede¬ 
cessors. 

Volcanic alluvium is sand, ashes, etc., which, 
after being emitted from a volcano, come under 
the action of water and are by it redeposited, 
as was the case with the materials which en¬ 
tered and filled the interior of houses at Pom¬ 
peii. • 

Marine alluvium is alluvium produced by 
inundations of the sea, such as those which have 
from time to time overflowed the eastern coast 
of India. 


Al'lyl, in chemistry, the radical CH 2 :CH. 
CH 2 , or C3H5. (The isomeric radical CPL.CPL: 
CH is called propenyl.) Allyl forms many com¬ 
pounds, of which the most important is per¬ 
haps allyl alcohol, C3H5.OH, which is produced 
when glycerin is distilled with oxalic acid. 

Al'lyn, Robert, American clergyman and 
educator: b. Ledyard, Conn., 25 Jan. 1817; d. 7 
Jan. 1894. Educated at Wesleyan University, 
Middletown, Conn., he entered the Methodist 
Episcopal ministry. He was appointed commis¬ 
sioner of public instruction for Rhode Island in 
1854, and served three terms in the legislature 
of that State. He was president of the Wesley¬ 
an Female College, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1859-63, 
and of McKendree College, Illinois, 1863-73. 

Al-Mamun, ma-mon', a caliph of the 
Abasside dynasty, son of Harun al-Rashid: b. 
786; d. 833. Under him Bagdad became a great 
centre of art and science. 

Alma, Mich., a town in Gratiot County, 38 
m. W. of Saginaw, on Pine River, and Ann 
Arbor and Pere Marquette R.R.’s; founded 
1854; inc. 1872. It manufactures flour, lumber, 
and beet sugar; has water works and electric 
lighting. It contains Alma College (q.v.), and 
Alma Sanitarium, widely reputed. It has one- 
year mayoralty and a council of six. Pop. 
(1900) 2,047. 

Alma, a river in the Crimea, rising at the 
foot of the Tchadir Dagh, and flowing W. into 
the Bay of Kalamita, about half way between 
Eupatoria and Sebastopol. On the steep banks 
of the stream, through the channel of which 
the British troops waded amid a shower of 
bullets, a brilliant victory was won 20 Sept. 1854, 
by the allied armies of England, France, and 
Turkey, led by Lord Raglan and Marshal St. 
Arnaud, over the Russian army commanded by 
Prince Menschikoff. It was the first battle of 
the Crimean war. 

Almack’s, the name formerly given to cer¬ 
tain assembly-rooms in King Street, St. James’s, 
London, derived from Almack, a tavern-keeper, 
by whom they were built, and whose real name 
is said to have been M’Call, and transformed 
into Almack by reversing the syllables. The 
premises are now known as (( Willis’s Rooms.® 
First opened 20 Feb. 1765, they soon became 
famous for the extreme exclusiveness displayed 
by the lady patronesses in regard to the ad¬ 
mission of applicants for tickets. These fair 
arbiters composed a board of six, which held 
its sittings every Monday evening during the 
London season, and issued those fiats which 
were supposed to affect so conclusively the 
claims of the received or rejected applicant, 
as the case might be. to occupy the upper 
circles in the fashionable world. To have 
danced at Almack’s became almost proverbial 
as indicative of exalted social position. The 
name was also given to a gambling club estab¬ 
lished by the same Almack in 1763, to which 
such men as Charles James Fox, William Pitt, 
and Gibbon belonged. 

Alma College, a co-educational institution 
in Alma, Mich., organized 1887 under Presby¬ 
terian control; reported in 1905 : Professors and 
instructors, 23; students, 267; volumes in li¬ 
brary, 20,000; grounds and buildings valued at 
$60,coo; productive funds, $254,000; income 
$30,000; graduates, 213. 


ALMADA — ALMANAC 


Almada, a town of Portugal, in the prov¬ 
ince of Estremadura, on the left bank of the 
estuary of the Tagus, opposite Lisbon. It is 
built upon a height, in a well-cultivated country, 
and has long been celebrated for its figs. It has 
a strong castle on a rock, a hospital for 
British seamen, a Latin school, several depots 
for wine, and a mineral spring. Pop. 7,000. 

Almaden, Cal., a town in Santa Clara 
County, noted for its mines of mercury and its 
mineral springs. It was named after the Span¬ 
ish town mentioned below on account of its four 
quicksilver mines, the New Almaden, Provi¬ 
dence, Enriquita, and Guadelupe. Large quan¬ 
tities of mercury have been distilled from the 
ore (cinnabar), and the existence of this de¬ 
posit has been of immense benefit to the Pacific 
States. Pop (1900) 1,599. 

Almaden, or Almaden del Azogue (mine 
of quicksilver), a town in Spain 50 m. S.W. of 
the town of Ciudad-Real in the province of 
the same name. It is widely known for its rich 
quicksilver mines which have been worked 
for centuries, and in which some 4,000 miners 
are employed. Since 1645 the mines have been 
the property of the Crown. The town contains 
a ruined castle of the Moorish period and a 
school of mines. Pop. (1900) 7,459. 

Almagest. The usual appellation of the 
< Syntaxis ) of Ptolemy, derived from an Arabic 
term signifying <( the greatest.® This celebrated 
work was written about the middle of the 2d 
century of our era, and comprises an exposition 
of the ancient system of astronomy, so elaborate 
and thorough as to have made it a standard for 

13 centuries. It contains the most ancient 

known catalogue of the stars, with observa¬ 
tions of the motion of the planets, and determi¬ 
nations of their periods. Several editions, one 
in Greek and others in Latin, appeared in Europe 
between 1500 and 1700. The most recent ac¬ 
cessible edition is that of the Abbe Halma, 

which is in Greek and French (2 Vols. Paris 
1814-15). 

Almagro, Diego, one of the companions 
of Pizarro in the conquest of Peru, was a 

foundling, and the exact date of his birth is not 
known; d. 1538. He engaged with Pizarro and 
Fernando de Lugue in the long and arduous ex¬ 
pedition in which they made the discovery of 
Peru (1524-27), took part in the conquest 
of the country and the treacherous murder of 
Atahualpa (1533), and after frequent disputes 
with Pizarro about their respective shares in 
their conquests he led an expedition against 
Chile, of which he was appointed governor. 
Having failed to conquer his new province he 
returned to find Cuzco in possession of the 
Indians, who had expelled Pizarro. He re¬ 
conquered it and made himself governor, but, 
Pizarro returning, a struggle took place between 
the two parties in which Almagro was finally 
overcome, taken prisoner, strangled, and after¬ 
ward beheaded. He was avenged by his son, 
who raised an insurrection in which Pizarro was 
assassinated in 1541. The younger Almagro 
was put to death in 1542 by De Castro, the 
new viceroy of Peru. Almagro showed himself, 
like most of the Spaniards engaged in the con¬ 
quest of the New World, capable of enduring 
great privations with heroic constancy, and of 


effecting wonderful achievements by undaunted 
valor, but cruel, rapacious, and unscrupulous 
in success. 

Almagro, a town in Spain in the province 
of Ciudad-Real, 12 m. from the city of Ciudad- 
Real, in the midst of an elevated sterile plain. 
Its streets are wide and well paved and there 
is a large open public square. Lace is made 
here to a considerable extent, as well as soap, 
brandy, and coarse pottery. It is best known, 
however, as the centre of Valdepenas district. 
Pop. (1900) 8,015. 

Almalee, a town of Asiatic Turkey, on the 
river Myra, 25 m. from its mouth, and 50 m. 
W.S.W. of Adalia. It is beautifully situated in 
a kind of natural amphitheatre enclosed by lofty 
mountains. It has thriving manufactures and a 
considerable trade. Pop. 12,000. 

Alma Mater, a term familiarly applied by 
those who have attended a university to the 
particular university they have attended. The 
adjective almus in Latin means cherishing, fos¬ 
tering, dear. 

Almanac, a table or calendar, in which are 
set down the revolutions of the seasons, the 
rising and setting of the sun, the phases of the 
moon, the most remarkable conjunctions, posi¬ 
tions, and phenomena of the heavenly bodies, 
for every month and day of the year; also the 
several fasts and feasts to be observed in 
the Church and State, etc. The history of the 
almanac, and even the etymology of the word, 
are involved in considerable obscurity. It is 
generally derived from the Arabic article al, 
and the verb manach, to count. The modern 
almanac answers to the fasti of the ancient 
Romans. Almanacs became generally used in 
Europe within a short time after the invention 
of printing; and they were very early remark¬ 
able, as some are now in England, for the 
mixture of truth and falsehood which they 
contained. In 1579 their effects in France were 
found so mischievous, from the pretended pro¬ 
phecies which they published, that an edict was 
promulgated by Henry III. forbidding any pre¬ 
dictions to be inserted in them relating to civil 
affairs, whether those of the State or of private 
persons. No such law was ever enacted in 
England. It is singular that the earliest English 
almanacs were printed in Holland on small 
folio sheets; and these have occasionally been 
preserved from having been pasted within the 
covers of old books. In the reign of James I. 
letters patent were granted to the two universi¬ 
ties and the Stationers’ Company for an exclu¬ 
sive right of printing almanacs. These, in 1775, 
were declared to be illegal. During the civil 
wars of Charles I., and thence onward, English 
almanacs were conspicuous for the unblushing 
boldness of their astrological predictions and 
their determined perpetuation of popular errors. 
The Stationers’ Company, who had managed 
to retain a monopoly notwithstanding the inva¬ 
lidity of the letters patent in their favor, were 
guided merely by commercial principles in sup¬ 
plying the market, and accordingly adapted their 
almanacs to the taste of the public, which, on one 
occasion, when the trial was actually made, 
refused to purchase them without the predic¬ 
tions. Gradually, however, a better taste began 
to prevail, and in 1828 the Society for the Dif¬ 
fusion of Useful Knowledge had the merit of 


ALMANDITE — ALMA-TADEMA 


taking the lead in the production of an unexcep¬ 
tionable almanac in Great Britain. The example 
thus set has been almost universally adopted. 
Almanacs, from their periodical character and 
the frequency with which they are referred to, 
are now more and more used as vehicles for 
conveying statistical information. Regiomon¬ 
tanus. was the first person in Europe who pre¬ 
pared almanacs in their present form, without 
the predictions, which were in all probability 
introduced into Europe from the Persians. 
Once they were almost entirely filled with sub¬ 
jects of a religious character. At another time 
they overflowed with astrological calculations 
and predictions. In the time of Napoleon an 
almanac was published in France, in which, to 
every day, arv achievement of the emperor, or 
something else relating to him, was added. 
Almanacs, in the petty principalities of Germany, 
exhibit the endless genealogical tables of the 
princes. Some almanacs in modern Greek, print¬ 
ed at Venice, where formerly all books in this 
language were published, are quite full of astro¬ 
logical superstition and matters relating to the 
Greek Church. A modern Persian almanac con¬ 
tains a list of fortunate days for certain pur¬ 
poses; as, for example, to buy, to sell, to take 
medicine, to marry, etc.; and predictions of 
events, as earthquakes, storms, political affairs, 
etc. One of the most curious almanacs is an 
Italian one, exhibiting Italian vivacity in a 
striking manner. To the entry 30 July is added, 
Sudano ancora le ossa! (Even the bones sweat) ; 
to 11 August, Oh! che noia! (Oh! how distress¬ 
ing!) ; to 12 July, Cascano le braccia (The arms 
fall) ; to 2 January, Stivali e ombrello! (Leggings 
and umbrellas!) In Germany, almanack is the 
name given to annuals like those which used to 
appear in England and the United States under 
the names of ( Souvenir, 3 forget-me-not, 3 etc. In 
France a work once appeared annually, entitled 
( Almanach des Gourmands, 3 which was con¬ 
ducted with much spirit and is in high repute 
among epicures. Some of the almanacs that 
are regularly published every year are extreme¬ 
ly useful, and are indeed almost indispensable 
to men engaged in official, mercantile, literary, 
or professional business. Such in Great Britain 
are ( Oliver & Boyd’s Edinburgh Almanac, 3 
( Thom’s Official Directory, 3 and the ( British Al¬ 
manac^ with it's Companion. 3 ( Whitaker’s Al- 
manac ) is also known as a very comprehensive 
and valuable compendium. The ( Almanach de 
Gotha, 3 which has appeared at Gotha since 1764, 
contains in small bulk a wonderful quantity of 
information regarding the reigning families and 
governments, the finances, commerce, population, 
etc., of the different States throughout the world. 
It is published both in a French and in a Ger¬ 
man edition. ( The Nautical Almanac > is an 
important work published annually by the Brit¬ 
ish government, two or three years in advance, 
in which is contained much useful astronomical 
matter, more especially the distances of the 
moon from the sun, and from certain fixed 
stars, for every three hours of mean time, 
adapted to the meridian of the Royal Observ¬ 
atory, Greenwich. By comparing these with 
the distances carefully observed at sea the 
mariner may with comparative ease infer his 
longitude with sufficient accuracy, in case 
he has no chronometer for keeping Greenwich 
time. This almanac was commenced in 1767 


by Dr. Maskelyne, astronomer royal. The 
French ( Connaissance des Temps > is published 
with the same views as the English ( Nautical 
Almanac 5 and nearly on the same plan. It 
commenced in 1679. Of a similar character is 
the ( Astronomisches Jahrbuch, 3 published at 
Berlin. The ( American Ephemeris and Nautical 
Almanac 3 is issued annually since 1855 by the 
United States government. 

The first American almanac was that of 
William Pierce of Cambridge, published in 1639. 
The most famous of American almanacs was 
( Poor Richard's 3, published in Philadelphia by 
Benjamin Franklin under the pseudonym of 
^Richard Saunders. 33 This almanac was probably 
imitated from that of Thomas, of Dedham, 
Mass., which was kept for a good many years 
and contains many pleasant and witty verses, 
jests, and sayings. The information printed in 
these almanacs seems to have been the only 
means of carrying news to the more distant 
parts of the country. ( The American Almanac 3 
appeared between 1830-61, and a second publica¬ 
tion under the same name was edited for several 
years by Ainsworth R. Spofford. Several of the 
largest newspapers in the United States now 
issue almanacs which are marvels of condensed 
information. See Calendar. 

Al'mandite, or Al'mandine, a variety of 
the garnet (q.v.). 

Alman'sa, a town of southeastern Spain 
(Murcia), near which was fought (25 April 
1707) a decisive battle in the War of the Spanish 
Succession, when the French, under the Duke of 
Berwick, defeated the Anglo-Spanish army un¬ 
der the Earl of Galway. Pop. 8,000. 

Alman'zur, or Almansur, a caliph of the 

Abasside dynasty, reigning 754-775. He was 
cruel and treacherous and a persecutor of the 
Christians, but a patron of learning. 

Alma-Tadema, Laurenz, Dutch painter: b. 
West Friesland, Holland, 8 Jan. 1836. He was 
educated at the Antwerp Academy of Fine Arts 
under the artist Leys and obtained a medal at the 
Paris Salon of 1864 and another at the Paris 
Exposition of 1867. He went to England to 
live in 1870, exhibiting at the Royal Academy 
that same year ( Un Amateur Romain, 3 and 
( Un Jonglier, 3 which attracted immediate at¬ 
tention. He became a member of the Royal 
Academy in 1879, and in 1899 was knighted. 
His especial field is the portrayal of Greek and 
Roman life, and all his work is marked by the 
most careful attention to archaeological details. 
He is scholarly in execution, his coloring ac¬ 
curate, and his artistic feeling rarely at fault, 
but while his canvasses attract the eye and 
delight the intellect they seldom touch the 
heart. Among his more noted pictures are 
( The Vintage Festival 3 ; ( The Four Seasons 3 ; 
( Antony and Cleopatra 3 ; <The Women of Am- 
phissa 3 ; <An Audience at Agrippa’s 3 ; and <A 
Reading from Homer. 3 See Zimmern’s <L. 
Alma-Tadema: His Life and Work 3 (1886). 

Alma-Tadema, (Miss) Laurence, English 
novelist: b. in England. She is the second 
daughter of the noted artist, L. Alma-Tadema 
(q.v.) and has published ( Love’s Martyr 3 ; <The 
Wings of Icarus 3 ; ( The Crucifix 3 ; ( Realms of 
Unknown Kings 3 ; ( The Fate Spinner 3 (1900); 
( The Unseen Helmsman> (1901) ; <Songs of 
Womanhood ) (1903); ( Four Plays 3 (1905). 


ALMOND — ALOYSIUS 


Almond,the tree and nut of Amygdalus com¬ 
munis of the natural order Rosacea; , supposedly 
a native of the Mediterranean region and of 
southwestern. Asia, but so long in cultivation 
that its origin is a matter of conjecture. In 
habit of growth the tree, which reaches a height 
of 20 or 30 feet, is like the peach, with which 
some, botanists surmise that it was formerly 
identical, but from which, by selection, it has 
become differentiated, the hard, inedible pulp of 
its fruit (a drupe)., which splits at maturity and 
and exposes the pit or ^almond® of commerce, 
being replaced by the edible fleshy part prized 
in the peach. Varieties of almonds are classed 
as bitter or sweet. The former, little grown 
outside the Mediterranean region, furnish prus¬ 
sic acid and oil of bitter almonds used in per¬ 
fumery and culinary preparations; the latter, 
grown extensively in California and southern 
Europe and in similar climates, furnish one of 
the most agreeable of nut fruits. The sweet 
almonds are divided into hard- and soft-shelled 
varieties, the former little grown, the latter ex¬ 
tensively. Some specially thin-shelled sorts are 
known as paper-shells. The kernels, particu¬ 
larly of sweet almonds, are rich in a mild fixed 
oil which is expressed for medicinal and other 
purposes, but the nuts are chiefly used for des¬ 
sert, either directly or in some prepared form, 
such as confectionery. 

The almond succeeds best upon light, thor¬ 
oughly drained soil so situated that early frosts, 
which destroy the fertility of the blossoms, need 
not be feared. The trees, which are generally 
propagated by budding the desired varieties 
upon bitter almond seedlings, are set about 25 
feet apart, different varieties that blossom si¬ 
multaneously being planted in each other’s 
proximity to ensure cross-pollenation, self-steril¬ 
ity being characteristic of many varieties. If 
trees are properly trained during their first three 
or four years they demand little severe pruning 
afterward. Cultivation does not differ materially 
from that of other tree-fruits. In California the 
nuts are harvested from August to October, 
dried for several days, and if discolored, as is 
often the case where the air is very humid, they 
are lightly sprayed with water and then treated 
with sulphur fumes to bleach the shells some¬ 
what. Nuts that are too badly discolored to 
respond to this treatment are cracked by ma¬ 
chinery and the kernels sold largely to confec¬ 
tioners. Because frost and self-sterility have 
been often overlooked, almond-growing in Cali¬ 
fornia has been remarkable for failures; many 
orchards have been cut down for firewood. But 
when and where conditions are favorable the 
crop is a profitable one. In 1897 218 carloads 
were shipped from California; in 1898 only 25. 
Planting in that State is practically at a stand¬ 
still. Attention has been drawn to parts of 
Arizona and New Mexico as probably adapted 
to the almond, and some orchards have been 
planted. About $1,000,000 worth of almonds are 
imported annually. The almond is attacked by 
a vegetable fungus which appears first as a yel¬ 
low rust on the leaves. This often leaves the 
tree bare of foliage as early as 15 July. Spray¬ 
ing is the only remedy. See Fungicides. 

As an ornamental tree the almond, like the 
peach, is often planted even in localities unfavor¬ 
able to fruit-production. But its relative, the 
dwarf almond ( Amygdalus nana), a native of 
southern Russia, is hardy and is recommended 


as an ornamental shrub by nurserymen for 
northern climates. 

Aloe, a genus of succulent-leaved plants 
of the natural order Liliacece, natives of warm 
countries. The numerous species range in 
height from a few inches to 25 feet or more. 
Some are valued for their fibre, which is used 
for cord-, net-, and fabric-making; others for 
the medicinal qualities ascribed to them. Chief 
among the latter are several arborescent species, 
Aloe succotrina, A. spicata, A. purpurascens, 
and A. arborescens, from which Cape aloes is 
mainly derived, and Aloe vera, an East and 
West Indian species found also on certain is¬ 
lands of the Mediterranean Sea and in Italy, 
which yields Barbadoes or hepatic aloes. Aloe 
Perryi furnishes Zanzibar or Socotrina aloes, 
also a transparent pigment valued in miniature¬ 
painting, and a rich violet dye. 

Aloes, the inspissated juice of the leaves 
of a number of species of Aloe, a genus of the 
lily family of over 100 species, widely distrib¬ 
uted in warm arid regions. The leaves are long, 
thick, and succulent, and the juice that yields 
aloes is thin and flows readily from the cut 
leaf. This is then thickened (inspissated) by 
natural or by artificial drying, and there results 
a yellow to brownish to blackish, or greenish, 
mass of a tarry, waxy, or glassy consistency. 
The aloes that is used in the United States is 
either Barbadoes aloes, from Aloe vera, or Soco¬ 
trina aloes, from Aloe Perryi. 

As a medicine aloes has been used for cen¬ 
turies. It is a powerful cathartic, acting par¬ 
ticularly on the large intestine, its active prin¬ 
ciple being termed aloin. Its action is extremely 
variable, and in large doses it has been known 
to induce abortion. See Cathartics. 

Aloes Wood (sometimes called also eagle 
wood, calambac, paradise wood, or agallochum), 
the inner part of Aquilaria ovata and Aloes agal¬ 
lochum, trees of the order Aquilariacece, natives 
of the tropical parts of Asia, and supposed to 
be the aloes or lignaloes of the Bible. They 
are large, spreading trees. Aloes wood contains 
a dark-colored, fragrant, resinous substance, 
and is much prized in the East as a medicine and 
for the pleasant odor it diffuses in burning. 

Alopecia, a partial or complete loss of hair 
in large quantities. This is due to a number of 
causes and frequently leads to baldness (q.v.). 
Alopecia is of two main kinds: primary or sec¬ 
ondary. In primary alopecia there may be (1) 
a congenital lack of hair (this is rare) ; (2) 
senile alopecia, due to the advent of old age; 
(3) premature baldness, this may be a natural 
product, or it may be the result of a chronic 
seborrhea, or dandruff (q.v.). 

Aloysius Gonzaga, Saint: b. in Lombardy 
1568. At the age of 17 he transferred his in¬ 
heritance and right of succession to his brother 
Rudolph and immediately set out for Rome. 
Here he entered the novitiate of the Society of 
Jesus, and shortly after began his studies in 
the Roman College. While nursing the victim** 
of a contagion then ravaging the city he con¬ 
tracted the disease, which carried him off in his 
25th year. His brief career was characterized 
by such extraordinary virtue that he was canon¬ 
ized a saint by Pope Benedict XIII. in 1726, and 
is now recognized by the Catholic Church as the 
Patron of Young Students. His feast day is 
celebrated June 21. 


ALPACA—ALPHABET 


Alpaca, or Paco (Ar. al, the; Peruv. paca ), 
a semi-domesticated animal ( Lama pacos), na¬ 
tive to the Andes and valued for its wool. It is 
a cameloid mammal, closely allied to three oth¬ 
ers of the same region, the vicuna, the llama, 
and the guanaco; but it much resembles a sheep, 
except in the length and erect carriage of its 
head. The natural growth of its thick woolly 
hair would be about two feet, but it is clipped, 
the annual growth being about eight inches. 
In color the wool varies from pale yellowish 
brown or gray to black; its fibre is straighter 
than that of sheep wool, and very fine, glossy, 
and elastic. The animal is now seldom seen in 
an entirely wild state. See Llama. 

Alp-Arslan ( (( strong lion®), the greatest 
ruler of the Seljuk Turks: b. Turkestan, 1028; 
d. Berzern 1072. He succeeded his uncle Togrul 
1063, consolidated his realm into one kingdom, 
and then proceeded to a career of conquest in¬ 
terrupted only by his death. He conquered 
central Asia to the Oxus; and invading Armenia 
and Georgia, in August 1071, he overthrew and 
captured the Emperor Romanus IV. (Diogenes) 
in a bloody battle near Malaskerd, between Van 
and Erzerum, and only released him on payment 
of a vast ransom. He was assassinated while 
invading Turkestan and was buried at Merv. 

Alpena, Mich., a city and the county-seat of 
Alpena County, no miles north of Bay City; on 
the west side of Lake Huron, at the head of 
Thunder Bay, on the Detroit and Mackinaw 
Ry. It is divided in two by Thunder Bay River. 

Industries, etc .— There are extensive manu¬ 
factures of paper from wood-pulp, and of cement 
from limestone and clay. Further establishments 
include two large tanneries, large extract works 
(hemlock) for export trade, two foundries and 
machine shops, five saw-mills, 20 shingle-mills, 
two veneer-mills, a woolen-mill, two flour-mills, 
three large sash and blind factories, two large 
excelsior-mills, quarries, and two stave and 
heading factories. The harbor facilities are 
excellent. 

Public Institutions, Buildings, etc .— There is 
a public library and a park system. Lutherans 
have three church edifices; Catholics, three; 
Methodists, two; Congregationalists, one; Pres¬ 
byterians, one ; Episcopalians, one; Baptists, one; 
Seventh Day Adventists, one; Jews, one; Free 
Methodists, one; Church of Latter Day Saints, 
one; and Non-Sectarians, one. The three banks 
have a combined capital of $250,000, with an 
annual business of $2,500,000. 

History and Government. —Alpena was settled 
in 1835, and was incorporated in 1871. It is 
governed under a revised charter of 1897 by a 
mayor, biennially elected, and a council of 12 
members, elected annually. The mayor has no 
power of appointment. Pop. (1904) 12,400. 

Michael O’Brien. 

Alphabet (from alpha and beta, the first 
two letters of the Greek alphabet), the ordinary 
series of the letters or syllables (in syllabic 
alphabets) of a language. For an account of 
what is known or conjectured of the origin of 
alphabetic and other systems of writing, see 
Writing. The English alphabet, like the most 
of those of modern Europe, is derived directly 
from the Latin, but owes its ultimate origin to 
the Phoenician, which gave birth also to the 
ancient Greek, the Etruscan, the Gothic, etc. 


According to tradition the Phoenician Cadmus 
introduced writing into Greece, the letters first 
used being the same as the Phoenician, but after¬ 
ward undergoing changes both in sound and 
form. It would appear that the Phoenicians 
themselves borrowed their alphabet from the 
hieratic alphabet of Egypt, whence also the He¬ 
brews may have obtained theirs during their 
long stay in that country, though it is more 
probable that like others they were content to 
receive it at second-hand from the Phoenicians. 
The Hebrew alphabet now employed is not the 
original one, but has an Aramaic origin, hav¬ 
ing been adopted some time after the Captivity. 
The Hebrew alphabet proper, as we find it on 
ancient coins, is evidently the same as that of 
the Phoenician inscriptions. The names of the 
letters in Phoenician and Hebrew must have 
been almost the same, for the Greek names, 
which, with the letters, were borrowed from the 
former, differ little from the Hebrew. By 
means of the names we may trace the process 
through which the Egyptian characters were 
transformed into letters by the Phoenicians. 
Some Egyptian character would, by its form, 
recall the idea of a house, as for example, in 
the Phoenician or Hebrew beth. This char¬ 
acter would subsequently come to be used wher¬ 
ever the articulation b occurred, whether in the 
beginning, middle, or end of a word. Its form 
might be afterward simplified, or even com¬ 
pletely modified, but the name would remain, 
as beth still continues the Hebrew name for b, 
and beta the Greek. Our letter m, in Hebrew 
called mini, water, has still a considerable re¬ 
semblance to the zigzag wavy line chosen to 
represent water, as in the zodiacal symbol for 
Aquarius. The letter o, of which the Hebrew 
name means eye, was originally intended to 
represent that organ. From the ancient Greek 
alphabet are generally derived in a direct line 
the ordinary Greek alphabet, the Latin, and the 
Etruscan, though the last may have been di¬ 
rectly derived from the Phoenician. The later 
Greek alphabet furnished elements for the Cop¬ 
tic, the Gothic, and the old Slavic alphabets. 
The Latin characters are now employed by many 
nations, such as the Italian, the French, the 
Spanish, the Portuguese, the English, the Dutch, 
the German, the Hungarian, the Polish, etc., 
each having introduced such modifications or 
additions as are necessary to express the sound 
of the language peculiar to it. The Greek alpha¬ 
bet originally possessed only 16 letters, though 
the Phoenician had 22. These were the five 
vowels, a, e, 1, 0, v, (a, e, i, o, u, as in French), 
and the 11 consonants, /3, 7, 5, k , X, p y v> ir, p, a-, t 
(b, g, d, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t). According 
to one tradition, Palamedes, a contemporary of 
the Trojan war, invented $ ( x ) and the three 
aspirates 6, <p , % (th, ph, cli guttural). To 
Simonides was attributed the invention of the 
double consonants f and ^ (ds or z, and ps) 
and the two long vowels v and w (e and d), 
which completed the Greek alphabet of 24 let¬ 
ters as still used. Besides these, there was 
anciently the digamma, a character correspond¬ 
ing pretty nearly to v, which afterward slipped 
out of the Greek alphabet; and the character ‘ 
representing an aspirate at the beginning of 
words.. The original Latin alphabet, as it is 
found in the oldest inscriptions, consisted of 21 
letters; namely, the vowels a, e, i, 0, and u ( v ), 
and the consonants b, c, d, f, z, li, k, l, m, n, p, 


ALPHABET. 



EGYPTIAN 

PNCEN 

/CIAN 

GREEK 

GREEK 

NAMES 

LATIN 

H£BMH 

HEBREW 

NAMES 

1 


A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

a 

Alpha 

A 

A 

kcia 

X 

Aleph 

2 


4 


a 

B 

B 

/3 

Beta 

* 

B 

6 b 

3 

Beth 

3 

M 

2 

> 

7 

r 

r 

SY 

Gamma 

< 

C 

(gc^ 

2 

Gimel 

4 


■A 

A 

A 

A 


S 

Delta 

> 

D 

bb a 


Daleth 

5 

ra 

m 

A 


E 

e 

£ 

Epsilon 


E 

ee 

n 

He 

6 



H 

y 

YF 


F 

(Digamma) 

* 

F 

ff 


Vau 

7 

& 

fc 

t 


I 

z 

zz 

Zeta 

t 

Z 

Z 

* 

1 

Zain 

8 


C 0 

0 

B 

H 

H 

h T] 

Eta 

B 

H 

Li K 

n 

Cheth 

9 



© 

© 

O 

e 

VS 

Theta 

® 



b 

Teth 

10 

W 

% 

y 

\ 

X 

1 

1 

L 

lota 

1 

1 

, / 

' J 


lod 

II 


A 

i 


K 

K 

K K 

Kappa 

1C 

K 

k 

3 

Caph 

12 


•A 

l 

v 

A 

A 

A 

Lambda 

u 

L 

l 1 

* 

Lamed 

13 

k 


7 

"1 

A 

M 

JX/jL 

Mu 

r 


corn 

» 

Mem 

14 

MVW\ 


*1 

»1 

N 

N 

yy 

Nu 

r 

AS 

n n 


Nun 

15 

— 


* 

J 

mmLm 

l 

z, 

Xi 

m 

+ 

X x 

D 

Samech 

16 



O 

0 

O 

o 

0 

Omicron 

o 



V 

Ain 

17 

g 


? 

n 

r 

TT 

rc zu 

Pi 

p 

p 

p 

B 

Pe 

16 

■S 

f 

r 

r 

M 




r 




T zade 

19 

A 

A 

? 

? 

9 




9 

Q 

qq 

P 

Koph 

20 

<=> 


i 

A 

p 

P 

? e 

Rho 

P 

R 

P r 

“1 

Resh 

21 

TtTtT 


w 

* 

i 

c 

e d 

Sigma 

$ 

S 

si s 

IP 

Shin 

22 


5 

+ 

T 

T 

T 

T 

Tau 

T 

T 

z t 

n 

Tau 

ft 

1 

ii 

in 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 


VIII 

IX 

X 

XI 
































































































































































ALPHONSINE TABLES —ALPS 


q, r > s > t, x - Z slipped out at an early period, 
and g took its place. To these we might also 
add the characters <r and cc , representiiig the 
Greek dipthongs ot and at. The letters i and 
u, it must be remarked, had a double force, 
that of a vowel and that of a consonant. In the 
latter case they were, after the introduction of 
printing, changed frequently into j and v. The 
i consonant, as in inventus (youth), had a sound 
resembling that of y in English or j in German; 
u, consonant, as in ties pa ( vespa ), a wasp, had 
a sound much like the English iv — zvespa. (At 
least this opinion appears best supported by the 
evidence.) No genuine Latin word contains 
either y or z, these being used in foreign (chief¬ 
ly Greek) words adopted into the language; 
and k is found in classical Latin only in Ka- 
lendce. While the alphabets of the west of Eu¬ 
rope are derived from the Latin, the Russian 
and other Slavonic alphabets of the East come 
from the Greek. The modern Russian, consist¬ 
ing of 35 letters, is a modification and simplifica¬ 
tion of the ancient Cyrillic alphabet, invented by 
Cyril in the 9th century in order to translate 
the Gospels into the language of the Slavs of 
Bulgaria and Moravia. It was formed of Greek 
letters, together with some borrowed from the 
Armenian and Coptic alphabets, themselves de¬ 
scended from the Greek. The Anglo-Saxon 
alphabet (see Anglo-Saxons) had two letters 
for the two sounds of tJi, which appear to have 
come from the Greek through the Moeso-Gothic, 
and which were unfortunately not retained in 
later English. It wanted the letters j, k, q, v, z, 
but it had the sound cc. The German alphabet 
consists of the same letters as our own, the 
common German characters being mere modi¬ 
fications of the Roman, but the sounds of some 
of them are different. Anciently certain char¬ 
acters called Runic (q.v.) were made use of 
in Germany and Scandinavia, to which some 
would attribute an origin independent of the 
Greek and Latin alphabets. Among Asiatic 
alphabets the Arabian has played a part ex¬ 
actly analogous to that of the Latin in Europe, 
the conquests of Mohammedanism having im¬ 
posed it on the Persian, an Aryan language; 
the Turkish, a Tatar language; the Hindustani, 
also an Aryan language; and even the Malay. 
It consists of 28 letters, and appears to derive 
its origin from the Sinaitic alphabet, employed 
during the first centuries of the Christian era, 
and found in inscriptions in the Sinaitic penin¬ 
sula, at Petra, in the Hauran, etc. The Sanskrit 
or Devanagari alphabet is one of the most re¬ 
markable alphabets of the world. As now used 
it has 14 characters for the vowels and diph¬ 
thongs, and 33 for the consonants, besides two 
•other symbols. The vowel a short is to be 
understood after every consonant, unless ex¬ 
cluded by another vowel immediately attached 
to the consonant. (See Sanskrit; also arti¬ 
cles on the various languages and letters.) 
Our alphabet is by no means a perfect in¬ 
strument for what it has to perform, but is 
both defective and redundant. It is estimated 
that there are 42 sounds in the language, and 
only 26 letters to represent them. A, to begin 
with, has to do duty for at least four different 
sounds, as in far, fat, fall, and fame; 0 has three 
sounds, as not, note, and move; e has a long 
sound and a short, as in mete and met. C is a 
useless letter altogether, since it has always 
Yol. 1 —21 


either the sound of s or of k. Others of the 
consonants encroach upon each other’s prov¬ 
inces ; g, for example, sounds sometimes like j, 
as in digest; f sounds v in of; s sometimes 
usurps the sound of z, as in raisin, sometimes 
that of zh or sh, as in pleasure. 

Alphonsine Tables. See Alfonso X. 

Alphonsus dei Liguori, Saint: b. Naples 
of noble parents at the end of the 17th century. 
At the age of 16 he took his degree of Doctor in 
Civil and Canon Law in the University of Na¬ 
ples and immediately entered the legal profes¬ 
sion. This he soon abandoned in order to be¬ 
come a priest and to dedicate his life to the 
service of the poor in the villages of southern 
Italy. To assist him in these labors of teaching 
the poor peasants, he founded the Congregation 
of the Holy Redeemer, whose members are com¬ 
monly known to-day in the United States as 
^RedemptoristsA He was made bishop of Saint 
Agatha by Clement XIII. After 25 years 
of fruitful labor in this field, he returned to his 
monastery at Nocera, where he died in 1787. 
His virtues and learning have made him one of 
the best known saints in the Catholic Church. 
He was canonized in 1839 by Gregory XVI., 
and in 1871 was proclaimed by Pius IX. a Doc¬ 
tor of the Universal Church. His writings deal 
chiefly with moral theology in theory and prac¬ 
tice. His feast is celebrated on 2 August. 

Bibliography .—The first authoritative work 
on Saint Alphonsus was written by one of his 
scholars, P. Tannoiaand, and is entitled ( Vita 
ed Instituto del Venerabile Servo di Dio ) (3 
vols., Naples 1802). In French, an exhaustive 
work in 4 vols. by Cardinal Villecourt, ( Vie et 
institut de Saint Alphonse de Liguori J (1863) ; 
in English, vid. Butler’s ( Lives of the Saints , } 
and ( Life ) by Bishop Mullock. 

Alpine Clubs, organizations for the ex¬ 
ploration and study of mountains. The original 
club is the famous Alpine Club of England, or¬ 
ganized in 1858, which publishes the ( Alpine 
Journal. } The first American Alpine Club was 
organized in 1873. There are in the United 
States the (< Mazamas M and Sierra clubs on the 
Pacific coast, and the Appalachian Club on the 
Atlantic. See Mountain Climbing. 

Alpine Plants, plants indigenous to high 
altitudes. The most striking features common 
to them all are adaptations to rigorous climate 
such as the dwarfing of the stems of trees and 
shrubs, but not of roots or flowers, which may 
even be increased in size over similar plants 
grown in milder places; gnarled and crooked 
habit; horizontal or creeping rather than up¬ 
right growth (the height of the taller species 
indicating the approximate depth of snow) ; and 
the development of structures that tend to check 
evaporation. Of these last a thickened epider¬ 
mis, as in conifers, and epidermal hairs, as in 
edelweiss, are the most striking. 

Alps, the most remarkable and interesting 
system of mountains in Europe. It covers a 
great part of northern Italy, several depart¬ 
ments of France, nearly the whole of Switzer¬ 
land, and a large part of Austria, while its ex¬ 
tensive ramifications in Italy, Germany, Turkey, 
with its principalities, and Greece, connect it 
with nearly all the mountain systems of Europe. 
The name is derived from the Celtic alb, which 
by some is made to signify white, by others 
height. In the immediate neighborhood of the 


ALPS 


mountains alp has a peculiar meaning, and sig¬ 
nifies one of the high pastures for which the 
Alps are distinguished. This great congeries of 
mountains may be said to be included between 
lat. 44 0 and 48° N.; and Ion. 5 0 and 18 0 E. 
The culminating peak of the whole system is 
Mont Blanc, 15,781 feet high, though the true 
centre is St. Gothard, or rather the mountains 
between the sources of the Rhone and the Inn, 
and the Swiss cantons Valais, Bern, Uri, and 
Grisons on the north; and canton Tessin, and 
Lombardy and Sardinia on the south. It is a 
curious fact that its great central mass is nearly 
equidistant from, the pole and from the equator. 
From its slopes flow, either directly or by af¬ 
fluents, the great rivers of central Europe, the 
Danube, Rhine, Rhone, and Po. Round the 
northern frontier of Italy the Alps form a re¬ 
markable barrier, shutting it off at all points 
from the mainland of Europe, so that, except in 
the valley of the Adige, where a remarkable 
break occurs in the chain, or at the opposite 
extremity at Nice, it can only be approached 
from France, Germany, or Switzerland, through 
high and difficult passes. Accordingly nearly 
all the great passes of the Alps are connected 
with roads from the northern kingdoms into 
Italy. 

As usual with mountain systems of great 
altitude, the highest peaks of the Alps are 
reached by a gradual ascent through a succes¬ 
sion of outer ranges and elevated intermediate 
valleys. The total width of the system is there¬ 
fore always great and can hardly anywhere be 
measured with precision, opinion varying as to 
the points at which the outer limits should be 
fixed. Toward the east, however, the system, 
while it diminishes in height, becomes more 
widely extended, some of the transverse valleys 
extending to 150 miles, while that of the Drave 
reaches 200. From Bellinzona, in the canton 
of Tessin, to Altorf, in that of Uri, the distance 
is 50 miles. The outer range is called by the 
Italians Pre-alpi, by the Germans Voralpen. 
The main chain of the Alps, which commonly 
determines the watershed of the countries 
through which it passes, contains some of the 
highest peaks; but at several points there are 
extensive ramifications of the system proceeding 
at various angles from the main chain, and 
more or less connected with it, and which some¬ 
times exceed in mass and altitude the cor¬ 
responding parts of the principal chain. Such 
are the Alps of Dauphine and Savoy, and the 
Bernese Alps. The principal valleys of the Alps 
run mostly in a direction nearly parallel with 
the principal ranges, and therefore east and west. 
The transverse valleys are commonly shorter. 
In the section called the Lepontine Alps, how¬ 
ever, long ranges run north and south, forming 
valleys transverse to the dividing line of the 
waters, and terminating in the great Italian 
lakes. The slopes toward the south are more 
precipitous than toward the north, and as most 
of the. collateral ranges lie to the north of the 
main chain the great valleys are mostly to be 
found in the intervals between them. The trans¬ 
verse valleys of the Alps frequently lead up 
through a narrow gorge to a depression in the 
main ridge between two adjacent peaks. These 
are the passes or cols, which are found by 
tracing a stream which descends from the moun¬ 
tains up to its source. The col is usually found 


to receive the drainage of the neighboring peaks,, 
and when it is of sufficient extent a small lake 
is generally formed, from which a stream flows 
down on each. side. When the one stream has 
been traced up to its source the passage across 
the mountains is completed by following the 
course of the other. The principal passes, now 
well known, are more than 50 in number; but 
there are many others more difficult and dan¬ 
gerous which have never had more than a local 
reputation. 

The common divisions of the Alps have been 
taken from the Romans, whose acquaintance 
with the Alps as the northern boundary of Italy 
was considerable, yet their classification, being 
formed mostly for practical purposes, was far 
from complete. Several modern divisions have 
been added. The Romans were acquainted with 
many of the best passes, to which from their 
altitude they gave the name of Mons. Before 
noticing these divisions a glance may be taken 
at the general direction of the main chain. The 
most convenient starting-point is on the Medi¬ 
terranean coast, near Nice. Eastward th.e 
chain proceeds along the coast till it forms a 
junction with the Apennines, which may be con¬ 
sidered as one extremity of the system. In the 
opposite direction it proceeds northwest, and af¬ 
terward north on the boundaries of France and 
Italy to Mont Blanc; it then turns northeast and 
runs generally in this direction to the Gross 
Glockner, in central Tyrol, between the Drave 
and the Salza, where it divides into two 
branches, the more northerly of which proceeds 
northeast toward Vienna. The southern chain 
subdivides again, one branch running in a south¬ 
erly direction, connects itself with the mountains 
of Dalmatia, and by a southeasterly continuation 
with the Balkans and the mountains of Greece; 
the middle branch proceeds toward the Drave 
and Danube. With these continuations, which 
lose themselves insensibly in other ranges, the 
Alps may be considered to terminate. 

The Maritime Alps .— The first great division 
of the Alps extends from their junction with 
the Apennines to Monte Viso, a distance of 
about 100 miles. This mountain is the vnost 
prominent object from the basin of the Po, wher¬ 
ever the Alps are visible. The division of the 
Alps from the Apennines has been variously 
fixed at Col di Tende and Col d’Altare, near 
Savona. The northern limit of the Maritime 
Alps is to the south of Monte Viso. The cul- 
minating-points are the Aiguille de Chambeyron, 
11,155 feet, and the Grand Rioburent, 11,142 feet. 
The principal pass is the Col di Tende (6,158 
feet), which was made practicable for carriages 
by Napoleon. It leads from Nice to Turin. 
The road is dreary, but commands a view of 
the Alps from Col d’lseran to Monte Viso. 
There are carriage roads over the Col di San 
Bernardo and Col di Nava. Numerous tributa¬ 
ries of the Po and the Durance with the Var 
and other lesser rivers rise in the Maritime 
Alps. 

The Cottian Alps .— Anciently named after a 
chief of the district, and extending from Monte 
Viso to Mont Cenis — consist of numerous 
mountain masses irregularly grouped, the main 
line running northeast, and the principal rami¬ 
fications to the west of it. The length is about 
60 miles. Modern geographers have distinguished 
a separate group, divided from the main chain 


ALPS 


by the valley of the Durance, which are called 
the Dauphine Alps. These contain loftier peaks 
than the main chain. Principal peaks of the 
Cottian Alps: Monte Viso, 12,605 ft.; Char- 
donnet, 12.373; Ciamarella, 12,081; of the Dau- 
phinese Alps: Pic des ficrins, 13,462; La Meije, 
13,081 ; Pelvoux, 12,973. There is a carriage 
road by Mont Genevre (6,102 feet) between the 
valleys of the Durance and the Dora Ripaira, 
and by the Col de Sestrieres (6,335 feet) from 
Cesanne to Pignerolo. The road by the former, 
Cesanne to Briangon, was constructed by order 
of Napoleon. The difficult pass of Col de la 
Roue, Bardonneche to Modane, is that sup¬ 
posed to have been traversed by Caesar in order 
to attack the Helvetians. The Durance and 
the Dora Ripaira rise in the Cottian Alps. 

The Graian Alps .— From Mont Cenis to Mont 
Blanc (50 miles long). This group has exten¬ 
sive ramifications in Savoie and Piedmont. The 
principal peaks are, in the main chain, Aiguille 
de la Sassiere, 12,326 feet; in the Piedmontese 
group, Grand Paradis, 13,300; in the Savoie 
group, Grande Casse, 12,780. Mont Cenis 
(6,765 feet), the most frequented of all the 
Alpine passes, was crossed by Pepin to attack 
the Lombards. A carriage road over it was 
constructed by Napoleon in 1803-10, leading 
from the valley of the Arc to Turin, and unit¬ 
ing with the road from Mont Genevre at Susa. 
A railway now passes through the mountain by 
a tunnel nearly eight miles long. (See Cenis.) 
The pass of Little St. Bernard (7,192 feet) 
lies between the valleys of the Isere and 
Aosta. It was made practicable for cars by 
Augustus, but is now only available for mules. 
It appears to have been the road taken by Han¬ 
nibal. The Col de Bonhomme (8,195 feet) com¬ 
municates with the Col de la Seigne (8,327 feet) 
in the Pennine Alps. They lead by a mule path 
from Contamines to Courmayeur. The Stura, 
and Orca, and the Arc and Isere, rise in the 
Graian Alps. 

The Pennine Alps (Celtic, pen or hen, a 
hill) is the loftiest range of the whole system, 
having Mont Blanc at one extremity and Monte 
Rosa at the other (60 miles). Here also begin 
the most extensive ramifications of the system, 
some of the collateral ranges rivaling or ex¬ 
ceeding in mass and altitude the main chain. 
The Alps of Haute Savoie form a northwestern 
continuation of this range. The northern boun¬ 
dary of the Pennine Alps is the Valais, or upper 
valley of the Rhone. On the opposite side of 
this valley, and nearly parallel with the main 
chain, runs the great range of the Bernese Alps. 
Here the grandest panoramas of Alpine scenery 
are exhibited. The great peaks of the two vast 
ranges are only about 20 miles apart, and be¬ 
tween them run transverse ranges presenting 
innumerable secondary heights. From the Mat¬ 
terhorn (Mont Cervin), between Mont Corn- 
bin and Monte Rosa, a series of great heights, 
including the Weisshorn and the Gabelhorn, 
run to the north. The main range contains 
Mont Blanc, Monte Rosa, and Mont Cervin, 
three of the highest peaks in Europe. On the 
west the Bernese Alps are connected with the 
Jura range. The principal heights of the Pen¬ 
nine Alps are Mont Blanc, 15,781 feet; Monte 
Rosa, 15,217; Mischabelhorner (Dom), 14 , 935 ,' 
Lyskamm, 14,889; Weisshorn, 14.804; Matter¬ 
horn, 14,780. In the Bernese Alps are the Fin- 


steraarhorn, 14,026; Aletschhorn, 13,803; Jung¬ 
frau, 13,671. There are bridle passes, the Col 
de la Seigne, already mentioned, and the Col de 
Ferret (8,320 feet), on each side of Mont Blanc. 
The pass of Great St. Bernard is celebrated for 
its hospice. (See Bernard, Great St.) It was 
crossed by Napoleon in 1800, but it is not prac¬ 
ticable for carriages. There are several passes, 
as the Col du Cervin, the Schwarzthor, and 
the Col du Lys, from 10,000 to 14,000 feet in 
height. The most easterly pass is the Simplon, 
6,595 feet, from Brieg to Domo d’Ossola. It 
has a carriage road made by Napoleon. This is 
about 36 miles long and 25 feet wide through¬ 
out, and is carried over steep precipices and 
through six galleries hewn in the rock. The 
Grande Galerie is 683 feet long. A double rail¬ 
way tunnel, the longest in the world (12L2 
miles), is being driven through the Simplon. 
Numerous tributaries of the Rhone rise in the 
valley between the mountains, and on the Italian 
side the Dora Baltea, Sesia, and other rivers. 

The Lepontine Alps form the continuation of 
the main chain on the south side of the great 
valley or depression stretching from Martigny 
in the Valais to Coire in the Grisons, the west¬ 
ern portion of which forms the basin of the 
Rhone, the eastern that of the Vorderrhein. 
From this chain branch the northern and eastern 
extensions of the Swiss Alps beyond the Bernese 
range, the eastern boundary of which is fixed 
at the defile of the Devil’s Bridge, near Ander- 
matt, crossed by the Reuss. The Lepontine range 
extends to the Splugen Pass. The line of wa¬ 
tershed is generally parallel to the valley of 
the Vorderrhein; but here, as already noticed, 
some of the principal ranges run transverse to 
it, terminating in the great valleys in which lie 
the lakes Maggiore, Como, etc., fed by numerous 
tributaries from this and the following division 
of the Alps. This division forms the great 
water-parting of the whole system. Within a 
radius of a few miles from the St. Gothard 
Pass rise the Rhone, the Aar, the Reuss, the 
Vorderrhein, the Ticino, the Toccia, and the 
Maggia. The principal pass is the St. Gothard 
(6,936 feet), over which pass is a carriage road 
from Bellinzona to Altorf. Through this moun¬ 
tain mass a railway tunnel more than nine miles 
long was opened in 1882. The Gries Pass (8,050 
feet) conducts from Obergestelen to Formazza. 
The Bernardin Pass (6,769 feet), constructed 
by the Swiss government, leads from Coire to 
Bellinzona. The road from Coire to the Splii- 
gen is the same as leads to the Splugen Pass 
(6,945 feet), through which it proceeds to Lake 
Como. This route commands the finest views 
of Swiss scenery in the Grisons. Previous to 
the construction of the present road by the 
Austrian government in 1823 it was difficult 
and dangerous. Marshal MacDonald, who 
crossed it in 1800, lost a large number of men 
by avalanches at a gorge in the passage of the 
Cardinello, which the new road avoids. The 
carriage road over the Furka Pass from Ober¬ 
gestelen to Andermatt, completed in 1867, af¬ 
fords a fine view of the Schreckhorn and Fin- 
steraarhorn. The peaks here are of less 
elevation. The highest, Monte Leone, is 11,696 
feet; the Piz Valrhein is 11,148 feet, and several 
are above 10,000. Of the northern ranges Todi 
is 11,887; Bifertenstock, 11,237; Scheerhorn, 
11,132, and there are many above 10,000. 


* 


ALPS 


The Rhcetian Alps extend from the Spliigen 
to Dreiherrnspitz, on the borders of Salzburg 
and Tyrol. The Engadine, or valley of the Inn, 
divides them into two portions. The chain is 
also broken by the valley of the Adige. To the 
south, separated by the valley of the Adda, are 
the Lombard Alps, while the more northerly 
continuations embrace the Tyrolese and Bava¬ 
rian Alps. In the main range are the Piz Ber¬ 
nina, 13,294 feet; Piz Roseg, 12,936; Orteler- 
spitze, 12,814; in the Lombard Alps, Monte 
Adamello, 11,832; Presanella, 11,688; and Care 
Alto, 11,352. The other ranges are inferior in 
height. Good roads now become more numer¬ 
ous. The Malloya Pass (5,942 feet) leads from 
Chiavenna, by the valley of the Inn, to Inns¬ 
bruck, and communicates with the road over the 
Julier Pass (7,503 feet) to Coire. The Pass of 
Glurns (4,400 feet), from the valley of the Inn 
to the Adige, is the lowest pass over the main 
chain. It joins the road to Milan by the Val- 
telline, the highest part of which is 9,174 feet. 
This is a carriage road constructed by the Aus¬ 
trian government for communication with their 
Lombard dominions. The Brenner Pass (4.588 
feet) leads from Verona to Innsbruck. The 
Brenner is crossed by a railway. The northern 
ranges are intersected by the Septima, Julier, 
Albula, and other passes. The Adda, Oglio, 
Adige, Hinterrhein, Inn, and other rivers, rise 
in this part of the chain. 

Noric Alps .— The main chain of the Alps 
here divides into different sections, as already 
mentioned. The northern part of the chain ex¬ 
tending to Vienna was anciently called the Noric 
Alps, while the southern continuations were 
known as the Carnian and Julian Alps, the 
names Venetian, Dalmatian, and Pannonic Alps 
being also in use. The culminating peak of the 
northern range is the Gross Glockner, 12,405 
feet. Farther east the heights are of much less 
elevation. In Carinthia and Styria two parallel 
branches called the Styrian Alps enclose the up¬ 
per valley of the Mur. In this group is the 
Hafnereck, 10,044 feet. In south Tyrol and 
Venetia several peaks rise above 10,000 feet. 
The Carnic Alps run from the frontiers of Tyrol 
and Venetia to the frontier of Carinthia. They 
are separated from the northern range by the 
Gailthal. The height of the southeastern con¬ 
tinuations of the Alps rapidly diminishes, and 
they lose themselves in ranges having nothing 
in common with the great mountain masses 
which distinguish the centre of the system. 
Mount Terglou, near the northwestern extrem¬ 
ity of the Julian Alps, has a height of 9,371 feet. 
The name Dinaric Alps is given to a continua¬ 
tion from Mount Klek through Croatia and 
along the borders of Dalmatia and Herzego¬ 
vina. 

There are various points of vantage from 
which extensive views of Alpine scenery are 
commanded at the expense of a moderate 
amount of climbing. The Rigi, which can now 
be ascended by railway, is one of these. There 
are hotels at the top, 5,905 feet above the level 
of the sea, and 4,468 above the Lake of Lucerne. 
A favorite view from hence is to watch the sun 
rise over the Bernese Alps. The Faulhorn 
(8,799 feet), southeast of Lake Brienz, com¬ 
mands a near view of the same range. The 
Becca di Nona (8,415 feet), south of Aosta, 
gives, according to some authorities, the finest 


panoramic view to be obtained from any summit 
of the Alps. From the Gorner Grat (to which 
there is now a railway from Zermatt), and va¬ 
rious points in the valley of Chamonix, par¬ 
ticularly the Montanvert, which is visited to 
see the Mer de Glace, views of various interest 
are obtained. The most accessible Alpine gla¬ 
ciers are those of Aletsch, Chamonix, and Zer¬ 
matt. 

Climate .— In the lower valleys the mean tem¬ 
perature ranges from 50° to 6o°. Half-way up 
the Alps it averages about 32 0 — a height which, 
in the snowy regions, where snow always lies, 
the average does not attain. But even here 
the solar radiation produced by the rocks and 
snow is often so great as to raise the barometer 
to 120 0 and even higher. The exhilarating and 
invigorating nature of the climate in the upper 
regions of the Alps during summer has been 
acknowledged by all who have perambulated 
these romantic scenes. The freshness of the 
breeze as it comes from the snowy peaks tem¬ 
pered by the rays of a southern sun, enables 
the traveler, without weariness, to perform dis¬ 
tances on foot that at home he would have 
shrunk from attempting. Notwithstanding/how¬ 
ever, the invigorating nature of the climate, the 
inhabitants of the higher valleys are often af¬ 
flicted with goitre and cretinism. 

Botany and Zoology .— In respect to vegeta¬ 
tion the Alps have been divided into six zones. 
The limits of these depend not on absolute 
height, but on height modified by exposure and 
local circumstances. The lowest is the olive 
zone. This tree flourishes better on sheltered 
slopes of the mountains than on the plains of 
northern Italy. The vine, which bears a greater 
winter cold, distinguishes the second zone. On 
slopes exposed to the sun it flourishes to a con¬ 
siderable height. The third is the mountainous 
zone or region. Cereals and deciduous trees 
form the distinguishing features of its vegeta¬ 
tion. The mean temperature about equals that 
of Great Britain, but the extremes are greater. 
The fourth region is' the sub-Alpine or conif¬ 
erous. Here are vast forests of pines of various 
species, which have in many places been incon¬ 
siderately cut down, the result being that the 
valleys have been deprived of shelter and de¬ 
nuded of soil. Most of the Alpine villages are 
in the two last regions. On the northern slopes 
pines grow to 6,000, and on the southern slopes! 
to 7,000 feet above the level of the sea. This 
is also the region of the lower or permanent 
pastures where the flocks are fed in winter. The 
fifth is the pasture region, the term alp being 
used in the local sense of high pasture grounds. 
It extends from the uppermost limit of trees to 
the region of perpetual snow. The landscape is 
adorned with numerous shrubs; rhododendrons, 
junipers, bilberries, and dwarf willows being 
among the distinctive forms of vegetation. The 
sixth is the region of perpetual snow. The line 
of snow appears from a distance to be con¬ 
tinuous at a limit which varies, according to 
seasons and localities, from 8,000 to 9,500 feet, 
but on approaching this apparently continuous 
line it is found to be broken up and crossed by 
patches of brilliant vegetation, the limit of which 
appears to be want of soil rather than severity 
of climate. Few flowering plants extend above 
10,000 feet, but they have been found as high 
as 12,000 feet. At this great elevation two 


ALSACE-LORRAINE 


species of quadrupeds may be seen, the bou- 
quetin or wild goat, and the chamois, whicli 
delight in heights inaccessible to man. The 
bouquetin, which has become very rare, scales 
the most elevated peaks, while the chamois is 
generally found rather lower, but is never seen 
in the plains. In summer the high mountain 
pastures are covered with large flocks of cattle, 
sheep, and goats, which in winter are removed 
to a lower and warmer level. The marmot, and 
white or Alpine hare, inhabit both the snowy 
and the woody regions. Lower down are found 
the mole, the wildcat, the fox, the lynx, the 
bear, and the wolf; but the last two are now 
extremely rare. The vulture, eagle, and other 
birds of prey frequent the rugged Alpine rocks, 
and (( the snowy ptarmigan® seeks food and shel¬ 
ter among the diminutive plants that border 
upon the snow-line. Other kinds of game, in¬ 
cluding the grouse, woodcock, and partridge, 
may be found from the upper limit of the woods 
to the more level and habitable parts below. 
Several kinds of water-fowl frequent the higher 
lakes, where excellent trout and other fish are 
found; but those situated at the greatest ele¬ 
vation are, from their low temperature, en¬ 
tirely destitute of fish. 

Geology and Minerals .— The geological 
structure of the Alps is highly involved, and is 
far, as yet, from being thoroughly investigated 
or understood. In general three zones can be 
distinguished, a central, in which crystalline 
rocks prevail, and two exterior zones, in which 
sedimentary rocks predominate. The rocks of 
the central zone consist of granitic gneiss of va¬ 
rious forms, seldom pure granite, gneiss, horn¬ 
blende, mica slate, and other slates and schists. 
In the western Alps there are also considerable 
elevations in the central zone that belong to the 
Jurassic (Oolite) and Cretaceous formations. 
From the disposition of the beds, which are 
broken, tilted, and distorted on a gigantic scale, 
the Alps appear to have been formed by a suc¬ 
cession of disruptions and elevations extending 
over a very protracted period. The large beds 
of calcareous rock which overlie the older rocks 
both to the east and west appear to have been 
ruptured and rolled back by the upheaval of 
the central mass. Mining is not carried on to 
an extent proportionate to the magnitude of the 
mountain range. Iron and lead, however, are 
found in considerable abundance, and the Blei- 
berg (lead mountain) mine, in Carinthia, fur¬ 
nishes the purest lead in Europe. Rock-salt is 
abundant toward the north of the chain, and the 
salt-works of Bex in Canton de Vaud, of Hall 
in Tyrol, of Hallein and of Berchtesgaden in the 
vicinity of Salzburg, are of note. Mercury ex¬ 
ists chiefly in the east part; the richness of the 
mine of Idria, northwest of Trieste, is well 
known. Besides those principal products, gold, 
silver, copper, zinc, alum, and coal are wrought 
to some extent. 

Alsace-Lorraine, al-sas-ld-ran' (German, 
Elsass-Lothringen ), a district occupying the 
extreme southwest corner of Germany, bounded 
west by France, east by Baden, and south by 
Switzerland. Its length from north to south is 
123 miles; its breadth varies from 22 to 105 
miles; and its area is 5,580 square miles, of 
which 1,353 belong to Upper Alsace (in the 
south), 1,844 to Lower Alsace (northeast), and 
2.383 to Lorraine (northwest). Pop. (1900) 
1,717,451, of whom 76 per cent were Roman 


Catholics, and more than 80 per cent spoke Ger¬ 
man— mainly the vernacular Alsatian, a dialect 
of Alemannian. The most populous districts in 
their order are Lower Alsace, Lorraine, and Up¬ 
per Alsace. The French-speaking population is 
mainly in the larger towns and in Lorraine. 
The Rhine flows 115 miles north by east, along 
all the eastern border, and receives, below 
Strasburg, the Ill from Alsace, 127 miles long. 
Other rivers are the Moselle, flowing through 
Lorraine past Metz, and its affluent, the Saar. 
Along the Rhine is a strip of level country, 9 to 
17 miles broad and declining from 800 to 450 
feet above sea-level. Westward of this rise the 
Vosges Mountains, culminating at a height of 
4,677 feet; while Lorraine, rather hilly than 
mountainous, rarely attains 1,300 feet. About 
48.5 per cent of the entire area is arable, 11.6 
meadow and pasture, and 30.8 under wood. 
Alsace-Lorraine produces much wine, grain, and 
tobacco; it is rich in mines, iron and coal; and 
manufactures iron, cotton, wool, silks, chemicals, 
glass, and paper. It contains the important 
cities of Strasburg (pop. 1900, 150,268) ; Miihl- 
hausen (pop. 1890, 27,538) ; Metz (pop. 1890, 
60,186) ; Colmar (pop. 1890, 30,411). As a 
French province, Alsace was divided into the 
departments of Haut-Rhin and Bas-Rhin. Lor¬ 
raine fell into the departments of Meuse, 
Moselle, Meurthe, and Vosges (parts of all 
which still remain French). The lieutenant- 
governor (Statthalter) , representing the im¬ 
perial government, resides at Strasburg, and is 
assisted by a ministry of five departments and 
a council of state. 

From the 10th century Alsace-Lorraine 
formed part of the German empire till a part of 
it was ceded to France at the Peace of West¬ 
phalia (1648), and by the Peace of Ryswick 
(1697) the cession of the whole was ratified. 
German never ceased to be the chief language 
of the people, and all newspapers were, during 
the whole period of the French possession, 
printed in both languages. In 1871, after the 
Franco-Prussian war, Alsace and German Lor¬ 
raine were, by the Treaty of Frankfort, incor¬ 
porated in the new German empire. The great 
mass of the population was strongly against the 
change, and 160,000 elected to be French, though 
only 50,000 went into actual exile, refusing to 
become German subjects. Since the era of the 
Revolution Alsace in sentiment was wholly 
French. To France she gave the bravest of her 
sons — Kellerman, Kleber, and many another 
hero. Strasburg first heard the < Marseillaise ) ; 
and MM. Erckmann-Chatrian, Lorrainers both, 
have faithfully represented their countrymen’s 
love of La Patrie in the days of the second as 
of the first Napoleon. Of late it is claimed by 
the Germans that, through the emigration of the 
irreconcilables and the immigration of German 
settlers, the tendency of the old natives to ac¬ 
cept the inevitable, and the rising up of a new 
generation, to whom the French connection is a 
tradition, the situation has slowly but steadily 
changed in favor of Germany and the existing 
firm but fair administration. The irritating 
passport system, a special grievance not in force 
elsewhere in Germany, was withdrawn in 1873. 
On 9 May 1902, Emperor William directed that 
a bill be laid before the Federal Council abol¬ 
ishing paragraph 10 in the imperial constitution, 
which imposed practically a dictatorship on the 
reichsland of Alsace-Lorraine. 


ALSOP —ALTON 


Alsop, Richard, poet: b. Middletown, 
Conn., 23 Jan. 1761; d. Flatbush, L. I., 20 Aug. 
1815. He studied at Yale, but did not complete 
his course. He formed the literary group 
known as the <( Hartford Wits,® which includes 
Benjamin Trumbull, Lemuel Hopkins, and 
Theodore Dwight. Alsop was largely responsi¬ 
ble for the < Echo ) (1791-5), a series of traves¬ 
ties and burlesques on current fads and liter¬ 
ature (pub. in book form 1807). He wrote 
( Monody on the Death of Washington (1800) ; 
the ( Enchanted Lake of the Fairy Morgana > 
(1808). 

Altai (al'ti) Mountains, a mountain range 
of central Asia, extending from the desert of 
Gobi in a northwesterly direction along the boun¬ 
dary of Mongolia and Sungaria. After pass¬ 
ing the Russian frontier it gradually falls off 
in altitude and merges into the steppes. The 
rivers of this region are mostly head waters of 
the Obi and Irtysh. The mountain scenery is 
generally grand and interesting. The highest 
summit is Baluka, about 17,500 feet above the 
sea. The area covered by snow and glaciers is 
large. The mountains have a severe climate, 
but agriculture is carried on to some extent in 
the larger valleys. The inhabitants are chiefly 
Russians and Kalmuks. 

Altaic Languages, a family of languages 
occupying a portion of northern and eastern 
Europe, and nearly the whole of northern and 
central Asia, together with some other regions, 
and divided into five branches, the Ugrian or 
Finno-Hungarian, Samoyedic, Turkic, Mongolic, 
and Tungusic. Also called Ural-Altaic and 
Turanian. 

Altar, the structure on which sacrifices 
are offered or incense burned as an act of wor¬ 
ship. In the Catholic Church, the sacred table 
on which is offered the Sacrifice of the Mass. 
The earliest altars were of wood, but Pope Sil¬ 
vester, at the beginning of the 4th century, 
decreed that the altar should be made of stone, 
or at least that part of it on which the chalice 
and host are placed. The ritual of the Catholic 
Church commands that the altar must be con¬ 
secrated by a bishop or a mitred abbot who has 
received the faculties and the relics of a saint to 
be enclosed in the altar stone, which is placed 
in the centre of the table of the altar. 

Altgeld, John Peter, American politician: 
b. Germany, Dec. 1847; d. 12 March 1902. 
Brought to Mansfield, Ohio, in infancy, he re¬ 
ceived a public-school education; served in the 
Civil War as a private in the Union army, 
1864-65;. taught school in Missouri; became a 
lawyer there and county attorney of Andrew 
County in 1874. Removing to Chicago in 1875 
he became prominent in the Democratic party. 
An unsuccessful candidate for Congress in 1884, 
he was judge of the Chicago Superior Court 
1886-91. Elected governor in 1892, one of his 
first official acts was to pardon three anarchists, 
imprisoned since 1887 (two for life and one 
for 15 years) for complicity in the bomb-throw¬ 
ing which killed seven policemen in Chicago, 
4 May 1886 (see Anarchism ; Haymaricet 
Massacre). It should be said that many leading 
United States citizens had petitioned for their 
release on the ground of insufficient evidence, 
an assumption which Judge Gary (q.v.) has 
vigorously repelled. Altgeld was governor till 


1897. He was a prominent champion of free 
silver and an active supporter of Bryan for the 
Presidency in 1896 and 1900, and was defeated 
as independent candidate for mayor, 1899. He 
was an able speaker, an efficient advocate of 
prison reform, and appears to have been moved 
chiefly by sympathy with the working class. He 
wrote ( Our Penal Machinery and Its Victims , } 
( Live Questions^ etc. 

Althaea. See Hollyhock; Marsh Mallow. 

Althorp, Lord. See Spencer. 

Altiscope, an instrument consisting of an 
arrangement of mirrors in a vertical framework, 
by means of which a person is enabled to over¬ 
look an object (a parapet, for instance) inter¬ 
vening between himself and whatever he desires 
to see, the picture of the latter being reflected 
from a higher to a lower mirror, where it is 
seen by the observer. 

Altitude, in mathematics, denotes the per¬ 
pendicular height of the vertex of any plane 
or solid body above the line or plane of its base; 
thus the altitude of a triangle is measured by a 
perpendicular let fall from any one of its angles 
upon the base, or upon the base produced; there¬ 
fore the same triangle may have different alti¬ 
tudes, accordingly as we assume one side or an¬ 
other for its base. Again, the altitude of a cone 
or pyramid, whether right or oblique, is meas¬ 
ured by a perpendicular let fall from the vertex 
to the plane of its base. Similar remarks apply 
to other solids. In astronomy altitudes are 
measured or estimated by the angles subtended 
between the object and the plane of the horizon; 
and this altitude may be either true or apparent. 
The apparent altitude is that which is obtained 
immediately from observation; and the true al¬ 
titude that which results from correcting the 
apparent altitude, by making allowance for 
parallax, refraction, etc. The altitude of a ter¬ 
restrial object is the height of its vertex above 
some horizontal plane assumed as a base. 

Alton, Ill., city in Madison co., on the 
Mississippi River, and on the Chicago & A., 
the Cleveland, C., C. & St. L., the St. Clair, M. 
& St. L., the St. Louis, C. & St. P., and the 
St. Louis, K. & N. W. R.R’s; about four miles 
above the mouth of the Missouri River and 15 
miles north of St. Louis. Its river lines of 
transportation include the Eagle Packet Com¬ 
pany line, the Diamond line, the St. Louis & 
Clarkson, and the St. Louis, Naples & Peoria. 
Alton was settled early in the century, but was 
not incorporated as a city until 1837. The city, 
built upon a high limestone bluff, has very pic¬ 
turesque surroundings. The Mississippi River 
is spanned here by a railroad bridge, and the 
city is connected by electric railway with Upper 
Alton, two miles to the northeast, where is lo¬ 
cated SJiurtleff College (q.v.). Monticello Sem¬ 
inary (q.v.) is located at Godfrey, four miles 
from Alton, on the Chicago, A. & J. R.R.. 
Alton has in addition to an extensive river and 
railroad trade, large manufacturing interests. 
The Illinois Glass Company, manufacturer of 
glass bottles, is located here, and gives employ¬ 
ment to 3,200 persons. The company owns and 
operates a railroad and uses of the output of 
a large coal mine. Some of the other manu¬ 
factures are flour, shovels and picks, foundry 
and machine-shop products, and shoes. Among 
the prominent public buildings are the Hayne’s 


ALTON LOCKE —ALUM 


Memorial Public Library, a Home for Aged 
Women, the St. Joseph’s Hospital, the Ursuline 
Convent and 16 churches. The city is governed 
by a mayor and common council elected every 
two years by the people. There are two na¬ 
tional banks, two savings banks, three daily 
newspapers, trolley systems and electric light. 
In 1837, Elijah P. Lovejoy (q.v.), the aboli¬ 
tionist, was murdered here. A monument to 
his memory was erected in 1897. Pop. (1900) 
14,210; including North and Upper Alton, 
18,000. D. R. Sparks, 

Pres, of the Sparks Milling Co., Alton. 

Alton Locke, a story by Charles Kingsley, 
published in 1850. It was his first novel, and 
.displayed the author’s broad sympathy for the 
condition of the English working classes. It 
excited immediate attention, and was an impor¬ 
tant factor in arousing the upper classes to a 
realization of their responsibilities toward the 
less fortunate. The altruism of Locke and his 
friends, Crossthwaite, Mackaye, Lady Ellerton, 
and Eleanor, forms an admirable and inspiring 
feature of the book. 

Altoona, Pa., city in Blair County, on the 
Pennsylvania Railroad, 118 m. E. of Pittsburg. 
It has an elevation of 1,182 feet above the sea; 
situated in the midst of a most picturesque 
mountain region, at the eastern base of the Alle¬ 
ghany Mountains. For many years Altoona has 
been regarded as the most typical of American 
railroad towns, for here are located the immense 
repair shops of the Pennsylvania Railroad, and 
over 10,000 workmen are engaged in manufac¬ 
turing and repairing locomotives, passenger 
coaches, and freight cars. There are other 
large and important manufactories here, of ma¬ 
chinery, agricultural implements, coal-mining 
machinery, etc. It is also the business centre of 
a considerable agricultural region. The city con¬ 
tains a public library building, high school, 
several hospitals, and numerous churches and 
private schools. The famous Horseshoe Bend, 
on the line of the Pennsylvania Railroad, is lo¬ 
cated near the city, and Lakemont Park is a 
well-known pleasure ground in Logan town¬ 
ship. The municioal government is vested in 
a mayor, city council and subordinate adminis¬ 
trative officials, who are elected annually. 
The city owns the waterworks plant, which 
was acquired in 1872 at a cost of $680,000, and 
upon which $20,000 is expended annually. The 
•city’s expenses aggregate $250,000 yearly, of 
which amount nearly $100,000 is expended for 
schools. The city was founded in 1850 by the 
Pennsylvania Railroad Company. It was first 
incorporated as a borough in 1854, and chartered 
as a city in 1868. During the great railroad 
strike of 1877, Altoona was the centre of the 
disturbed section and troops were ordered out to 
protect railroad property here. It is a growing, 
thriving city. There are three daily and nu¬ 
merous weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 19,- 
710; (1890) 30,337; (1900) 38,973, and esti¬ 
mated (1903) 41,600. 

Altoona, or Allatoona Pass, a mountain 
pass in northern Georgia, the scene of a sharp 
engagement between the Federal troops under 
Gen. Corse and the Confederates commanded by 
Gen. French, on 5 Oct. 1864. The losses on each 
side were about equal. 

Altrices, birds whose young come out of 
the egg in a helpless condition and are reared 


and fed in the nest. All the higher birds, as 
thrushes and sparrows, are of this kind. The 
term is opposed to Precoccs, a name applied to 
birds whose young are able as soon as hatched 
to take care of themselves, as in the cases of 
game- and shore-birds. 

Altruism, a term in psychology and ethics 
to denote disposition and conduct directed to¬ 
ward the well-being of others. It is contrasted 
with egoism, or self-seeking disposition and con¬ 
duct. It is essential to altruism, as well as to 
egoism, that the good of others, or of self, 
should be consciously and intentionally pursued. 
Actions and dispositions which are instinctive, 
such as maternal instinct, are not, properly 
speaking, altruistic, nor are the opposite ego¬ 
istic. It is only when the consciousness of self 
is sufficiently developed in the child to give rise 
to a contrast between self and the <( other® (al¬ 
ter), that the conscious pursuit of the interest of 
one of them is possible. This is covered by 
psychologists by saying that real altruism and 
egoism are always ^reflective.® Altruism is also 
applied to the type of ethical theory which bases 
morality upon generous or altruistic disposition 
or conduct (in the sense defined above). 

Altsheler, Joseph Alexander, American 
author and journalist: b. Three Springs, Ky., 29 
April 1862. He studied at Vanderbilt Univer¬ 
sity and has been connected with the Louisville 
Courier-Journal and the New York World. His 
novels are chiefly on American historical sub¬ 
jects: ( The Sun of Saratoga* ; ( In Hostile 
Red ) ; ( A Soldier of Manhattan* ; ( The Last 
RebeP ; ( In Circling Camps ) ; ( The Herald of 
the West ) ; ( My Captive*; ( The Wilderness 
Road ) ; ( The Candidate ) (1905). 

Al'um, in chemistry, a general name for a 
large class of substances, which may be defined 
as double sulphates or selenates, in which one 
of the bases is aluminum, chromium, manga¬ 
nese, iron, indium, or gallium, and the other is 
sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium, am¬ 
monium, silver, or thallium. The alums all 
crystallize in cubes or octahedra, with 24 mole¬ 
cules of water, and are all isomorphous, so that 
when in solution together they cannot be sepa¬ 
rated by crystallization. In naming them alu¬ 
minum is understood to be one of the metals 
present unless the contrary is expressly indi¬ 
cated. Thus (( potash alum® is the alum whose 
formula is A1 2 (S0 4 )3 + K2SO4 + 24H2O. If alu¬ 
minum is not present, the metal that replaces it 
is stated; thus <( iron-sodium alum® is the 
alum whose formula is Fe 2 (S 0 4 ) 3 + Na 2 S 0 4 T* 
24 H 2 O. When selenium replaces the sulphur in 
one or both of its positions, the alum is most 
clearly identified by giving its formula. In ad¬ 
dition to the true alums a class of substances 
known as (( pseudo-alums® exists. These also 
crystallize with 24 molecules of water, but they 
are not isomorphous with the true alums. Mn 2 
(S0 4 ) 3 + MgSCh + 24H1.O is an example of 
this class. 

All the alums are soluble in water, and it is 
probable that all are resolved, at least par¬ 
tially, into their constituents, by solution. It is 
known that in certain cases (in silver alum, for 
example) the separation is absolute.. All of the 
alums give an acid reaction when in solution, 
all have an astringent taste, and all lose their 
water of crystallization when heated. 


ALUMBAGH — ALUMINUM 


The alum of commerce is supposed to be 
potash alum, the formula of which has been al¬ 
ready given. Ammonia alum is sometimes sub¬ 
stituted, however, owing to the cheapness of 
sulphate of ammonia, which is now obtained as 
a by-product in the manufacture of illuminating 
gas. Sodium alum is probably not substituted 
for potash alum to any great extent. 

The alums are largely used in the arts, es¬ 
pecially in dyeing and tanning, and in the puri¬ 
fication of water. Bread made from flour con¬ 
taining a small amount of alum is said to be 
very white, and partly for this reason and partly 
on account of the cheapness of the substance, 
ammonia alum has been largely used in the 
manufacture of baking-powders. This practice 
has been condemned and pronounced detrimental 
to health, however, by nearly all the authorities 
who have written on the subject. 

Alums may be formed by crystallization from 
the mixed sulphates, or by roasting ^alum-stone® 
(see Alunite). Some of them occur native. 
(See Mendozite; Tschermigite.) 

Alum Poisoning .— This poisoning may be 
acute or chronic, the latter being much more 
common. In the acute variety, often the result 
of accidental drinking of a gargling solution, 
the symptoms are nausea, vomiting, purging, 
cold clammy skin, small thready pulse, thirst, 
muscular tremor, followed by a rise in tempera¬ 
ture in those that have recovered. The treat¬ 
ment pursued in the case of alum poisoning is 
to wash out the stomach and use the white of 
eggs as a chemical antidote. 

Alum being so widely employed as a pre¬ 
servative, as a means of clarifying water, and 
as an adulterant in baking-powders, the question 
of chronic alum poisoning becomes of great 
importance. The symptoms that have been most 
frequently observed in such poisoning are dis¬ 
turbances of digestion and constipation. The 
question as to its harmful action on the kidneys 
is not yet decided, but it would seem to be harm¬ 
ful rather than the reverse. 

Alumbagh, a domain in India formerly 
belonging to one of the princes of Oudh, about 
4 m. S. of Lucknow, near the road to Cawnpore. 
It comprised a beautiful palace, a mosque, a 
temple, and other buildings surrounded by a 
garden, all in the centre of a magnificent park 
enclosed by a lofty wall with turrets at each 
angle. On the outbreak of th-e Indian mutiny 
this place was occupied by the revolted Sepoys 
and converted into a fort. On 23 Sept. 1857 
it was captured by the British, then on their way 
to relieve Lucknow. Leaving a garrison of 300 
European troops, together with the sick and 
wounded and about 4,000 native camp-followers, 
the main body, under Outram, Havelock, and 
Neill, pushed on to Lucknow. These generals 
were unable to send reinforcements, but at the 
end of November the place was relieved by Sir 
Colin Campbell. The latter left Sir James Out¬ 
ram, with a force of 3,500 men, to hold the 
Alumbagh, a task which he successfully accom¬ 
plished, though repeatedly attacked by over¬ 
whelming numbers of the rebels. In March 
1858 the garrison was finally relieved. At the 
foot of a tree within the grounds Sir Henry 
Havelock was buried. 

Alumina (A 1 2 0 3 ), the only oxid of the 
metal aluminum. As found native, crystallized. 


it is only second to the diamond in hardness. 
The transparent varieties are the sapphire and 
ruby, the opaque are corundum and emery, only 
the corundum being pure. In combination with 
silica it is one of the most widely distributed 
of substances, ranking in this respect next to 
oxygen and silicon. It enters in large quantity 
into the composition of granites, traps, slates, 
schists, clays, loams, and other rocks. The hy¬ 
drated oxid, AI2O3.H2O, occurs as diaspore, and 
with ferric oxid as bauxite. Various aluminates 
occur in certain gems, as in spinel and chryso- 
beryl. Alumina may be obtained by adding a 
solution of ammonium hydrate to purify alum 
dissolved in 20 parts of water, thoroughly wash¬ 
ing the very gelatinous precipitate formed, and 
then drying it carefully. It may also be pre¬ 
pared by igniting powdered aluminum in air or 
oxygen. Alumina is a white powder, without 
taste or smell, and infusible except in the oxyhy- 
drogen flame. It is the basis of porcelain, pottery, 
bricks, and crucibles; and it has a strong affin¬ 
ity for oil and coloring matter, which causes it 
to be employed in the state of clays as a cleansing 
powder, and in a state of purity in the prepara¬ 
tion of the colors called lakes, in dyeing and 
calico-printing. It combines with the acids, and 
forms numerous salts, the most important of 
which are the sulphate (see Alum) and the 
acetate. The latter salt is formed by digesting 
strong acetic acid (vinegar) with the newly pre¬ 
cipitated earth; but for the use of the manufac¬ 
turer, by decomposing alum with acetate of lead 
(sugar of lead), or more economically with 
acetate of lime, a gallon of which, of the specific 
gravity 1.050, is employed for every 2j4 pounds 
of alum. The sulphate of calcium formed falls 
to the bottom, and the acetate of aluminum re¬ 
mains in solution with an excess of alum, w r hich 
is necessary to prevent its decomposition. It is 
of extensive use in calico-printing and dyeing, 
as a mordant, and is employed in the place of 
alum, to which it is generally preferred. 

Aluminite, a mineral having the composi¬ 
tion of a hydrous aluminum sulphate, A 1 2 0 3 - 
S O3. 9 H 2 0 , occurring in white reniform con¬ 
cretions in beds of clay in Germany, England 
and other European countries. It is opaque, of 
earthy luster and fracture, is soft and light. 

Alumino-Thermics. The new science 
called Alumino-Thermics is based on the dis¬ 
covery that by producing in a suitable man¬ 
ner the chemical combination of oxygen and 
aluminum a temperature may be created 
equal to that of the electric arclight. When 
this mixture is ignited in one spot the com¬ 
bustion continues throughout the whole mass 
in a very short time without any supply of 
heat from outside. 

In the crucible after the reaction there 
are two layers. The bottom one is pure 
metal of equal weight to, but occupying only 
one-third of the space of, the top layer, 
which is now oxide of aluminum, so-called 
corundum. These two layers whilst still 
liquid are poured rapidly over the rim of 
the crucible. It is not difficult to distinguish 
between the slag which flows first and the 
brightly glittering overheated metal. 

About 50 years ago, attempts were made 
to apply the reducing properties of alumi¬ 
num. Without exception the experimenters 


ALUMINO-THERMICS 


heated their compounds externally. The re¬ 
action was always so violent that they could 
only operate with very small quantities. It 
will easily be seen that to arrive at alumino- 
thermics on a commercial scale from such a 
starting point required patient study and as¬ 
siduous work. The recipes for gunpowder 
or dynamite sound fairly simple, but it re¬ 
quires more than a mere mixture of the in¬ 
gredients to obtain any effect sufficient for 
industrial development. 

In all exothermic processes the physical 
properties of the ingredients, in this case par¬ 
ticularly those of the oxides, need consider¬ 
ing. Then the methods of manufacture have 
to be worked out for each case. The appli¬ 
cations may be roughly divided into two 
main divisions, the one concerning the metal¬ 
lurgist, the other the engineer. The latter 
application may be summarized in the word 
^welding.® The study of the metallurgical 
application preceded that of the other by a 
few years. 

Among the pure metals produced by 
the alumino-genetic reaction may be men¬ 
tioned in the first instance chromium free 
of carbon. It is used in the manufacture of 
particular qualities of chromium steel with a 
limited percentage of carbon, and nowadays 
hardly any high-speed tool steel is made 
without it. Pure manganese also produced 
by this process finds employment in copper 
and nickel manufacture, and, furthermore, in 
the production of particular sorts of manga¬ 
nese steel of great strength and great elas¬ 
ticity with 12 to 14 per cent, manganese, used 
particularly for bolts of machinery exposed 
to great strains. Pure molybdenum and 
ferro-vanadium have also lately been put on 
the market. Ferro-titanium has been in use 
with a number of steel works for quite a 
considerable time. 

Considering the innumerable details con¬ 
nected with the application of so new and 
practically unknown a force, it is not sur¬ 
prising that only since a few years the proc¬ 
ess has been introduced on a large and com¬ 
mercial scale. The most important of these 
welding processes is the one by which a con¬ 
tinuous rail — a necessity of modern trolley- 
road construction — is simply, cheaply and 
effectively obtained. The marked advantage 
enjoyed by this system is the absence of any 
bulky equipment; a crucible, a mould box, 
and, in some rare instances where a complete 
butt weld of the head of the rail is desired, 
a rail-clamp is all that is required. All these 
materials, including the necessary quantity 
of thermit, can easily be moved on a hand 
truck. Each weld, according to the section, 
requires from 15 to 20 pounds of thermit, 
and the metal welded around the joint will 
only weigh, therefore, from 8 to 10 pounds. 

The thermit reaction takes place in a 
crucible which rests on a simple iron stand, 
that can be attached to the rails or rail- 
clamps where such are used. The crucible 
consists of a sheet-iron mantle lined with 
magnesia or corundum slag, which is tamped 
round a sheet-iron conus suspended in its 
middle. The bottom is formed by a hard 
magnesia stone provided with an exchange¬ 


able outlet which will stand 9 or 10 runs. 
The life of the crucible itself is about 25 
reactions; the wear and tear will amount, 
therefore, to only a few cents per joint. 
The crucible is plugged by inserting two 
asbestos washers covered by a metal disk 
over the outflow or thimble. In the latter 
is suspended a piece of iron wire, the lower 
end of which projects below the base of the 
crucible. This is driven up by a sort or 
spade and so ^taps® the crucible. The heat 
of the thermic reaction might in spite of the 
asbestos washers burst through the plugging 
material. To prevent this the metal disk is 
further covered by a layer of magnesia sand. 
The thermic is then poured into the crucible 
from bags containing the necessary amount 
for each section. After the charge in the 
crucible has been ignited in the usual way 
the reaction takes its course and the crucible 
is tapped to allow the liquid steel to flow 
into the mould. 

The mould is made according to a special 
design for each section. Its two parts, one 
on each side, exactly fit and firmly enclose 
the rail. It must be dry and porous. On a 
large scale moulds can be made by manu¬ 
facturers of refractory earthenware or by 
railway lines, according to their require¬ 
ments, in their own shops, by tamping an 
ordinary mixture of loam and sand in equal 
parts into a sheet-iron case placed over the 
model. This sand mould must be dried dur¬ 
ing a couple of hours at a temperature of 
about ioo° C. Before placing the mould 
round the joint, the rail ends must be 
cleaned of dirt and rust with a wire brush 
and slightly warmed. In case the tops of 
the rails are to be butt-welded the sections 
must be filed. The great heat of the liquid 
thermit steel literally melts and amalgamates 
the ends of rails projecting into the moulds, 
making them as one, so that when cool it 
leaves a continuous rail. The joint, if any¬ 
thing, is stronger than an equal section of 
the rail, from the fact that a shoe or collar 
is left around the rail at the joint of thermit 
steel. 

As the whole heating of the rail ends is 
a uniform one, and the same is done without 
exposure to the atmosphere; and as the final 
cooling is done under the same conditions 
as that under which a rail is made, it has 
been found that there are no changes in the 
ingredients or temper of the steel in the rail, 
and it is left just as it was, except that the 
ends are melted together up to, and general^ 
a little above the bottom of the tread of the 
rail. If the alignment and surface of the rail 
at the joint was perfect before making the 
weld, it will be found to be the same after, 
except that a slight longitudinal expansion 
has taken place, caused by the heat; and all 
of this is to the benefit of the joint, for with 
the heat it tends to butt-weld the heads; in 
fact, it does so if the rail ends touch each 
other when the weld is made. 

The cost of relining crucibles and moulds 
amounts to but a few cents per joint, and 
experience shows that the item of labor per 
joint should not run over 15 cents. The sys¬ 
tem can be applied on short lines with the 


ALUMINO-THERMICS 


same economy as on long ones, for it is only 
a question of the number of men, and con¬ 
sequently the number of joints required per 
day. It is especially an ideal system for re¬ 
pairing old worn joints, for but little paving 
need be taken up (sufficient to take off the 
old fishplate), and in a few minutes a joint 
may be raised and welded, and that would 
prolong the life of an old track for many 
years. The strength of the weld is about 
80 per cent, of the strength of the original 
material. The shoe welded on to the foot of 
the rail not only makes up for the remaining 
20 per cent., but materially strengthens the 
rail at the joint. 

The so-called third rail is also welded by 
this means. The skin resistance of copper 
bonds increases with time, and frequent re¬ 
pairs are necessitated thereby. Welding 
obviates these repairs. It can be done in 
two ways. The first is identical with the one 
described (but without the use of clamps), 
and is now in extensive operation. The 
second consists in welding a small bridge of 
thermit iron between the feet on one side of 
the rail. The other side of the joint, where 
there is no thermit-welded bridge, is me¬ 
chanically strengthened by an ordinary light 
fishplate. In this case the crucible is super- 
flous. The welding portion of about three 
pounds only is placed directly into the upper 
part of the mould, which is prolonged by a 
piece of gas pipe. 

The question of the continuous rail with 
exposed T rails on railroads is not solved at 
present for want of sufficient tests. Of 
course, welding is the only means by which 
a continuous rail, properly speaking, can be 
obtained with exposed rails. That it is prac¬ 
ticable within certain limits and that it is de¬ 
sirable to have greater lengths of exposed 
track welded together is admitted by per¬ 
manent-way engineers. The question is be¬ 
ing investigated at present, but some time 
must elapse before a definite opinion can be 
arrived at. In any case exposed rails can 
undoubtedly be welded without any risk in 
tunnels and subways, where differences of 
temperature are very slight, and contraction 
and expansion therefore only minimal. 

Steel girders for construction work can, 
of course, be welded in the same way as rails. 
For really solid jointing equal to the strength 
of the girder itself, welding is necessarily 
cheaper than riveting. Considerable work of 
this kind has already been done in Germany, 
but in Europe there are few of the wonder¬ 
ful steel-girder constructions which so 
greatly impress the European on his arrival 
in this country. There is a wide field for 
this work in the United States as soon as the 
preparatory experiments and calculations 
have been made and officially sanctioned. 

The result of the reaction in the crucible 
is a liquid iron, which sinks to the bottom, 
and an aluminum slag that swims on the 
top. Whoever has a supply of thermit and 
ignition powder has a supply of liquid mild 
steel, which, on account of its low contents 
of carbon, o.i per cent., is very malleable 
and ductile. Foundries can correct faulty 
castings, machine shops can mend broken 


or worn out parts, and last, but not least, 
marine engineering works can repair large 
steel castings, such as crank shafts, and par¬ 
ticularly broken sternposts. The weld can 
either be effected by running the thermit 
iron round the ends of the piece in the shape 
of a ring, or by both running it between and 
around at the same time. 

The mould must be made of sand and 
loam in equal parts, or one-third sand and 
two-thirds china clay. It must be absolutely 
dry. Thermit steel being much hotter than 
steel out of a furnace, the mould must have 
no trace of moisture. Dry first gradually 
and then in the furnace to dull red heat. 
The quality of the thermit steel may be 
adapted to various requirements by mixing 
small, clean iron punchings, or the like, into 
the thermit powder. For 5 to 10 pounds or 
more an admixture of 5 to 10 per cent, of 
punchings will not make the overheated 
steel lose the property of melting and 
fusing with the metal with which it comes 
in contact. The proportion of punchings 
may be increased considerably (even 20 to 
25 per cent.) for larger operations. Iron or 
steel punchings will moderate the temperature 
of the reaction, and increase, of course, the 
quantity of the metal available for the weld. 

The most startling, and at the same time, 
the most effective work done in the way of 
repairs by the thermit is in connection with 
marine engineering. To weld broken stern- 
post of large trans-Atlantic liners, or crank¬ 
shafts, or similar pieces, crucibles of six feet 
in height, with a capacity of seven to eight 
cwt., have been constructed. The reaction in 
these hardly takes longer than in a small 
crucible. The enormous advantage offered 
to steamship owners by such repairs will be 
apparent when it is remembered that a 
broken sternpost would otherwise have to be 
replaced by a new one. Besides this ex¬ 
pense, the one incurred through loss of time, 
the steamer being laid up in dry dock for 
many weeks in order to have the new part 
fitted in, is very heavy indeed. 

In nearly all experiments the thermit is 
ignited in a crucible so as to allow the 
liquid steel to flow out independently from 
the much lighter slag. The slag is not used 
in welding solid pieces, except as an addi¬ 
tional reservoir of heat. The slag, however, 
has the peculiar property of adhering in¬ 
stantly in a thin layer to any cold metal ob¬ 
ject with which it comes in contact. Were 
thermit to be ignited directly on a piece of 
metal, the slag would get in between the 
liquid steel and the object to be operated 
upon, and would prevent the fusion of the 
two metals, which is essential for a good 
weld. 

An application where thermit may be ig¬ 
nited on the object, is in repairs of broken 
roll bosses. The roll is firmly fixed so that 
the welding surface lizes horizontally. The 
mould carries on its inside, suspended by an 
overlapping rim, an iron ring of one-half 
inch diameter. After this mould and ring 
are firmly fixed one-half inch of liquid cast 
iron or cast steel is poured on the welding 
surface. On this the thermit powder is 


ALUMINO-THERMICS — ALUMINUM 


poured and ignited. About 30 to 40 pounds 
are taken for the superficial foot. This will 
soften the metal to a depth of about two 
inches. As soon as the reaction is finished 
the thermit must be well stirred. The slag, 
on account of its low specific gravity, will 
thus be driven to the surface, and will cling 
to the iron ring which is suspended in the 
mould. After a few minutes more liquid 
steel is added from the ladle held in readi¬ 
ness, and after thoroughly stirring the con¬ 
tents of the mould the iron ring is lifted out, 
and all the slag will be found adhering to it. 
This repair is in common use with the 
largest works in Germany. 

The property of the slag of adhering in 
a thin refractory layer to any metal surface 
leads to an application of the thermic process 
where it plays the leading part — that is, in 
welding wrought-iron pipes. Of course, the 
heat of the iron, if applied direct, would 
destroy the thin walls of any pipe. But as 
the slag is absolutely refractory to liquid 
steel, it replaces in a way the steel for the 
purpose of welding. The modus operandi is 
changed in some essential particulars. The 
reaction takes place in a crucible with a solid 
bottom; a small quantity of thermit only is 
ignited at first, and to this more is added 
as the mass subsides, and finally the contents 
are poured over the lip of the crucible in 
order to direct the slag, and not the iron, 
onto the thin walls of the pipe. To butt¬ 
weld the pipes, the ends must be made to 
fit accurately on to each other, and must be 
made bright with a file or emery paper. The 
two pipes are then firmly pressed together 
by the clamping apparatus, and the sheet- 
iron mould, well surrounded with moist sand, 
is attached. Welding temperature will take 
place within a minute or two after pouring. 
The clamps then want tightening one turn 
of the screw, and the weld is completed. 
The mould box is removed almost at once, 
and can be used several times. 

The surrounding mass, containing the iron be¬ 
tween layers of slag, like the yolk in the white 
of an egg, is easily removed with a hammer. 
Such welds will stand pressure of hundreds of 
atmospheres — as a matter of fact, as much as 
the pipe itself. About 30,000 to 40.000 pipe 
joints have been welded by this method, the 
advantages of which are, shortly, that the opera¬ 
tion can take place anywhere without removing 
the pipe from its position, and that it is cheaper 
than a solid flanged joint. The dimensions of 
the mould have been carefully worked out and 
tabulated for every size of wrought-iron pipe 
up to six inches diameter. The thermit used 
for pipe welding is of slightly different compo¬ 
sition to the one for welding solid pieces. Be¬ 
sides these there are two other kinds of thermit, 
chiefly distinguished by the greater plasticity of 
their slag. One of these, so-called <( white ther¬ 
mit,® is used for annealing locally the plates of 
armor-clads, which are hardened to such an ex¬ 
tent by carburization as to prevent any tools 
being used on them. Such armor plates can be 
easily softened by applying to the hardened sur¬ 
face a layer of thermit slag with thermit steel 
at the back of it. 

For cast iron, and in some cases for 
steel, a special thermit is used which gives 


off an alloy of iron and titanium so that the 
titanium enters the liquid metal. This is 
introduced below the surface of the bath by 
fastening the box containing the thermit to 
a shank and holding it down on the bottom 
of the ladle. The reaction takes place all 
through the contents of the ladle and 
thoroughly stirs them up in the space of a 
minute or two. Gases and particles of slag 
are driven upwards, so that the fluidity 
of the iron is increased. The proportion of 
added thermit is only one-quarter to one- 
sixteenth per cent, of the total contents of 
the ladle. The effect of the titanium is to 
bind small quantities of nitrogen to increase 
the fluidity of the cast iron, and to produce 
a finer grain. 

Another application of the “box-reaction® 
is important for steel castings, and especially 
for casting large steel ingots, to prevent the 
familiar phenomenum of piping. In the heads 
of such blocks hollow spaces are found which 
mostly cause 30 to 40 per cent, of loss. The 
thermit process as used for this purpose con¬ 
sists in introducing a box of anti-piping 
thermit into a block with aid of an iron rod. 
The box is introduced, of course, only after 
the piping has been formed. The head layer, 
which has already become solid, is broken 
through for this purpose. Immediately after 
the reaction is completed, steel which is held 
in readiness for this purpose is poured into 
the open hole. The method is really very 
simple, and one learns very quickly at which 
time to introduce the box. Moreover, it is 
very cheap, only about 10 pounds of thermit 
being required for blocks of 20 tons weight. 

The simplest, and at the same time, most 
effective application of thermit in foundry 
practice is the following: Wrap thermit in 
a paper parcel and throw it on the liquid 
metal as it rises in the riser. The liquid 
metal will be revived at the point where it 
is most liable to chill, and the well-known 
troublesome shrinkage cavities will be 
avoided. When applied to cast iron the 
paper must contain some ignition powder at 
the bottom; with steel this is unnecessary. 

Edward S. Farrow, 

Consulting Railroad and Mining Engineer. 

Alu'minum, a lustrous, nearly white metal, 
widely used in the arts. Its existence was rec¬ 
ognized by Davy, although he did not succeed 
in isolating the metal. Davy gave it the name 
“alumium,® and afterward “aluminum.® 

The name is derived from the Latin word 
alumen, signifying “alum® ; but the Romans and 
the Greeks had no very exact knowledge of 
chemistry, and alumen and its Greek equivalent 
were used to designate a variety of substances 
whose one common property is an astringent 
taste. The substance now called alum was in 
all probability included among them, for it was 
well known to Geber. Alum was long believed 
to be of the same nature as the vitriols, until 
Paracelsus announced that the vitriols contain 
metals, while alum (he said) does not contain a 
metal, but derives its properties from an “inter¬ 
mixture of the earths.® It was long believed 
that the earth contained in alum is of a calcare¬ 
ous or lime-like nature; but in the 17th century 
it was noticed that an alum may be obtained by 
treating clay with sulphuric acid, and in a 


ALUMINUM 


treatise published in 1746 Pott stated that the 
earth forming the base of alum is of an argilla¬ 
ceous or clay-like nature. Eight years later, in 
1754, Marggraf announced that alumina, the 
earth (now called the oxid) of alum, is en¬ 
tirely different from lime, and that it exists in 
clay, combined with silica. At the beginning of 
the 19th century alumina was generally admitted 
to be the oxid of some metal and Sir Humphry 
Davy and other chemists endeavored to decom¬ 
pose it and obtain the metal itself. They were 
unsuccessful, however, and the isolation of alu¬ 
minum was first accomplished by Wohler in 
1827, by heating the chloride of alumina with 
metallic potassium. The potassium abstracted 
the chlorine and thereby set the aluminum free. 
Paracelsus was wrong in asserting that the base 
of common alum is not a metal, but his error 
was due to his pardonable ignorance of the fact 
that all the so-called <( earths® are oxids of 
metals. 

The new metal proved to be most remarkable. 
Although it had so powerfully resisted all the 
earlier attempts to separate it from the oxygen 
with which it was combined, yet, when the sepa¬ 
ration had once been effected, it was found that 
the metal exhibits no very marked tendency to 
oxidize, even when heated in oxygen. It is 
nearly white, but has a slightly bluish tinge. It 
is about as hard as silver and is very malleable 
and ductile. It can readily be drawn out into 
wire or beaten into leaf. It takes a good polish, 
especially when alloyed with about three per 
cent of silver. It has a tensile strength about 
equal to that of copper, and a specific gravity 
of only about 2.6. It melts at about 1,300° F., 
its specific heat is 0.221, its coefficient of ex¬ 
pansion (Fahrenheit scale) is 0.00129, and its 
atomic weight is 27.1. Bars of the metal emit 
a very musical sound when struck, but it is 
said that a bell made of it <( sounds like a cracked 
pot.® Aluminum is very feebly magnetic. It is 
scarcely affected by nitric acid, though hydro¬ 
chloric and sulphuric acids will dissolve it, and 
it is entirely unaffected by sulphur, except at 
high temperatures. Solutions of caustic potash 
or soda, however, dissolve it readily, with evolu¬ 
tion of hydrogen. 

Aluminum is exceedingly abundant in nature, 
for next to oxygen and silica it is the chief 
component of the earth’s crust. Feldspar and 
mica contain it in considerable quantities, as 
well as common clay, which is formed by the 
disintegration of feldspar. The oxid of alu¬ 
minum occurs in many beautiful forms, giving 
us the ruby and the sapphire, besides forming an 
essential part of the garnet, topaz, turquoise, and 
emerald. Corundum and emery, which are al¬ 
most indispensable for grinding and polishing 
purposes, are also forms of the oxid. Kaolin, 
used in the manufacture of porcelain, is a very 
pure silicate of aluminum. The beautiful lapis- 
lazuli contains a considerable proportion of alu¬ 
minum ; and ultramarine blue, formerly obtained 
by pulverizing lapis-lazuli, is now prepared ar¬ 
tificially from kaolin, together with other sub¬ 
stances. The red color of the ruby is due to a 
trace of certain chromium salts, and the blue 
of the sapphire is probably due to a trace of 
some compound of cobalt. By melting oxid of 
aluminum in the oxyhydrogen blow-pipe flame, 
adding a slight amount of certain metallic oxids, 
and cooling again, artificial rubies and sapphires 


have been made which are indistinguishable 
from the natural gems, except to the eye of an 
expert. 

Although aluminum is far more abundant 
than tin, copper, lead, zinc, or iron, it can be ex¬ 
tracted from the minerals in which it occurs 
only with the greatest difficulty. Until very 
recently the aluminum of commerce has been 
prepared by substantially the method first 
given for its isolation by Wohler, the chief dif¬ 
ference, aside from matters of practical detail, 
being the substitution of metallic sodium for the 
more expensive potassium. At the present time, 
however, practically all of the aluminum that is 
produced is obtained by electrolysis. Prof. C. 
F. Chandler describes the Hall process (which 
differs from the Heroult process only in its 
details) as follows: <( It was a remarkable fact, 
after all the attention that had been devoted to 
the subject of aluminum by St. Claire Deville 
and other chemists, that it remained for a 
young graduate of Oberlin College, Charles M. 
Hall, to devise the process by which all the alu¬ 
minum in the world is now manufactured. It 
occurred to young Hall, whose attention was 
drawn to the subject while he was still a col¬ 
lege student, that some way might be found for 
extracting aluminum by electrolysis. Satisfied 
that it would be impossible to employ an aqueous 
solution, he sought for other solvents, and 
finally discovered that a melted bath of the 
double fluorides of aluminum and metals more 
electro-positive than aluminum (such as sodium 
or calcium) is a perfect solvent for alumina, 
taking it up as promptly as hot water takes up 
sugar, and dissolving as much as 25 per cent of 
its weight. Having thus found an anhydrous 
solvent for alumina, the next step was to ascer¬ 
tain whether the solution would yield up the 
aluminum promptly to electrolysis.® The most 
gratifying success attended these further experi¬ 
ments, and the practical details of the process 
were worked out at Kensington, Pa. The ves¬ 
sels or pots employed in the making of alumi¬ 
num by this method are rectangular iron boxes, 
thickly lined with carbon, which constitutes the 
cathode. The anodes consist of 40 cylinders of 
carbon, each about 3 inches in diameter and 
18 inches long when new. These are supported 
above the pot, dipping into the bath of melted 
fluorides. No external heat is employed, the 
heat developed by the resistance to the current 
being sufficient to maintain fusion. Alumina 
is added from time to time as required, and the 
process goes on quietly. The resistance of the 
bath is low when charged with alumina, but it 
increases fourfold the moment the alumina is ex¬ 
hausted. An incandescent lamp, connected with 
each bath in parallel, emits no light while the re¬ 
sistance of the bath is low, but the moment the 
resistance is increased by the exhaustion of 
the alumina the lamp begins to shine and the 
workmen hasten to stir in a fresh supply of 
alumina. The process is continuous, and it is 
only necessary to keep the baths supplied with 
alumina and to draw off the metallic aluminum 
from the bottom of the pot from time to time. 
Each pot produces about 100 pounds of alu¬ 
minum, 99 per cent pure, per day of 24 hours. 

The electric resistance of aluminum is about 
twice that of copper, but owing to the lightness 
of. aluminum and its constantly diminishing 
price (about 30 cents a pound in 1902) it bids 


ALUM-ROOT — ALVA 


fair to be a serious rival of copper in the trans¬ 
mission of electricity. Many long lines of alu¬ 
minum wire have been installed in the West. One 
of the most interesting, in the East, is a line used 
to transmit power to Hartford, Conn., from a 
point on the Farmington River, about 12 miles 
distant. Ihree aluminum cables are used, con¬ 
taining over 60,000 pounds of metal. The line 
was designed for 20,000 volts, and it is said that 
in this instance the use of aluminum instead of 
copper has proved an entire success, both electri¬ 
cally and financially. 

The most valuable property of aluminum is 
perhaps the facility with which it alloys with 
most other metals except lead. It has been 
alloyed with bismuth, calcium, copper, chromium, 
gold, iron, magnesium, manganese, mercury, 
molybdenum, nickel, platinum, silver, sodium, 
tin, titanium, tungsten, and zinc. Some of its 
alloys with gold are very beautiful, and it has 
been proposed to use one of them in the manufac¬ 
ture of coins. An alloy with nickel called 
<( nickel silver,® promises to be useful in the fu¬ 
ture, as it is strong and easily worked and has 
a beautiful white lustre that will not tarnish. 
The most useful alloys of the metal at present 
are those with copper, which are known as 
<( aluminum bronzes.® The alloy containing 3 
per cent of copper is whiter than aluminum; and 
that containing from 90 to 95 per cent of copper 
has a color resembling gold. Aluminum bronze 
is hard and elastic and is not easily affected by 
chemical reagents. It is much used in the 
manufacture of articles of all kinds, from cheap 
jewelry to heavy bearings for machinery. (For 
information concerning the working of alu¬ 
minum and other technical points consult J. W. 
Richards, ( Aluminum, Its Properties, Metal¬ 
lurgy, and Alloys, > Philadelphia, 1890.) 

Notwithstanding the abundance of aluminum 
in nature, it is not taken up by plants save, by 
a few cryptogams. The ash of Lycopodium 
chamecyparissus sometimes contains 57 per cent 
of alumina, while the ash of oaks, figs, and 
birches, grown in the same soil, contains none. 

Alum-root, the name given in the United 
States to two plants on account of the remark¬ 
able astringency of their roots: (1) Geranium 
maculatum, or spotted cranesbill, is a native of 
North America from Canada to North Caro¬ 
lina; it has an angular, downy stem, 3-5-parted 
leaves with deeply toothed lobes, obovate entire 
petals, the filaments scarcely ciliated at the base; 
the color of the flowers is a pale lilac. It is em¬ 
ployed successfully as a remedy in dysentery 
among children ; the tincture is recommended in 
cases of ulcerated sore throat, soreness of . the 
gums, etc. The plant contains large proportions 
of gallic acid and tannin. (2) Heuchera ameri- 
cana (natural order Saxifragacecc ) is a downy 
plant with rough scapes and leaves, the latter 
being on long petioles, 5-7-lobed, toothed; the 
calyx is 5-cleft, petals undivided, five stamens; 
the styles are remarkably long. It contains 
tannin and is used in preparing a wash for 
wounds, ulcers, etc. 

Alum-shale, a slaty rock of different de¬ 
grees of hardness; color grayish, bluish, or iron- 
black ; often possessed of a glossy or shining 
lustre. It is chiefly composed of clay (silicate 
of alumina), with variable proportions of sul- 
phid of iron (iron pyrites), lime, bitumen, and 


magnesia. It is found abundantly, and from it 
is obtained the largest part of the alum of com¬ 
merce. 

Alunite, al'u-nit, a native subsulphate of 
aluminum and potassium, having the formula 
K(AIO) 3(504)2 + 3H2O, and occurring both 
massive and in rhombohedral crystals resembling 
cubes. It is white with a vitreous lustre, with 
a hardness varying from 3.5 to 4, and a specific 
gravity of about 2.6. It has been found, in the 
United States, in California and Colorado. Ac¬ 
cording to Dana it was first called <( aluminilite,® 
a name afterward abbreviated to the present 
form. Alum may be obtained from it by re¬ 
peated roasting and lixiviation. (Also called 
alum-stone and alum-rock.) 

Alun'no, Niccolo (real name Niccolo di 
Liberatore), an Italian painter of the 15th cen¬ 
tury, the founder of the Umbrian School: b. 
in Foligno about 1430; d. 1502. 

Alunogen, a-lu'no-jen, a native hydrous 
sulphate of aluminum, having the formula Ai 2 
(SCh)3 + 18H2O. It occurs massive, as an in¬ 
crustation in mines and quarries, and also in 
delicate fibrous forms. Its hardness varies from 
1.5 to 2, and its sp. gr. is about 1.7. It occurs 
in large quantities in Jackson County, N. C., and 
near Silver City, N. M.; and it is found in 
many other parts of the United States in small 
amounts. 

Aluredus, an English historian: b. about 
1100. See Alfred of Beverley. 

Alva, or Alba, Ferdinand Alvarez de 
Toledo, Duke of, Spanish statesman and gen¬ 
eral: b. 1508; d. Thomar, 12 Jan. 1582. He was 
educated by his grandfather, Frederick of Tole¬ 
do, who instructed him in military and political 
science. He commanded under Charles V. in 
Hungary, and was present at the siege of Tunis 
and in the expedition against Algiers. His cau¬ 
tious character and his inclination for politics 
at first led men to believe that he had but little 
military talent; and his pride being touched at 
the low estimation in which he was held, his 
genius was roused to the performance of ex¬ 
ploits deserving remembrance. He won in 1547 
the battle of Miihlberg against John Frederick, 
elector of Saxony, and in 1555 was commis¬ 
sioned to attack the French in Italy, and Pope 
Paul IV., the irreconcilable enemy of the em¬ 
peror. When Charles V. resigned the govern¬ 
ment to his son, Philip II., Alva received the 
supreme command of the army and conquered 
the states of the Church and frustrated the ef¬ 
forts of the French. Philip, however, compelled 
him to contract an honorable peace with the 
Pope, whom Alva wished to humble. He ap¬ 
peared in 1559 at the French court in order to 
marry Elizabeth, the daughter of Henry II., by 
proxy, for his sovereign; she had been at first 
destined for the crown-prince, Don Carlos. 
About this time the Netherlands revolted, and 
Alva was entrusted with a considerable army 
and unlimited power to reduce the rebellious 
provinces. Scarcely had Alva reached Flanders 
at the end of August 1567, when he established 
the Council of Blood, at the head of which stood 
his confidant, Juan de Vargas. This tribunal 
condemned, without discrimination, all those 
whose opinions were suspected and whose 
riches excited their avarice. The present and 
absent, the living and the dead, were subjected 


ALVARADO — ALWAR 


to trial, and their property confiscated. The 
cruelty of Alva was increased by the defeat of 
his lieutenant, the Duke of Aremberg, and he 
caused the Counts of Egmont and Hoorn to be 
executed. He afterward defeated the Count of 
Nassau on the plains of Gemmingen. Soon af¬ 
ter, the Prince of Orange advanced with a pow¬ 
erful army, but was forced to withdraw to 
Germany. The Duke stained his reputation as 
a general by new cruelties, his executioners 
shedding more blood than his soldiers. The 
pope presented him with a consecrated hat and 
sword, a distinction previously conferred only 
on princes. Holland and Zealand, however, still 
resisted his arms. A fleet fitted out at his com¬ 
mand was annihilated, and he was everywhere 
met with insuperable courage. This, and per¬ 
haps the fear of losing the favor of the king, 
induced him to request his recall. Philip will¬ 
ingly granted it, as he perceived that the resist¬ 
ance of the Netherlands was rendered more ob¬ 
stinate by these cruelties, and was desirous of 
trying milder measures. In December 1573 Alva 
proclaimed an amnesty, resigned the command 
of the troops to Louis de Requesens, and left 
the land in which he had executed 18,000 men, 
as he himself boasted, and kindled a war that 
burned for 68 years, cost Spain $800,000,000, its 
finest troops, and seven of its richest provinces 
in the Low Countries. Alva led an army into 
Portugal, gained two battles in three weeks, 
drove out Don Antonio, and reduced all Portu¬ 
gal, in 1581, to subjection to his sovereign. He 
made himself master of the treasures of the 
capital and permitted his soldiers to plunder the 
suburbs and surrounding country with their 
usual rapacity and cruelty. It is said of him 
that during 60 years of warfare he never lost 
a battle and was never taken by surprise. 

Alvarado, Pedro de, a Spanish soldier of 
fortune, the companion and lieutenant of Cor¬ 
tez: b. Badajoz about 1499; d. 1541. He was 
of good family, his father being a knight of 
the order of St. James. In 1518 he accompanied 
Grijalva in a small expedition sent by Velasquez, 
governor of Cuba, to explore the American 
coast. A considerable amount of the precious 
metals was obtained by barter, and Alvarado 
was despatched to Cuba with this treasure and 
with a report of the regions which had been 
explored. When Cortez was called away to 
meet Narvaez, who had been sent by Velasquez 
with a superior force to supersede him in com¬ 
mand, he left the capital and his royal captive, 
Montezuma, in Alvarado’s charge, and in 1523 
was sent with a considerable force to reduce the 
tribes of Indians in the direction of Guatemala. 
Having beaten off all opponents he founded a 
city now called Guatemala la Vieja, and es¬ 
tablished a port on the Pacific, which he called 
Puerto de la Posesion. Embarking for Spain, 
he was received with great honor by the em¬ 
peror Charles V., who, in acknowledgment of 
his services, made him governor of Guatemala. 
He shortly returned to America with a numer¬ 
ous band of knights and kinsmen, and Guatemala 
speedily became a prosperous city. An attempt 
which he subsequently made on Quito, but which 
he was induced to relinquish, was resented by 
Pizarro as an intrusion within the boundaries of 
his command, and he embarked a second time for 
Spain to vindicate his conduct to the emperor. 


Alverstone, Sir Richard Everard Webster, 

first baron A; British Lord Chief Justice; b. 22 
Dec. 1842. He was educated at King’s College, 
the Charterhouse Schools, and Trinity College, 
Cambridge. In 1868 he was called to the bar 
and became Q. C. ten years after. He was ap¬ 
pointed attorney-general in June 1885 in the 
Conservative Government, and in spite of the 
fact that he never held the position of solicitor- 
general and did not at the time occupy a seat 
in Parliament. He was elected for Launceston 
in the following month and later exchanged his 
seat for the Isle of Wight which he continued 
to represent until his elevation to the House of 
Lords. Except under the brief Gladstone ad¬ 
ministration of 1886 and the Gladstone-Rose- 
bery Cabinet of 1892-5, Sir Richard Webster 
was Attorney-General from 1885 to 1899. In 
1893 he represented Great Britain in the Bering 
Sea arbitration, and five years later he dis¬ 
charged the same function in the matter of the 
boundary between British Guiana and Vene¬ 
zuela. In 1899 he succeeded Sir Nathaniel Lind- 
ley as Master of the Rolls, at the same time be¬ 
ing raised to the peerage as Baron Alverstone. 
In October of the same year he was elevated to 
the office of Lord Chief Justice upon the death 
of Lord Russell of Killowen. 

Alvey, Richard Henry, American jurist: 
b. 1826; d. 14 Sept. 1906. He was admitted 
to the bar in 1849; was a member of the Mary¬ 
land State Constitutional Convention; chief 
judge of the Fourth Judicial Circuit, and a judge 
of the Maryland court of appeals (1867-83) and 
chief justice (1883-93) ; became chief-justice of 
the court of appeals of the District of Columbia 
in 1893, and one of the Venezuela boundary 
commissioners in 1896. 

Alvord, Benjamin, American soldier: b* 
Rutland, Vt., 8 Aug. 1813; d. 17 Oct. 1884. Re¬ 
ceived a military education at West Point, and 
after serving in the second Seminole war, and 
in the Mexican war also, was paymaster of the 
Department of Oregon, 1854-62. He was briga¬ 
dier-general of volunteers, 1862-65, retiring 
from the service in 1881 with the rank of briga¬ 
dier-general. He published ( Tangencies of Cir¬ 
cles and of Spheres ) (1855) I and ( The Inter¬ 
pretation of Imaginary Roots in Questions of 
Maxima and Minima ) (i860). 

Alvord, Henry Elijah, American soldier: 
b. Greenfield, Mass., 11 March 1844; d. 1904. He 
entered the army in 1862 and had risen to the 
rank of major in 1865. He was a cavalry captain 
in the regular army 1866-72, and chief engineer 
on Gen. Sheridan’s staff 1868-69. From 1886 to 
1888 he was professor of agriculture in the 
Massachusetts Agricultural College, and was 
president of the Maryland Agricultural College 
1888-92. He was for many years prominent as 
an authority on agricultural questions. 

Alwar, a town of Hindustan, capital of 
state of same name, situated at the base of a 
rocky range of quartz and slate, 80 m. S.S.W. of 
Delhi. It is surrounded by a mud wall, of which 
the gates only are flanked by bastions, and it is 
very poorly built. The only edifices worth notice 
are the rajah’s palace, which is of a cubical form 
and has its walls pierced with numerous small 
windows and decorated with rude and glaring 
paintings; a pavilion of white marble, built by 
the late Rao Rajah, near a very deep tank which 
he had executed, and displaying no small degree- 


AMADIS — AMALGAM 


of taste; and several Hindu temples, in a style 
imitated from Mohammedan structures. A fort, 
crowning the lofty mountain which overhangs 
the town, is highly ornamented and serves the 
rajah both as a summer palace and as an asylum 
in times of danger. Pop. (1901) 56,750. 

Amadis, a name appearing frequently in 
the chivalric poetry of the Middle Ages. Of the 
numerous romances that may be grouped under 
it, that which narrates the adventures of Amadis 
of Gaul is at once the most ancient and the best. 
It is believed that the earliest forms of the 
story were a lost Castilian version, about 1250, 
and a Portuguese version, also lost, composed 
about 1370 by Vasco de Lobeira of Porto. Very 
& likely these earlier versions may have been in 
verse. Instead of these we have a Spanish 
prose version written by Garcia Ordonez de 
Montalvo about 1465, but first printed in 1508. 
This romance is one of the three spared by the 
licentiate and the barber at the burning of Don 
Quixote’s books, and the barber’s reason is 
that (( it is the best of all the books of this kind.® 

The Spanish Amadis romances consist of 12 
books, of which the first four contain the history 
of Amadis of Gaul. The earliest existing ver¬ 
sion of this is, as has been said, that of Montal¬ 
vo, and the earliest edition now in existence is 
dated 1508. He himself added a fifth book con¬ 
taining the adventures of Esplandian (1510), 
the eldest son of Amadis and Gloriana; later 
writers have multiplied the posterity of the old 
hero. Already in 1510 appeared a sixth book 
with the history of Florisando, his nephew; in 
1514, 1526, and 1535, respectively, a seventh, 
eighth, and ninth book, with the wonderful 
histories of Lisuarte of Greece, a son of Esplan¬ 
dian, and Perion of Gaul, and the still more 
wonderful history of Amadis of Greece, a great- 
grandson of the Gallic hero. Then follow Don 
Florisel of Niquea and Anaxartes, son of Li¬ 
suarte, whose history, with that of the children 
of the latter, fills the tenth and eleventh 
books. Lastly, the twelfth book, printed in 1546, 
narrates the exploits of Don Silves de la Selva, 
son of Amadis of Greece and Finistea. A 
French translation appeared in 1540, an Italian 
in 1546, an English in 1588, while a version in 
German was published in 1583. The French 
translators increased this series of romances 
from 12 to 24 books; the German, to 30. Lastly, 
a Frenchman, Gilbert Saunier Duverdier, at the 
beginning of the 17th century, arranged all these 
romances into a harmonious and consecutive 
series, and with his compilation in seven vol¬ 
umes, the ( Roman des Romans^ brought the 
history of Amadis and the series of about 50 
volumes to a close. A version in French was 
published by Creuze de Lesser in 1813; in Eng¬ 
lish, by William Stewart Rose, in 1803. 

Amador, Manuel, first president of the 
Republic of Panama: b. 1841; was for many 
years minister of France in Panama. He is a 
soldier, statesman, scholar and diplomat, and 
was largely instrumental in forming the new 
Republic of Panama (q.v.). 

Amalgam, an alloy in which mercury is 
an important constituent. Silver and gold amal¬ 
gams occur in nature to a limited extent, but 
most of the amalgams are of artificial origin. 
Four general methods of forming them may 
be noted. (1) By direct contact of mercury 


with the metal to be amalgamated. Amalgams 
of antimony, arsenic, bismuth, cadmium, gold,, 
lead, magnesium, potassium, silver, sodium, tel¬ 
lurium, thorium, tin, and zinc may be obtained 
in this way. The different elements mentioned 
combine with the mercury with varying mani¬ 
festations of affinity, the amalgamation of sodium 
being attended with the production of heat and 
light, while in the case of zinc it is often neces¬ 
sary to bring the zinc and mercury together 
in the presence of dilute acid before they will 
combine evenly and smoothly. (2) By immers¬ 
ing the metal to be amalgamated in a solution 
of a salt of mercury. Copper, gold, platinum,, 
and silver can be amalgamated in this way. 
(3) By reversing the process last described, and 
bringing mercury in contact with a salt of the 
metal whose amalgam is desired. The mercury,, 
in certain cases, will partially replace the metal 
in solution, the portion so replaced combining 
with the mercury with the production of the 
desired amalgam. A valuable modification of 
this method consists in substituting for the 
metallic mercury an amalgam of zinc or of 
sodium, the zinc or sodium changing places 
with the metal in solution. Amalgams of bis¬ 
muth, calcium, chromium, iridium, iron, magne¬ 
sium, manganese, osmium, palladium, and stron¬ 
tium may be prepared by the use of sodium 
amalgam. (4) By electrolysis, the metal whose 
amalgam is desired being used as the cathode 
in a solution of a mercurial salt. (The cathode 
may also be metallic mercury, and the electro¬ 
lyte a salt of the metal whose amalgam is de¬ 
sired.) This process is in commercial use for 
the production of sodium hydrate, a solution of 
sodium chloride (common salt) being electro¬ 
lyzed with a mercury cathode. The cathode 
absorbs the sodium with the formation of so¬ 
dium amalgam, which is subsequently decom¬ 
posed by contact with water. In practice the 
process is continuous, a part of the mercury 
cathode being exposed to the electrolytic bath, 
while another part is simultaneously exposed to 
the action of the water. 

In the formation of amalgams there is usual¬ 
ly but little thermal effect. In the case of 
sodium and potassium, however, a very con¬ 
siderable amount of heat is evolved; and in 
the formation of amalgams of bismuth, lead, and 
tin, heat is absorbed. 

There is considerable evidence in favor of the 
view that many amalgams contain definite com¬ 
pounds of mercury and the other constituent 
metals. Thus when certain amalgams are heated 
(say) to the boiling point of sulphur, the ex¬ 
cess of mercury present appears to be volatilized, 
so as to leave a body behind that has a definite 
chemical composition. In this way Sonza ob¬ 
tained amalgams having the apparent composi¬ 
tion Au 9 Hg, AgnHg, CuieHg, Na 3 Hg, and K 2 Hg, 
the last-mentioned being silvery in appearance 
and crystalline in structure. But it is said that 
all these amalgams, as well as many others, 
continue to lose mercury slowly when the tem¬ 
perature is maintained high; and this fact, while 
not disproving the existence of a definite com¬ 
pound of mercury and the metal, lessens its 
probability. Amalgams having the composition 
CuHg, AgHg, FeHg, Zn 2 Hg, Pb 2 Hg, and PtHg 2 
have also been prepared by expelling the excess 
of mercury from amalgams richer in that metal 
by exposure to a pressure of 70 tons to the 
square inch. 


AMANA —AMARNA LETTERS 


One of the most interesting amalgams from 
the standpoint of chemical theory is the amal¬ 
gam of the hypothetical radical (( ammonium,® 
which is described under Ammonia. 

The affinity of mercury for gold is put to 
practical use, in mining, for the recovery of small 
particles of gold from auriferous gravel or 
crushed quartz. The details of the process vary 
somewhat according to the nature of the ma¬ 
terial from which the gold is to be extracted; 
but in general it may be said that the pulverized 
gold-bearing quartz or gravel is washed, in a 
finely divided state, over a plate of amalgamated 
copper, to which the gold particles adhere. 
From time to time the gold amalgam is scraped 
from the copper plate, and more mercury is 
added. The presence of sulphur (from py¬ 
rites) seriously interferes with this process, by 
causing the formation of a sulphid of mercury 
which destroys the efficiency of the amalga¬ 
mated plate. The mercury is then said, in 
miners’ parlance, to become <( sick.® To prevent 
this, the ore, if originally rich in pyrites, is 
roasted to expel the sulphur before being sub¬ 
mitted to amalgamation. See Gold. 

Mirrors are silvered by amalgams. One of 
the simplest of those so used is composed of I 
part of tin to 3 of mercury. A superior amal¬ 
gam for this purpose contains 2 parts of bis¬ 
muth, one part each of lead and tin, and 4 parts 
of mercury. In dentistry the <( silver filling® 
used for closing the cavities in teeth is an 
amalgam. Its composition varies somewhat, but 
a preparation containing 2 parts of mercury and 
1 part of pulverized zinc gives excellent results. 
It hardens quickly, and expands slightly in 
solidifying, thus filling the cavity tightly. Amal¬ 
gams of copper, silver, lead, and tin have a 
volume smaller than the sum of the volumes of 
their constituents. See Battery. 

Amana, Iowa, a town in Iowa co., 28 m. 
W. of Iowa City, the site of a German commu¬ 
nistic religious colony founded in 1885. It in¬ 
cludes the seven villages of Amana, the oldest 
and largest; East Amana; Middle Amana; High 
Amana; West Amana; South Amana; and 
Homestead. The society is governed by a pres¬ 
ident and a board of 13 directors, and each vil¬ 
lage is controlled by seven or more elders ap¬ 
pointed by the board of directors. Family life 
is kept up, but in every village are from four to 
sixteen <( kitchen-houses® where meals are pre¬ 
pared and served. The community owns and 
operates woolen, flour, and saw mills, dye shops, 
machine shops, and other industrial establish¬ 
ments, and agriculture is extensively followed. 
The inhabitants dress plainly and in sober col¬ 
ors. The community is primarily a religious 
organization, and the sect itself dates its found¬ 
ing from Eberhard Gruber, in Wiirtemberg, in 
1714. By its members it is known as (< The 
Community of True Inspiration.® Pop. (1901) 
1,767. 

Amanita, a genus of fungi nearly related 
to the genus Agaricus, to which the common 
mushroom belongs, and for which two of its 
poisonous members (see below) are sometimes 
mistakenly eaten. A. muscaria, the fly mush¬ 
room, so called from its use as a decoction in 
milk for killing flies, is commonest in the birch, 
beech, and pine woods of Europe and America. 
It has a variously colored cap — white, yellow, 
orange, red, etc.— usually warted above and 


sometimes four or more inches in diameter; 
white or occasionally yellow gills; and a long 
white stem with bulbous base. Though univer¬ 
sally considered poisonous it is said to be 
used by certain Old World peoples to produce a 
kind of intoxication. A. phalloides, death-cup, 
deadly agaric, deadly amanita, is commonly 
found in woods, especially in damp weather, 
from early summer until mid-autumn. It is 
usually white, sometimes light yellow or gray¬ 
ish; its cap is seldom as large as four inches in 
diameter; its gills white; its stem hollow and 
slender above, solid and bulbous at the base, 
which is surrounded by a cup which has sug¬ 
gested one of its common names. A. verna, a 
supposed variety of A. phalloides, which it 
greatly resembles, appears in spring and sum¬ 
mer. With reasonable caution on the part of 
the collector none of these species should be 
mistaken for the common mushroom, because 
all three grow singly in woods and have white 
gills and white spores; whereas the mushroom 
grows in clumps in pastures and upon lawns, 
occasionally in grassy open woods. Its gills 
are pink in young specimens and darker in old 
ones; its spores dark-colored and it has no cup 
at the base of the stem. 

Aman'itin, a strongly basic ptomaine (or 
perhaps leucomaine) occurring in the poisonous 
fungus Amanita muscaria (Agaricus muscarius), 
or fly agaric. Amanitin is not poisonous, but 
is converted by oxidation into muscarin (q.v.), 
to which the deadly effects of the fly agaric are 
due. Amanitin is believed to be identical with 
cholin, neurin, and sincalin. See Neurine. 

Amapa'la, a seaport of Honduras on the 
north shore of the island of Tigre, in the bay 
of Fonseca. It has an excellent harbor and 
carries on an important exporting trade. It 
was founded in 1838. Pop. 1,100. 

Amaranthus, the typical genus of herba¬ 
ceous plants of the natural order Amaranthacece. 
This order consists of apetalous plants chiefly 
inhabiting tropical countries, and remarkable 
for the white or reddish scales of which their 
flowers are composed. These preserve their ap¬ 
pearance after they are plucked and dried, and 
on this account poets make the plant an emblem 
of immortality. The name is from the Greek, 
meaning (( not withering,® and was originally 
Amarantus. The natural order contains about 
500 species, some of which, as love-lies-bleeding, 
prince’s feather, and cockscomb, are common 
garden plants. In the wild state they are mostly 
troublesome and unsightly weeds, of which the 
tumbleweed (A. albus ) and pigweed are well- 
known American examples. Some of the for¬ 
eign plants are cultivated as pot herbs, and 
others for their medicinal properties. Their 
chief commercial value is as decorative plants, 
for which purpose immense quantities are used 
in the southern parts of Europe, where they are 
employed to ornament the churches when fresh- 
grown blooms are not procurable. Plants of 
this order are almost entirely annuals. 

Amarna Letters, a collection of several 
hundred cuneiform clay tablets discovered in 
1887 at Tel-el-Amarna, a village on the Nile in 
Middle Egypt, on the site of a city built by 
Amenophis IV. They comprise the correspond¬ 
ence of the Egyptian court about 1400 b.c., and 
with but three exceptions are in the Babylonian 
language. Some of them were written by 


AMARYLLIDACEiE — AMATEUR 


Amenophis III. and Amenophis IV., and other 
royal personages contemporary with these, but 
the majority are by Egyptian officials and allies 
in Syria. Their discovery has thrown much 
light not only on the history of Egypt itself, 
but upon the condition of the Holy Land prior 
to the Hebrew invasion. An English translation 
of the letters, by Metcalfe, with the title ( The 
Tel-el-Amarna Letters^ appeared in 1896. 

Amaryllidaceae, or Amaryllideae, a natural 

order of monocotyledonous plants, generally 
bulbous, sometimes fibrous-rooted, occasionally 
with a tall, cylindrical, woody stem. Their 
characteristics are a highly-colored flower, six 
stamens, and an inferior three-celled ovary. 
They are natives chiefly of the Cape of Good 
. Hope; but species are found in the warmer parts 
of Europe, in every part of America and trop¬ 
ical Asia, and a few species in Australia. To 
this order belong the snowdrop, the snow¬ 
flake, the daffodil, the belladonna-lily, the so- 
called Guernsey lily (probably a native of 
Japan), the Brunsvigias, the bloodflowers 
(Haemanthus) of the Cape of Good Hope, dif¬ 
ferent species of Narcissus, Amaryllis, Galan- 
thus, Crinum, Agave (American aloe), Atamasco 
lily, star-grass, spider lily, etc.; many of the 
family are very poisonous. The agave and sisal 
(q.v.) are of considerable commercial value, 
but the order as a whole is chiefly ornamental. 

Amaryllis, the name of a shepherdess in 
the Theocritean ( Idyls ) and the Virgilian 
‘Eclogues-*; also of a character in Spenser’s 
' Colin Clout’s Come Home Again-* ; of the 
shepherdess in love with Perigot, in Fletcher’s 
pastoral ( The Faithful Shepherdess ) ; and of a 
character in Buckingham’s comedy ( The Re¬ 
hearsal.-* 

Amasa (more correctly Ammishai), the 
nephew of David, king of Israel. He was com- 
mander-in-chief of Absalom’s rebel army, and 
after its defeat received from David a promise of 
the same post in his own army in place of Joab. 
On the renewal of the revolt under Sheba, 
Amasa was assigned the task of collecting the 
men of Judah; as he did not appear when due 
(perhaps knowing too much about the dis¬ 
turbance), Abishai was sent in his place, and 
Joab’s company took part without commission. 
Amasa met them at Gibeon, and under pretense 
of a salute Joab stabbed his cousin and rival 
(2 Sam. xx. 9). 

Ama’sia, a city in Asiatic Turkey, prov¬ 
ince of Anatolia, 335 m. E. of Constantinople, 
famed as the ancient capital of Pontus and 
as the birthplace of the historian Strabo. It 
is built almost entirely of stone and contains 
a massive citadel and a notably fine mosque. 
Silk is made here, and salt, wine, wheat, and 
cotton are also exported. Pop. about 30,000. 

Ama'sis I., an Egyptian king, the first 
monarch of the 18th dynasty. His rule lasted 
for some 20 years following 1600 b.c. He ex¬ 
pelled the Shepherd Kings from Egypt and laid 
Palestine and Phoenicia under tribute. 

Amasis II., an Egyptian king: b. 570; d. 
526 b.c. He cultivated friendly relations with 
the Greeks, and established Greek commerce at 
Naucratis. Pythagoras and Solon are said to 
have visited him. He greatly enriched Memphis. 

Vol. 1— 22 . 


Amateur. Up to the middle of the 19th 
century this now ever-recurring word was used 
exclusively to define those who for the love 
of the arts, and not for the profit to be de¬ 
rived from the exercise of them, painted, or 
engraved, or sang. In such of the recrea¬ 
tions and sports as were then in vogue, and 
which some men engaged in for pleasure and 
others for pay, the phrase used to distinguish 
the two classes varied. If a man of means 
rode a horse in a race or a steeplechase for the 
pure love of equestrianism, while others rode 
for fees, the one was called a (( gentleman 
rider,® and the rest were (( jockeys.® So again 
in cricket, those who participated in matches 
were designated by two titles: (< gentlemen,® 
denoting those who participated con amove, 
and (< players,® those who played for pay. It 
was always easy to recognize one from the 
other, for in the list of published names one 
class was always designated “Mr.,® as “Mr. 
Somerville,® while the (< players® would lack 
that prefix and appear as (( Thomas Sadler.® 

Golf of that period was more democratic; 
neither the word amateur nor any other dis- 
tinguishment had appeared; cobbler and prince 
played together, and for stakes too, without 
a thought of one or the other losing caste. 
James II., king of England, while still Duke 
of York, chose an Edinburgh shoemaker as his 
golfing partner to play two Scotch peers for a 
goodly stake of money which he and the cob¬ 
bler won. The prince did the honorable thing by 
giving up his half of the stake to the shoemaker, 
with which and his own share the latter bought 
a house in the Cripplegate of the city. 

Football at that period was largely in abey¬ 
ance, except among schoolboys, and the need of 
definitions had not arisen. 

The word amateur in sports first appears in 
connection with rowing. Up to the year 1835 
such rowing contests as had taken place had 
been on the one hand confined to watermen, 
who at that time had to serve apprenticeships 
and could not ply their trade without: and on 
the other hand to inter-collegiate and inter-uni¬ 
versity crews. Neither class needed definitions. 
But at that time an open regatta was organized 
at Henley, in which it would have been man¬ 
ifestly unjust to allow watermen and others 
who had had a lifetime’s experience and of 
hardened training to enter and compete against 
those for whom the regatta was really intended, 
that is, those who loved aquatic sport for its 
own sake and followed it only as a recreation 
at seasonable times. Hence rules were form¬ 
ulated and have ever since been in operation 
which distinguished the professional from the 
amateur and precluded the possibility of the 
one contesting against the other. So strong 
is this feeling still in rowing at Henley that in 
1902 a further restriction was made against 
the entry of any crew that had within a month 
from its entry been trained by a professional. 

When track athletics, about 1850, first crys- 
talized by the impulse given it by colleges and 
clubs, similar conditions existed. The only 
representative of this form of recreation at 
that time was the old and hardened trotter- 
around-the-track, sometimes for the gate money 
derived from it, sometimes for the benefit of 
the betting men. Ostensibly it would have 
been unfair to handicap young collegians by 


AMATI —AMAZON 


permitting their intermingling, even if for eth¬ 
ical reasons it had not been desirable. Rules 
were here again formulated which had the ef¬ 
fect of barring the professional and defining 
the amateur. The rule of the Amateur Ath¬ 
letic Association of Great Britain may be quoted 
as expressing the then prevalent feeling: 

“ An amateur is one who has never competed for a 
mcney prize or staked bet, or with or against a pro¬ 
fessional for any prize, or who has never taught, 
pursued or assisted in the practice of athletic exer¬ 
cises as a means of earning a livelihood.” 

Football added another temptation on account 
of its possibilities in city centres of attracting 
large numbers and much gate money. Here, 
too, the barrier was raised, in both the associa¬ 
tion and the Rugby games, along lines which 
America has followed. But the United States 
authorities in all recreations have gone a great 
deal farther in the strictness of their definition 
of the word amateur, and in safeguarding 
against persons who receive any portion of their 
traveling or hotel expenses: a notable example 
of this occurred in 1902, when the National Golf 
Association precluded from the amateur ranks 
any player who participated in the generosity 
of railroad companies or hotel proprietors. 

It would seem an easy thing, from the fore¬ 
going facts, to be able to formulate a phrase 
which should generically and yet accurately de¬ 
scribe an amateur, but it is not, as the story 
of the endless definitions adopted and aban¬ 
doned, or amended, though made by experts, 
attests. 

The spirit is the old spirit <( for the love of 
the art or game and not for personal gain®; 
even if a present literal definition were at¬ 
tempted, it might be rendered obsolete by new 
legislation in a short time. Those who are 
purposing to enter any particular recreative 
contest in which the status of the amateur is 
material must consult the last rules of the or¬ 
ganization governing it. 

Ama'ti, an Italian family of Cremona, 
celebrated for their skill in making violins. 
Andrea Amati (b. about 1520; d. 1570) was the 
earliest member to follow the art, but few of 
his instruments remain. His younger brother, 
Nicola, made basses. Andrea’s sons, Antonio 
(b. about 1555) and Geronimo (b. 1556; d. 
1630), worked after their father’s manner, but 
Geronimo’s son Nicolo (b. 3 Dec. 1596; d. 12 
Aug. 1684) excelled all others of his family, 
and in his hands the art of the Cremonese 
school reached its perfection. His most fa¬ 
mous pupils were Antonio Stradivarius and 
Guarnari. The line ended with his son Ge¬ 
ronimo, whose violins were of inferior quality. 

Amatitlan, or Amatitan, a Central Amer¬ 
ican town in the republic of Guatemala, 20 m. 
S.W. of Guatemala City. The houses are low 
and built of mud. There are hot springs in its 
vicinity and salt and alum wells also. The 
occupation of the people consists chiefly in the 
production of cochineal. Pop. about 8,600. 

Amaurosis, a disease of the retina or its 
nervous connections, resulting in partial or 
complete blindness. It usually begins with con¬ 
fused vision; there may then be the appearance 
of a black spot in the centre of an object looked 
at, and graded dimness of sight develops. See 
Amblyopia. 


Amau'ry I., a king of Jerusalem: b. 1135^ 
d. 11 July 1173. He was the son of Baldwin 
II., and reigned from 1168 to 1173, in succes¬ 
sion to his brother, Baldwin III. 

Amau'ry II., sometimes known as Amau'¬ 
ry de Lusignan, titular king of Jerusalem: 
b. 1144; d. at Acre, 1205. He was king of Cy¬ 
prus 1194-1205, succeeding his better known 
brother, Guy de Lusignan. 

Amaxichi, or Leokas, a Greek town, the 
capital of Santa Maura, or Leucadia, one of 
the Ionian Islands. A Greek archbishop re¬ 
sides here. It is on the E. coast of the island 
and possesses a small harbor. Pop. 6,000. 

Amazi'ah, king of Judah about 797-779 
b.c. ; son of Joash. He punished his father’s 
murderers and reconquered the Edomites; but 
according to 2 Kings xiv. was so puffed up by 
his victory over these Bedouin that he chal¬ 
lenged Joash, king of Israel, an incomparably 
more powerful, civilized foe, to a war. Joash 
retorted with stinging contempt, wishing to 
avoid the contest, but Amaziah insisted, and 
Joash routed his army and captured him, 
stormed and sacked Jerusalem, destroyed a part 
of the wall, and carried away to his capital of 
Samaria hostages, and a large amount of spoil, 
including gold and silver treasure and temple 
utensils. Amaziah, after his release and 15. 
years further of reign, was killed by conspirators 
at Lachish (2 Kings xiv. 19). 

Am'azon, a river of South America, once 
called the Orellana after its Spanish explorer. 
Its source is found in the Peruvian Andes, its 
headwaters, the Maranon and Ucayale rivers, 
uniting in about Ion. 74 0 W. From Ion. 70° its 
course is wholly in Brazil, and its entire course 
from the source of the Ucayale to its mouth is 
about 4,000 miles, its width increasing from over 
a mile at the Peruvian frontier to 150 miles. 
The Amazon receives the waters of about 200 
tributaries, 100 of which are navigable, and 
17 of them 1,000 to 2,300 miles in length. From 
the north it receives the Santiago, Morona, 
Pastaza, Tigre, Napo, Putumayo, Japura, Rio 
Negro (a branch of which, the Cassiquiare, 
strangely enough connects it with the Orinoco), 
Uatama, Trombetas, etc.; from the south the 
Huallaga, Ucayale, Yavari, Jutahy, Jurua, Teffe, 
Coary, Purus, Madeira, Tapajos, Xingu, etc. 
The depth varies much. From the sea to the 
mouth of the Rio Negro, about 750 miles in a 
straight line, the depth is nowhere less than 30 
fathoms; higher up it varies from 10 to 12, and 
up to the junction of the Ucayale there is depth 
sufficient for the largest vessels. The rapidity 
of the stream is considerable, especially during 
the rainy season (January to June), when it 
is subject to great floods, being on the average 
2^4 miles per hour; in some places it is 4, 
or even more, and in others as low as 1 mile. 
The river is perceptibly affected by the tides 
up as far as the town of Obidos, 400 miles from 
its mouth. The phenomenon of the bore, or as 
it is called on the Amazon the pororoca, oc¬ 
curs at the mouth of the river at spring tides 
on a grand scale. The waters of the ocean 
rush into the river in the form of huge waves 
10 to 15 feet in perpendicular height, three or 


AMAZONAS — AMBATO 


four of which follow each other with irresistible 
force. 1 he waters of the Amazon swarm with 
alligators, turtles, and a great variety of fish, 
of which Agassiz in 1866-7 discovered 1,163 
species. The country through which it flows 
is covered with immense and impenetrable for¬ 
ests, affording homes for a vast variety of an¬ 
imals, including birds of the most gorgeous 
plumage. The area drained by the Amazon 
and its tributaries is estimated at 3,000,000 
square miles. This region produces an immense 
variety of vegetable substances, including a 
great many drugs, dyewoods, and valuable tim¬ 
ber trees. The products it might be made to 
yield by cultivation. are almost innumerable, 
among the chief being cotton, sugar, indigo, 
coffee, cocoa, and tobacco. The Amazonian wa¬ 
ter system affords some 16,000 miles of river 
suitable for navigation. Steamers began to ply 
on the river in 1853, and latterly the navigation 
was opened up to all nations. Para is the chief 
seat of the trade on the river, and Manaos, sit¬ 
uated about 1,000 miles up, is also a place of 
active trade. About 40 river, coasting, and 
ocean steamers now ply regularly between Para 
and Manaos every month, a number of them be¬ 
ing British. The mouth of the Amazon was 
discovered by Yanez Pinzon in 1500, but the 
stream was not navigated by any European 
till 1540, when Francis Orellana descended it. 
The river has been explored in later times by 
La. Condamine (1743-4), Humboldt (1799), 
Prince Adalbert of Prussia (1842), Herndon 
(1850), Ave Lallemant (1858), Bates (1861), 
Marcoy (1866), Agassiz (1866-7), and others; 
and its tributaries by Hartte, Chandless, Abend- 
roth, etc. See Herndon, ( Exploration of the 
Valley of the Amazon ) (1853) ; Bates, < The 
Naturalist on the River Amazons ) (1864) ; 
Wallace, ( Narrative of Travels on the Ama¬ 
zon and Rio Negro ) (1870; second edition, 
1889) ; Matthews, ( Up the Amazon and Ma¬ 
deira Rivers > (1879) ; Guillaume, ( Amazon 

Provinces of Peru ) (1888) ; Schutz-Holzhausen, 
( Der Amazonas ) (1895). See South America. 

Amazo'nas, or Alto Amazona, the largest 
of all the Brazilian States and the farthest 
north: bounded N. by Dutch and British Guiana 
and Venezuela; E. by the State of Para; S. by 
Bolivia and the State of Matto Grosso; W. by 
Colombia, Ecuador and Peru. Its area is 732,- 
460 sq. m., or nearly three and a half times 
that of France, and except for mountain ranges 
on the Venezuelan border it is an alluvial plain. 
Its capital is Manaos. Population of the State 
(1900) 207,600. (See Temple, ( The State of 
Amazonas.>) The name Amazonas is also borne 
by a territory of Venezuela with a population of 
about 20,000, and a department of Peru with 
a population of about 35,000. 

Am'azons, in Greek legends a nation of 
female warriors. They were fabled to have 
cut off their right breasts in order not to inter¬ 
fere with their use of the bow, and variously to 
have expelled men from their country or kept 
them in subjection for the continuance of the 
race. The earliest traditions locate them in 
Asia Minor, and relate their appearance at the 
siege of Troy under their queen Penthesilea. 

Amazonstone, a beautiful green or blue 
feldspar. It is a variety of the mineral mi- 
crocline and occurs in magnificent crystals 
in granite near Pike’s Peak, Col. Inferior 


crystals occur in New Jersey, the Ural Moun¬ 
tains and many other localities. Large quan¬ 
tities of green, cleavable amazonstone have been 
obtained at Amelia, Va., and have been worked 
up as semi-precious and decorative stones. 

Ambala, or Umballa, the name of a dis¬ 
trict of N. India and its capital. The latter was 
the scene of a. treaty between the governor- 
general of India, Lord Mayo, and the Emir 
Shere Ali of Afghanistan in 1869. The town 
contains several important churches, a dispen¬ 
sary, hospital, and a leper asylum. Pop. 80,000. 

Ambale'nia, Colombia, a city in the de¬ 
partment of Tolima, on the Magdalena River, 50 
m. W. of Bogota. It is the trade centre of a 
rich agricultural region, exporting large quanti¬ 
ties of excellent tobacco. Pop. 8,500. 

Ambari Hemp. See Hibiscus. 

Ambarv'alia, a Roman festival in honor of 
Ceres, which was observed in May. The bless¬ 
ing of the goddess was then besought on the 
wished-for harvest. 

Ambassador (from the Mediaeval Latin 
Ambasciator, an agent), a diplomatic officer of 
the highest rank, the representative of one na¬ 
tion at the court of another. In this capacity 
he is expected to support the interests and dig¬ 
nity of his own State. Ambassadors are ordi¬ 
nary when they reside permanently at a foreign 
court, or extraordinary when sent on a special 
occasion. When ambassadors-extraordinary are 
vested with full powers, as of concluding peace, 
making treaties and the like, they are called 
plenipotentiaries. Ambassadors are often loose¬ 
ly styled ministers. Envoys are ministers em¬ 
ployed on special occasions, and are of less dig¬ 
nity than ambassadors. Until 1893 the United 
States had been represented at foreign courts 
by persons .with the rank of ministers-resident, 
accredited in the care of the great powers as 
envoys-extraordinary and ministers-plenipoten- 
tiary. In that year, however, an act of Con¬ 
gress was passed allowing the President to 
accredit ambassadors as United States represent¬ 
atives at several of the more important Euro¬ 
pean courts. When acknowledged as such, am¬ 
bassadors are exempted absolutely from all 
allegiance and from all responsibility to the 
laws of the country to which accredited. Should 
they be so regardless of their duty, however, 
and of the object of their privilege, as to in¬ 
sult or openly to attack the laws of the govern¬ 
ment, their functions may be suspended by a 
refusal to treat with them, or application can 
be made to their own sovereign for their recall; 
or they may be dismissed and required to de¬ 
part within a reasonable time. An ambassador 
is considered as if he were out of the territory 
of the foreign power, by fiction of law, and it is 
an implied agreement among nations that the 
ambassador, while he resides in the foreign 
state, shall be considered as a member of his 
own country, and the government has exclusive 
cognizance of his conduct and control of his 
person. Ambassadors’ children born abroad 
are held not to be aliens. (7 Coke, 18 a.) The 
persons of ambassadors and their domestic ser¬ 
vants are exempt from arrest on civil process. 
(3 Burr. 401, 1731.) 

Amba'to, a town of Ecuador, on the slope 
of Chimborazo, 70 m. S. of Quito. It has a 
flourishing trade in grain, sugar, and cochineal. 
Pop. 12,000. 


AMBER—AMBITIOUS WOMAN 


Amber, one of the most important and 
valuable of the fossil resins. It is one of the 
oxygenated hydrocarbons and its mineralogical 
name, succinite, emphasizes one of its distin¬ 
guishing charatteristics, namely, the presence of 
from 5 to 8 per cent of succinic acid. Its com¬ 
position is represented by the formula CuTUCh. 
It occurs in irregular masses, usually of small 
size but sometimes weighing up to 15 or 18 
pounds. It has a yellow color, resinous lustre 
and conchoidal fracture. Its hardness is 2 to 2.5 
and specific gravity 1.05 to 1.1. Along the 
shores of the Baltic Sea, especially in East 
Prussia, mining for amber has been carried on 
for two centuries. In this region shafts are 
sunk through a superficial stratum of marl and 
sand, a bed of lignite with light sands and gray 
clays, and finally a layer of green-sand, 50 to 60 
feet thick. 

All of these strata contain amber, but in 
the lower portion of the green-sand there is 
a stratum 4 to 5 feet thick of (( blue earth® 
in which amber nodules occur so abundantly that 
50 or 60 square rods yield several thousand 
pounds. This <( blue earth® stratum extends out 
under the sea and there the amber is freed and 
cast upon the shores by the waves, especially 
after the autumnal storms. Numerous other 
localities are known, but none are so prolific. 
In the United States amber-like resins have 
been found in the green-sand formation of 
Martha’s Vineyard, Harrisonville, N. J., and 
elsewhere. 

Pliny declared amber to be <( an exudation 
from trees of the pine family,® a conjecture 
that proves to be correct. The fact that it 
was at one time fluid or nearly so is established 
by its occasional inclusion of insects; and its 
antiquity is also established by the fact that 
most of the species of insects so included are 
now extinct. 

Amber becomes strongly electrified when 
rubbed, and the power that it then possesses, 
of attracting light bodies to itself, was proba¬ 
bly considered by the ancients to be the out¬ 
ward sign of the mysterious virtues that they 
attributed to the mineral. It was greatly es¬ 
teemed for ornaments and charms, and Pliny 
says that among women (( it had been so highly 
valued as an object of luxury that a very di¬ 
minutive human effigy, made of amber, had been 
known to sell at a higher price than living men, 
even in stout and vigorous health.® He also 
says that a necklace of amber beads was con¬ 
sidered to protect the wearer from secret 
poisons, and to be efficacious as a counter-charm 
against sorceries and witchcraft. In the time 
of Nero an expedition sent from Rome to the 
Prussian amber-beds returned with 13,000 
pounds of the precious substance. 

In modern times amber is chiefly used for 
the manufacture of mouthpieces for tobacco 
pipes and for the preparation of a kind of var¬ 
nish. The attractive power exhibited by amber 
when rubbed was the first electrical phenome¬ 
non observed by man, and the word (( electricity® 
was derived from electrum, the Greek name for 
amber. 

Amber-fish, any one of a genus of fishes 
( Seriola ) related to the pilot-fishes, many spe¬ 
cies of which are found along our coasts, the 
most of which are known by other names. The 
great amber-fish, or amber-jack, is a food-fish 


of some importance in the Gulf of Mexico and 
the West Indies, reaching a weight of 100 pounds. 
Others in that region are more commonly 
known as madregals; and a species of the Pa¬ 
cific Coast is the highly-prized yellow-tail (q.v.). 
The name refers to the prevailing color. 

Am'berg, the ancient Bavarian capital of 
the upper Palatinate, is situated on both sides 
of the Vils, in the midst of numerous iron¬ 
works. It is well built, and on the site of its 
former walls are shaded walks. Glass, iron 
wares, stoneware, tobacco, beer, vinegar, and 
arms of good quality are manufactured here. 
The principal buildings are a Gothic church of 
the 15th century, the royal palace, the town- 
house, and the Old Jesuits’ College, and it pos¬ 
sesses a gymnasium and a large library. At 
Amberg the Archduke Charles defeated the 
French general, Jourdan, on 24 Aug. 1796. Pop. 
(1900) 22,000. 

Amber Gods, The, a story by Harriet 
Prescott Spofford, published 1863. It is char¬ 
acterized by superb depth and richness of color, 
like a painting by Titian. An amber amulet or 
rosary possessing mysterious influences gives 
the title to the story. 

Am'bergris, a gum-like substance of great 
value in the making of perfumes, obtained from 
the intestinal canal of the sperm whale, or found 
floating in pieces of various sizes on the surface 
of the sea. It is a product of cetacean di¬ 
gestion, and often contains the beaks of cuttle¬ 
fish, a fact which conclusively proves the place 
of its origin, until recently much in doubt. 
When first extracted from the alimentary canal 
it has the feeling and consistency of thick 
grease, and chemically seems to be of the nature 
of cholesterin, but after exposure to the air 
hardens and acquires its characteristic sweet 
earthy odor. Some odd stories were told by the 
old writers to account for its origin, of which 
the least absurd was that it was the excrement 
of the whale. It was held by the ancients to 
be of great value in certain diseases, but is 
now used entirely in connection with perfumery, 
and is worth about $20 a pound. The name is 
also given to a barren island on the coast of 
Yucatan, on account of the quantities of am¬ 
bergris gathered along its shores. 

Amber Insects. The great majority of the 
fossil insects of the Oligocene (Tertiary) period 
have been obtained from the amber of the Bal¬ 
tic shores of Prussia, upon which they had 
rested in life, stuck fast and then been over¬ 
flowed. The most fragile and delicate flies, 
moths, and many other insects, besides spiders, 
mites, centipedes and Crustacea, are preserved 
in this gum or resin, which was evidently formed 
in the same manner as gum copal, also a late 
tertiary or quaternary gum. 

Ambitious Woman, An, a novel by Edgar 
Fawcett (1883). It is a keen yet sympathetic 
analysis of an American female type whose 
dominant trait is social ambition. Claire Twi¬ 
ning is reared in the ugly poverty of a Brook¬ 
lyn suburb, but is clever and capable, with 
strong aspirations for the luxuries of life. 
Through the good offices of a schoolmate she 
gains a social foothold. If Claire’s transforma¬ 
tion seems a little sudden, there is genuine 
strength in the story and much truthful obser¬ 
vation of city life in New York. 


AMBLER — AMBOYNA 


Ambler, James Markham Marshall, sur¬ 
geon and Arctic explorer: b. Virginia, 30 Dec. 
1848; d. in the Lena Delta, Siberia, 31 Oct. 1881. 
Educated at Washington and Lee University 
and the Medical College of the University of 
Maryland, he practiced medicine in Baltimore 
1870-4; entered the navy as assistant surgeon 
1874; and was selected as volunteer for that post 
to the Jeannette arctic expedition under George 
W. De Long, 1879. When their vessel sank, 13 
June 1881, he accompanied his chief along the 
Lena and was alive at the date of the last entry 
in De Long's journal, 30 Oct. 1881, but probably 
died the following day. His remains were dis¬ 
covered by Chief Engineer Melville 23 March 
1882. Upon his body were found memoranda 
■on ( Ice Formed by Sea Water,* and ( Remarks 
on Snow Crystals,* published in De Long’s 
<Journal J (Boston 1883). 

Ambleside, a town in the English lake 
district, Westmoreland, the home of Harriet 
Martineau, and near which Wordsworth and 
Dr. Arnold resided. The chief industry is the 
manufacture of coarse woolen goods. Pop. 
(1901) 2,536. 

Ambleteuse, a French village on the Eng¬ 
lish Channel 6 miles north of Boulogne, noted 
as the landing-place of James II. on his flight 
from England 1689. In 1805 Napoleon erected 
a monument here to the Grand Army. Pop. 
(1901) 685. 

Amblydactyla. See Amblypoda. 

Amblygonite, am-blig'6-nit (from the 
Greek amblygonios, ^obtuse-angled®), a min¬ 
eral crystallizing in the triclinic system, and 
having the chemical formula AlPCh.LiF. The 
lithium is often partially replaced by sodium, 
and the fluorin by hydroxyl (OH). Its hard¬ 
ness is 6, and its specific gravity about 3.05. It 
is translucent and white, or more or less tinged 
with various colors. It occurs in certain locali¬ 
ties in Saxony, Norway, France, and Peru; and 
in the United States it has been found in Maine 
and Connecticut. It is a valuable lithia ore. 

Amblyopia, defective, weak, or blunted 
vision, a word now widely employed instead of 
the term amaurosis, meaning blindness (q.v.), 
since the modern methods of examination of the 
retina have made known the more exact char¬ 
acter of the affections of this part of the eye. 
Defective, weak, or blunted vision due to dis¬ 
order of the retina usually may be attributed to 
the following main causes: (1) certain poisons, 
notably alcohol, wood alcohol in particular, to¬ 
bacco, lead, and uraemic poisoning of Bright’s 
disease; (2) certain functional or reflex dis¬ 
turbances,'as in hysteria; (3) changes in and 
about the optic nerve, as pressure of inflamma¬ 
tions, or of tumors, leading to optic neuritis; 
(4) cerebral changes, such as hemorrhages, tu¬ 
mor of the brain, localized injury of the brain, 
usually leading to localized types of amblyopia 
(hemianopsia) ; (5) defective cerebral devel¬ 

opment, causing congenital amblyopia. 

Amblyop'sidae, a family of fresh-water 
fishes closely allied to the cyprinodonts and re¬ 
markable for living altogether in caves, except 
one species found in the ditches of the rice- 
fields of South Carolina. Among many pecu¬ 
liarities may be noted the facts that the vent 
is at the throat instead of in the usual position 


behind the ventral fin, and that all of the under¬ 
ground species are blind. See Cave-dwelling 
Animals. 

Amblypo'da, an extinct order of hoofed 
mammals found in the Eocene* formations of 
North America and Europe. They are dis¬ 
tinguished by a primitive pattern of teeth and 
short post-like feet resembling those of ele¬ 
phants. The chief types are Pantolambda, Cory- 
phodon and Uintatherium (qq.v.). 

Amblys'toma, a genus representing a sub¬ 
family (Amblysto matinee) of salamanders of 
North and Central America, and northern Asia. 
The parasphenoid bone is toothless. A com¬ 
mon American species is the spotted salamander 
(A. tigrinum) whose young in certain Mexican 
lakes never reach the adult condition, and are 
known as <( axolotls.® See Axolotl; Salaman¬ 
der. 

Am'bo, a reading-desk or pulpit, which 
in early churches was placed in the choir. The 
epistle and gospel were read from the ambo, 
and sermons sometimes preached from it. It 
had two ascents — one from the east and the 
other from the west. In many churches there 
were two ambos, one on each side of the choir, 
from one of which the gospel was read, and 
from the other the epistle. The earliest are at 
Ravenna in the cathedral and the Church of 
Saint Apollinare, and are of carved marble. 
(See Pulpit.) The name ambo was also given 
to an eagle-shaped reading-desk, now usually 
termed a lectern. 

Amboise, am'bwaz, Aimeric d\ a famous 
French admiral, brother of Georges d’Amboise 
(q.v.) ; d. 1512. He became in 1503 Grand 
Master of the Knights of St. John in Rhodes, 
and gained a great victory over the Sultan of 
Egypt in 1510. 

Amboise, Bussi d\ See Bussi. 

Amboise, Georges d’, a French cardinal 
and minister of state: b. at Chaumont-sur-Loire 
1460; d. 1510. He became successively bishop 
of Montauban, and archbishop of Narbonne and 
of Rouen, and in 1498 Louis XII. made him 
prime minister. He failed in his attempt to 
secure the papacy, but his policy toward France 
was wise and statesmanlike. He reformed the 
Church, remitted the people’s burdens, and con¬ 
scientiously labored to promote the public happi¬ 
ness. 

Amboise, a French town in the depart¬ 
ment of Indre-et-Loire, on the Loire, 15 miles 
by rail east of Tours. It lies in a rich vineyard 
district and has been called (( the Garden of 
France.® The town is memorable as the scene 
of the conspiracy of the Huguenots against the 
Guises (1560). It contains a beautiful chateau 
dating from the time of the Renaissance. . Pop. 
(1901) 4,600. 

Amboy'na, or Amboina, the most impor¬ 
tant of the Molucca Islands, being the seat of 
their government and the centre of the com¬ 
merce in nutmegs and cloves; greatest length, 33 
miles; greatest breadth, 10 miles; area, about 
260 square miles. It is composed of two un¬ 
equal peninsulas united by an isthmus about 
a mile broad, the larger known as Hitu, the 
smaller as Leitimor. Its general aspect is at¬ 
tractive and its climate salubrious. It is cov¬ 
ered almost throughout with forests, affording 


AMBOYNA —AMBROSIA BEETLE 


a great variety of beautiful wood for inlaying 
and ornamental work. Sugar and coffee are 
cultivated. The surface is generally rugged and 
hilly, sometimes rising into mountains of gran¬ 
ite. The soil in the valleys and along the shores 
is very fertile, but a large portion remains un¬ 
cultivated. In 1605 Amboyna was taken by the 
Dutch from the Portuguese, and shortly after¬ 
ward some English factories were erected there; 
but in 1623 the Dutch seized the English fort, 
tortured frightfully Capt. Towerson and nine 
others to obtain a confession of conspiracy, and 
put them to death — a performance famous as 
(( The Massacre of Amboyna.® Pop. 30,000. 
Amboyna is also the name of one of the resi¬ 
dencies into which the Molucca Islands are 
divided, including Buru, Caram, Aru Islands, 
the Bandas, and others. Pop. 95,000. 

Amboyna, the capital of the Dutch resi¬ 
dency of that name situated on the northwest 
shore of the peninsula of Leitimor and defended 
by Fort Victoria. The houses, built in Dutch 
fashion, are generally of one story, owing to 
the frequency of earthquakes, one of great se¬ 
verity occurring in January 1898. It contains 
a governor’s palace, town-house, two Protes¬ 
tant churches, several mosques, an orphan hos¬ 
pital, a theatre, and a large covered market¬ 
place. The streets are wide, and are planted on 
each side with rows of fruit-trees. Pop. about 
10,000. 

Ambriz, am-brej', a seaport, capital of a 
district of the same name in the Portuguese 
colony of Angola, west Africa. Originally the 
capital of Quibanza it was taken by the Por¬ 
tuguese, who in 1855 built a fort, a custom¬ 
house, and a church which formed the nucleus 
of the present town. It has a number of fac¬ 
tories and a trade in india-rubber, coffee, and 
palm oil. Pop. about 3,000. 

Ambros, am'bros, August Wilhelm, a not¬ 
able Austrian writer on music: b. 17 Nov. 1816 
in Mauth, Bohemia; d. Vienna 28 June 1876. 
He was trained for the civil service and served 
in it with distinction; but his tastes led him 
elsewhere, and he rose to eminence as the 
author of ( The Limits of Music and Poetry, } 
besides numerous essays and studies connected 
with art. His masterpiece, ( The History of 
Music ) (1862-8) a work which cost him many 
years of labor, was carried only to the fourth 
volume. A fifth, completing the work, was 
added by Langhaus. 

Ambrose, Saint, a celebrated Latin father 
of the Church: b. 333, or according to other ac¬ 
counts, 334, probably at Treves (the ancient 
Augusta Trevirorum), where his father resided 
as pretorian prefect of Gallia Narbonensis; d. 
Milan, 4 April 397. It is told that a swarm of 
bees covered the eyes of the boy while slumber¬ 
ing in the court of his father’s castle, and the 
nurse was astonished to perceive the bees going 
in and out of his mouth without doing him any 
injury. His father, possibly recalling a similar 
wonder, mentioned of Plato, prophesied future 
greatness for his son. Ambrose studied law at 
Rome under Anicius Probus and Symmachus, 
and then went to Milan and began to plead 
causes while yet a youth. His pleadings were 
so eloquent and skilful that in a short time Pro¬ 
bus, the prefect of Italy, chose him a member 
of his council; and in 369, with the approval of 


the Emperor Valentinian, appointed him gov¬ 
ernor of the provinces of Liguria and yEmilia 
(North Italy). In 374 he was called to the 
bishopric of Milan by the unanimous voices of 
Arians and Catholics. Ambrose long refused 
to accept this dignity, but in vain. He fled by 
night, and thought himself on the way to Pavia, 
but unexpectedly found himself again before the 
gates of Milan. At length he yielded, received 
baptism, for he had hitherto been only a cate¬ 
chumen, and eight days after was consecrated a 
priest. The 7th of December is still celebrated by 
the Church on this account. On his elevation to 
the bishopric he bestowed all his wealth on the 
Church and among the poor, resolving to live 
as simply as possible, and at the same time to 
exercise his functions as an ecclesiastical ruler 
with firmness and vigor. He was employed by 
the court to negotiate with Maximus, then 
threatening Italy, whose advance he succeeded 
for a time in arresting (383). Four years later 
he was sent on a like mission, but his conduct 
on this occasion so offended Maximus that he 
had to return to Milan, having accomplished 
nothing. In his struggles against the Arian her¬ 
esy he was opposed by Justina, mother of Va¬ 
lentinian II., and for a time by the young em¬ 
peror himself, together with the courtiers and 
the Gothic troops. Backed by the people of 
Milan, however, he felt strong enough to deny 
the Arians the use of a single church in the 
city, although Justina, in her son’s name, de¬ 
manded that two should be given up. He was 
commanded to quit the city, but this he refused 
to do, being still supported by the people. 
About this time Ambrose, instructed by a 
dream, searched for and found the relics of 
two martyrs, Gervasius and Protasius. The 
people crowded to see these bones, and, ac¬ 
cording to Ambrose himself, the eyes of the 
blind were opened and devils were cast out 
by touching them. Although the court derided 
these miracles they were accepted by the people, 
and the triumph of orthodoxy was secured. He 
had also to oppose paganism. In 390, after the 
massacre at Thessalonica, he refused the Em¬ 
peror Theodosius entrance into the church of 
Milan for a period of eight months, only re¬ 
storing him after a public penance. (See The¬ 
odosius.) The later years of his life were de¬ 
voted to the more immediate care of his see. 
His writings (the best edition is by the Bene¬ 
dictines, two vols. folio, 1686-90), bear marks 
of haste, and show his theological knowledge 
to have extended little beyond an acquaintance 
with the works of the Greek fathers, from 
whom, especially Origen, he borrowed consider¬ 
ably. The <( Ambrosian Chant® or (( Te Deum 
Laudamus® has been ascribed to him, but was 
written a century later. He may be considered 
the father of the hymnology of the Latin Church. 
He is the patron saint of Milan, which observed 
his 15th centenary in 1897. 

Ambro'sia, in the Greek mythology, a 
balsamic juice which formed the food of the 
gods and preserved their immortality. It was 
used also as an ointment. Mortals permitted to 
partake of ambrosia received an increase of 
beauty, strength, and swiftness, becoming in some 
measure assimilated to the gods. 

Ambrosia Beetle. See Wood-boring Bee¬ 
tles. 


AMBROSIAN CHANT — AMERICA 


Ambrosian Chant. See Gregorian Chant, i 

Ambrosian Library, public library in Mi¬ 
lan ; founded by the Cardinal Archbishop Fed- 
erigo Borromeo, a relation of St. Charles Bor- 
romeo, and opened in 1609. It now contains 
over 175,000 printed books and 8,400 MSS. 

Amelan'chier, a genus of shrubs or small 
trees of the natural order Rosacecc, natives of 
Europe, Asia, and America. The species, which 
are few in number and closely related, have al¬ 
ternate, simple, deciduous leaves, numerous 
racemes of white showy flowers appearing in 
early spring often before the leaves, and, in 
summer, edible spherical or oblong red or dark 
purple berries with more or less bloom. They 
are ornamental, hardy, succeed upon many soils 
and in many climates, and are readily propagat¬ 
ed by seeds or suckers. 

Am€lie-les-Bains. See Arles. 

Amendment, in law, the correction of any 
mistake discovered in a writ or process. At 
common law, amendments, in the absence of 
any statutory provision on the subject, are in 
all cases in the discretion of the court for the 
furtherance of justice. The power of amend¬ 
ment is regarded as incidental to the exercise 
of all judicial power. Amendments are very 
liberally allowed in all formal and most substan¬ 
tial matters under statutes in modern practice. 
They are allowed either without costs to the 
party amending, or upon such terms or condi¬ 
tions as the court may see proper to impose. 

In legislative proceedings, a clause, sentence, 
or paragraph proposed to be substituted for an¬ 
other, or to be inserted in a bill before Con¬ 
gress, and which, if carried, actually becomes 
part of the bill itself. As a rule amendments 
do not overthrow the principle of a bill. The 
Senate of the United States may amend money- 
bills passed by the House of Representatives, 
but cannot originate such bills. The Constitu¬ 
tion of the United States contains a provision 
for its amendment. (U. S. Const. Art. 5). 

America: a brief account of the derivation 
and meaning of the word. The name Amalric 
(in Old High German Amalrich or Amel- 
rich; Gothic Amala-reiks or -reikis; variants 
Am-el, Am-ul, and Am-il-rih, -rich, or ric) 
originated among the Goths in Northern and 
Central Europe; was adopted by other nations 
of the Teutonic stock before the great migra¬ 
tion of those kindred peoples; and was carried 
into all West European countries — even to 
England and the Mediterranean coasts — by the 
Northern conquerors between the fifth and 
twelfth centuries. The famous East Gothic 
dynasty of the Amala received its name, accord¬ 
ing to tradition, from a national hero whose 
mighty labors had earned for him the title Amal, 
which, as we shall presently explain, was a 
purely democratic term, connoting personal 
character and achievement, without the slightest 
implication of social rank. 

From the dynastic name, the Goths as a race, 
or, more narrowly, the East Goths, were famil¬ 
iarly called Die Am clung en; the Amal king 
in the fourth century ruled from the Baltic to 
the Black Sea; at the beginning of the. sixth 
century a king of the West Goths in Spain and 
France, a grandson of Theodorich the Great, 
was called Amalarich. The word of democratic 


meaning thus spread through a few lands was 
destined to live, in the centuries that followed, 
united inseparably with the other short word 
which appears in the name of the West-Gothic 
king. 

The signification of the compound is of ex¬ 
traordinary interest. Its second member appears 
in Old English (for example, in the Anglo- 
Saxon epic of Beowulf) as ric, meaning power¬ 
ful, or, when a substantive, control, domain, 
or empire — the modern German Reich. Ac¬ 
cording to von Humboldt ( ( Examen Critique,* 
vol. iv) and Professor von der Hagen, the 
fundamental meaning of the first member (its 
root, am, often occurring in the dialects of 
Iceland and Scandinavia in the forms ama, 
ambl, etc.) is labor, endurance of great toil. 
Accepting this view, we find that the title 
of the Gothic national hero, Amal, expressed 
popular appreciation of <( the man of great or 
laborious enterprises.® Simply that. In order to 
show that Amal, when uniting with the aristo¬ 
cratic monosyllable, retained its original value, 
so characteristic of the people who used it 
every day; that, at least, they never thought 
it meant (< the mighty,® as some authorities have 
asserted recently; we need only point to the 
facts that they prefixed it to ric, which itself 
signified (( mighty,® and that folk stories served 
to remind them constantly of the primitive 
meaning of the first member. Amalric, then, was 
the name which compacted the old ideal of 
heroism and leadership common to all Germanic 
tribes, the ideal that stands out most clearly in 
the character of Beowulf — the Amal of 
Sweden, Denmark, and Saxon England. The 
compound plainly meant what the North Euro¬ 
pean hero-stories described: The man who 
ruled because he labored for the benefit of all. 

In France, this name was softened to Amaury. 
Thus, a certain theologian who was born in the 
12th century at Bene, near Chartres, is called 
indifferently Amalric of Bene or Amaury of 
Chartres. England, in the 13th century, could 
show no more commanding figure than Simon 
of Montfort- 1 ’Amaury, Earl of Leicester, to 
whom King Henry once said, (( If I fear the 
thunder, I fear you, Sir Earl, more than all 
the thunder in the world.® A Norman Amalric 
was that Earl Simon, creator of a new force, 
and a democratic one, too, in English politics. 
( 'It was,® says the historian Green, <( the writ 
issued by Earl Simon that first summoned the 
merchant and trader to sit beside the knight 
of the shire, the baron, and the bishop in the 
parliament of the realm.® In Italy, after the 
Gothic invasion, the Northern name suffered 
comparatively slight euphonic changes, which 
can be easily traced. As borne by a bishop of 
Como in 865 it became Amelrico or Amelrigo. 
But the juxtaposition of the two consonants 
l and r presented a difficulty in pronunciation 
which the Italians avoided: they changed Ir, 
first, to double r, and then to a single r. Still, 600 
years after Bishop Amelrigo died, the Floren¬ 
tine merchant, explorer, and author usually re¬ 
tained the double r in his own signature, writ¬ 
ing <( Amerrigo Vespucci,® and, by the way, 
accenting his Gothic name on the penultimate 
(Amerigo, not Amerigo). In Spain the name 
must have been rare, since it was often used 
alone to designate the Florentine during his 
residence in that country. There was, ap- 


AMERICA 


parently, no other Amerigo or Amerrigo in 
the Spanish public service early in the 16th 
century. We must again look toward the North 
for the scene of the next important change, 
and among the men of a Northern race for 
its author. 

Martin Waldseemiiller, a young German geog¬ 
rapher at St. Die, in the Vosgian Mountains, 
whose imagination had been stirred by reading 
Amerigo’s account of voyages to the new world,, 
bestowed the name America upon the conti¬ 
nental regions brought to light by the Floren¬ 
tine. It is not enough to say, with Mr. John 
Boyd Thacher ( ( Columbus^ vol. 3; compare 
also his interesting ( Continent of America*), 
that Waldseemiiller ^suggested® this designa¬ 
tion. As editor of the Latin work, the ( Cos- 
mographise Introductio ) (5 May, 1507), he 
stated most distinctly, with emphatic reiteration, 
his reasons for this name-giving; placed con¬ 
spicuously in the margin the perfect geographi¬ 
cal name, America, and at the end of the volume 
put Vespucci’s narrative. Further, on a large 
map of the world, separately published, he drew 
that fourth part of the earth which was the 
Hntroductio’s* novel feature — marking it 
firmly, <( America.® It is impossible to adopt the 
suggestion of Prof, von der Hagan, that Wald- 
seemiiller was distinctly conscious of giving 
the new continent a name of Germanic origin. 
<( Quia Americus invenit,® says the ( Introduction 
<( Americi terra sive America nuncupare licet.® 
But the case stands otherwise when we ask 
why Europeans generally caught up the word. 
Its association with so many men before Ves¬ 
pucci certainly commended it to Northern taste. 

Marrion Wilcox, 

Author of ( History of War with Spaing etc. 

America, the second in size of the isolated 
land masses of the globe; containing about 
three tenths of the total land surface and 
perhaps half the cultivable area, but less than 
one tenth the population. The name was origi¬ 
nally used only for central Brazil, and was fairly 
enough applied in honor of the Italian, Amerigo 
Vespucci (q.v.), who discovered it. It was 
first employed for the entire known Western 
world by Mercator in 1541, and is usually but 
not properly understood to include Greenland, 
which is physically a part of Europe. 

The extreme points marking the limits of 
this vast continent are: N., the point of Boothia 
Felix, in the Strait of Bellot, lat. 71 0 55' N., 
Ion. 94 0 34' W.; (in Alaska, Point Barrow, lat. 
71 0 23' 31" N., Ion. 156° 21' 40" W.) S., Cape 
Froward, lat. 53 0 53' 45" S., Ion. 71 0 18' 30" W., 
or, if the archipelago of Tierra del Fuego is 
included, Cape Horn, lat. 55 0 59' S., Ion. 67° 
16' W.; W., Cape Prince of Wales, lat. 65° 33' 
N., Ion. 167° 59' W.; and E., the Point de 
Guia, lat. 7 0 26' S., Ion. 34 0 47' W. Its total 
area is not far from 16,000,000 sq. m., with¬ 
out Greenland or the polar archipelago (which 
comprise perhaps 1,000,000 more), of which 
North America with Central America and the 
West Indies contains some 8,700,000 and South 
America 7,300,000. There can be no pretense 
of exactness about these figures, however: Alas¬ 
ka and polar Canada are not thoroughly sur¬ 
veyed, and good recent authorities differ by 
250,000 miles or more even as to accessible lands 
like South America. The total population is 
over 150,000,000. 


Nominally one ^continent,® it is really two 
if not three sections, geologically independent 
in origin. The northern, from the Arctic Ocean 
to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in Mexico on the 
west (where the last slopes of the Anahuac plat¬ 
eau of the Rocky Mountains sink to the plain, 
and the Guatemalan highlands are not in sight) 
and Florida on the east, is connected with the 
southern by two great parallel ridges. One of 
these, called Central America, is continuous, 
joining South America at the west side, and 
dwindling to 28 miles across at the Isthmus of 
Panama; the other submerged, consisting of 
Haiti, Porto Rico, and the Lesser Antilles, 
joining at the eastern side; the two united 
transversely by Cuba and Jamaica and the 
projection of Yucatan, and enclosing the Carib¬ 
bean Sea, 1,500 miles from end to end. The 
continental mass, 8,700 miles from Alaska on the 
northwest and Boothia Felix on the northeast 
to the south end of Patagonia, is prolonged by 
a vast archipelago of arctic islands up from 
Hudson Bay, ending suddenly like a drift line 
about 125 0 W. Ion., and at Grant Land about 
83° N. lat., and by another at the south called 
Tierra del Fuego, on the Antarctic Ocean, to- 
a total of some 9,600, nearly four fifths the dis¬ 
tance from pole to pole. But as with the 
eastern continent, some force has massed the 
land chiefly at the north: two thirds of the con¬ 
tinent is north of the equator; the extreme point 
of the continuous northern islands reaches to 
a few hundred miles from the pole, the last of 
the southern is 2,350 miles from it; Alaska is 
1,100 from the north pole, Argentina is 3,400 
from the south. The same causes make it form 
part of a nearly solid ring on the Arctic Ocean, 
the northwest projection of Alaska being sepa¬ 
rated from the northeast of Kamchatka by only 40 
miles of strait, and the continent being connected 
with Europe by a series of islands one to two 
hundred miles apart, while the immense though 
widely unequal gulfs of the Pacific west and the 
Atlantic east separate the habitable portions. 

The axial dimensions of the continent are 
not very dissimilar to those of the eastern. Its 
length is about the same as the breadth of the 
other from China to England, its greatest 
breadth about the depth of the other from the 
Arctic to the Indian Ocean; but its relative 
slenderness gives it less than half the area. It 
is in fact an immense peninsula slightly severed 
from the main mass, with the shape and the 
southerly direction of the majority of penin¬ 
sulas. From nine to ten thousand miles long, it 
is little over 3,000 across its main north and 
south lines, from Labrador to British Columbia, 
or from Peru to Brazil; about 2,100 from Sa¬ 
vannah to San Diego, a few hundred across 
Mexico, 1,725 at the Tropic of Capricorn just 
above Rio Janeiro, 750 from Buenos Ayres to 
Valparaiso, and so on southward. Moreover, 
as shown by its configuration relatively to that 
of the opposite shores of the eastern, and the 
differences of the northern and southern con¬ 
tinents, it is a strip rent from the eastern mass 
by a tremendous geological convulsion, the At¬ 
lantic being the channel thus left. That ocean 
is relatively small and of regular breadth from 
Labrador and Brazil to England and Liberia,, 
compared with the immense abyss of the Pacific 
and its sweeping arch from the Bering Sea to 
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AMERICA 


Ireland is but 1,900 miles, from Cape St. Roque 
in Brazil to Cape Palmas in Liberia but 1,700; 
while from San Francisco to Yokohama is 5,500, 
from Quito to Singapore (almost exact antip¬ 
odes) 12,500, and from Valparaiso to Sydney 
8.000. But a still more striking proof is that 
the continents fit together almost as accurately 
as the blocks of a dissected map, allowance 
being made for the long period since their sepa¬ 
ration. The great eastern projection of North 
America is toward the Bay of Biscay, that of 
South America toward the Gulf of Guinea, the 
great western projection of Africa toward the 
Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. The 
same closure (about 45°) which would bring 
Newfoundland against Brittany, and Labrador 
against the British Isles, would make the Congo 
empty against the Brazilian coast and the West 
Indies surround Senegambia. In physical char¬ 
acter also the northern and southern portions of 
each are akin: northeastern North America has 
the broken island-fringed peninsular coasts and 
the gigantic inlets and inland seas of Europe, 
while South America has the solid coast-wall 
and the absence of lakes characteristic of west¬ 
ern Africa. Not to mention the great polar 
archipelago or Hudson’s Bay, and allowing the 
archipelago at the south end of Chili to set off 
against the Alexander Archipelago along the 
south Alaskan coast, there is no parallel in 
South America to oceanic bodies like the Gulf 
of Mexico, or lesser ones like the Gulf of St. 
Lawrence northeast to Puget Sound northwest, 
or the Gulf of California southwest; or the 
mass of sheltered bays and sounds along the 
eastern coast to the Great Lakes; to islands 
like those around the mouth of the St. Lawrence 
or to Vancouver’s, or peninsulas like Nova 
Scotia, Florida, and Lower California. It must 
be said, however, that the rent between the 
eastern and western continental bodies must 
have taken place very early, for there are strong 
physical differences between South America and 
Africa: the chief mountain ranges of the former 
being on the west, of the latter on the east; the 
African rivers are less copious, and mostly have 
cataracts above their mouths. 

Apart from this, the structural characteris¬ 
tics of the northern and southern continents 
have striking similarities, largely nullified for 
human use by the difference in location already 
mentioned. Each is a rather slender. triangle 
with the vertex to the south. Each is joined to 
the next northern portion of the globe by a 
northwestern peninsula, the trend of the whole 
as far south as Bolivia being regularly south¬ 
east from Bering Strait, just as that of the 
Asiatic coast to the Philippines is southwest; 
so that the north Pacific is a semicircular gulf. 
Each has to the north an immense archipelago 
and a vast island-ringed inland sea. Each has a 
framework of mountain and plain correspondent 
in general, though with some important differ¬ 
ences. In each, according to the law that the 
largest continental mountain chain is on the 
side of the largest ocean, there is a western 
range of immense height and mass, hundreds 
of miles broad and split into parallel sections 
sometimes connected by transverse spurs, 
stretching its entire length; quite recent in. 
origin, and the volcanic action which raised it 
still energetic in parts. The Andes in South 
America thus correspond to the Rockies in 


North America; but the current idea that they 
form part of one continuous system is erro¬ 
neous,— the Andes end in Venezuela, and the 
Rockies are of different genesis. Each con¬ 
tinent has on the east a much shorter chain, 
much older and therefore much lower, from the 
erosion through geologic ages, and its volcanic 
fires long since spent; and as the highest points 
are worn down earliest, each is now rather a 
broad plateau with some elevations than a 
mountain wall. The Alleghany-Appalachian 
system in the United States corresponds to- the 
Brazilian chain, which has no one distinctive 
title. Each continent has also a lateral range 
beginning in the north centre, turning first south 
and then east till it ends somewhat north of 
the eastern vertical chain, and cut in its course 
by the chief river running northeastward; and 
in each it is much the oldest part of the con¬ 
tinent. The Laurentian chain in North Amer¬ 
ica, crossed by the Saskatchewan, is a trivial 
counterpart to the great lateral ranges of Vene¬ 
zuela and the Guianas, crossed by the mightier 
Orinoco. 

In each continent the two main ranges are 
connected by an almost uninterrupted plain 
many hundreds of miles broad, sloping south¬ 
ward to the ocean, and drained by three im¬ 
mense hydrographic systems with slight and 
sometimes non-existent divides: one running 
east and emptying just north of the eastern ver¬ 
tical range, the Great Lakes and the St. Law¬ 
rence in the north corresponding in position to 
the oceanic Amazon in the south; the second 
running south and discharging a little south of 
the same range, which thus forms one side of 
a huge triangle of which the rivers form the 
other two,— the Mississippi and Missouri in 
North America comparable to the Parana and 
Paraguay which form the La Plata in South 
America; a third running northeast and dis¬ 
charging into the northern ocean, the Saskatche¬ 
wan, with the Red River of the North and 
Lakes Winnepeg and Manitoba, corresponding 
to the Orinoco. Besides these, each has a river 
following the eastern side of a spur from the 
main range up to the northern ocean, the Mack¬ 
enzie in the arctic regions and the Magdalena 
in Colombia, though the former is the drainage 
of a great arctic plain while the latter is con¬ 
fined between two ridges. With regard to the 
watersheds, those of North America lie within 
a few miles of each other in Minnesota; the 
headwaters of the Illinois in the Mississippi 
basin lie within a half mile of the Chicago in 
the St. Lawrence system, and the two have now 
been connected; the Amazon and Plata systems 
are only three miles apart; and those of the 
Amazon and Orinoco are actually connected by 
the so-called ^river® Cassiquiare, a deep and 
broad natural channel about 150 miles long, 
running either way according to circumstances. 

These, however, by no means exhaust the 
large drainage systems of North America, 
though in South America the closeness of the 
western chain to the ocean throws the whole 
burden on the east. The Pacific slope of the 
north is drained in the semi-arctic regions by 
the immense Yukon, one of the great rivers of 
the globe. On the eastern side the great mass 
of the arctic moors sends its drainage through 
a network of small streams, and sinks 
like Great Bear, Great Slave, and Athabasca 


AMERICA 


Lakes, by the Mackenzie to the northern ocean, 
the Great Fish River taking the east arctic 
waters. Farther south the Pacific drainage is 
by the Fraser into Puget Sound, and by the 
Columbia into the Pacific. The smaller Sacra¬ 
mento drains central California. The Great 
Basin between two arms of the Rockies sends 
its scanty and precarious rainfall into the Gulf 
of California by the Colorado. East of the 
range in the south the Rio Grande has a long 
course and forms the boundary between the 
United States and Mexico, but, despite its im¬ 
pressive name, is not of great volume. Between 
this and the Mississippi system several consid¬ 
erable streams drain the Texas region; the 
Colorado, Brazos, Sabine, etc. East of the 
Appalachian system a number of fair-sized and 
beautiful rivers flow to the Atlantic — the St. 
John’s, Penobscot, and Kennebec, the Con¬ 
necticut, Hudson, Delaware, and Susquehanna, 
the Potomac, James, Cape Fear, Savannah, etc. 
In South America the large rivers of the eastern 
slope are the San Francisco and the Paranahiba 
of northern Brazil; but between this range and 
the Amazon system a great plain is drained by 
the huge Tocantins, which, though emptying 
only at the mouth of the Amazon, is really a 
part of its basin. 

The drainage systems of America have no 
parallel on the globe. The Amazon discharges 
more water into the sea than the eight largest 
rivers of Asia together, and the Mississippi 
more than all the streams of Europe large and 
small. The navigable waters of the St. Law¬ 
rence, Mississippi, Amazon, Orinoco, and Plata 
systems together amount to over 100,000 miles 
in length. The five Great Lakes of America 
alone, excluding large bodies like Winnipeg, 
Manitoba, Champlain, etc., and the polar lakes, 
make up an area of 89,000 square miles, or con¬ 
siderably more than England and Scotland to¬ 
gether. 

Another physical similarity between the two 
continents might be found in the relations of 
the Gulf of Mexico to the northern continent 
and the great Argentine plain to the southern: 
both lie in the same position with regard to the 
eastern and western mountain chains, though the 
one is submerged. 

But the differences are also great. The main 
drainage system of the central plain in North 
America is to the south, by the Mississippi; that 
in South America is to the east, by the Amazon; 
while the Great Lakes are scarcely a drainage 
system at all for anything but the melting snows 
of the Rockies, which supply them through deep 
rock fissures. They are hollows in the oldest 
rock elevation of the continent, with the ground 
sloping away from them in every direction not 
far from their shores; not a single considerable 
stream flows into them, nor even into the St. 
Lawrence west of Montreal. But the most vital 
difference structurally is due to the position of 
the western chain. In North America the chief 
height is on the eastern flank a thousand miles 
from the Pacific, the gradually lessening slopes 
leaving space for an empire along that ocean, 
and their drainage forming great rivers. In 
the southern continent it hugs the ocean so 
closely that not a stream of any size flows into 
the sea, and the cultivable area is but a petty 
strip on the coast. More than half the whole 
western side of South America is occupied by 


one state, some 1,500 miles long by 50 or 60 
wide, which even so finds none too much terri¬ 
tory with its slender width and partly barren 
soil. The northern continent has also an im¬ 
mense advantage in the character of its coast 
line: what with its archipelagoes, sounds, and 
river-mouths in the north, and the sheltered in¬ 
dentations farther south, it is well fitted for 
commerce, while the whole South American 
coast has only one or two good harbors above 
Patagonia. The greatest differences in the 
civilized destiny of the two continents, however, 
are due to the northward massing of the land 
heretofore mentioned. All the United States 
and southern Canada lie in the temperate re¬ 
gions : the largest and most fertile part of South 
America lies in the tropics. The narrow south¬ 
ern part of North America lies in the warm 
semi-tropic ocean; that of South America in the 
south-polar sea. A quarter of all North Amer¬ 
ica is a worthless polar waste, but perhaps as 
large a space of South America is an uninhabit¬ 
ed and pestilential tropic jungle; and the im¬ 
provements in food production and means of 
warmth which push back the reign of the one 
are perhaps balanced by the hygienic inventions 
and commercial uses tending to reclaim the 
other. Certainly the northern part has much 
more arable land and much less miasmatic or 
enervating climate than the other, nothing what¬ 
ever that compares with the pestilential coasts 
and inland swamps of the southern. The Mis¬ 
sissippi valley, the largest continuous body of 
agricultural land on the earth, is not only of 
immensely greater value than the grassy steppes 
of the temperate southern plain of South Amer¬ 
ica, but the prairies of the north, which cor¬ 
respond in position to the Amazonian forests 
in the south, are a still more striking contrast. 
Commercially the north is equally favored in 
comparison. From the nearness of the conti¬ 
nent to Europe relatively to Asia, and from the 
structure of the continent throwing the mass of 
population and production east of the great 
mountain chain, the chief commercial relations 
of America must always be with the western 
side of the other continent. Bui: North Amer¬ 
ica is directly opposite Europe, the commercial 
head of the world; while South America’s east¬ 
ern neighbor is barbaric Africa, and most of its 
harbors are either along the miasmatic northern 
and northeastern coast, unfit for great cities, or 
the semi-polar shores of Patagonia. 

(For general works on American geography 
and topography see the ( New Universal Ge¬ 
ography^ translated by Keane and Ravenstein 
from Elisee Reclus’ French work, 1890-4; Daw¬ 
son’s ( North America, Canada, and Newfound¬ 
land^ 1897; Keane’s ( Central and South Amer¬ 
ica^ 1901; Shaler’s ( Nature and Man in 
America,* 1891; Wright’s ( Ice Age in North 
America,* 1889; Powell’s ( Physiographic Re¬ 
gions of the United States,* in ( National Ge¬ 
ographic Monographs,* Vol. I. 1895.) 

Physical and Climatic Conditions .— In a con¬ 
tinent practically spanning the entire space from 
pole to pole, every variety of climate may be 
inferred; and with every elevation from sea- 
line to everlasting ice even in the tropics, each 
latitude is sure to contain as endless varieties 
in itself. In both North America and Asia the 
western side is both warmer and of more even 
temperature than the eastern, owing to ocean 


Latitude Worth 




















































































































































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AMERICA 


currents generated in the tropics and flowing 
eastward, the Gulf Stream through the Atlantic, 
the Kuro Shiwo through the Pacific. The 
Rockies, however, give a peculiar character to 
western North America, to be mentioned later, 
and even in interior Alaska the isotherms rise, 
— the parallel of Dawson City in the Klondike 
is that of the north end of Hudson Bay and far 
into south Greenland. The eastern side of both 
continents has about the same climatic belts: 
China corresponds fairly to the United States, 
and Peking has a climate not unlike Boston. 
But if we compare eastern North America with 
Europe, and to a less extent South America 
with the East, the leading trait is its greater 
cold in every zone from just below Great Bear 
Lake; St. Petersburg and Christiania are on a 
level with the southern tip of Greenland. Sitka 
has much the same parallel as Aberdeen; Co¬ 
penhagen and Moscow, Glasgow and Edin¬ 
burgh, correspond with central Labrador, north¬ 
ern James Bay, and some distance north of 
Lake Winnipeg. All the British Isles, all the 
Netherlands, and the greater part of Germany, 
are north of the city of Winnipeg, which itself 
is about on the parallel of Paris; St. Paul and 
Ottawa correspond to Bordeaux, Turin, and 
Bucharest, centres of wine and roses; Boston 
and Chicago to Rome, New York to Naples; 
Philadelphia is south of Madrid and Constan¬ 
tinople; Washington corresponds to Lisbon and 
Corfu, St. Louis to Athens. The thirtieth par¬ 
allel is about that of New Orleans and the 
Isthmus of Suez; the twentieth passes through 
the heart of Mexico, also just below Calcutta 
and Mecca, and through the Sudan and Sahara ; 
the tenth through Venezuela, also through Gui¬ 
nea and just above Ceylon. The equator 
touches Quito and the mouth of the Amazon, 
and also divides Sumatra and Borneo and Lake 
Victoria Nyanza; the Amazon and the Kongo 
traversing about the same zones. Even allow¬ 
ing for the elevation of the Mexican plateau, the 
temperatures of India and of the deserts of 
Arabia and Africa cannot be paralleled even on 
our tropical coasts. The difference is due to 
environing conditions and internal structure 
combined. Above the European mass is a par¬ 
tially thawed sea; above that limit in America 
lie many hundred miles of ice-clad land masses, 
while to the northeast is the continental mass 
of ice-capped Greenland, piercing deep into the 
-eastern side the polar inlet of Hudson Bay. 
But a partial cause is the mountain framework 
which in Europe lies mainly east and west and 
in America north and south. In the latter, 
therefore, what is practically one long plain 
stretches from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of 
Mexico, the polar winds finding no obstruction 
as they sweep southward. There is not a spot 
in North America east of the Rockies absolutely 
secure from intense frosts; and there are no 
definite north-and-south climatic belts, the only 
sharp divisions being those east and west of the 
Rockies. In Europe and west Asia, on the con¬ 
trary, where the mountains cut off the polar 
winds, the climate will often vary from north- 
temperate to semi-tropic within a score of miles. 
This isolation of different parts, giving the 
most varied lives and habits time to grow into 
deep-set racial distinctions, has produced by 
their varied strains and interaction the splendid 
civilization of the Western world; while the 


two great plains which fill the centre of each 
continent, linked by a fertile and temperate 
plateau, in itself the most tempting of all, gave 
no opportunity for differentiation, and the un¬ 
diversified monotony of a single racial stock 
and culture was one of the influences which 
kept progress at a spot reached by European 
races thousands of years before. 

Geology .— The great western chain of both 
continents, which would seem to be the chief 
formative base of both, is in fact very much the 
newest section in each case, though each is of 
independent origin as shown by the energy of 
still remaining volcanic action in both, while 
the uplift of the eastern side has so long ceased 
that erosion has worn them down many thou¬ 
sands of feet, trenching immense valleys, and 
building up vast plains to the west by their 
detritus. 

The Archaean portion of North America, the 
first in order of appearance above the water, 
is the northeastern part: the elevation in which 
the Great Lakes and Hudson Bay are hollows, 
the Laurentian system of Canada, the Adiron- 
dacks of northern New York, and a southern 
tongue east of the Blue Ridge. The line of 
forces thenceforth acted steadily to the west¬ 
ward, the surface formations regularly growing 
more recent in that direction. This portion is 
not merely the oldest of the western continent, 
but one of the oldest on the globe, the <( New 
World® being new only from the standpoint of 
European history, not of geology or ethnology. 
This and the polar archipelagos are composed 
of Azoic or Palaeozoic rocks of extreme an¬ 
tiquity. The mountain escarpment skirting 
Labrador and extending north and west is 
mainly granite and other archaic rocks. To the 
west stretches the vast pre-Silurian plateau 
called by Suess the (< Canadian buckler.® By 
erosion this has been almost denuded of its 
upper Palaeozoic strata, and the whole of Hud¬ 
son Bay excavated to a slight depth on the 
surface of its eastern section. The eastern part 
of the Appalachian system is mostly Silurian; 
its western plateau and the bases of most of the 
Mississippi valley are Carboniferous; while as 
we go westward we encounter in succession 
Triassic, Cretaceous, and Tertiary formations. 

The Rocky Mountain system shows the 
greatest activity of volcanic forces at its ends, 
in Alaska and Mexico. In the old portions of 
the United States and Canada there are no 
active volcanoes; and the strength of eruptive 
force, greatest in the Aleutian Islands, steadily 
diminishes eastward and southward, occasional 
eruptions occurring on the southwestern coast, 
while Mount Wrangell is semi-eruptive only. 
In Mexico, Popocatapetl and others indicate the 
beginning of the equatorial belt of volcanic 
forces exhibited in Central America and the 
Antilles. But all the Cordilleran system is 
relatively of recent elevation, though old enough 
for heavy erosions to have taken place, exposing 
strata of every age as they were tilted up, cre¬ 
ating some valleys and filling up others. In the 
region from California to Puget Sound the sur¬ 
face over many thousand square miles is lava, 
the valley of the Snake and Columbia for long 
distances being cut through lava beds, and fields 
of black scoriae forming a peculiar feature in 
the northern Pacific States and Pacific Canada. 
To the south of the Appalachian system, along 


AMERICA 


the Atlantic and the Gulf, the flooring is Cre¬ 
taceous and Tertiary, therefore of recent up¬ 
lift. 

In South America the eastern highlands are 
also of enormous antiquity, as shown by their 
archaic composition, with a sandstone cap not 
since submerged, their horizontal layers, deep 
erosions, and detritus plains, indicating no up¬ 
lift since the earliest times and a great height 
of the original chain. The Andes (q.v.) are 
quite recent, and full of volcanoes still or but 
recently active, but they are not all of a single 
age, however, and show successive uplifts. The 
plains between have Tertiary bases under their 
alluvial surface. 

Much of the erosive action on these primi¬ 
tive elevations and the uplifts between them has 
been due to a vast glacial ice cap, the so-called 
Laurentian glacier, which at an uncertain but 
relatively recent period, ending probably from 
50,000 to 100,000 years ago, covered all North 
America from the polar regions down to Phila¬ 
delphia and the Ohio and as far west as the 
Missouri, leveling hills and hollows, creating 
soils, excavating lake beds, changing the courses 
of streams and the outlets of gigantic lakes, 
cutting out and blocking up fiords and harbors, 
and depositing enormous masses of rock and 
gravel moraines. To this, among other things, 
is due the creation of New York harbor and 
Niagara Falls, and the turning of the Great 
Lakes through the rocky St. Lawrence valley 
instead of the Mohawk and Hudson. This ice 
cap has by no means wholly disappeared yet: 
the immense glaciers on the northwest coast 
and in the Rocky Mountain heights, some of 
them hundreds of square miles in extent, are 
remnants of the one great glacier of ancient 
times which still covers entirely the turtle-back 
conformation of Greenland. South America too 
has had its glacial periods, spreading from the 
south-polar regions and producing the same 
effects as in its northern neighbor. The great 
height of the Andes keeps them still existent up 
to and beyond the equator, and on the south 
they are of frequent occurrence. 

The Cordilleran System .— The two great 
axial chains which form the western base of 
the double continent, though (as said) of in¬ 
dependent origin, have strong similarities and a 
like relation to the remainder of the surface, 
and may conveniently be treated together. For 
their detailed composition and characteristics, 
see Andes and Rocky Mountains. It should be 
noted that these are not mere dividing walls, but 
vast formative elements of the continental mass¬ 
es, and themselves of continental volume. With 
their foothills and spurs they amount in South 
America to at least 1,000,000 square miles in 
area, and in North America to some 2,500,000, 
or toward a third of the entire surface. They 
include almost every possible character of soil 
and climate and natural product, and suitability 
for every employment,— agriculture, manufac¬ 
tures, or mining. They make climates of their 
own, so that no inference can be drawn from 
that on one side to that on the other, and the 
two may have the difference of five degrees of 
latitude or five thousand miles of distance: one 
side may be a sponge, the other a rainless desert, 
one a glacier, the other a garden. They make 
the difference between Puget Sound and Labra¬ 
dor, and on the other hand between the Mexican 


plateau and the Nicaraguan plains, between Peru 
and Caracas. They enclose fertile provinces 
and deserts of rock and sand each large enough 
for an empire, and have great lakes and consid¬ 
erable rivers entirely their own. 

As the development is better studied from 
the south, we shall begin with South America, 
whose cordilleras descend by steep short ter¬ 
races to the seashore, or to a narrow belt of 
level land immediately adjoining it, form regu¬ 
lar chains, display the loftiest masses of all 
America, and send out only short branches to 
the eastern plains; whereas the North American 
cordilleras lean, in the west, on elevated pla¬ 
teaus, so as to favor a large development of 
rivers, are less vertical in their structure and 
less high, and send to the east more extensive 
ramifications. The names of particular groups 
of the Andes are taken from the countries to 
which they more especially appertain; thus, pro¬ 
ceeding from south to north, we have the cordil¬ 
leras of Chile, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, and Co¬ 
lombia. This is the highest mountain mass on 
the globe, and except the Himalayas has the 
highest peaks. Beginning among the rock 
islands of the Fuegian archipelago, it runs 
through Patagonia as a low single range with 
summits of perhaps 8,000 feet; rises swiftly 
through Chili, growing at once higher and more 
multiplied, with summits of 12,000 to 18,000 feet, 
till it culminates in the stupendous nevado of 
Aconcagua, from 23,000 to 24,000 feet high, the 
loftiest elevation on the western hemisphere. 
Beyond this it divides into two enormous paral¬ 
lel arms with a high plateau between, and lower 
ranges to the east in Argentina increasing its 
complexity. Thence to the Isthmus it is not a 
ridge, but a rock continent 200 or 300 miles 
wide, with a great number of peaks from 19,000 
to 21,000 and even 22,000 feet high, and the 
very ^passes® over them 15,000 or 16,000 feet 
above the sea, terrific and nearly impassable 
gorges above the highest summits in Europe. 
Sometimes it contains three or four parallel 
ranges, with two and even three immense till¬ 
able valleys on the same base. It attains its 
greatest breadth at about lat. 18 0 S., in central 
Bolivia, where it is some 300 miles wide, with 
three main ranges; and at this point, in the 
northern part of the province of Tacna, taken by 
Peru from Bolivia, it and the correspondent 
coast curve northwest as far as 5 0 , its course in 
this direction being exactly coincident with the 
limits of Peru. On these plateaus was situated 
the empire of the Incas. Just northeast of the 
turn it holds the great Lake Titicaca, some 1,800 
miles in area, on a high plateau 12,645 feet 
above the sea. This part is called the Royal 
Cordillera, and contains several peaks above 
20,000 feet, Ancohuma (21,490) being the high¬ 
est. At the Gulf of Guayaquil it again turns 
north, with a gradual trend east to about lat. 4 
N., when it curves north and west to meet the 
Isthmus, forming a large but nameless gulf. 
Near the equator, in Ecuador, are a number of 
very lofty volcanic summits, the two highest 
and most famous of which are Chimborazo, 
20,498 feet, and Cotopaxi, 19,613 feet. Thence 
to the Caribbean the height decreases, and in 
Colombia it divides into three, two running 
north and the third extending well into Vene¬ 
zuela, the true end of the Andean system. 


'Latitude South 


80 











































































































































CA R IB B E A N 


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SOUTH AMERICA 

cRelief) 


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Scale 

300 500 


0 100 


700 


640 Statute Miles to one inch 
Dark Drown indicates highest land 
Dark Blue indicates deepest water 




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Copyright , :goj, by Rand, McNally &* Company 




















































































AMERICA 


Central America is. hardly a part of either 
great system. The Isthmus is a low plateau, 
succeeded by highlands rather than mountains 
in Costa Rica; then comes the depression near¬ 
ly filled by Lake Nicaragua, the largest inland 
body of water south of the Great Lakes, where 
the elevation sinks to less than ioo feet above 
the sea. The mountains begin in northern Nica¬ 
ragua and occupy the entire breadth of Hon¬ 
duras, Guatemala, and Salvador, from ocean to 
ocean, but they are not of great height and 
consist of several detached ranges with active 
or extinct volcanic peaks. These sink to the 
broad plain at the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, 
forming the dividing line between the mass of 
North American and South American organic 
species, though zoologically the central plateau 
is a northern tongue thrust into two lines of 
tropic territory along the Gulf and Pacific 
coast. 

The Rocky Mountain system, or northern 
Cordillera, begins with the plateau of Anahuac 
on which the City of Mexico is situated, the 
seat of the original culture overthrown by Cor¬ 
tes. It is from 4,000 to 7,000 feet high, and is 
flanked by. mountain ranges and isolated vol¬ 
canic peaks, active or quiescent, the highest 
summits in Mexico. Orizaba, the loftiest, is 
18,250 feet high, but the most remarkable and 
imposing is Popocatapetl, rising 17,520 feet from 
the floor of the valley, the highest peak of 
the world in practical isolation, its whole height 
visible from sea level. At this point the main 
ridge of the Rockies (the Mexican section is 
known also as the Sierra Madre, which prop¬ 
erly is the name of the northeastern spur) sud¬ 
denly turns far eastward from the Pacific, and 
for the remaining 3,500 miles of its course keeps 
hundreds of miles from it, so that the broad 
western slope is drained by very large rivers, 
as the Columbia and Fraser, and in the extreme 
north the mighty Yukon, one of the great 
streams of the whole globe. But it throws out 
lesser arms to the west nearly to the ocean. 
Between the main range and the great Sierra 
Nevada arm is enclosed the desert Great Basin 
of Utah and Nevada and northern Arizona and 
New Mexico: a waste of alkaline earth and 
naked rocks, of river courses dry except in the 
infrequent rains, and roaring torrents then for 
a few hours or minutes; of the great canons, 
gulleys cut sometimes a mile deep into the solid 
rock by the swift sand-laden currents. It is 
drained to the Gulf of California by the only 
real stream of water of any size in the whole 
region, the Colorado. The Sierra Nevada has 
for its crowning summit Mount Whitney, in 
California, 14,898 feet high. Still farther west 
it throws out the Coast Range, running through 
California, Oregon, and Washington up to 
Puget Sound. The Sierra Nevada is continued, 
through independent volcanic action, by the Cas¬ 
cade Range of Oregon, Washington, and British 
Columbia, with Mount Shasta, 14.510 feet, in the 
south, and Mount Rainier or I acoma, 14,526 
feet, in Washington. The system as a whole, 
across from California and Oregon to Colorado 
and Wyoming, is 1,000 miles wide,, with a 
number of north-and-south ranges rising from 
a plateau from 5,000 to 10,000 feet high, and 
with a large number of peaks between 14,000 
and 15,000 feet high. The main range in Colo¬ 
rado has for its chief divisions the Front, San- 


gre de Cristo, Park, Sawatch, and San Juan 
ranges; Long’s and Pike’s Peaks, Blanca Peak, 
Mounts Lincoln and Harvard, and Uncom- 
pahgre Peak are the best known of the sum¬ 
mits. 

The system follows the coast around nearly 
to Asia, rising in 1 eaks all along the Aleutian 
Island, the chief being the noble Shishaldin, 
8,000 feet high; and north of Yakutat Bay, a 
great landmark, where the coast turns west and 
the greatest glaciers begin, the place where the 
temperate zone properly gives place to the semi- 
arctic. A branch continues straight on, runs 
far north to the Yukon watershed, then turns 
west again and rejoins the other in southwest 
Alaska. In the course of the latter it throws 
up mighty peaks, the monarchs of the northern 
continent, including Mount St. Elias, 18,024 
feet, and Mount Wrangell, a great isolated semi¬ 
active volcano, 17,524 feet; the altitude rising as 
it goes west, it culminates in Mount McKinley, 
20,464 feet, the highest elevation in North 
America. 

The Eastern Mountains arid the Plains .— 
In North America the backbone and nucleus of 
the continent is locally known as the Alleghany 
system in the northern half of the United States, 
and the Appalachian in the southern; but for 
scientific purposes the latter name is commonly 
extended to the whole. It extends from Gaspe 
peninsula, between the lower St. Lawrence and 
Chaleur Bay, below Quebec, through the United 
States to north Alabama and north Georgia, 
where the mountains sink down to the great 
coastal plain which girdles the United States 
from fifty to a hundred miles back from the coast 
shore. Between the mountain and plain is a 
foothill region usually known as the Piedmont 
region. The mountains are a plateau from 
50 to 200 miles wide and averaging 1,500 to 
3,000 feet high, but with peaks rising to 6,294 
feet in Mount Washington (New Hampshire) 
and 6,707 feet in Mount Mitchell (North Caro¬ 
lina). The range has many local names for 
the different divisions, as the White and Green, 
the Adirondacks, the Taconic, Hoosac, and 
Catskill, the Alleghany, the Blue Ridge and 
South Mountain, the Black and Smoky, etc. 

On the west they slope through rolling up¬ 
lands to the most peculiar feature of the North 
American surface, entirely unlike any other part 
of the globe, the prairies, called savannahs in 
English books, but never in American speech: 
a block of undulating plains of enormous extent 
in the centre of the Mississippi basin, com¬ 
posed mainly of dark, rich loam from a foot 
to several feet deep over a bottom of clay, and 
of such composition that tree-growth is entirely 
absent naturally and very difficult artificially, 
even where rainfall is plentiful, though grass 
and other crops grow abundantly. Often this 
will be as level as a floor for scores of miles 
together, and the eye sweeps uninterruptedly 
over a grassy ocean to the horizon. On the 
west of this extend to the Rockies lands often 
as flat as the prairies, but lacking their individ¬ 
ual trait and called plains instead. The same 
features are repeated in northwest Canada from 
Manitoba to the Rockies. 

In South America the eastern chain is simi¬ 
larly formed of several parallel ranges follow¬ 
ing the Brazilian coast, on a wide plateau, a re¬ 
duced copy of it running through the Guianas. 


AMERICA 


The whole centre is an immense plain sloping 
sharply up to the Andes; but in place of the 
vast treeless flats of the northern continent 
there is the most enormous forest of the world, 
two and a half millions of miles in extent, a 
swampy jungle inhabited only by a unique tropic 
fauna and the few savages who wander through 
its intricate paths. North of this, however, are 
considerable plains along the Orinoco called 
llanos. Below the range the country is a great 
grassy steppe, rather ill-watered and infertile, 
called pampas, and extending through Argen¬ 
tina and Patagonia. 

(See reports, bulletins, and monographs of 
the United States Geological Survey; reports of 
the Canada Geological and Natural History Sur¬ 
vey; Suess’ ( Das Antlitz der Erde ) (The Face 
of the Earth), Prague 1883-8; Felix and Lank, 
( Geologie und Palaontologie der Republik Mex¬ 
ico^ Leipsic 1890; Steinmann, ( Sketch of Ge¬ 
ology of South America, 5 in ( American Na¬ 
turalist, 5 Vol. XXV., 1891.) 

Climate, Rainfall, and Natural Sections .— 
The habitability of a land outside of arctic re¬ 
gions depends first upon its water supply and 
secondly upon its disposition. The trade winds 
which supply the rainfall of all countries by 
the ocean vapors they carry blow nearly east 
and west, the easterly called specifically <( trades, 55 
the westerly ^anti-trades. 55 The eastern con¬ 
tinent has its greatest length in this direction 
and a great mountain wall on the east; hence 
much of central Asia lying beyond the reach 
of vapors remains a permanent desert. 
America, from its narrowness and its sides be¬ 
ing toward these winds, is much more easily 
supplied. The Great Lakes add to the rainfall 
in their region; the Gulf of Mexico, as will be 
demonstrated, turns the whole east centre from 
a potential desert to a garden: and the only 
entire deserts are between two arms of the 
western range in the northern part, and some 
portion of the strip along the western coast of 
the southern. 

In the polar regions the cold and physical con¬ 
formation make the water supply of little avail. 
Northern Alaska and northern Canada are flat, 
spongy moors but half reclaimed from the ocean, 
with permanently frozen subsoil, thawing slight¬ 
ly in the brief, intense summer (sometimes of 
120 0 ), and developing a few mosses, grasses, and 
weeds, with dwarfed shrubs and clouds of 
mosquitoes. (See Alaska.) But the distance 
southward to which arctic conditions extend is 
far greater on the eastern coast than the west¬ 
ern, owing to the effect of the Rocky Mountain 
wall in breaking the force of the polar winds, 
and of the warm ocean vapors; the latter also 
make the temperature far more equable. The 
midwinter arctic temperature of 50° and below 
has no representative on the western coast. The 
Labrador coast, latitude for latitude, is 20° 
colder than the Alaskan in mean annual tempera¬ 
ture, about 20° against 40° even in the extreme 
northwest; and its mean midwinter temperature 
30° colder, —25 0 against 5°. Even from the in¬ 
terior to the western coast the isotherms rise 
astonishingly: that of north Virginia at lat. 40° 
N. is that of British Columbia at 50°. On the 
other hand, the range of temperatures is much 
greater on the east, the temperature rising 
pretty steadily as we go southward, to 8o° mean 
annual on the Mexican Gulf coast, a range of 


6o° from semi-arctic to semi-tropic, while in 
the corresponding part of southern California 
it is only yo °, a range of 30°. The midwinter 
range is over ioo° on the east coast, not above 
50° on the west; the midsummer is 40° in the 
east, not over 20° on the whole coast from 
southern California to Bering Sea. Much 
greater extremes still are found in the Cordil- 
leran region, where the mean annual embraces 
a scale of 6o°, and the mean midsummer runs 
from 40° to 95 0 in southern Arizona and north¬ 
ern Mexico, while the thermometer rises to 
120 0 at times, as at Fort Yuma and similar 
places. 

From about lat. 52 0 N. to perhaps 44 0 in the 
interior and east, the climate, though not quite 
fatal to civilized energies, is very severe, with 
winters of seven or eight months, and summers 
at best but short and not always calculable, 
though rising to ioo° and over in waves; with 
sudden intense (( northers 55 and <( blizzards 55 of 
intense cold with fine dry snow sometimes par¬ 
alyzing business activities for days. The dry 
atmosphere, however, makes it less trying than 
the damper though somewhat warmer eastern 
weather; it has developed great cities and popu¬ 
lous States in the United States and flourish¬ 
ing communities in Canada above 50° ; and the 
industrial and intellectual future of the region 
is as promising as that of any part of the con¬ 
tinent. There is not much difference between the 
central and eastern parts in this respect, Duluth 
and Quebec, St. Paul, and Ottawa, correspond¬ 
ing closely in parallels and nearly in climate. 
Northwestern Canada and the northern cen¬ 
tral States of the United States form the great 
cattle and wheat district of North America; and 
this on both sides of the Rockies is the chief 
timber section. South of this is the great <( tem- 
perate 55 section, shading into the semi-tropic by 
imperceptible degrees, but which in the United 
States may be roughly divided by the basin of 
the Ohio. The northern portion has summers 
and winters of the same general character as 
the former, but less intense at either extreme, 
neither hot waves nor cold waves usually last¬ 
ing long; the weather damper than in the farther 
north. It is the chief region of Indian corn 
and apples, hay and potatoes, etc. The southern 
half shows the beginnings of tropic elements in 
the seasons, which are not so much winter and 
summer as wet and dry; in the luxuriance of 
vegetation and characteristically tropic varie¬ 
ties ; in the less bracing atmosphere, and in 
the bottom lands its languorous oppressiveness; 
in the domestic architecture, where the obvious 
desire is to escape heat rather than to ward 
off cold; and in the productions, such as cotton 
and tobacco, rice and sugar, sweet potatoes and 
oranges in the far south. 

The Pacific slope, however, is an exception 
to this, its climate resembling the western coast 
of Europe much more than the eastern of its 
own. All the isothermal lines curve sharply 
northward west of the mountains. From Puget 
Sound to San Diego there is no extreme range 
of climate, no such division into quasi-arctic 
and quasi-tropic as on the eastern slope; though 
the northern part from its heavy rains is the 
greatest timber region of the continent north* 
and the southern a great country of vineyards, 
almond orchards and other south-temperate 
products. California reaches from about the 


AMERICA 


parallel of Boston to that of north Georgia 
and Mississippi, blit has neither the raw, harsh 
New England climate nor the heavy southern 
atmosphere, and southern California is a 
noted warm sanatorium. The high arid 
plateau of north Mexico experiences ex¬ 
treme alternations of temperature, from 95 0 to 
40° ; but on the coasts and below the great Ana- 
huac table-land the region becomes semi-tropic. 
Sugar-cane, cotton, and coffee now ascend to 
the lower mountain regions, and in their place, 
at sea-level, appear pineapples, bananas, etc. 
Central America from its narrowness and low 
elevation has an island climate, tropic and pesti¬ 
lential on the shores and along the streams, 
moderate and healthful on the higher ground in 
the interior. This and the Antilles are the re¬ 
gion of sugar, indigo, cochineal, ginger, va¬ 
nilla, capsicum, etc. South America, lying on 
both sides of the equator, has in the central and 
eastern parts a much less range of climate than 
North America, the greatest in a single section 
being found in Argentina, where it is some 30° ; 
over the whole continent the mean annual tem¬ 
perature ranges from 8o° to 40°, the midwinter 
(our midsummer) from 8o° to 35 0 , and the 
midsummer from 85° to 50"; north Argentina, 
the Cordilleran section, having, as before, the 
greatest alternations. The southern west An¬ 
dean slopes are cooled and equalized by the west 
winds from the ocean; the northern parts are 
a tropic desert; but on the different levels of 
the range are found every climate of the earth 
from tropic to arctic. The tropic productions 
and characteristics south of the equator, ex¬ 
cept as deflected by local conditions, are much 
like those north of it. The zone reaching south 
as far as lat. 40° S. has a mean temperature of 
71 0 in the warmest and 53 0 in the coldest 
month. There the palm still thrives on the 
lower basin of the La Plata beside the mulberry 
and indigo; the pampas and the west coasts of 
Chile are characterized by beautiful araucarias 
(the pine of the southern hemisphere), by 
beeches and oaks, the potato and the arrow- 
root. The plants in cultivation are a curious 
blending of the vegetation of the northern and 
southern United States: wines, olives, oranges, 
hemp, flax, tobacco, wheat, Indian corn, and bar¬ 
ley. The southern limit of the periodical rains 
reaches as far as lat. 48° S., when the mean tem¬ 
perature of 59 0 in the warmest and 39 0 in the 
coldest month still favors the growth of cereals, 
and on sheltered spots of the west coast the 
growth even of the vine and the finer fruits. 
The zone reaching to the southern extremity 
of America shows comparatively little difference 
between the warmest and coldest month, the 
mean temperature of the one being 41 0 and of 
the other 25 0 ; but the low degree of summer 
warmth produces a marked change in the form 
of vegetation, which now presents only a few 
trees, as the beech and birch, and an extraor¬ 
dinary abundance of mosses and ferns. As in 
passing from the equator to the pole the region 
of the vegetable world gradually declines, so 
in climbing from the tropical shores to the ice- 
covered mountain summits three different cli¬ 
mates have been distinguished by the names of 
tierra caliente, ternplade and fria (hot, temper¬ 
ate, frigid). Of these the templada extends 
over those healthy and beautiful regions where 
a kind of perpetual spring prevails, and green 


pastures and noble forest trees are found united 
with the fantastical and gigantic forms of the 
tropics. 

The question of rainfall is difficult to group 
systematically with that of climate. The mass 
of the northern continent is in the region of 
the anti-trades or prevailing westerly winds. 
The Japanese Black Current, the Gulf Stream 
of the Pacific, running northeast and striking 
the polar currents and the cold shores, ice¬ 
bound for many hundreds of miles, sends up a 
great steam of fog which is blown against the 
wall of the Rockies and sent back by them upon 
their western slope in a rainfall from 50 inches 
up to 100 or even more, that makes the northern 
coast from southern Alaska to northern Califor¬ 
nia one gigantic forest of immense timber. The 
rainfall on Puget Sound is from 75 to over 100 
inches in winter, and the annual average on 
the Pacific coast of Alaska is 90 inches. In 
the southern part, along southern and Lower 
California, the Cordilleran region above the 
Gulf, and west Mexico, the same winds blow; 
but the land is too warm to cool and precipitate 
the vapors to the same extent; and such pre¬ 
cipitation as there is takes place mostly on the 
crests of the coast ranges, the Cordilleran re¬ 
gion being mostly semi-desert or wholly so. 
In the summer the coast ranges are too warm 
to retain all the moisture of the vapors, which 
therefore give a little at these seasons, 10 to 
20 inches in all to the interior regions. 

The Mississippi valley is saved from becom¬ 
ing the most tremendous desert on earth, a sec¬ 
ond Sahara, by the Gulf of Mexico and the 
western wall combined. If it had to rely on the 
Pacific winds it would be utterly rainless; but 
these westerly winds in the Gulf region set up 
whirls of cyclonic disturbance which make an 
easterly eddy, carrying saturated currents in 
that direction; and these, striking against the 
Rockies, are turned northeastward through the 
central and eastern valley, giving it abundant 
water. This eastward set, however, leaves the 
western valley only the edge of its course; the 
far western, as in western Kansas and Nebraska, 
being rainless for considerable periods and 
scantily supplied at best. The rainfall ranges 
from 60 inches on the coast to 30 around the 
Great Lakes, which add something to the mois¬ 
ture of their district. The same cyclonic move¬ 
ment makes the same easterly eddy in the At¬ 
lantic, and the Atlantic coast receives its 40 to 
50 inches a year from that source. 

Central America is in the region of the 
trades or easterly winds, and is so narrow that 
its climate is that of a semi-tropic island. In 
this region the rainfall is enormous, creating 
heavy tropic vegetation and increasing to 200 
inches at Panama and the northwestern shores 
of South America, short rivers like the Atrato 
carrying almost a continental volume of water. 
All tropical South America is within the trade- 
wind belt, its moist warm climate creating the 
enormous forests of the Amazon basin, the 
oceanic volume of that <( river® (rather a huge 
set of parallel drainage channels in one vast 
swamp) and its tributaries, and the lesser but 
still mighty Orinoco. On the western slope of 
the Andes this portion receives no vapor and is 
a desert down to north Chili. But in central 
and south Chile and Argentina the anti-trades 
begin once more, and North American conditions 


AMERICA 


are repeated: the westerly winds giving to that 
coast a mild, equable temperature and heavy 
rainfall, while the Andes bar nearly all the 
moisture from the east, and the great southern 
plains or pampas are a relatively arid steppe. 

Taking the continent as a whole, the rainy 
zone is disproportionately extended in America; 
and as it stretches over all the zones, the vege¬ 
tation is remarkably diversified, from the lowly 
moss of the north to the lordly banana of the 
tropics. The giant chain of the Andes every¬ 
where rises above the snow-line. From the 
sterile Peruvian coast, burned by tropical heats, 
one can look up to summits covered with perpet¬ 
ual snow and ice; and one may climb from the 
gigantic equatorial vegetation of Quito to 
heights where only the condor testifies to the ex¬ 
istence of organic life as he wings his flight over 
snow-fields and glaciers. In Peru the culture 
of cereals is carried on at the height of 12,000, 
and near Quito at 9,000 feet. The north and 
south of America have the same length of day; 
but in the seasons which depend not merely on 
astronomical but on a variety of local causes, 
the analogy does not hold and very remarkable 
discrepancies appear. Thus, for example, the 
east coast of Brazil has the rainy season from 
March to September, while Peru, lying under 
the very same latitude, has it from November 
to March. Within the tropics the transition 
from the rainy to the dry season takes place 
almost instantaneously; but in receding from 
the tropics on either side, the change of seasons 
becomes-more and more gradual till at last, in 
the polar zones, nature, bound in icy chains, 
affords for living existence only a short awakern 
ing out of a long winter sleep. 

(See publications of the United States 
Weather Bureau, the Canadian Meteorological 
Office, and the Mexican Weather Service; 
Greely’s ( American Weather, } 1888.) 

Flora .— The sections of cultivation have been 
dealt with already and we shall consider here 
only the indigenous features. From north to 
south the general succession is as follows : 

The surface-thawed arctic tundra bears only 
reindeer-moss, blossoming weeds in its brief 
hot summer, and dwarf willows. From about 
the Arctic Circle to the southern coast of 
Alaska, James Bay and the North Saskatche¬ 
wan, we find shrubby plants, most of them yield¬ 
ing berries; then the universal wood-of-all- 
work, the famed <( Alaska spruce, )) with clumps 
of birch and alder: these at first sparsely, then 
forests of conifers,— larger spruces, pine, hem¬ 
lock, and fir. This coniferous growth extends 
in enormous volume down the cool wet Pacific 
slope to central California; the giant redwoods 
and sugar-pines, etc., and the huge sequoia, the 
largest and oldest plant on the earth, being fa¬ 
mous everywhere. Eastern Canada is forested 
with similar coniferous species; so is the Unit¬ 
ed States through Michigan, Wisconsin, and 
west to Minnesota, to southern Missouri and 
northwestern Arkansas, and to northeastern 
Texas and the Indian Territory. The central 
United States has predominant deciduous 
(hardwood) trees, such as the oak of many 
varieties, the beech, maple, elm, chestnut, black 
walnut, hickory, ironwood, pepperage, red mul¬ 
berry, etc. In the southern States the yellow 
pine holds foremost place. The characteristic 
forms of the southern States are the magnolia, 


palmetto, tulip-tree, planeTree, pecan, etc., with 
the cypress everywhere in the swamps. T he 
Cordilleran woods are chiefly conifers, and on 
the mountains; on the plains and in the valleys 
are the yucca, cactus, etc., whose dense, thorny 
growth is termed chaparral. The wild pictur¬ 
esqueness and even grotesqueness of the cactus 
forms is noted; and it furnishes food for ani¬ 
mals that would otherwise starve on the arid 
steppes. The north Mexican plateau has little 
wood except on the mountains. Southward 
vegetation blends with the tropical forms, and 
in Central America and the Antilles the most 
valuable trees are the mahogany and boxwood, 
and of vegetable products vanilla and ginger. 

In South America there is no arctic region; 
but the great differences in altitudes and the 
water supply give it a wide range of native pro¬ 
duction. The immense rainfall and steady 
tropic heat of the north shore along the Carib¬ 
bean and in the Magdalena valley create a pro¬ 
fuse tropical flora on the lowlands, changing to 
palms, bamboos, tree-ferns, etc., on the higher 
levels, and coniferous trees on the mountains. 
Along the Orinoco the llanos, plains with im¬ 
mensely tall grasses and great single trees, take 
the place of forests. The vast selvas or swamp 
forests of the Amazon occupy the heart of the 
continent. These colossal tropic jungles, often 
formed into an almost impenetrable web by 
multitudes of creeping and climbing plants, con¬ 
tain an almost unexploited variety of magnifi¬ 
cent trees with the most beautiful ornamental 
woods,—as rosewood, cocabola, etc.,—products 
like india-rubber, brazilwood for dyeing, cin¬ 
chona for medicine, etc. Dense forests of 
cinchona overshadow the mountain terraces 
of Quito. South of the selvas are the forests of 
Matto Grosso, the great Brazilian province east 
of Bolivia; south of this again, and of the Bo¬ 
livian Cordillera, is the Gran Chaco, or (( great 
round-up,® from the Paraguay to the Andes,— 
a region of three to five hundred thousand 
square miles, largely plains, but with heavy for¬ 
ests including the wax-palm, and with tree-like 
thistles on the lower plains. Now begin the 
pampas of the lower La Plata, which are fine 
grassy plains in the northern part, but in south 
Argentina and Patagonia become semi-arid 
steppes. The western strip has already been 
dealt with. 

(Gray’s ( Synoptical Flora of North America, > 
1886-97; Heller’s ( Catalogue of North Ameri¬ 
can Plants North of Mexico,> 1900; Sargent’s 
( Silva of North America,> 1890-1; Britton and 
Brown’s ^Illustrated Flora of the Northern 
United States, Canada, and the British Posses¬ 
sions, } 1896-8; Berg’s ( Physiognomy of Tropi¬ 
cal Vegetation in South America,* 1894; Rus- 
by’s Enumeration of Plants Collected in South 
America, ) in ( Torrey Botanical Club Bulletin,* 
Vols. XV., XX, XXII, XXV, XXVII.). 

Fauna .— The distribution of animal life in 
America proves by itself what was probable on 
geologic and physiographic grounds, that the 
proper division between the two continents is 
not at the Isthmus of Panama, but at either 
Nicaragua or Tehuantepec, and that the junction 
was relatively late. Zoologically considered 
South America includes also not only Central 
America and the Antilles, but the Mexican 
plains and coasts east, west, and south of the 
plateau of Anahuac. The faunae of the two con- 


AMERICA 


tinents have almost no common feature. Fur¬ 
thermore, the North American species are in 
many respects closely allied to the North Asi¬ 
atic, while the South American mammalia and 
birds have but slight affinities to those of any 

•other section of the world, and those of the 

most general kind; fully four fifths of its spe¬ 
cies being unknown outside its own limits. 

North America, with this proviso, in Sclater’s 
and Wallace’s classification, is Palaearctic in 
the arctic regions and for some distance south 
of the northern ocean and west of Hudson 
Bay, and Nearctic through the rest of its 

bulk; while South America, thus extended, is 
Neotropic. Some authorities, however, from the 
■close affinities of the first two, group them to¬ 
gether into one as Holarctic or Triarctic. 

In North America, for instance, the fur 
animals are not very different from the Siberian 
kinds; the reindeer, moose (called elk in Europe), 
and bighorn are closely akin to Asiatic con¬ 
geners; the bison belongs to the buffalo family; 
the cat family is represented by the panther and 
wildcat; the wolf family by various classes of 
wolves, and probably by the Eskimo dog; the 
bear family by several distinct sorts. The white 
goat has close foreign relatives; so have the 
beaver, marnlot, rabbit, squirrel, and most of the 
other rodentia, the weasels, insectivora, bats, 
and others. The birds, reptiles, and amphibia 
are nearly all identical in family with Old 
World groups, and often in species. The fresh¬ 
water fish and mollusks of the cold regions of 
both are generally akin, and sometimes the 
same, though in the great rivers of the southern 
half many new forms have developed, the river 
mollusks being much more numerous and spe¬ 
cialized in the United States than in any other 
part of the world. But there are very notable 
individual forms. The North American “great 
cat,® variously called panther, catamount, 
cougar, puma, mountain lion, American lion, 
etc., has long been specialized in this region; 
the musk-ox and the skunk are our own, as 
are the pronghorn and the gopher. And there 
are still more striking absences where all 
analogy would lead us to expect strong repre¬ 
sentation. The horse, camel, and rhinoceros 
originated in North America as late as Ter¬ 
tiary times, but have entirely disappeared. 
There is but one marsupial, the opossum, no 
antelopes, and but one genus of native swine, in 
Texas and Arkansas. 

South America shows a new world. Out 
of io orders of mammalia with 33 families 
which it contains, 13 families are confined ex¬ 
clusively to it. All its families in two orders, 
the Primates (monkeys) and Edentates (arma¬ 
dillos, sloths, and ant-eaters), are its own, and 
five of its nine families of rodents; while of the 
Chiroptcra (bats), one family, the Phyllostomi- 
dcu, which includes the vampire bats or blood¬ 
suckers, is peculiar to it. Its deficiencies are 
■equally notable, though less so in some re¬ 
spects than of the northern continent, as it lacks 
none which originated there. The horse family 
group is represented only by the tapir, the 
ruminants only by the llama, and the bears only 
by the Andean bear of Chile and Peru. There 
are no Ungulates but a small deer and one genus 
of swine, no members of the weasel or civet 
families, and only two small genera of 
insectivores. The birds, instead of having a 
Vol. 1—23. 


wider range as might be thought, are still 
more individual: 23 families, including hundreds 
of genera, are exclusively South American, 
while only three out of its 118 genera of hum¬ 
ming-birds, one of its 43 genera of tanagers, 
eight of its 70 genera of tyrant flycatchers, one 
of its 14 genera of macaws, four of its 13 
genera of pigeons, one of its 12 genera of 
Cracidce (curassows, etc.), two of its 11 species 
of goatsuckers, etc., have any habitat beyond 
itself. Of its wading and swimming birds, 
18 of its 24 genera are peculiar to it. The 
reptiles are much less specialized, only four out 
of 60 genera being entirely individual, and those 
of lizards; the species, however, are more pe¬ 
culiar than this would indicate, the boas and 
scytales being distinctively South American, and 
the iguana practically so, though known some¬ 
what north of this region. The waters nat¬ 
urally are much less specialized. Of the am¬ 
phibians only three out of 16 genera are local. 
The fishes have four families and 17 genera, of 
which one family with its one genus, and a genus 
of another, are peculiar to the South American, 
the resemblances being mainly to the African 
families. The sirenoids represent extremely an¬ 
cient forms. The insects are also not so differ¬ 
ent in form as might be anticipated. But this 
view understates the specific variations, for on 
the whole South America is a zoological land 
apart. 

(See ( The Standard Natural History,> Bos¬ 
ton, 1885; Alfred Russel Wallace, ( The Geo¬ 
graphic Distribution of Animals,* 1876; Mer- 
riam’s ( Geographic Distribution of Life in 
America,* in Vol. VIII. of Proceedings of the 
American Biological Society.* For special por¬ 
tions, Cope’s ( Crocodiles, Lizards, and Snakes 
of North America,* in United States National 
Museum Report, 1898; Apgar’s ( Birds of the 
United States,* 1898; Goode’s ( American 
Fishes,* 1888; Edwards’ ( Butterflies of North 
America,* 1868-88.) 

Political Divisions. — The independent States 
of both North and South America are all re¬ 
publican in government, though it was only in 
1889 that Brazil became a republic. The con¬ 
tinent is politically divided as follows: 

Independent Republics. 

North America — 

Capitals. Sq. m. Pop. 1900. 

U. S. Proper .Washington... 3,025,600 76,303,387 

Alaska.Sitka. 590,884 63,592 

Hawaii .Honolulu. 6,449 154,001 

Porto Rico .San Juan .... 3,530 953,243 


Total...3.636,463 77,474,223 

Mexico .Mexico. 767,316 13,570,545 

Central American States —■ 

Guatemala.New Guatemala 46,774 1,574,34° 

Honduras.Tegucigalpa... 46,250 420,000 

Salvador.San Salvador.. 7,225 915,512 

Nicaragua.Managua. 49,200 407,000 

Costa Rica .San Jose. 22,996 309,683 


Total 


172,445 3,626,535 


Cuba.Havana-... 41,655 

Haiti.Port au Prince 10,204 

San Domingo.San Domingo.. 18,045 

South America — 

Colombia.Bogota. 5°4,773 

Venezuela.Caracas. 593,943 

Ecuador .Quito. 125,000 

Peru .Lima. 695,733 

Bolivia .La Paz. 567,430 

Chile.. Santiago. 290,829 

Argentine Republic.Buenos Ayres. 1,113,849 


1,572,797 
1,211,625 
700,000 


4,600,000 

2,444,816 

1,271,000 

4,609,999 

2,300,000 

2,712,145 

4,794,149 







































AMERICA, DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION 


Uruguay.Montevideo... 72,210 900,600 

Paraguay .Asuncion. 157,000 660,000 

Brazil .Rio Janeiro.... 3,218,130 18,386,815 


Total.7.338,897 42,679,524 

European Dependencies and Possessions. 


British — 



Capitals. 

Sq. m. 

Pop. 

Dom. of Canada... 

.Ottawa 



Ontario. 

• Toronto . 

219,650 

2,167,978 

Quebec. 

.Quebec. 

344,450 

1,620,974 

New Brunswick. 

.Fredericton ... 

28,100 

33 L 093 

Nova Scotia. 

. Halifax. 

20,550 

459,116 

Prince Edward I 

. Charlottetown . 

2,000 

103,258 

Manitoba . 

• Winnipeg . 

64,066 

246,464 

Assiniboia . 

.Regina . 

89,340 , 

) 

Saskatchewan. . .. 

.Prince Albert.. 

108,000 

- 145,000 

Alberta. 

.Calgary. 

99,255 . 

) 

British Columbia 

.Victoria. 

383,300 

190,000 

Unorganized Territories. 

2,141,289 

74,484 

Newfoundland . .. 

. St. Johns. 

42,200 

210,000 

Labrador (dep. Newf.). 

120,000 

4,200 

Bermudas. 

. Hamilton . 

20 

16,423 

British Honduras . 

. Balize. 

7,562 

35,226 

Bahamas. 

.Nassau . 

5,450 

53 ,ooo 

Barbados. 

. Bridgetown... 

166 

192,000 

Jamaica (including 



Turks Island... 

.Kingston. 

4,424 

745,104 

Windward Islands. 

. St. George’s 



Grenada and 



Grenadines.... 

.St. George’s... 

145 

72,000 

St. Vincent. 

.Kingstown .... 

I 32 

41,054 

St. Lucia. 

. Castries. 

233 

48,650 

Leeward islands... 

.St. Tohn’s 



Antigua (i n c 




Barbuda and 




Redonda). 

.St. Tohn’s. 

170 

39,000 

Virgin Islands.. 


58 

4,639 

Dominica . 

. Roseau. 

291 

26,841 

St. Christopher 



(St. Kitts).... 

. Basseterre . ... 

65 

32,000 

Nevis . 

. Charlestown... 

50 

15,000 

Anguilla. 


35 

4,100 

Montserrat. 

. Plymouth . 

32 

13,000 

Trinidad. 

.Port of Spain. 

L 754 

260,517 

Tobago . 

. Scarborough.. . 

114 

21,400 

British Guiana . . . 

. Georgetown.. . 

120,000 

283,278 

Falkland Islands.. 

. Stanley. 

6,500 

1,789 

Total. 


3,809,401 

7 , 457,588 

French — 




St. Pierre. 

.St. Pierre. 

10 

5 , 7 oo 

Miquelon. 

.St. Pierre. 

83 

550 

Guadeloupe, etc... 

.. Basse-Terre.... 

583 

165,899 

Martinique.. 

. Fort de France. 

381 

187,692 

French Guiana . ... 

.Cayenne . 

30,450 

30,300 

Total. 


31,507 

390,141 

Danish — 




Greenland (as colony). 

46,740 

10,516 

Danish West Indies. 

..Charlotte Ama- 




lie 



St. Croix or San 

- 



ta Cruz . 

. Christiansted. . 

84 

19,783 

St. John. 

Charlotte Ama- 




lie. 

21 

984 

St. Thomas. 

•Crux Bay. 

33 

14,389 

Total. 


46,878 

45,672 

Dutch — 




Curagao. 

Willemstad.... 

403 

51,524 

Dutch Guiana or S 

u- 



rinam. 

.Paramaribo.. . . 

46,060 

66,490 

Total.. 


46,463 

118,014 


Total North and South America settled or under 
government, sq. m. 15,919,274; pop. 148,846,664. 

Forrest Morgan, 
Connecticut Historical Society. 

America, Discovery and Colonization of. 

The effective discovery of America was a 
gradual process, made possible by the first west¬ 
ward voyage of Columbus across the Atlantic 
and developed by attempts to determine the rela¬ 
tion of the lands thus encountered to the Asiatic 


continent. The body of legends concerning 
European or Asiatic contact with America prior 
to the 15th century bears witness only to a 
vague impression of or conjecture at the exist¬ 
ence of land in the western part of the Atlan¬ 
tic Ocean, which led to nothing effective in the 
way of confirmation of such conjecture or occu¬ 
pation of the territory. The contact by the 
Norse colony in Greenland in the nth century 
with the shores, probably of New England, which 
the Northmen knew by the name of Vinland, 
led to nothing more than occasional resort to 
certain of its facilities such as timber, and 
cannot be regarded as a discovery in any com¬ 
plete sense. Nothing can detract from the 
unique distinction of the expedition of Colum¬ 
bus in 1492. The cosmography of his time was 
in error as to the size of the earth and conse¬ 
quently underestimated the distance intervening 
between the western limit of Europe and the 
eastern shores of Asia. But this error could in 
the nature of things only be brought to light by 
an actual test by a westward voyage across the 
Sea of Darkness. This test it is the sufficient 
glory of Columbus to have furnished and its im¬ 
portance for cosmography cannot be overesti¬ 
mated. Nevertheless, in its relation to America 
alone, discovery in the complete sense was rather 
made possible, than achieved by Columbus. 

It was under the auspices of the Atlantic 
States of Europe that development of the results 
of this voyage was carried on, and of these 
Atlantic States, Spain and Portugal at first took 
the leading part. At the time of Columbus’ 
great voyage, Portugal had nearly completed the 
development of the possibilities of an eastward 
maritime route to the Oriental trade regions, the 
goal of maritime endeavor. The Spanish patron¬ 
age of Columbus naturally led the Spanish 
Crown to claim for the westward approach to 
the Indies, thus made possible under its auspices,, 
the same advantages which papal action had 
secured for Portugal in connection with the 
eastward route. By a papal bull of 25 Septem¬ 
ber 1493, superseding those on the subject pre¬ 
viously issued, enterprise upon the ocean was 
declared open to both Spain and Portugal, with 
the understanding that Spain should refrain 
from infringement upon -the Portuguese mo¬ 
nopoly of the African coast by using only the 
westward approach to the Indies. By the Con¬ 
vention of Tordesillas, 7 June 1494, the line 370 
leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands was set 
by the two nations themselves as a division be¬ 
tween their respective areas of maritime 
activity. 

Spanish voyages between 1493 and 1502 now 
skirted most of the island and continental shores 
of the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, 
without, however, making much progress in 
elucidating the connection between these regions 
and the Asiatic continent, with which they were 
still somehow supposed to be connected. In 
the meantime, by the Cabral voyage to Brazil 
in 1500 and those of the Cortereals to Labrador 
and Newfoundland in 1500-1502, Portugal found 
an interest in westward voyages, for she 
claimed that not only Brazil, but also the regions 
in the vicinity of the fishing grounds in the 
north were east of the line of demarcation. 
The expeditions of Vespucius, Coelho and 
Jaques, 1501-1503, not merely satisfied Portu¬ 
guese curiosity as to the extent of their posses¬ 
sions accessible by the westward voyage, by 













































































AMERICA, DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION 


establishing the southwestern trend of the Bra¬ 
zilian coast, but, what was very much more im¬ 
portant, by establishing the continuance of this 
land mass to a point as far south as the latitude 
of the southernmost point of Africa, practically 
ensured the conviction that here was a New 
World. This was a land mass, insular or penin¬ 
sular in its connection with Asia on the north, 
of such extent as practically to constitute a part 
of the world co-ordinate with Europe, Africa, 
and Asia. It was to the New World, as thus 
conceived, that the name America, perhaps a 
little more than half seriously, was proposed by 
friends of Amerigo Vespucci in 1507, to be ap¬ 
plied, and the name thus applied was but very 
gradually extended, as the truth became known, 
to the whole double continent. Spain’s great 
efforts in exploring voyages as distinguished 
from land expeditions into the interior, were 
now concentrated upon the search for a strait 
through, or a passage to the south of, the lands 
revealed by the voyages since 1492. This was in 
response to the epoch-making voyage of da 
Gama in 1497. More accurate acquaintance with 
the extent of the Asiatic continent developed 
by Portuguese activities in the Far East subse¬ 
quent to the voyage of da Gama was a favorable 
condition for such attempts as the Spaniards 
were making, and the voyage of Magalhaes in 
the service of Spain in 1519-22 to the south of 
the New World revealed the extent of the 
waters lying between it and the Asiatic conti¬ 
nent. This was a fundamental fact, knowledge 
of which was in large outline logically sufficient 
to establish the separate continental character 
of the territory brought to knowledge since 
1492. Appreciation of this significance of 
Magalhaes’ voyage was slow in developing, how¬ 
ever, and not until after exploring con¬ 
quests of the western shores of the continent 
from bases on the eastern shore, like the con¬ 
quests of Mexico and Peru by Cortez and 
Pizarro in 1519-21 and 1531-33, Almagro’s and 
Valdivia’s Chilian expeditions in I 535 “ 4 °> 
and expeditions like those of Cortez and Alar¬ 
con and Coronado to Lower California and up 
the Colorado River in 1526-40, that the outline 
of the continent on its western shore was traced 
out as far as Southern California. The coast 
north of this region was only reached and 
effectively made known by a succession of voy¬ 
ages covering a considerable space of time and 
headed by representatives of different nations. 
Most prominent in this enterprise were the expe¬ 
ditions of Drake in 1577-80, which probably 
reached the northern California coast; Bering, 
the Russian, in the strait bearing his name and 
on the Alaskan coast, in 1741, and Vancouver 
on the coast of what is now British Columbia in 
1792. The eastern shore of the continent — 
unless we include the voyage of Gomez from 
Labrador to Florida in 1525, which was not fol¬ 
lowed up — was outlined by Spain only as far 
north as Chesapeake Bay, the remainder being 
the scene of French and English activity after 
the Spanish power was becoming embarrassed 
in Europe. 

After the voyage of Magalhaes in 1522, Span¬ 
ish interest in the New World concerned itself 
rather with the task of exploring the interior 
of the regions whose boundaries Spanish voy¬ 
ages had skirted, than with further extension 
of the lines of inclusion. The glittering suc¬ 
cess of Cortez in Mexico in 1519-21 was respon¬ 


sible for many attempts in imitation of such an 
achievement, and in the course of these attempts 
much knowledge was attained of the conditions 
in the interior of the continent. Pizarro’s con¬ 
quest of Peru led on to the exploration and 
attempted conquest of Chile and to the crossing 
of the Andes and the descent of the Amazon by 
Orellana in 1541. The La Plata system was 
explored by Sebastian Cabot and Diego Garcia 
in 1527-30. In the northern continent, Florida 
had been discovered by Ponce de Leon in 1512 
and proved a part of the continent by Pineda, 
who also made acquaintance with the Mississippi 
in 1519. In the course of the wandering of 
such parties as those led by de Leon, Narvaez, 
Cabeza de Vaca and Coronado from 1512 to the 
middle of the century, much of the interior was 
seen as far north as the Missouri and Ohio 
systems, but only the extreme southeast and 
southwest portions, that is, California and Flor¬ 
ida, saw any attempt by Spain to occupy the 
territory thus wandered over. The task of ad¬ 
ministering and exploiting what she already had 
was sufficient to absorb what energy could be 
spared from European occupations. 

France and England, in the meantime, were 
becoming less and less inclined to respect the 
claims of Spain in any direction not backed up 
by present physical force, and more and more 
inclined to take up a line of aggression in mari¬ 
time endeavor, not only for the sake of weaken¬ 
ing the general position of Spain, but also be¬ 
cause of the stirrings of individual enterprise 
within their own populations. It was only 
under these circumstances that England began 
to make use of the claim based upon the Cabot 
voyages of 1497-98. Conditions inclining the 
government to a policy of respect for the claim 
of either Spain or the Pope were now wholly 
changed, and as against any right to territory 
west of the line of Tordesillas, England pursued 
the policy that occupation must, within a reason¬ 
able time, be added to discovery to constitute a 
valid title to territory in the New World. 
According to this criterion, the achievements 
of England and France in the 16th century can 
only be regarded as preliminary or preparatory 
in character. In each case internal strife at 
home and the exigencies of the European situ¬ 
ation prevented the achievements of discovery 
and incipient settlement from being followed up. 
Nevertheless they served to reveal in an effective 
way that portion of the continent in which condi¬ 
tions for transplantation of European institu¬ 
tions and life were most favorable. The stretch 
of shore left unoccupied was comparatively 
small and the great work of France was exten¬ 
sive, and rapidly spread over the interior 
accessible by water-routes from the shore. 
While England’s great work was the permanent 
and slow-expanding settlement of the strip be¬ 
tween the coast and the mountain-barrier of the 
Alleghanies. 

In 1524 Verrazano, a Florentine in the service 
of France, coasted from North Carolina to 
Newfoundland, and in 1534-41 the first French 
attempt at settlement was made under Cartier 
and Roberval, and though it was not at this time 
maintained, the foundation was thus laid for the 
French claim to the territory of the Saint Law¬ 
rence system. Attempts to invade the un¬ 
doubted sphere of Portugal by Villegagnon in 
Brazil in 1555, and of Spain by Ribaut and Lau- 
donniere in Florida and South Carolina in 1562, 


AMERICA, DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION 


were promptly suppressed. So that when, at the 
beginning of the 17th century Frenchmen were 
in a position to take up transatlantic activity 
once more, the Saint Lawrence basin naturally 
became the scene of their endeavors. From 
Port Royal in Nova Scotia in 1603, headquarters 
were shifted in 1607 to Quebec, and once estab¬ 
lished at one end of the great interior waterway 
system, and headed off from southward expan¬ 
sion by the hostility of the Iroquois, the line of 
least resistance led naturally to the interior 
by the west. These circumstances, coupled with 
the character of the emigrating population, 
account for the most signal achievement of the 
French in the New World — exploration of the 
continental interior. This went on coincidently 
with the process of colonization and thereby a 
fundamental characteristic of New France on the 
mainland was illustrated — the attempt by the 
government to nourish a true colony in eastern 
Canada, while the adventurous population, mis¬ 
sionary, and fur-trader, overran the surface of 
the great interior. Trails were made by Nicol¬ 
let in 1634 as far as the Illinois country by the 
Lakes and the Fox River route, by Radisson 
and Groseilliers in 1658-59 as far as Lake 
Superior and the Hudson’s Bay region, by Joliet 
and Marquette in 1673 to the Mississippi. And 
by 1682 La Salle had opened up the connection 
between the Gulf of Mexico at the Mississippi’s 
mouth and the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. By 
1699 a French settlement was planted in Louisi¬ 
ana and in 1718 New Orleans was founded. 

With England, the order of proceedings was 
different. Exploration of new regions was a 
preliminary to their filling up with settlers and 
bursts of exploring activity occurred in the in¬ 
tervals of the great stages in the process of 
colonization. The Cabot voyages gave her the 
basis of the claim to the continental shore 
to the north of Florida, but her first ex¬ 
ploring activities were in connection with 
the search for the northwest passage to 
the Orient by such commanders as Davis 
and Frobisher in 1576-78 and with the 
attempt to occupy Newfoundland by Gilbert in 
1579. With the career of Raleigh, the English 
maritime enterprise takes definite beginning in 
the colonizing line with the attempt at Roanoke 
in 1585, and from then till well into the 18th 
century English exploring activity was mainly 
concerned with the coast between Florida and 
Newfoundland, the basis of her colonies on the 
main. This was as characteristic of the English 
career in the New World as the French method 
of rapid and extensive spread from an unde¬ 
veloped base. In the course of occupation of 
the coast, the English found themselves pre¬ 
ceded in the strategic regions of the Hudson and 
Delaware valleys by the Dutch, and falling back 
on the principle of prior discovery alone, which, 
as against Spain, she had disregarded, made con¬ 
quest of the New Netherlands settlement in 
1664, as an invasion of the right to the whole, 
claimed by virtue of the Cabot voyages. British 
interest in the interior awoke in the 18th cen¬ 
tury, and, mostly under colonial leaders, British 
hinterland was extended to a hostile contact 
with the French claims to the interior based on 
discovery and exploration of the Saint Lawrence 
system. This being settled, by the elimination 
of New France from the continent in 1763, Eng¬ 
lish exploring activity found its scene, after the 


separation of the seaboard colonies with their 
westward extensions to the Mississippi, in the 
extreme northern part of the continent, with 
the territory of the Hudson’s Bay Company as 
the base. Here in the later years of the 18th 
century the early expedition of Verendrye to the 
Canadian Rockies by the Saskatchewan in 1741 , 
through the interior of the Canadian Northwest 
was followed up by Hearne in 1770 and Alexan¬ 
der Mackenzie in 1789. 

The areas in the New World within which 
the colonizing activities of the European 
Atlantic States were carried on conformed in 
a general way to the scenes of their 
earliest contact and activity. Portuguese colo¬ 
nization in the New World was limited to 
Brazil, the only portion of the continent within 
the limits marked out by the line of Torde- 
sillas. Spanish activity radiated from the Carib¬ 
bean archipelago in all directions and included 
the greater part of habitable South America, 
Central America, and the southern portion of 
the North American continent. French colonies 
were to be found among the West Indies, but 
the greatest extent of French settlement was 
in the neighborhood of the Saint Lawrence sys¬ 
tem, while the English, late comers as they 
were, occupied strategic points among the 
islands and stretched along the continental shore 
from Florida to the Kennebec. 

In the list of participators in the work of 
colonizing the New World there must be added 
to the European Atlantic States already men¬ 
tioned as conspicuous in discovery and explora¬ 
tion, Holland and Sweden. But the brevity of 
the duration of these attempts hardly entitles 
them to a place of equal significance with the 
other four as colonizers in America. The Swed¬ 
ish colony founded in 1637 on the banks of the 
Delaware was regarded by the Dutch as an 
intrusion on their rights and fell victim to Dutch 
conquest in 1655. The Dutch enterprise on the 
Hudson and Delaware was in turn held by the 
English as equally an intrusion on English 
North America and the Dutch were dispossessed 
in 1664 by the same means as they had them¬ 
selves employed upon the Swedes. During their 
development of New Netherlands the Dutch 
were not successful in planting the colony firmly 
on an agricultural basis, the fur trade proving 
attractively profitable. A system of colonial 
government in too close dependence upon a 
clumsily working confederate government at 
home and a system of local government which 
repressed individual initiative retarded the de¬ 
velopment of the colony. A few islands in the 
West Indies and a small stretch of the north¬ 
eastern coast of the South American continent 
still remained — and do yet — as Dutch colonies 
in the New World. 

Portugal began her American colonization 
in 1531 in Brazil, but was unable to give it the 
requisite attention until the 18th century. In 
the meantime the comparative freedom from re¬ 
straint enjoyed by the colonizing population had 
exercised a developing effect, and, putting in 
practice lessons in regard to the exploitation of 
a tropical colony learned elsewhere, Portugal 
developed a colonial establishment stable enough 
to afford a refuge for the House of Braganza 
during the period of Napoleonic occupation of 
the Iberian peninsula. In 1821, the Brazilians 
with the concurrence of their regent, himself of 
the royal house of Portugal, proclaimed their 


AMERICA, DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION 


independence from the Crown of Portugal, and 
this independence was subsequently ratified by 
treaty. 

The Spaniards began colonizing with the 
second voyage of Columbus and the islands of 
the Caribbean, particularly Haiti and Cuba, be¬ 
came the scenes of an exploitation of the super¬ 
ficial riches of the tropics which served as bases 
for exploring conquests to the territory of the 
mainland. 1 he policy of Spain towards her 
wide domain in the New World, as worked 
out in the 16th century, not in abstract theory, but 
in combination of theory with practice, was but 
little more illiberal, but considerably less intelli¬ 
gent than that of other States. But the climate 
of the part of the New World falling to them 
was not conducive to the steady, strenuous per¬ 
sistence necessary for the building up of perma¬ 
nent wealth-producing communities. Nor were 
the original characteristics of the colonizing 
population calculated to make success in 
such a career likely. The natives were not 
able to offer stubborn resistance to the 
rapidly moving enterprises of the conquista- 
dores. A certain tendency to amalgamate with 
the natives — a tendency which weakened the 
stronger without strengthening the weaker race 
— did not prevent the evasion of the laws in¬ 
tended to protect the natives from the rapacity 
of their conquerors and to keep the two oppo¬ 
nents of the official class in balance against each 
other. The too rapid early successes in the 
realm of military conquest and the easily won 
response to the search for the precious metals 
still further unfitted the Spaniard for what mod¬ 
ern colonizing peoples are finding the most dif¬ 
ficult of tasks — the intelligent exploitation of 
the possible economic resources of a tropical 
region where the available labor supply is for 
various reasons inefficient according to Euro¬ 
pean standards. Nevertheless, though the Span¬ 
ish dominance over such a great part of the 
New World could not guarantee prosperity to 
this Empire, it was rather the shock given by 
the Napoleonic attack on the mother country 
and its consequences on Spanish internal war¬ 
fare than the inherent strength of the separate 
divisions of Spanish-America, that accounts for 
the revolt of the greater part of this Empire in 
the first three decades of the 19th century. 
And at the same time that political separation 
was taking place, Spain in Europe stood in such 
need of political help from England that a com¬ 
mercial invasion of Latin-American markets 
could not be prevented. With this once accom¬ 
plished and the Napoleonic danger passed, the 
influence of England was publicly and privately 
used to obstruct all attempts from Spain to 
re-unite the scattered fragments of the once 
mighty power in America. The sluggish de¬ 
velopment, to call it by no worse a name, which 
characterized what remained to Spain of do¬ 
minion in America between the Latin-American 
revolts and the wresting of Cuba and Porto Rico 
by the intervention of the United States in 1898 
illustrates the degree of effectiveness of Spanish 
colonial policy according to modern economic 
standards. 

French colonization in America received 
much attention from the home government and 
the French temperament was one adapted to 
success in dealing with the natives, and in amal¬ 
gamation with them in preserving the elements 
of strength. But on the other hand the over- 


zealous and intemperately exercised interference 
from home frequently nullified all the good that 
the lavish furnishing of assistance in materials 
and in military protection did to the fortunes 
of the colony. The climate was as excessive 
in its rigor as that of New Spain was in the 
opposite direction. The hostility of the Iroquois, 
fiercest of all the native tribes, obstructed ex¬ 
pansion to a more favorable clime and made 
extensive use of a vast forest domain for the 
fur-trade a more easy and attractive program 
than the jog-trot business of intensive agricul¬ 
ture and the development of permanent com¬ 
munities on the frontier for which latter task 
lack of the habits of initiative in self-govern¬ 
ment unfitted the colonizing population. The 
only colonizing material in the French people 
capable of developing such traits — the Hugue¬ 
nots— was peremptorily excluded from New 
France. So that when the English expansion 
had at length come into collision with the bor¬ 
ders of the French forest preserve in the interior, 
New France on the continent was capable, by 
reason of the feudal and military force pervading 
its population, of effective resistance against the 
superior numbers of the English settlements co¬ 
operating but clumsily with each other. As 
between the French and British empires as 
world-units, however, there was soon no ques¬ 
tion of superiority, and France was definitively 
excluded from the continent as the result of the 
Seven Years’ war (q.v.). The French posses¬ 
sions in the West Indies, acquired in various 
ways during the 17th century, remain to her, and 
make of her to that extent an American power. 

The colonizing work of England in America 
belongs to the colonial period of United States 
history (q.v.). In broad outline, her policy to¬ 
ward her American domain was one which, 
whether with design or not, allowed wide scope 
for individual and local initiative. The English 
population afforded good colonizing material. 
The Indians gave no such serious trouble as 
did the Iroquois in the case of the French in the 
early stages of their colonizing. Defense against 
European attacks upon the colonies was effective. 
As builders of settlements in the New World, 
the English were eminently successful. In de¬ 
vising, or at any rate, applying a system of 
political connection between the home govern¬ 
ment and the colonies, the English reached an 
unfortunate place in their internal political de¬ 
velopment coincidently with a critical stage in 
the relations of colonies and mother country. 
The strain at that time and under those cir¬ 
cumstances brought upon colonial loyalty proved 
too great and by the separation of the 13 Atlantic 
seaboard colonies, Great Britain’s power in the 
New World was cut down to control of certain 
important West India islands and the area so 
recently wrested from France. Under the new 
spirit of the British Empire which appeared a 
the 19th century, these possessions have been s. 
developed and bound in sentiment to the inter¬ 
ests of the mother country that Great Britain 
stands second only to the United States as an 
American power. 

Consult: Winsor, ( Narrative and Critical 
History ) ; Fiske, ( Discovery of America 1 * ; 
Payne, Cambridge Modern History > (Vol. I.) ; 
Morris, ( The History of Colonization ; Roscher, 
( The Spanish Colonial System. ) 

Charles Wort hen Spencer, 
Professor of History, Colgate University. 


AMERICA, UNITED STATES OF 


America, United States of. Half of 
the entire land area of the world, estimating it 
at 51,410,700 square miles, is in the possession 
of four nations, one of these four being the 
United States of America (q.v.). The territory 
of this nation covers 3,846,595 square miles. Each 
of the three other nations possesses a greater 
area, the British empire (q.v.) covering8,964,884 
square miles; Russia (q.v.), 8,660,395; and 


for $15,000,000, a territory covering 875,025 
square miles. Oregon, 288,689 square miles, 
was acquired under what is known as the 
Florida treaty (q.v.) in 1819; and the same 
year witnessed Spain’s cession of Florida, 70,107 
square miles, for a consideration of $5,000,000. 
Texas, an independent republic with 3 ^ 9,795 
square miles of territory, was peacefully annexed 
in 1845. Mexico ceded 523*802 square miles of 



China (q.v.), 4,277,170. The territory of the 
United States is all contiguous, with the ex¬ 
ception of outlying insular possessions. That 
of the British Empire is widely scattered. Rus¬ 
sia and China have each the advantage of con¬ 
tiguity of territory, but Russia is one of the 
least developed of civilized nations, while China 
as yet has scarcely begun the march of modern 
progress. The history of the United States has 
been marked by a territorial expansion (see 
United States — Territorial Expansion) 
which is wonderful on account of its rapidity 
and the fact that it is the result, almost entirely, 
of peaceful acquisition, a very large proportion 
of the acquired territory having been ceded by 
other nations, as in the case of the Louisiana 


2,718,744 Sq. Miles 


Colonial Possessions 
147,730 Sq. Miles 


Territories 
880.121 Sq. Miles 


territory in 1848, for a consideration of $15,000,- 
000, and the payment of claims held by Ameri¬ 
can citizens against the Mexican government, 
amounting to $3,250,000. By the Gadsden Pur¬ 
chase (q.v.) of 1853, so called because it was 
negotiated by James Gadsden, United States 
minister to Mexico, 36,211 square miles, forming 
the southern part of the present territories of 
Arizona (q.v.) and New Mexico (q.v.), were 
purchased from Mexico for $10,000,000. Thus, 
down to the period of the Civil War of 1861-5, 
the area of the United States had been increased 
by 240 per cent. The aggregate amount paid for 
ceded territory, including $499,768 interest on the 
$5,000,000 paid for Florida, was $48,749,768. 
After the Civil War Russia ceded Alaska (q.v.) 


Original Thirteen States 

Extension Prior to the Civil War; 

Extension Since Civil War 

909,050 Sq. Miles 

2,183,629 Sq. Miles 

753,906 Sq. Miles 


Purchase in 1803, and of the Alaska purchase 
in 1867, the first of which nearly doubled the 
area of the country at that period. The 13 Brit¬ 
ish colonies which began the war for independ¬ 
ence in 1776, and which Great Britain was 
forced to recognize as the United States of 
America in 1783, comprised a territory of 909,050 
square miles. Briefly told, the story of expan¬ 
sion follows: By the Louisiana Purchase (q.v.) 
in 1803 the United States acquired from France, 


in 1867, and the United States secured 599,446 
square miles for $7,200,000. The Republic of 
Hawaii (q.v.) declared for annexation in 1897 
and now forms part of the United States as one 
of the territories. Its area is 6,740 square miles. 
Following the nation’s success in the Spanish- 
American war of 1898 it acquired in that year the 
island of Porto Rico, 6,740 square miles ; Pine 
Island, 882 square miles; and Guam Island, 175 
square miles. In 1899 the Tutuila group of the 













AMERICA, UNITED STATES OF 


Samoan Islands, 73 square miles, was acquired; 
and Spain ceded, in consideration of $20,000,000, 
the archipelago known as the Philippine Islands 
(q.v.), which has an aggregate area of 143,000 
square miles. The total extension of United 
States territory during the century amounted to 
2,937,535 square miles, a territorial growth of 
323.14 per cent, at a cost for ceded territory of 
$75,949,7.68. 

Multiplication of constituent States has been 
fully as rapid as extension of territory, the vast 
regions acquired being opened up to settlement 
under conditions inviting large immigration. 
The first of the new States, however, was Ver¬ 
mont, whose territory had been claimed for 
years by New York and several of the New 
England States. Vermont was admitted to the 
Union in I79 1 - Two other States have been 
created within the territory covered by the 


Washington, 1889; Idaho, 1890; Wyoming, 1890; 
Utah, 1896; Oklahoma, 1906. 

Growth of population rather than acquisition 
of territory has been, of course, the occasion 
for the creation of States. With a few excep¬ 
tions all of the States admitted to the Union 
were primarily organized with territorial govern¬ 
ments, responsible to the federal authority at 
Washington, and remained territories until pos¬ 
sessed of population sufficiently large to justify 
statehood. The first census of the United 
States, taken in 1790, showed a total population 
of 3,926,214, which exceeds by less than half 
a million the population of New York city, as 
shown by the census of 1900, and which is prob¬ 
ably exceeded by the population of that city in 
the present year—1904. The total population 
of the country in 1900 was 76,305,387. The in¬ 
crease, as shown by each decennial census. 






original 13, namely, Maine, detached from Mas¬ 
sachusetts and admitted in 1820; and West Vir¬ 
ginia, formerly included in Virginia, which State, 
already divided physically into two sections by 
the Alleghany Mountains, was divided in senti¬ 
ment at the beginning of the Civil War, the 
western section adhering to the Union cause, 
and receiving recognition as a State in 1863. 
The full list of States added to the original fed¬ 
eration, together with the respective dates of 
admission, follows: Vermont, 1791; Kentucky, 
1792; Tennessee, 1796; Ohio, 1803; Louisiana, 
1812; Indiana, 1816; Mississippi, 1817; Illinois, 
1818; Alabama, 1819; Maine, 1820; Missouri, 
1821; Arkansas, 1836; Michigan, 1837; Florida, 
1845; Texas, 1845; Wisconsin, 1848; California, 
1850; Minnesota, 1858; Oregon, 1859; Kansas, 
1861 ; West Virginia, 1863; Nevada, 1864; Ne¬ 
braska, 1867; Colorado, 1876; North Dakota, 
1889; South Dakota, 1889; Montana, 1889; 



ranged between 36.4 per cent and 20.7 per cent, 
the general tendency being toward a reduced 
percentage as the country grows older and 
becomes more thickly settled. The average de¬ 
cennial increase from 1790 to 1900 is 30.9 per 
cent. Following are the figures showing the 
population at the close of each decade: 1790, 

3,926,214; 1800, 5,308.483; 1810, 7,239,881; 1820, 
9,638,453; 1830, 12,866,020; 1840, 17,069,453; 

1850, 23,191,876; i860, 31,443,321; 1870, 

38,558,371; 1880, 50,189,209; 1890, 63,069,756; 
1900, 76,305,387. The population in 1904, as es¬ 
timated, is about 84,000,000. 

Immigration from foreign countries has nat¬ 
urally been a large factor in the increase of pop¬ 
ulation. During the period from 1821 to 1850 
the total number of immigrants arriving in this 
country was 2,455,812. Of this number 
1,038,824, or 42.3 per cent, were from Ireland, 
while Great Britain sent 367,933, making the 



































AMERICA, UNITED STATES OF 


total contribution from the United Kingdom 
something more than 57.2 per cent of the entire 
foreign addition to the population of the United 
States. The great tide of German immigration 
began during the same period, the number of 
German immigrants being 593,841. There was 
also a considerable influx of the Scandinavian 
element, Norway, Sweden and Denmark send¬ 



ing 16,966. Italy had made a small beginning 
with 4,531; and there was a mere driblet of 
1,393 from Russia and Poland. Canada (q.v.) 
and Newfoundland (q.v.), which have supplied 
a large and valuable element of the population, 
began their contributions during this period with 
57,624. Of the 2,598,214 immigrants who ar¬ 
rived during the decade, 1851-60, Queen Vic¬ 
toria’s subjects constituted 51.5 per cent, not 
counting the 59,303 who came from Canada and 
Newfoundland; there were 914,119 from Ire¬ 
land and 423,974 from Great Britain. Germany 
outnumbered Ireland in her representatives, 
sending 951,667. The Scandinavian countries 
sent 24,680; Italy, 9,231; and the Sclavonic coun¬ 
tries, 1,621. During the ten years from 1861 to 

1870 the tide of immigration fell off to 2,314,824, 
owing largely to the conditions existing here as 
a result of the Civil War. The quota from 
England and Scotland, however, showed a very 
large increase, the figures being 606,896; Can¬ 
ada and Newfoundland sent 153,871, as against 
59>303 during the preceding decade; the Scan¬ 
dinavians numbered 126,392, an increase of more 
than 500 per cent; the Italians made a note¬ 
worthy increase with 11,728, while Russia and 
Poland’s contingent increased to 4,536. This 
decade brought the first perceptible wave of the 
large tide which has flowed from Austria-Hun¬ 
gary, the number from that country being 7,800. 
While the German and Irish immigrants were 
greatly decreased in number they constituted a 
very large proportion of the whole, the Ger¬ 
mans leading the list of nationalities with 
787,468, and the Irish coming third with 435,778. 
An increase of nearly half a million immigrants 
is shown by the record for the ten years from 

1871 to 1880, the number for that decade being 
2,812,191. Germany continued in the lead, but 
with a further reduction in her figures. The 


German immigrants numbered 718,182. Ireland 
was a trifle better represented than in the previ¬ 
ous decade, sending over 436,871, while Great 
Britain fell off to 548,043. The tide from Can¬ 
ada and Newfoundland was more than doubled, 
with 383,269 as the actual figures. Scandinavian 
immigrants numbered 243,016, or nearly double 
the number for the preceding ten years, while 
Austria-Hungary, Italy, Russia and Poland all 
made an immense increase in their representa¬ 
tion, Austria-Hungary sending over to this, 
country 72,960 persons; Italy, 55 , 759 , and the 
Sclavic countries, 52,254. Immigration touched 
high-water mark in the record for the period in¬ 
cluding the years 1881-1890. The figures were 
5,246,613. Germans led the list with 1,452,970. 
The immigration from other countries, in the 
order of the larger figures was: Great Britain,. 
807,357; Norway, Sweden and Denmark, 
656,494; Ireland, 655,482; Canada and New¬ 
foundland, 392,802; Austria-Hungary, 353 , 7 l 9 \ 
Italy, 307,309; Russia and Poland, 265,088.. 
Something more than half of the immigration 
for the decade ending with 1900 was from Italy, 
Russia and Poland, and Austria-Hungary, in the 
order named. The Italians numbered 655,694; 
Russians and Poles, 593,703; Austrians and 
Hungarians, 597,047. Germany supplied 543,922; 
the Scandinavian countries, 378,613; Ireland, 
403,496; Great Britain, 342,333; and Canada and 
Newfoundland only 2,631. Besides the coun¬ 
tries named other countries have supplied from 
1 8 o, 355 to 374,703 immigrants for each of the 
periods, but those named have been selected for 
mention because of the influence which their 
emigrants must necessarily wield in determining 
the general character of the present population 
of the United States. The proportion of for¬ 
eign born people to the entire population as 
shown by each census during the period covered 
is as follows: 1850, 9.7 per cent; i860, 13.2 per 



cent; 1870, 14.4 per cent; 1880, 13.3 per cent; 
1890, 14.8 per cent; 1900, 13.7 per cent. The 
proportion of those native born, but of foreign 
parentage, can be shown only from 1870, as fol¬ 
lows: 1870, 28.2 per cent; 1880, 29.8 per cent; 

1890, 33.0 per cent; 1900, 34.3 per cent. See 
Immigration to the United States. 




AMERICA, UNITED STATES OF 


By far the wealthiest country in the world, 
the United States possesses 30.5 per cent of the 
world’s entire wealth, nearly double Great Brit¬ 
ain's share, nearly two and a half times that of 
France, and more than three times that of Ger¬ 
many. The amount possessed by this country 
is, in round numbers, 127,625 millions of dol¬ 
lars, divided as follows : Farms, $20,710,000,000; 
railways, $11,300,000,000; buildings, $22,230,000,- 
000; furniture, $8,000,000,000; merchandise, 
$7,815,000,000; bullion, $1,175,000,000; sundries, 
$ i 9 > 695 >P°o, 9 0 °- The wealth per capita of the 
population is $1,519.34; that of the entire world 
being $302.78; and that of other countries than 
the United States, $225.12. The annual produc¬ 
tion of wealth as shown by the census of 1900 
is $18,161,189,533, the manufacturing industries 
producing more than 70 per cent. The figures 
are: Mineral products, $1,257,732,261 ; farm 
products, $3,764,177,706; manufactures, $13,039,- 
2 79>566. There is a large surplus production, 




Wealth per Capita 

foreign Countries 

$225.12 


Wealth per Capita 

The Worip 

$302.78 


the preponderating element of which consists of 
cotton, breadstuffs and provisions, this finding 
a ready market in foreign countries and making 
the balance of trade very large in favor of this 
country. The total exports of merchandise for 
the fiscal year ended 30 June 1903 were 
$1,420,138,014, including foreign merchandise re¬ 
shipped abroad to the amount of $27,906,377. 
Breadstuffs and provisions constituted about 35 
per cent of the total value, and represented 
about 13 per cent of the farm product of the 
country. The total imports of merchandise for 
the same year were $1,025,751,538, the balance in 
favor of the United States being $394,386,476. 
See United States — Commercial Develop¬ 
ment of the; United States — Economic De¬ 
velopment of THE. 

RAILWAYS OF THE WORLD IN 1900 


United States, 311,287 Kilometers 

■mBHmnBm 


extensions. There are 70 canals in all, including 
the new Illinois and Mississippi Canal, begun 
in 1902, but not completed in 1904. The total 
length of these artificial waterways is 3,627 
miles. Most of the canals are intended for 
boats, barges and other light craft. Some of 
them have not been in use during recent years, 
but it is by no means certain that they will be 
abandoned, especially in view of the fact that 
the desirability of canal improvement has re¬ 
ceived recognition and the work of canal con- 


Wealth per Capita 
United States 
$1,519.84 


struction continues. The most important canal 
undertaking of all history is that of uniting the 
Atlantic and Pacific oceans by cutting through 
the isthmus connecting North and South Amer¬ 
ica, a work which the United States government 
proposes to carry out with the most expedition 
possible. See Panama Canal. 

No country is the world possesses so many 
and so far-reaching railway systems as those of 
the United States. Statistics for 1900 show 
that of the entire length of railways in all parts 
of the world this country has considerably more 
than one-third — 39.3 per cent; in fact, the esti¬ 
mated number of miles of railway in operation 
in the United States in 1904 is 210,000. More 
than half of this mileage has been put in opera¬ 
tion since 1880. The story begins with 23 miles 


Other Countries, 479,283 Kilometers 


Total, 790,570 Kilometers 

Canals (q.v.) were an important factor in the 
early development of the country, and although 
they have been very largely superseded by the 
railways, they continue to assist materially the 
vast domestic commerce, and constitute a con¬ 
siderable element in transportation interests. Of 
the many canals which have been constructed in 
the United States 23 are ship canals, several of 
these being designed to make more available 
certain natural waterways of which they are 


of railway in 1830; and the additions have been 
as follows, by decades: 1840, 2,795 miles; 1850, 

6,203 miles; i860, 21,605 miles; 1870, 22,296 
miles; 1880, 40,340 miles; 1890, 73*392 miles; 
1900, 27,680 miles; 1901-4, 15,500 miles, esti¬ 
mated. The capital stock of the various railway 
companies aggregated, in 1904, $6,355,207,335 ; 
the gross earnings were $1,908,857,826; the net 
earnings were $592,508,512; and the total 
amount of dividends declared was $190,674,415* 









AMERICA, UNITED STATES OF 


The number of miles run by passenger trains 
was 429,014,116; the number of passengers car¬ 
ried was 696,949,925; and the total movement of 
passengers was 20,895,606,421. The number 
of miles run by freight trains was 548,680,595; 
the freight carried aggregated 1,306,628,858 
tons; and the total freight movement was 
17,292,198,079. Among speed records made the 
highest was 4.08 miles in 2 minutes, 40 seconds, 
on 18 Feb. 1901, near Screven, Ga. This is a 
speed of 107.09 per hour. A train maintaining 
this rate of speed could make a complete circuit 
of the globe at the equator in about 6 1 /2 days. 
See American Railroads. 

Means of communication bear as important 
a relation to the material development and pros¬ 
perity of a country as do means of transporta¬ 
tion (see Railway Transportation), and in 
the magnitude of telegraph and telephone inter¬ 
ests the United States holds a leading position, 
while the post-office department of the govern¬ 
ment renders service which is excelled in only 
a few particulars by that of one or two foreign 
governments. On the other hand the postal af¬ 
fairs of the United States have their own points 
of excellence, and are subjected from time to 


year ended 30 June 1903, shows a public con¬ 
venience maintained at an almost constant ex¬ 
pense to the government in excess of the rev¬ 
enue derived from it. In the entire period the 
revenue exceeded the expenditures in twelve 
years only, namely, in 1837, 1838, 1839, 1840, 
1842, 1843, 1844, 1845, 1849, 1850, 1851, and 1866. 
The revenue has grown from $4,945,668.21 to 
$134,224,443.24; and the expenditures from 
$3,288,319.03 to $138,784,487.97. While the ser¬ 
vice is conducted at a loss which has to be 
made up from the general revenues of the gov¬ 
ernment, it must be remembered that the gov¬ 
ernment itself employs it to a very large extent, 
free of postage, and thus the apparent loss is 
made up in large degree, if not altogether. For 
instance, the number of pieces of first class mat¬ 
ter carried free for the government in the year 
1902-3 was 153,233,677, which, at the minimum, 
represents $3,064,670.06 in postage. It is safe to 
add 25 per cent to this sum, which would make 
the amount $3,830,837.57, or within $729,207 of 
the deficiency for that year. The number of 
post-offices in the United States is 74,169, which 
number does not include the branch post-offices 
and sub-stations in large cities, of which there 


RAILROAD EXTENSION BY 0ECA0E9 


1830 

1840 

1850 

1860 

1870 


23 miles of railroad in operation! 
2,795 miles added 

6,203 miles added 


21,605 miles added 


22,296 miles added 


1380 


1890 

1900 


40,340 miles added 


73,392 miles added 


27,680 miles added 


ESS 


(■15,500 miles added (estimated) 


time to such improvement as study and experi¬ 
ence suggest. For the telegraph service of the 
country there existed in 1901 systems using 
I, 1 56,998 miles of wire, stretched over 219,938 
miles of country. These afford means of in¬ 
stant communication with every part of the con¬ 
tinent, and, by connection with the thousands 
of miles of submarine cable, with every country 
in the world. The number of messages trans¬ 
mitted in 1901 was 83,555,122. For telephone 
service there are 1,354,202 miles of wire, ar¬ 
ranged in 508,262 circuits. They connect 1,348 
exchanges and 1,427 branch offices. In addition 
to the public telegraph and telephone wires 
there is a large mileage of wires for both tele¬ 
graph and telephone service which are the prop¬ 
erty of railway and other corporations, firms and 
individuals. The increasing use of the tele¬ 
phone has had an effect upon the growth of the 
telegraph interest, which nevertheless has a 
large share in the general increase which is felt 
by all enterprises identified with public con¬ 
venience. 

The history of the postal service of the 
United States from 1837 to the close of the fiscal 


are several thousands. The force employed is 
immense, the free delivery in cities alone em¬ 
ploying 19,542 carriers, and the rural free deliv¬ 
ery routes an additional 15,119. The estimated 
number of pieces of matter passing through 
the mails during the year 1902-3 included 
4,262,933,677 pieces of first class matter; 
770,657,590 postal cards; 2,615,685,614 pieces of 
second class matter, or newspapers sent out 
from the offices of their publication; 
1,053,637,057 pieces of fourth class matter, such 
as books, pamphlets, circulars, etc.; 93,380,005 
pieces of fourth class matter, consisting of mer¬ 
chandise, etc.; 60,001,332 pieces of first class 
matter sent to foreign countries; and 31,171,413 
pieces of all other matter sent to foreign coun¬ 
tries ; making a grand total of 8,887,467,048 
pieces. These figures are beyond ordinary com¬ 
prehension, but their vastness may be appre¬ 
ciated by estimating the size of each piece of 
matter mailed as that of an ordinary letter en¬ 
velope. They would cover a plain about seven 
miles square, or larger than any ordinary town 
or city. If laid in a belt along the equator they 
would encircle the globe with a girdle 112 feet 









AMERICA —AMERICAN AS OFFICIAL DESIGNATION 


wide, or twice the width of an ordinary street. 
See Postal Service in Commerce. 

The care and transfer of money is a matter 
of stupendous importance in a country of such 
vast wealth and productiveness. It rests mainly 
with the banking interest, as a matter of course, 
and this is another of the immense interests of 
the country. A great amount of money is trans¬ 
ferred, however, through the money order de¬ 
partment of the post-office, as well as through 
the express companies, which constitute another 
very large interest, and through the telegraph 
companies. The amount of money transferred 
through the money order department of the 
post-office during the fiscal year 1902-3 was 
$353>627,648.03, This aggregate represents main¬ 
ly small transactions, and bears only a small 
proportion to the exchange business of the 
banks. The total number of banks in the United 
States in 1903 was 18,514, divided as follows: 
State banks and trust companies, 8,545 > private 
banks, 3,902; savings banks, 844; national banks, 
5,223. The total capital of these institutions 
was $1,652,700,362; and the total deposits were 
$11,246,266,227. See Banks and Banking; 
Money. 

In this presentation of the area, population, 
wealth and productiveness of the United States 
there is seen the largest development of material 
resources ever known under any form of gov¬ 
ernment, and it is due in a great measure to the 
beneficial influence of that republican form of 
government under which the United States has 
grown to be one of the most powerful as well 
as the most prosperous of nations. The great 
interests of which mention has been made have 
been fostered and guarded by a government 
chosen by the voice of the people, and returning 
to the people at comparatively short intervals 
for a renewal of the authority confided to it. 
The character of the people becomes therefore a 
matter worthy of study. As already shown the 
growth of population has been considerably ac¬ 
celerated by immigration from other countries. 
The incoming elements have been widely dis¬ 
tributed, and absorbed and assimilated to a 
marked degree, especially in the succeeding gen¬ 
eration. Compulsory education (q.v.) of the 
young has been a potent factor in this work, 
and the privileges of citizenship together with 
religious freedom (see United States — Civil 
and Religious Liberty in the) have had a full 
share in it. There is no country in the world 
where churches of every denomination are found 
in greater proportion to the population, and 
there is no country where so many large and 
self-supporting congregations of every denom¬ 
ination exist. While there is no government 
support given to any church, nor any legal 
enactments which interfere with a free choice 
of any religion or no religion, there is not only 
full protection for the peaceful worshipper, but 
also a recognition in law of the sacredness of 
the name of the Deity and of the day in each 
week set apart for worship. If more interest 
is taken in education than m religion it is be¬ 
cause all intelligent classes regard education as 
an element of growth, while the religious class, 
to a large extent, regard it as a part of religion. 
Census reports show in their tables relating to 
illiteracy a reduction of illiterates for each de¬ 
cade since 1880, the proportion, of illiterates 
falling off steadily among the native born popu¬ 
lation, including colored people and Indians. 


Between 1890 and 1900, however, there was in¬ 
crease in the proportion of illiterates among the 
foreign-born population, which can be easily 
traced to the changed character of immigration 
(q.v.). The percentage of illiteracy to the total 
population, even since the acquisition of the 
Philippine Islands, and the coming of more ig¬ 
norant classes of immigrants, is much less than 
in any other country. For complete account of 
the history and development of the United 
States see under United States. 

Frederick W. Webber, M.A. 

America, an American national hymn, 
written in 1832 by the Rev. Samuel Francis 
Smith. The air to which it is sung is that of 
the English national hymn, ( God Save the 
King,* the composition of Henry Carey in 1742. 
See National Hymns. 

America, the name of the schooner yacht 
winning the international yacht race of 1851. 
The prize obtained, a silver tankard, has since 
been known as the (( America’s Cup.® See 
Yachts and Yachting. 

America, Prehistoric. See Archaeology, 
American. 

American Academy of Medicine, an or¬ 
ganization formed in 1876 to encourage the 
proper educational preparation of physicians. 
Membership about 1,000. 

American Academy of Political and 
Social Science, an organization formed in 
1889 to promote scientific study of the social 
sciences. 

American Allspice. See Calycanthus. 

American Aloe. See Agave. 

American Antiquarian Society, an asso¬ 
ciation organized in 1812 at Worcester, Mass. 
The object of the society is the study and pres¬ 
ervation of the antiquities of America, and the 
advancement of art and science throughout 
the world. Its library includes over 100,000 
volumes, including a large number of the rarest 
Americana, very complete files of American 
newspapers, and a rich collection of manuscripts, 
and its ( Proceedings > have been published 
semi-annually since 1849. It maintains an im¬ 
portant museum of antiquities, gathered in all 
parts of North, South and Central America. 

American Anti-Slavery Society, The. See 

Anti-Slavery Society, the American. 

American Art. See Art, American. 

American Asiatic Association, an organi¬ 
zation formed in 1898 to foster and safeguard 
the commercial interests of the citizens of the 
United States, and others associated therewith, 
in Asia and the East. Membership 280. 

American as Official Designation. In 

June 1904 an order was issued by Secretary of 
State Hay that on all new record-books, seals, 
etc., used by representatives of the United 
States in foreign countries there should appear 
the words <( American Embassy,® <( American Le¬ 
gation,® etc., in place of (( Embassy of the United 
States,® <( Legation of the United States,® etc., 
previously employed. The usage thus applied to 
all diplomatic establishments and consular offi¬ 
cers had been followed by Secretary Hay when 


AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR SCIENCE-AMERICAN BUREAU OF MINES 


ambassador to England, his position being that 
all countries composed of “United States,» for 
example, Mexico, Brazil, Colombia, etc., were 
described by the geographical, not the political 
name of the country. 

American Association for the Advance¬ 
ment of Science, a society originally known 
as the Association of American Geologists, 
founded at Philadelphia in 1840. In 1842 it 
added Naturalists to its name and was known 
by this title until 1847, when the present organi¬ 
zation was formed. During the past 50 years 
the names of practically all the leaders of 
American science have been on the register of 
the association, and the 52 volumes of its ( Pro¬ 
ceedings } contain many of the most important 
contributions to scientific literature published in 
this country. The association numbers about 
4,000 (1903) members, including in its list 

of active Fellows such well-known scientific men 
as Newcomb, Barker, Brush, Young, Lesley, 
Morse, Langley, Mendenhall, Goodale, Prescott, 
A. Hall, Harkness, Morley, Gibbs, Gill, Putnam, 
Gilbert, Woodward, and Minot. Among promi¬ 
nent educators who are members and have taken 
active interest in its work are ex-President 
Gilman and President Remsen of Johns Hop¬ 
kins, ex-President Low of Columbia, President 
Schurman of Cornell, President Jordan of Stan¬ 
ford, President Drown of Lehigh, President 
Pritchett of the Massachusetts Institute of Tech¬ 
nology, ex-President Mendenhall of Worcester 
Polytechnic Institute, and President Dabney of 
the University of Tennessee. Many names 
prominent in the professions and in business are 
found on the list of members. The yearly meet¬ 
ings, held in different centres, occupy a full 
week, and as the work is now so extensive, the 
different sections hold separate meetings. The 
Proceedings* are published in an annual vol¬ 
ume, and members receive the publication ( Sci¬ 
ence. J 

American Association of China, a branch 
of the American Asiatic Association, organized 
in 1898 and located in Shanghai. Membership 
100; office of the secretary, Shanghai, China. 

American Baptist Missionary Union, The, 

a missionary organization of the Baptist Church, 
formed in Philadelphia 18 May 1814 as (( The 
General Missionary Convention of the Baptist 
Denomination in the United States for Foreign 
Missions.® The Southern Baptists withdrew in 
1845 because of differences on the slavery 
question, and the society assumed its present 
name in 1846. The headquarters were estab¬ 
lished at Boston in 1826. The sole object of 
the Union is the diffusion of the gospel by 
means of missions throughout the world. Any 
church which has made a contribution to the 
Union during the year may appoint one annual 
member, and one annual member for every $50 
contributed above the first $50, provided that no 
church be entitled to more than 10 annual mem¬ 
bers. Anyone may become an annual member 
on payment of $10 during the preceding financial 
year. At every annual meeting the Union elects 
a president, two vice-presidents, a recording sec¬ 
retary, and one third of a board of managers. 
The board of managers consists of 75 persons, 
at least one third of whom shall not be ministers 
of the gospel. The board of managers elects an 
executive committee, with chairman, recording 


secretary, corresponding secretaries, assistant 
secretary, treasurer, and auditing committee. 
For the year ending 31 March 1902 the Union 
had 481 missionaries and 3,325 native helpers. 
Receipts were $680,518.79, appropriations $621,- 
8537I- 

American Bar Association, a society 
organized in 1878, with a present (1903) mem¬ 
bership of about 1,800. 

American Bible Society, The, organized ill 
New York in 1816, to encourage the wider cir¬ 
culation of the Bible. Its officers are a president 
and 26 vice presidents. The 88th annual report 
for 1903 shows that the society printed and pur¬ 
chased in the course of the year 2,058,989 Bibles,, 
of which 1,993,358 were issued in foreign coun¬ 
tries. The statistician of the society also states, 
in the report that since its organization the so¬ 
ciety has issued more than 72,000,000 Bibles. 
The total number of Bibles issued in the United 
States in the year ended 31 March 1903, was 
746,423, of which New York received 225,735, 
Pennsylvania 135,938, and Illinois 62,878. Wy¬ 
oming received only 56 copies, and Arizona 87, 
while the Philippine Islands stand charged with 
11,774 copies. Among the “sales and grants® to- 
foreign lands it is interesting to note that Cuba 
received 20,398, Africa 6,725, China 1,425 and 
Canada only 218. 

American Board of Commissioners for 
Foreign Missions, The, a missionary organ¬ 
ization of the Congregational Church, f<*rmed 
at Bradford, Mass., 29 June 1810, “for the pur¬ 
pose of devising ways and means and adopting 
and prosecuting measures for promoting the 
spread of the gospel in heathen lands.® Nine 
commissioners were then chosen, five from Mas¬ 
sachusetts and four from Connecticut. A char¬ 
ter was not obtained from the Massachusetts 
legislature until 20 June 1812. The first annual 
meeting was held at Farmington, Conn., 5 Sept. 
1810. At the close of its ninth decade (1891- 
1900) the Board had 20 missions, 97 stations, 
1,209 out-stations, 167 ordained missionaries, 
and a total of 544 American laborers. Native 
helpers numbered in all 3,483. There were 505 
churches with 50,892 members, and 120 high 
schools and colleges. For the nine decades 
2,347 missionaries had been sent out, the aggre¬ 
gate receipts were $32,845,372.49, and 157,658 
members were received into' the churches in 
care of the Board. I he Board is a corporate 
body, limited to 350 active members, selected by 
ballot, at least one third being clergymen and 
one third laymen. Honorary members (who 
become such on payment of $100, or, if clergy¬ 
men, $50) may participate in all the delibera¬ 
tions of the Board, but do not vote. 

American Bureau of Mines, an organiza¬ 
tion incorporated under the laws of the State of 
New York, with headquarters in New York city. 
The objects of the association are to reform 
and encourage the mineral industry of the 
United States; to discountenance popular error 
as to the financial and industrial conditions of 
mineral interests; and to effect mutually benefi¬ 
cial relations between capitalists and men of 
practical science. Facts bearing upon economic 
and statistical science which demonstrate the 
importance and general utility of these branches 
of knowledge are stored; trustworthy informa- 


AMERICAN BUREAU OF SHIPPING — AMERICAN COLLEGE 


tion as to sound mining and other mineral en¬ 
terprises is supplied, while such as are unsub¬ 
stantial or spurious are exposed; and the services 
of an organized and permanent faculty of ex¬ 
perts are provided. A Museum of Metallurgy 
and Practical Geology for the illustration of 
ores and mineral products, and of mining and 
metallurgical constructions and appliances, and 
a library and reading-room have been and are 
important sections of the organization’s equip¬ 
ment. 

American Bureau of Shipping, a maritime 
association established in New York in 1867, for 
the purpose of collecting and disseminating in¬ 
formation upon subjects of marine or commer¬ 
cial interest, of encouraging and advancing 
worthy and well-qualified commanders and 
other officers of vessels in the American mer¬ 
chant service, and of promoting the security of 
life and property on the seas. 

American Chemical Society, an associa¬ 
tion established in 1876 for the support and en¬ 
couragement of chemical research. Membership 
about 2,200. 

American Civic Association, an organiza¬ 
tion formed 10 June 1904 by the consolidation 
of the American League for Civic Improvement 
and the American Park and Outdoor Associa¬ 
tion, its objects being the cultivation of higher 
ideals of civic life and beauty in America, the 
promotion of city, town, and neighborhood im¬ 
provements, the preservation and development 
of landscape, and the advancement of outdoor 
art. 

The Association marks a distinct epoch in 
American development. Stockbridge and New¬ 
ton Center, two Massachusetts towns, both of 
which have town improvement associations 
more than half a century old, lay claim to the 
first organized effort in the United States for 
the preservation of natural beauties and the gen¬ 
eral improvement of the village surroundings, 
but the movement which the association repre¬ 
sents first began to assume large proportions 
in southwestern Ohio, where a number of man¬ 
ufacturers, publishers, and real estate men awoke 
to a realization of the fact that improved sur¬ 
roundings made better workmen, caused men 
to buy homes, and led people to become inter¬ 
ested in good literature. The beginnings of the 
movement were along modest lines. The term 
<( back yard improvers,® first applied to its pro¬ 
moters in derision, was accepted as a watch¬ 
word, and the progress made has been such that 
now the Association represents men who have 
undertaken all kinds of effort for public beauty 
and improvement, no matter how extensive. 
For some years there were two bodies working 
in this field— The American Park and Outdoor 
Art Association and the American League for 
Civic Improvement. A consolidation was ef¬ 
fected at a joint meeting in Saint Louis in June 
1904, and the result of this merger — The Amer¬ 
ican Civic Association —• represents about 480 
local improvement organizations. The work, of 
the Association is divided into the following 
various departments: Women’s Outdoor Art 
League; Parks; Arts and Crafts; Children’s 
Gardens; City-making; Outdoor Art; Factory 
Betterment; Libraries; Public Nuisances; Pub¬ 
lic Recreation; Railroad Improvement; School 
Extension; Social Settlements; and the Press. 


An active propaganda is carried on by means of 
department leaflets, clipping sheets, and other 
methods. Membership consists of life members, 
sustaining members, members, and affiliated 
members. The head offices of the Association 
are in Philadelphia, Pa. 

American Climatological Association, a 

medical organization founded in New York city 
in 1884 <( for the study of Climatology, Hydrol¬ 
ogy, and Diseases of the Circulatory and Respi¬ 
ratory Organs.® Candidates for membership 
must have contributed something to the litera¬ 
ture of the subjects before election, this insur¬ 
ing a select membership, which the roll shows 
to be very generally distributed among the med¬ 
ical profession throughout the United States, 
with distinguished honorary and corresponding 
members in England, Canada, Mexico, South 
America, South Africa, and Australia and other 
parts of the world. Annual meetings have been 
held since the foundation, at which papers con¬ 
fined strictly to the objects mentioned in the 
constitution of the organization are read and 
discussed and afterward published in the ( Trans- 
actions ) of the Association; 20 volumes have 
already appeared, and copies are sent annually 
to the principal libraries throughout the world. 
The title of some recent contributions showing 
the value and wide scope of this association are: 
( The Advantages of Southern California in the 
Treatment of Tuberculosis 5 ; ( The Climate and 
Waters of Hot Springs, Va. 5 ; Something of 
the Geography of Croupous Pneumonia 5 ; de¬ 
cent American Contributions to the Methods of 
Prevention and Treatment of Pulmonary Tu¬ 
berculosis 5 ; ( Climatology as a Study in the 
Medical Schools 5 ; ( The Climate of Santa Bar¬ 
bara, California 5 ; ( The Climatology of Mus- 
koka, Ontario, Canada 5 ; ( The Climates and 
Diseases of Central America and Panama. 5 
The head offices are in Philadelphia; the organ¬ 
ization must not be confounded with a similar 
important and co-friendly society, (( The National 
Association for the Study and Prevention of 
Tuberculosis,® with headquarters in New York 
city. 

American College. See College, The 
American. 

American College of Heraldry and Gene¬ 
alogical Registry, an institution similar in 
character to the British “Herald’s College,® 
founded in i860 and incorporated under the laws 
of the State of New York. Its objects are to 
gather genealogies, or family records and family 
history, for perpetuation to posterity; the gene¬ 
alogical department recording births, marriages, 
and deaths; the historical, obtaining the deriva¬ 
tion and compiling the history of families; and 
the heraldic, ascertaining, emblazoning, depict¬ 
ing, and engraving family coats-of-arms, crests, 
mottoes, etc. See Heraldry. 

American College in Rome, Italy. This 
pontifical college was founded 8 Dec. 1859 by 
Pope Pius IX. for the purpose of training young 
men for the Catholic priesthood in the United 
States of America. By a pontifical decree it 
was placed under the direction of the Congrega¬ 
tion of the Propaganda, the students being 
obliged to attend the courses of lectures given 
at the University of the Propaganda. The reg¬ 
ular course embraces two years of philosophy 


AMERICAN COMMERCE —AMERICAN DIPLOMACY 


and four years of theology, while preparatory 
classes are held for students who have not 
completed the college course in their own coun¬ 
try. The American College opened with twelve 
students, three of whom afterward became 
archbishops: Michael Corrigan, of New York; 
Patrick Riordan, of San Francisco; and Robert 
Seton, titular of Heliopolis. Ruben Parsons, 
the historian, was also one of the original 
twelve. The College has trained many distin¬ 
guished churchmen during its existence of less 
than 50 years, giving to the United States 17 
bishops, among whom are the present Arch¬ 
bishops Farley, of New York, and Moeller, of 
Cincinnati. It has likewise supplied the Catho¬ 
lic University at Washington with its present 
rector, Rt. Rev. Mgr. O’Connell, and with sev¬ 
eral professors; and two of the recently ap¬ 
pointed bishops to the Philippine Islands, 
Denis Dougherty, of Philadelphia, and Fred¬ 
erick Rooker, of Albany, are among its alumni. 
The College has at present about 100 students. 

Rev. Eugene Donnelly, 
Graduate of the American College, Rome. 

American Commerce. The growth of a 
nation largely depends upon the development 
of its economic resources, and the success of 
the commercial and industrial institutions is to 
a great extent determined by the wisdom of 
the laws under which they operate, as enacted 
by the national legislative body. 

In the early days of American commerce, 
the domestic industries did not aggregate in 
value many millions of dollars, and included 
mainly the manufacture of textiles, lumber, 
furniture, wagons, harness, hats, ships, meat 
products, and a few others of minor import¬ 
ance. Against this in 1900 may be placed the 
following statistics: Manufacturing establish¬ 
ments, 640,056; capital, $9,858,205,501; proprie¬ 
tors and firm members, 708,623; wage-earners, 
average, 5,370,814; yearly wages, $2,323,055,634; 
miscellaneous expenses, $1,030,110,125; cost of 
materials used, $7,363,132,083; and value of 
yearly product, $13,058,562,917. In addition, 
farm lands and products were valued at 
$20,439,901,164 and $4,739,118,752, respectively; 
minerals and their resultants produced in 1902 
were valued at $1,260,000,000; the exports in 

1903 were valued at $1,420,141,679, and ihe im¬ 
ports aggregated $1,025,719,227. In 1903 the 
merchant marine registered 24,425 vessels of 
6,087,345 tons, including canal boats and barges; 
there being registered 12,836 sailing vessels of 
1,965,924 tons, exclusive of canal boats and 
barges, and 8,054 steam vessels of 3,418,088 
tons. In the coasting trade the tonnage of ves¬ 
sels registered was 5,141,0:7, and in the for¬ 
eign trade and whale fisheries, 888,776 tons. In 

1904 the total mileage of railroads was 212,349, 
representing liabilities of $14,289,259,959 and 
cost of road and equipment of $11,233,311,285. 
During the year 715,654,951 passengers were 
carried and 1,275,321,607 tons of freight moved. 
The total traffic and other earnings were 
$1,998,343,310. In 1903 the national debt 
amounted to $925,011,637, after deducting the 
treasury cash balance; the government receipts 
ordinary were $596,396,674, and exoenditures, 
$477,542,6^8; post-office receipts, $134,224,443. 
In 1004 the money in circulation amounted to 
$2,519,142,860; the bank deposits were about 
$10,000,000,000; the bank clearings were 


$102,150,313,931 ; and the estimated wealth of 
the country was over $125,000,000,000. 

For details see Alaska, Commercial; 
America, United States of; American Man¬ 
ufactures; American Railroads; A*merican 
Merchant Marine; American Mines; Banks 
and Banking; Commerce; Commerce, Inter¬ 
state; Commercial Organizations; Exports 
and Imports; Rxports and Imports of the 
Latin-American Countries; Finance; For¬ 
eign Trade; Industrial Corporations; Phil¬ 
ippine Islands, Products of; Trusts; United 
States — Foreign Commerce of the; Indus¬ 
tries of the; History of the Tariff; Reci¬ 
procity; Commercial Development; Economic 
Development; and the articles on the various 
industries in this encyclopedia. 

American Commonwealth, The, an im¬ 
portant study of American political, social, and 
economic conditions by James Bryce, the emi¬ 
nent historian of the Holy Roman Empire. 
Part I. treats of the Federal government. Part 
II. considers the State governments (including 
rural and city governments), their departments, 
constitutions, merits, and defects. Part III. is 
devoted to the political machinery and the party 
system. Part IV. discusses public opinion,— its 
nature and tendencies. Part V. gives concrete 
illustrations of the matters in the foregoing 
chapters. Part VI. is concerned with non-politi¬ 
cal institutions. The work is lucidly written 
and as easy for the laity to comprehend as for 
those familiar with the practical workings of 
our government. The chapters dealing with 
the professional and social sides of American 
life, and especially those devoted to the Ameri¬ 
can universities, have been enthusiastically re¬ 
ceived by Americans. 

American Conflict, The, an account of the 
American Civil War and its causes, by Horace 
Greeley. It is a great magazine of materials 
for the political history of the United States 
with regard to slavery. 

American Cousin, Our, a well-known 
play by the English dramatist, Tom Taylor 
(1858). It was very popular in the sixties, and 
it was while present at its representation in 
Ford’s Theatre in Washington that President 
Lincoln was assassinated. 

American Dialect Society, an association 
organized in 1888 for the study of words in 
American English differing in pronunciation 
and use from the accepted usage. Membership 
300. A bulletin of ( Dialect Notes ) is published 
yearly. Office of the secretary, Western Re¬ 
serve University, Cleveland, Ohio. 

American Diplomacy. It may be justly 
claimed that the United States, in its brief ex¬ 
istence as a nation, has exercised a greater 
influence in the same period in molding inter¬ 
national law than any other nation; and it has 
done much to raise the standard of diplomatic 
practice. From the beginning it has stood as 
the champion of a freer commerce, of respect 
for neutral and private property in war, and of 
the most elevated ideas of national rights and 
justice. 

When the United States entered the family 
of nations, there existed a marked contrast be¬ 
tween the state of law which controlled the 
rights and intercourse of nations and that which 
enforced the rights and duties of the individual 


AMERICAN DIPLOMACY 


inhabitants of the respective nations. The civil 
law, which was in force in most of the countries 
of continental Europe and their colonies, was 
the accepted product of the ripened experience 
of many centuries of Roman jurisprudence. 
The common law which prevailed in England 
and its colonies had been brought into an estab¬ 
lished system through the careful study and 
practical application of successive generations 
of renowned jurists. But the law of nations 
was then in its infancy. Only one century had 
passed since Grotius, who has been styled the 
father of international law, had compiled his 
treatise on the ( Rights of War and Peace ) ; and 
Vattel had but recently published his ( Law of 
Nations,-* and the principles he enumerated were 
far from being an accepted code. International 
law was still in a formative state when the 
United States began its career. The latter had 
scarcely entered upon its organized life when 
the wars consequent upon the French Revolu¬ 
tion forced it to consider its rights and duties 
as a neutral power. It soon learned that there 
were no established principles which warring 
nations respected. In referring to its early his¬ 
tory, a secretary of state in 1853 said to the 
British minister for foreign affairs: <( From the 
breaking out of the wars of the French Revolu¬ 
tion to the year 1812, the United States knew 
the law of nations only as the victim of its 
systematic violation by the great maritime pow¬ 
ers of Europe.® 

The first effort on its part toward the main¬ 
tenance of international rules of conduct was 
in President Washington’s neutrality proclama¬ 
tion of 1793, which, within less than a genera¬ 
tion, brought about a complete change on this 
important subject. The proclamation was a 
simple announcement of the neutral attitude of 
the government, and a warning to American 
citizens to observe it. But the significance of 
the act was in the strict impartiality of its 
enforcement, and the resulting legislation of 
Congress, which became a model for all other 
nations. 

The power of the President to issue such 
a. proclamation based solely upon the principles 
of international law, without any domestic leg¬ 
islation respecting offenses against neutrality, 
was seriously questioned, and in 1794 an act was 
passed defining what were offenses against neu¬ 
trality and affixing penalties therefor. During 
the revolt of the Spanish-American colonies so 
much trouble was occasioned thereby to the Uni¬ 
ted States authorities that the law was carefully 
revised in 1818, and it has since practically re¬ 
mained unaltered. Hall, one of the latest Eng¬ 
lish authorities on international law, says : (( The 
policy of the United States in 1793 constitutes 
an epoch in the development of the usages of 
neutrality. ... It represented by far the most 
advanced existing opinions as to what the 
obligations [of neutrality] were. ... In the 
main it is identical with the standard of con¬ 
duct which is now adopted by the community 
of nations.” 

The American colonies, in assuming their 
independence, established a diplomatic service 
similar to that of the European countries and 
it has continued to be so maintained. But the 
question has often been raised in and out of 
Congress whether, in the existing conditions pf 
the world, the system is necessary and its util¬ 
ity justifies its expense. With many in the 


country the diplomatic service is regarded as a 
purely ornamental branch of the government 
and its maintenance a useless expenditure of 
public money. But whenever the question has 
been made the subject of inquiry by Congress, 
the various Presidents and secretaries of state 
have given their opinions in favor of the utility 
and necessity of the service, and Congress has 
continued to authorize it; and it has come to 
be accepted as a permanent branch of the gov¬ 
ernment. 

While the United States has adopted the 
European system of a diplomatic and consular 
service, in one important particular the general 
practice of other nations has not been followed. 
Ihe service is not made a life career, and no 
examination is required for admission to it, 
either as consul, secretary of legation, minister, 
or ambassador. Appointments are made of per¬ 
sons. usually from civil life, and without any 
previous diplomatic experience. The two sys¬ 
tems have their advantages. It does not neces¬ 
sarily follow that because a young man can 
pass a successful examination, he is destined to 
make an able minister or ambassador. The Brit¬ 
ish and other governments have frequently 
found it necessary to appoint to the highest 
posts in the diplomatic service persons from 
other branches of the administration or from 
civil life. On the other hand, the system fol¬ 
lowed by the United States exposes the gov¬ 
ernment to mistakes and sometimes to morti¬ 
fication and ridicule because of the inexperience 
or inaptness of its representatives. But ap¬ 
pointments to the higher posts are generally 
of persons who have served and gained distinc¬ 
tion in legislative bodies or in the professions, 
and although not experienced m the arts of 
diplomacy, they are usually able to cope with 
their colleagues on all subjects where great 
principles are involved. There is a growing 
sentiment, however, in the country in favor 
of at least placing the consular service upon 
a permanent basis. 

Up to recent years the highest grade in the 
diplomatic service of the United States has been 
that of minister plenipotentiary, but these rep¬ 
resentatives sometimes complained that they 
were often humiliated and their usefulness some¬ 
times impaired by the lower positions to which 
they were assigned in the diplomatic corps. 
The remedy suggested was to raise the rank to 
that of ambassador. Secretary Marcy declined 
to make the recommendation to Congress in 
1856. A similar position was taken by Secre¬ 
tary Frelinghuysen in 1884, who said it would 
be an injustice to the ministers to give them 
higher rank without increasing their salaries, 
and that Congress would not vote the allow¬ 
ance commensurate with the mode of life of 
an ambassador. Later Secretary Bayard claimed 
that serious inconveniences would arise from 
introducing (( into our simple social democracy 
. . . an extraordinarily foreign privileged 

class.® 

Notwithstanding these objections, in 1893 
Congress authorized the appointments of am¬ 
bassadors to countries whose governments 
would reciprocate in such grade, and ambassa¬ 
dors are now sent by the United States to 
London, Paris, Berlin, St. Petersburg, Vienna, 
Rome, and Mexico. Soon after the reception 
of ambassadors in Washington the question was 
raised whether they should have precedence over 


AMERICAN DIPLOMACY 


the Vice-President, but it has been decided 
against them. The “inconveniences® anticipated 
by Secretary Bayard have been experienced 
on more than one occasion, but the innovation 
seems to be permanently established. 

The fiction of international law that ambas¬ 
sadors represent the person of their sovereign 
in a greater degree than ministers was created 
at an epoch when there was a recognized dis¬ 
tinction between empires and monarchies, and 
between these two grades and republics. All 
distinction between sovereign nations has been 
abolished, and they now stand on an equality, 
but the ambassadorial pre-eminence is still rec¬ 
ognized, even in the American democracies. 

The diplomatic dress or uniform of an Amer¬ 
ican representative, although an apparently trivial 
matter, has occasioned considerable discussion 
and a varied action on the part of the govern¬ 
ment. In the early years of its history, the 
diplomatic representative was left without any 
instruction upon the subject, but when the 
commissioners to negotiate peace with Great 
Britain in 1814 went to Europe a simple uni¬ 
form was adopted, and by a circular of the 
department of state in 1817 this uniform was 
prescribed for the diplomatic representatives 
at foreign courts. This order continued in 
force, with some modification during the admin¬ 
istration of Jackson, up to the advent of Secre¬ 
tary Marcy, who prided himself on his attach¬ 
ment to republican simplicity. In 1853 he issued 
a circular which became famous in diplo¬ 
matic annals, in which the representatives of 
the United States were advised to appear on 
public occasions “in the simple dress of an 
American citizen® unless such costume was ob¬ 
jected to by the court to which the represent¬ 
ative was accredited. The circular was much 
criticised, but its spirit was practically approved 
by Congress in the passage of an act in 1867 
prohibiting officials in the diplomatic service 
from wearing any uniform or official costume 
not previously authorized by Congress. As by 
law only officers who have served in the army 
or navy are authorized to wear a uniform in 
the diplomatic service, the great body of the 
corps come under this prohibition. 

From the time of Dr. Franklin, the first min¬ 
ister to France, American diplomatic represent¬ 
atives have sought to be distinguished by en¬ 
tire frankness and straightforward conduct. 
This is indicated in the instruction to John 
Jay when he was sent abroad on an important 
mission by President Washington. The secre¬ 
tary of state wrote: “It is the President’s wish 
that the characteristics of an American minister 
should be marked on the one hand by a firm¬ 
ness against improper compliances, and on the 
other by sincerity, candor, and prudence, and 
by a horror of finesse and chicanery.® 

Much is said in disparagement of the Amer¬ 
ican diplomatic representatives abroad, and it is 
not to be disguised that under the system of 
appointments some unfit and uncultured persons 
have been found in the service who have re¬ 
flected little credit on the country. But their 
discreditable acts have been out-done by the 
misconduct of the representatives of foreign 
governments accredited to Washington. This 
misconduct has embraced flagrant violations of 
international law and practice, intermeddling 
with domestic politics, and official and social 
improprieties of various kinds. Within the first 


century after the organization of the govern¬ 
ment, a list has been created of foreign diplo¬ 
mats dismissed by the government of the United 
States, or recalled in disgrace, which embraces 
three British ministers, two French, two Span¬ 
ish, one Russian, and one Austrian minister. 
No such record of dishonor can be compiled 
against American representatives as that made 
at the seat of government of the United States 
by the representatives of the most polished na¬ 
tions of the Old World. 

The War of 1812, undertaken by the United 
States against Great Britain, was pre-eminently 
a struggle on the part of the former to main¬ 
tain and enforce correct principles of interna¬ 
tional law. It involved the claim by Great 
Britain of the right of visitation of neutral 
vessels and the impressment of such of their 
crews as the visiting party saw fit; the doctrine 
that free ships make free goods, or the exemp¬ 
tion of innocent neutral commerce from seizure 
in time of war; and the paper blockades which 
were sought to be enforced by the warring 
powers. None of these questions were settled 
by the terms of the treaty of peace between the 
United States and Great Britain. But the con¬ 
tention of the United States as to all of them 
has come to be accepted by all the nations of 
the world, and by none of them more heartily 
than by Great Britain. The right of visitation 
and search of vessels was a frequent subject of 
negotiations, but while the British government 
relaxed the enforcement of its alleged right 
after the war, its claim was not finally aban¬ 
doned until 1858, when it formally accepted the 
contention of the United States. A strange 
incident in connection with this question oc¬ 
curred soon after that date. During the Civil 
War, the commander of a United States naval 
vessel arrested a British mail steamer, the Trent, 
on the high sea, visited her with an armed 
force, and carried away as prisoners two Con¬ 
federate diplomatic agents en route to Europe. 
In the United States the naval commander was 
hailed as a hero, but in England the act was 
regarded as an insult to the British flag and a 
just cause of war. A hostile conflict was avoid¬ 
ed by the prompt surrender of the Confederate 
agents and a disavowal of the act, as in direct 
contradiction to the attitude of the government 
consistently maintained from its foundation of 
the immunity of the vessel carrying the Ameri¬ 
can flag. 

The claim of the right of impressment (q.v.) 
was connected with the subject of naturalization 
and expatriation, which has been the occasion 
of much diplomatic correspondence and contro¬ 
versy on the part of the United States with 
European powers. From the beginning of its 
existence, the former has encouraged immigra¬ 
tion ; liberal laws for the naturalization of for¬ 
eigners have been passed; and the right of 
expatriation has been maintained. In this 
branch of international law this attitude has 
had a marked effect upon the practice of na¬ 
tions. One of the chief causes of the War 
of 1812, it has been seen, was because of the 
impressment of seamen, naturalized citizens of 
British birth, taken from American vessels. The 
old common law doctrine was that no British 
subject could denationalize himself, and that 
he owed perpetual allegiance to the crown; but 
the persistent claim of the United States was 
finally recognized by Parliament in the nat- 


AMERICAN DIPLOMACY 


uralization act of 1870. The doctrine of ex¬ 
patriation is now generally accepted by the 
nations, and the United States has succeeded 
in having it embodied in many of its treaties. 

The subject of free ships was given much 
prominence through the armed neutrality during 
the Revolutionary War, was one of the unset¬ 
tled issues of the War of 1812, and was finally 
recognized as a principle to be incorporated into 
the international code by the great powers of 
Europe, as embodied in the Declaration at Paris 
of 1856. This declaration consisted of four 
rules, which were, briefly stated, (1) the aboli¬ 
tion of privateering; (2) the exemption from 
seizure of an enemy’s goods under a neutral 
flag; (3) a like exemption of neutral goods 
under an enemy’s flag; and (4) that a blockade, 
in order to be valid, must be effective. All 
of these but the first had been long advocated 
by the United States, and even the first had 
been incorporated in its treaty with Prussia of 
1785. The latter was plainly in the interest 
of nations having a strong navy. Nevertheless, 
the United States was ready to accept them all 
as rules for the government of nations, but Sec¬ 
retary Marcy proposed to the great powers 
that they go one step further and declare that 
private property of belligerents at sea be exempt 
from capture. As private property of belliger¬ 
ents on land has been exempted by the rules 
of war, there would seem to be no sufficient rea¬ 
son why the same treatment should not be ap¬ 
plied to like property at sea. President McKin¬ 
ley instructed the American representatives at 
The Hague Conference of 1899 to advocate it, 
but they were not successful. President Roose¬ 
velt continued to urge upon the nations this 
advanced measure to mitigate the ravages of 
war, but it has not yet been inserted in the 
international code. 

The fourth rule of the Paris Declaration was, 
in effect, a formal recognition of one of the 
principles contended for in the War of 1812, 
that there can be no blockade by mere procla¬ 
mation. Its application bore heavily upon the 
United States during the Civil War, but it 
consistently observed the principle by making 
its blockade of the southern ports effective. An 
effort has been made of late years to establish 
what is known as a pacific blockade, by which 
one or more States seek to bring constraint 
upon another State by closing its ports without 
a declaration of war. In the case of the block¬ 
ade of Crete by the great powers of Europe in 
1897, the United States declined to concede the 
right as applicable to its commerce; and when a 
similar attempt was made in 1902 of a pacific 
blockade of Venezuelan ports by Great Britain, 
Germany, and Italy, the objection of the United 
States to its interference with American vessels 
led to the abandonment of the project, and to the 
establishment of a real war blockade. 

The subject of neutrality assumed an im¬ 
portant phase during the War of the Rebel¬ 
lion, and the duties and responsibilities of a 
neutral state were the occasion of a heated 
controversy with the British government. Al¬ 
though the latter had incorporated in its laws 
the substantial provisions of the United States 
statutes of 1818, it dissented from the position 
asserted by the United States as to its duties in 
the practical application of its acts of Parliament 
and the recognized principles of international 
law. The construction of Confederate cruisers 
Vol. 1—24. 


in British ports and the aid afforded them in 
such ports was held to be a failure on the part 
of that government to discharge its duties as a 
neutral power, and for these acts the United 
States made grave complaint and filed a large 
claim for pecuniary damages. After much dis¬ 
cussion the matter was submitted to the arbitra¬ 
tion of a tribunal, which met at Geneva. (See 
Geneva Tribunal.) In the treaty providing 
for the arbitration there were inserted three 
rules as to neutrality which were to govern the 
arbitrators in their decision. These rules were 
based upon the American statute and mainly 
followed the contention of the United States. 
The result was a decision in favor of the latter, 
with a large award in damages. The two gov¬ 
ernments had agreed in the treaty that they 
would submit the rules to the other maritime 
powers for their acceptance, but this was never 
done, chiefly because of the extreme construc¬ 
tion placed upon some of their clauses in the 
opinions of the neutral arbitrators. The gen¬ 
eral consensus of publicists is that these rules 
are a correct statement of existing international 
law. 

One of the conspicuous features of the rela¬ 
tions of the United States with foreign nations 
is its readiness to accept arbitration for the 
settlement of questions that do not prove sus¬ 
ceptible of adjustment by diplomatic methods. 
It has been one of the foremost of the nations 
in advocating this method of arranging inter¬ 
national complications, and in preserving peace 
by means of treaties of arbitration. The first 
treaty negotiated after the organization of the 
government under the Constitution — the Jay 
Treaty (q.v.) of 1794 — was made with Great 
Britain to avert war which was then immi¬ 
nent. It contained provisions for the adjust¬ 
ment of three of the most irritating of the 
questions in controversy by a reference to arbi¬ 
tration, and three separate commissions were 
created for that purpose. The year following, 
the second treaty negotiated by the new gov¬ 
ernment, that with Spain of 1795, also contained 
a provision for arbitration. The country was 
not so fortunate in its second controversy with 
Great Britain. The questions at issue were of 
such grave character that it did not seem pos¬ 
sible at that day to settle them by any other 
method than a resort to war; but by the treaty 
of peace of 1814 four boards of arbitration were 
created to settle boundary questions. These all 
related to the frontier with Canada, which ever 
since the independence had been a source of 
almost constant discussion, often of angry con¬ 
troversy, and more than once has brought the 
countries to the brink of war. But in every 
instance when the usual method of diplomacy 
failed, arbitration has been resorted to with suc¬ 
cess. 

During the two generations which followed 
the War of 1812 all questions of controversy 
with foreign powers, with one exception, have 
been settled by peaceful methods. In that period 
the United States created many courts and com¬ 
missions of arbitration. The most of these have 
been with Great Britain, but more than 20 of 
them have been with other nations of Europe 
and America. The controversy growing out of 
the manner in which the British government 
enforced the neutrality laws during the Civil 
War, for a lime threatened the peaceful rela¬ 
tions of the two countries. When the offer of 


AMERICAN ECONOMIC ASSOCIATION — AMERICAN FARM IMPLEMENTS 


the United States to adjust the question by arbi¬ 
tration was made, the British government in 
the first instance assumed the position that its 
national honor was involved, and that that 
could not be submitted to arbitration. But bet¬ 
ter counsels prevailed, and the Tribunal of Ge¬ 
neva was created to adjust the controversy. It 
was the most important arbitration in which 
the United States ever engaged, and was one of 
the most august and imposing ever held in the 
world. It involved questions of supreme impor¬ 
tance and pecuniary claims of great magnitude; 
but its special significance was in the spectacle 
of two great nations being able to compose 
weighty matters, which had awakened the pas¬ 
sions of their people to a high state of bitter¬ 
ness, by an appeal to reason and the arbitrament 
of friendly powers in place of war. 

Next in importance for the United States to 
the Geneva arbitration was that relating to the 
protection of fur seals in Bering Sea, held in 
Paris in 1893. The decision of the tribunal was 
against the contention of the United States, and 
as a result it had to pay about half a million 
of dollars in damages and sustained a heavy 
loss in its annual income from the seal islands. 
Disappointment was felt over the result, but 
.he mature judgment of the country is that it 
was a wiser settlement of the questions at is¬ 
sue than to push them to the extreme of war. 

One feature of the many arbitrations in 
which the country has engaged is worthy of 
special notice. A spirit of equity and fair 
dealing has always marked the conduct of the 
government in cases where any suspicion of 
fraud or exaggerated damages has attached to 
arbitral decisions. The commissions with Ven¬ 
ezuela, Haiti, Mexico, and other countries might 
be cited in illustration. They show that, though 
the government is sometimes misled by design¬ 
ing claimants or by the unwise action of its 
diplomatic agents, it has not hesitated when fully 
possessed of the facts to undo any injuries in¬ 
flicted upon friendly powers by means of in¬ 
ternational commissions, and that fraud, once 
exposed, cannot reap the benefit of its iniquity 
under the cover of the finality of an award. 

The Alaskan Boundary Tribunal of 1903 is 
an instance of the settlement of a question not 
possible of adjustment by diplomacy and not 
deemed appropriate for reference to arbitra¬ 
tion. A court was constituted, composed of 
three members from each country, and they were 
empowered to judicially settle the questions sub¬ 
mitted to them. The danger feared was that 
there would be an equal division of the court, 
but in this case the matter was settled by an 
award rendered by a majority of the members 
which has been accepted by both governments. 

This brief review shows that in its short 
career the United States has had an important 
part in molding the code of international law. 
The chief actors in the work done by this 
country have been the secretaries of state and 
its diplomatic representatives abroad. But they 
have had worthy coadjutors in giving this code 
shape and permanence. The exposition of the 
law of nations, as set forth in the decisions 
of the Supreme Court of the United States, 
has had a great influence in molding that law, 
and its opinions are recognized as of the high¬ 
est authority by foreign publicists. Among au¬ 
thors in this department of law none carry 


greater weight throughout the world than Story, 
Kent, Wheaton, Halleck, Woolsey, Wharton, 
and other American writers. When the services 
are recalled of these diplomatic, judicial, and 
scholastic representatives of the United States,, 
it is just to say that no body of men in any 
country have done as much to improve and en¬ 
large the principles of international law, or 
have exercised a more salutary influence on the 
affairs of the globe. See also Diplomacy ; In¬ 
ternational Law; United States — the Di¬ 
plomacy of. j 0 hn W. Foster. 

American Economic Association, a society- 
organized in 1885 for promoting free discussion 
of economic questions and the publication of 
monographs. Membership 1,000. Office of the 
secretary, Ithaca, N. Y. 

American Electro-Therapeutic Associa¬ 
tion, a society formed in 1892 for the promo¬ 
tion of knowledge in whatever relates to the ap¬ 
plication of electricity in medicine and surgery. 
Membership 200. Office of the secretary, New 
Haven, Conn. 

American Embargo. See Embargo. 

American Entomological Society, an asso¬ 
ciation established in 1859 for scientific investi¬ 
gation of insect life. Membership 125. Office 
of the secretary, Philadelphia, Pa. 

American Farm Implements. The pro¬ 
duction of food and fibre absorbs about three 
fourths of the labor of the male workers of the 
world. In the United States, during the early 
decades of the 19th century, about 80 per cent 
of the male workers of the nation were em¬ 
ployed on the farm. During the past century, 
however, farm implements and machines have 
come into use which have so increased the 
efficiency of labor that about 35 per cent of the 
male workers of the United States produce 
the food and fibre of the nation, and furnish an 
enormous surplus which is exported to other 
countries. Nowhere else in the history of hu¬ 
man industry can so striking an illustration be 
found of the influence of inventions upon the 
welfare of mankind. From time immemorial, 
until the 19th century, agriculture was carried 
on by hand labor. Horses or oxen were used 
for plowing and harrowing, but the labor of 
seeding, planting, cultivating and harvesting the 
crops was performed by the exertion of human 
muscle. Wheat was sown broadcast by hand,, 
reaped by hand with a sickle, and separated 
from the straw and chaff by hand labor. Corn 
was planted by hand with a hoe, and cultivated 
with a hoe, and was gathered and shelled by 
hand. Grass was cut with a scythe and raked 
and handled with hand rakes and forks. Pro¬ 
duction was so limited by these primitive meth¬ 
ods that people who wished, like the pioneers 
of America, to enjoy an abundance of food and 
other simple comforts of life, were compelled, 
of necessity, to live on the farm, where they 
could be assured, by their own efforts, of a 
proper supply. The farmer was unable to pro¬ 
duce a surplus that would feed a large urban 
population. Manufacturing industries were not 
only limited by the lack of food to sustain cities, 
but were also limited by the lack of a market 
for factory products, for an agricultural country 
which could not produce a surplus for sale was 
unable to buy the products of urban industries. 



THE OLD WAY OF CUTTING AND BINDING GRAIN. 






















AMERICAN FARM IMPLEMENTS 


The farmer of the North lived in a log cabin, 
wore homespun, and sent his children to a log 
schoolhouse. The only section where agriculture 
was conducted on a commercial basis was the 
South, where the planters profited by slave labor. 

It is generally assumed that the railroads 
brought prosperity to the people, by affording 
the pioneer farmer the means to market his 
products. Government statistics throw an in¬ 
teresting light on this subject. Railroad con¬ 
struction in the United States began in 1828, and 
continued at the average rate of about 300 miles 
per year until 1846. For a few years the com¬ 
merce of the country made substantial growth, 
but the period from 1837 to 1846 was one of 
great depression, which the railroads were unable 
to relieve. Bank resources, which showed but 
little loss in the year following the panic of 
1837, shrunk to a remarkable degree from 1840 
to 1843, the only period in the past seventy years 
when there was a serious loss in bank capital. 
The railroads did not stimulate the production 
of wheat during this period, for a large amount 
was imported from Europe in 1837, and the 
census reports show that the crop of 1839 
amounted to only 4.97 bushels per capita, which 
was not enough to supply the people with 
wheaten bread. From 1800 to 1846 exports of 
flour amounted to an average of about a million 
barrels per year, and showed no material in¬ 
crease, while exports of wheat were actually less 
from 1830 to 1840 than in the first decade of the 
century. 

If the first 15 years of the railroad be com¬ 
pared with the first 15 years of the reaper, a 
most remarkable contrast is found. The reaper 
was first placed on the market successfully for 
the harvest of 1845. In 1847 exports of wheat 
and flour leaped to $32,178,161, about five times 
the average of the preceding forty years, and 
grew rapidly from 1850 to i860. The wheat 
crop, which had not increased as rapidly as 
population from 1839 to 1849, gained more than 
70 per cent from 1849 to 1859, the largest in¬ 
crease that is shown in any census decade. In 
1880, after 35 years of the reaper, exports of 
wheat and flour amounted, in one year, to 
$225,879,502. Prior to 1850 corn was used ex¬ 
tensively for bread, because the supply of wheat 
was deficient, but since 1850 the United States 
has produced for exportation a surplus of about 
five billions of bushels of wheat. Railroad con¬ 
struction, which had averaged only 300 miles 
per year prior to the introduction of the reaper, 
made remarkable gains in 1847 and 1849, and 
progressed at the rate of about 2,000 miles per 
year from 1850 to i860. 

A broad examination of the subject shows 
that railroad construction and agricultural in¬ 
ventions have gone hand in hand in the develop¬ 
ment of agriculture in America. Railroads 
could not be operated profitably in the agricul¬ 
tural States without the traffic that is produced 
for them by labor-saving inventions on the farm; 
and, on the other hand, there would be little 
demand for these inventions if the railroads 
were not available to market large commercial 
crops. The farmer of a century ago, without 
these inventions and the railroads, was a peasant 
who toiled with his hands to produce a living 
for his family. The farmer of to-day is a ma¬ 
chine operator who rides on a comfortable spring 
seat and uses labor-saving inventions to produce 


commercial crops. American inventions have 
made agriculture a commercial business in which 
a man, without employing help, can support a 
family comfortably and produce wealth. Ameri¬ 
can farmers enjoy a greater average of comfort 
and wealth than any other class of people, of 
equal numbers, in the world. 

The reaper, invented in 1831 by Cyrus H. 
McCormick (q.v.), of Rockbridge County, Va., 
and patented by him in 1834, was the first im¬ 
portant step in developing the implements and 
machines of modern agriculture. Wheat must 
be harvested within a few days after it ripens, 
or the crop will be damaged or destroyed by the 
weather. When wheat was cut with sickles a 
man could only harvest three to five acres, in 
an average season, and this limitation accounts 
for the small production of wheat prior to the 
introduction of the reaper, which broadened 
production by enabling a given number of men 
to harvest a larger acreage. The McCormick 
reaper of 1831 was used successfully for several 
seasons, but the facilities for manufacturing a 
complex machine like a reaper were so limited 
at that time that it was not until 1845 that the 
invention was made a commercial success. The 
McCormick reaper embodied the foundation 
principles of modern harvesting machines. The 
machine was balanced on two wheels, like a 
cart, one, the master wheel, being geared to 
furnish power for the mechanism. The plat¬ 
form extended between the two wheels, and on 
its front edge was the cutting mechanism, a 
reciprocating knife, operated by a crank, and 
moving over fixed fingers. The most notable 
feature of the McCormick reaper was the divider 
and the revolving reel, which separated the grain 
to be cut from the standing grain, and laid the 
flowing swath, by a positive delivery, on the 
platform, so that the straws would lie in parallel, 
order and make a compact sheaf when bound. 
It was the reel and the divider that made the 
McCormick invention a commercial success, be¬ 
cause grain in all the ordinary conditions of har¬ 
vest could be handled successfully. The great¬ 
est problem in reaping is not to cut the grain, 
but to make it lie down peaceably on the 
platform after it is cut, especially since a large 
proportion of the wheat crop becomes more or 
less lodged and blown down by winds and rains 
before it is cut. A score or more of inventors 
had anticipated McCormick in efforts to design 
or construct reapers, but while some of them 
had machines that would cut the grain, they had 
no practical devices for delivering it in gavels 
so it could be bound into sheaves. Robert Mc¬ 
Cormick, the father of Cyrus H., made a ma¬ 
chine in 1816 with a revolving scythe, and in the 
papers of Thomas Jefferson is found a copy of 
a letter which he wrote to an inventor, com¬ 
menting on the design of a machine of the same 
character. None of these numerous designs of 
American and English inventors proved prac¬ 
tical, and it remained for Cyrus H. McCormick, 
who inherited the problem from his father, to 
bring together the four essential elements of 
modern harvesters: the reel, the divider, the 
reciprocating knife and the platform. A few 
years after the reaper was made a commercial 
success, the self-raking attachment took the 
place of the man who had raked off the gavels 
by hand. In 1858 C. W. and W. W. Marsh, of 
Illinois, patented a notable improvement which 


AMERICAN FARM IMPLEMENTS 


led the way to the modern binder. In their 
machine endless toothed belts carried the grain 
from the platform over the master wheel, and 
deposited it in a receptacle. Two men stood 
on a footboard or platform outside the master 
wheel, and, taking gavels alternately from the 
receptacle, bound the sheaves on tables attached 
to the machine. In 1873 the first automatic sheaf 
binding harvester, the invention of Sylvanus D. 
Locke, was placed on the market, and a year 
or two later other machines of the same type, 
using wire to bind the sheaves, were successfully 
introduced. About the time the wire binder had 
become settled on the market, a new invention, 
the twine binding mechanism, upset all the calcu¬ 
lations of harvesting machine manufacturers, as 
the farmers preferred twine to wire, which be¬ 
came scattered over the fields from the threshed 
straw and proved a nuisance. The foundation 
patents on the twine binding mechanism were 
issued in 1875 to Marquis L. Gorham, of Rock¬ 
ford, Ill. After he had tested his invention 
in the field, but before he had perfected it for 
the market, death cut short his career, and it 
remained for John F. Appleby, of Beloit, Wis., 
to complete the development of the twine binder. 
More than twenty manufacturers took licenses 
under the Gorham and Appleby patents, and 
twine binders were placed on the market in 1880, 
since which time the business has grown to 
large proportions. Fully a million binders are in 
use on American farms, and a large export busi¬ 
ness has grown up. Through the use of Amer¬ 
ican harvesting machines, Russia, the Argen¬ 
tine and Australia have become large exporters 
of wheat, and single cargoes of American ma¬ 
chines, which are shipped to European countries, 
contain more machines than the entire output of 
any European manufacturer in this line. 

In any humid climate it is necessary to bind 
the wheat in sheaves and let the straw and grain 
dry out in the shock before threshing, but in 
many of the western States the harvest season is 
dry, so that a more economical method can be 
followed. In western Kansas and Nebraska, 
and other States farther west, headers are used 
successfully. The header is a wide cut machine, 
usually taking twice as wide a swath as a binder, 
and cutting just below the heads, which are 
elevated into a wagon and hauled to stacks or 
ricks to await the thresher. In California, 
Oregon and Washington the combined harvester 
carries a threshing attachment, which is operated 
by the traction wheel, so that a wide swath is 
cut and threshed and delivered in bags as the 
machine is drawn across the field by horses or a 
traction engine. The combined harvester, how¬ 
ever, can only be used where the harvest season 
is very dry, and where the straw grows stiff, 
so that the wheat can stand until it is dry enough 
to thresh. 

The mowing machine, the corn planter and 
the two-horse corn cultivator, distinctively 
American inventions, have served the same pur¬ 
pose in promoting the production of meat in 
the United States as the reaper in promoting 
wheat growing. Farmers were not able to pro¬ 
duce live stock and dairy products on a large 
commercial scale until they had been provided 
with labor-saving inventions for the cheap pro¬ 
duction of hay and corn. Obed Hussey was the 
inventor of the foundation features of the mow¬ 
ing machine, but his work was not completed 


until the hinged or floating bar had been in¬ 
vented by Lewis Miller. Hussey’s first patent 
was taken out in 1833 on a reaper which he had 
made near Cincinnati, Ohio, that year. Owing 
to the fact that he obtained his patent on an 
improvement in reaping machines, and the fur¬ 
ther fact that it was issued a few months before 
the first McCormick patent on the reaper, many 
writers have given to Hussey the credit for the 
invention of the reaper. The two machines, 
however, were essentially different. The Hussey 
machine had no reel or divider, and while the 
cutting mechanism worked well, it was never a 
commercial success as a reaper, because it could 
only be used when the wheat stood up straight. 
The McCormick reaper was balanced on two 
wheels, like all modern harvesters. The Hussey 
machine had four wheels, two in the same posi¬ 
tion as the wheels of a modern mower, and 
besides these a grain wheel, at the grainward 
end of the platform, and a castor wheel at the 
rear. Dropping the two superfluous wheels and 
the platform, the machine embodied the founda¬ 
tion features of a mower. In 1847 Hussey 
patented, as an improvement on his machine, 
the open back guard or finger, which proved 
a vital feature of successful mowing machines. 
The upper part of the finger, through which the 
knife moved, was cut away at the rear, so that 
grass and trash which were drawn into the slot 
by the knife were swept away to the rear by the 
pressure of the grass passing over the bar. 
Curiously enough, Hussey never made any 
serious effort to develop his machine as a mower. 
He believed all his life that he was the inventor 
of the reaper, and for twenty-five years he 
worked incessantly but unsuccessfully to estab¬ 
lish his machine on the market as a reaper. The 
only financial reward that he ever reaped, how¬ 
ever, was in 1858, near the close of his life, 
when a syndicate of mowing machine manufac¬ 
turers, who were operating under license from 
him, paid him $200,000 for his patents. A few 
years before, he had made application to the 
Court of Claims at Washington for a financial 
reward from Congress for his inventions, stating 
that he was not worth at that time more than 
$500 above his liabilities. He worked all his 
life, the greater part of the time in poverty, in 
efforts to establish his invention as a reaper, and 
did not know that his patents covered the foun¬ 
dation features of the mower, a machine second 
only to the reaper in its importance to agricul¬ 
ture. It remained for practical licensees under 
liis patents to recognize their value and pay him 
for them a price far in excess of the reward 
that he had hoped to obtain from Congress. In 
1856 and 1858 the most important patents on the 
hinged or floating bar were issued to Lewis 
Miller, of Canton, Ohio, who was identified with 
the leading firm in the syndicate that bought 
the Hussey patents. Miller’s improvement al¬ 
lowed the bar to float freely over the ground, 
and to rise or fall at either end so as to conform 
with the inequalities of the surface. 

While the mower was the most important 
hay-making invention, because it enabled the 
farmer to harvest a larger acreage of hay, many 
other inventions have been of vast service in 
promoting the cheap production of forage. Steel 
sulky rakes made short work of gathering the 
hay into windrows, and the hay tedder, which is 
used after the mower to shake up the hay so it 



THE NEW WAY —TIIE GIANT REAPING AND RINDING MACHINE 

















AMERICAN FARM IMPLEMENTS 


will dry quickly, makes it possible to put the 
hay in the barn or stack within a few hours after 
it is cut. Hay loaders are now used extensively, 
taking the hay from the swath or windrow and 
loading it on the wagon. Barns are equipped 
with hay carriers and forks, operated by a horse, 
which take the hay from the wagon and save the 
hard labor of pitching it by hand. The same 
equipment is also used for stacking in the field. 
On western ranches, very wide sweep rakes are 
used to gather the hay and drag it up to the 
stack, where a stacker, operated by a horse, ele¬ 
vates it from the ground to the stack. 

Next to harvesting machines, the threshing 
machine is undoubtedly the most important fea¬ 
ture of the mechanical equipment of modern 
agriculture. Early in the 19th century the 
Aground hog^ thresher came into use. This 
was a simple machine, operated by a tread power, 
threshing with a spiked cylinder which revolved 
over a spiked concave. It had no mechanism for 
cleaning the grain. The straw was forked or 
raked away from the tail of the machine by hand, 
and the pile of chaff and grain was afterwards 
cleaned by running it through a hand fanning 
mill. These machines, however, found but little 
use so long as the crop was limited to the 
amount that a man could reap with a sickle, 
as the farmer could store his small crop in the 
barn and thresh it out in winter, either with 
horses on the barn floor, or with the flail, a 
long, jointed club. The first English separator, 
combining a threshing cylinder with fanning and 
screening devices, was made in 1800, but this 
was a stationary machine, like many other in¬ 
ventions of that period, designed to be set up 
in a mill, to which the grain must be brought. 
Hiram A. and John A. Pitts, of Winthrop, 
Maine, were the inventors of the first portable 
threshing machine with cleaning devices. They 
were engaged in making horse powers for oper¬ 
ating <( ground hog^ threshers, and in 1837 they 
patented a machine which combined the threshing 
cylinder with an endless belt and beaters, which 
separated the grain from the straw and chaff. 
George Westinghouse (q.v.), the father of the 
inventor of the air brake, began making thresh¬ 
ing machines at Fonda, N. Y., about 1840, later 
removing to Schenectady, and he patented a 
number of practical improvements in separating 
and cleaning devices. After 1850, when farmers 
began to raise wheat for market, a large number 
of inventors and manufacturers of threshing 
machines entered the field, and machines of the 
endless apron or grain belt type soon came into 
general use. Soon after the Civil War, however, 
these machines gave way to the ^vibratoC' type 
of separator. The endless apron or grain belt, 
in spite of all the beaters and shaking attach¬ 
ments that were used with it, allowed a little 
grain to go through with the straw and be 
wasted. Cyrus Roberts, of Belleville, Ill., pat¬ 
ented in 1852 and 1856 the chief features of the 
modern separating mechanism, which consists of 
a series of vibrating rakes over which the straw 
passes from the cylinder. 1 he most notable im¬ 
provement of recent years is the (( wind stacker. w 
The tail of the machine is closed, and the straw 
is blown by a revolving fan through a large 
steel pipe. This invention saves the labor of all 
the men who were formerly needed on the straw 
stack. Automatic band cutting and feeding at¬ 
tachments, and automatic grain weighers, have 


also come into general use. The horse power 
was succeeded in the decade following the Civil 
War by the portable engine, and this in turn 
by the traction engine, which, for countries 
where coal is scarce, is fitted to burn straw. 

The grain drill was one of the latest of 
modern implements to come into general use, as 
the farmers found it more economical, until well 
past the middle of the century, to sow their 
wheat broadcast by hand. English inventors 
began patenting grain drills in the 18th century, 
and many American patents were issued prior 
to 1850, but the grain drill did not become a 
practical implement until it was provided with 
a force feed, which would regulate exactly the 
amount sown. The first patent on a practical 
force feed was issued in 1851 to Foster, Jessup 
& Brown, of Palmyra, N. Y.; but it was not 
until farmers began sowing commercial fertiliz¬ 
ers that drills replaced broadcast seeding in the 
East. In the West, the ^hoe® or pointed tube 
of the early types of grain drills could not be 
used successfully in prairie soil, and the farmers 
sowed their grain by hand, or used simple 
broadcast seeders, until the drill manufacturers 
had borrowed the shoe from the corn planter. 
In late years disc drills have become popular. 

The first patent on a practical corn planter 
was issued in 1853 to George W. Brown, of 
Illinois. This implement was not, as many 
writers have supposed, an adaptation of the grain 
drill. The function of the grain drill is to 
spread the seed as much as possible, so the crop 
will cover the ground and prevent the growth 
of weeds. Corn, however, does not thrive unless 
each hill has at least a square yard of clear, 
cultivated soil around it, and hence corn is 
planted in hills, and the hills are placed in check, 
so they can be cultivated both ways. The Brown 
invention planted two rows. It was operated by 
two men, or a man and a boy, one of whom 
drove while the other sat in front and operated 
the dropping lever. It was customary, before the 
introduction of the check rower, to mark the 
field by driving across it with a sled which had 
two or more runners, making marks at the 
proper distance apart for the hills. The planter 
was then driven at right angles across the 
marks, and the operator of the dropping lever 
would aim to drop the hills even with the marks, 
so they would be in alignment across the field, 
as well as in the rows following the planter. 
The check rower, which was invented and intro¬ 
duced by George D. Haworth, of Illinois, as an 
improvement on the planter, operated the drop¬ 
ping mechanism automatically. A wire is 
stretched across the field, anchored at each end, 
and as the planter is driven forward the wire 
draws through it, and buttons or links at suit¬ 
able intervals operate the dropping device. The 
Haworths were the practical inventors of this 
device, and placed it on the market, but did 
not obtain a clear patent on it, as, technically, 
it had been anticipated by a prior inventor, 
whose patent was assigned to them and reissued. 
The most ingenious and original feature of the 
George W. Brown patents on the corn planter 
was the planting shoe, which was shaped like 
a scimeter, so it would cut through or rise over 
any trash on the surface of the field. The seed 
dropped through a channel in the heel of the 
shoe, and was covered by a wheel which fol¬ 
lowed. 


AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR 


So many inventors have contributed useful 
features to the two-horse straddle-row cultivator 
that it would be difficult to name any one who 
is entitled to pre-eminent credit. Cultivators 
are made in a greater variety of forms and 
styles than any other implement in extensive 
use, but the basic idea of all modern cultivators 
is to utilize two horses and straddle the row. 
Two wheels, with an arched axle, support the 
frame work and the seat for the operator. The 
cultivating shovels or points are attached to 
two gangs or frames, one on each side of the 
row, which swing freely and are held in the 
proper position by the operator, by means of 
stirrups in which he holds his feet. Walking 
wheeled cultivators are still used to some extent, 
but the prevailing demand is for riding imple¬ 
ments. 

Harvesting the corn crop is a problem that 
has engaged the attention of American inventors 
since 1850, but it was not until 1895 that a prac¬ 
tical corn binder was placed on the market. 
This machine was patented in 1892 by A. S. 
Peck, of Illinois, but did not prove practical 
until many improvements had been made by 
inventors of the McCormick experimental staff. 
A binding attachment, much like the mechanism 
of a grain binder, stands in a vertical position 
in the machine, and the corn is carried into it 
by gathering chains while the machine travels 
forward astride the row. A later type of this 
machine is the corn shocker, which holds the 
corn erect in a frame, without binding it in 
bundles, until a shock is collected, when the 
frame and shock are raised by a crane on the 
machine and swung around to the ground, the 
shock, meantime, being tied at the top by the op¬ 
erator. The latest successful type of machine for 
harvesting corn is the corn picker, which travels 
along the row in the field and picks and husks 
the ears without cutting the stalks. The portable 
corn husker and fodder shredder, which is 
operated like a threshing machine, has also 
proved a successful invention, and many thou¬ 
sands of machines of this type are now in use, 
especially in the dairy States, where the farmers 
want to save the fodder and shred it for feeding. 
Power corn shellers have been in use since i860, 
and are indispensable wherever corn is grown 
for shipment to market. The first successful 
machine of this type was invented by Augustus 
Adams, of Sandwich, Ill. 

For the preparation of the soil a multitude of 
implements are used. The subject of Plows 
has been considered in a separate article. Har¬ 
rows are made in many forms, including the 
disc harrow, which is used extensively in place 
of the plow, to prepare stubble land for seeding. 
The steel disc has made its appearance in grain 
drills, and in planters, and has even endeavored 
to supplant the moldboard in the plow. Potato 
planters, spraying implements and digging ma¬ 
chines have placed the potato crop on a com¬ 
mercial basis. Cotton planters are used success¬ 
fully, but disappointment has been the only 
reward of inventors who have sought to devise 
a cotton harvester. The greatest service which 
the inventor could render to the cotton grower 
was the invention of the cotton gin by Eli 
Whitney (q.v.). While the gin is not strictly 
speaking a farm implement, since it is not used 
on the farm, it made a great commercial crop of 


an obscure plant that had been of little or no 
value to the farmer. R. L. Ardrey, 

Chicago, III. 

American Federation of Labor, a national 
organization of American trade-unions, in which 
the rights of the constituent units are preserved 
intact. As in the Federal government, all pow¬ 
ers not expressly granted in the written consti¬ 
tution are reserved to the subordinate bodies; 
but still further, as in the Articles of Con¬ 
federation, it has not power of compulsion (ex¬ 
cept to suspend or expel a union), and any 
union can override its decisions as far as its 
own action goes. To this is due its steady 
growth and harmony. What every union fears 
most of all is being controlled in matters per¬ 
taining to its own trade by persons outside that 
trade; and a minority regularly coerced on its 
own ground will eventually secede. 

It originated in 1881. Its predecessors had 
been the National Labor Union, 1866-72, which 
ended its career by entering politics and nom¬ 
inating a candidate (David Davis) for the Pres¬ 
idency ; and a number of sectional orders, of 
which the chief was the Knights of Labor 
(1869). The latter were generally hostile to 
trade-unions, holding them based on <( false and 
selfish principles of temporary advantage, to the 
sacrifice of the general interests® of labor, and 
the Knights attempted to break down trade 
barriers in workmen’s action by organizing local 
assemblies of miscellaneous laborers. This an¬ 
tagonized those who believed that only members 
of a given craft had a right or the proper know¬ 
ledge to direct its action; and on 2 Aug. 1881 
representatives from trade-unions, the Amal¬ 
gamated Labor Union (a split from the Knights 
of Labor) and the Knights of Industry, both 
secret orders, held a conference at Terre Haute, 
Ind., ostensibly to establish a national labor 
congress, but in reality (as stated) to form a 
new order to supplant the Knights of Labor. 
This was defeated, and the conference issued a 
call for a convention at Pittsburg in November, 
where the Federation of Organized Trades and 
Labor Unions of the United States and Canada 
was constituted. On 8 Dec. 1886 this fused with 
a separate trade-union congress, and changed 
its name to the American Federation of Labor; 
and in 1889 acknowledged the continuity of ex¬ 
istence by dating its proceedings to 1881. Its 
membership is of local unions, central unions of 
cities, State federations, national and interna¬ 
tional trade-unions. As a local union may thus 
belong to three different superior bodies, with a 
possible conflict of jurisdictions, the Federation 
takes charge of these mutual relations. It rec¬ 
ognized the national and international unions 
as having supreme jurisdiction, but it approves 
and urges State and central bodies as helpers 
in gaining the common objects. 

These obiects, as stated in its constitution, 
are: (1) <( The encouragement and formation 
of local trade and labor unions, and the closer 
federation and combination of such bodies, to 
secure legislation in the interest of the working 
masses.® (2) (( The establishment of national and 
international trade-unions, based upon a strict 
recognition of the autonomy of each trade,® 
etc. (3) <( An American Federation of all na¬ 
tional and international trade-unions, to aid and 
assist each other,® and <( the sale of union-label 
goods, and to secure national legislation in the 



PLOWING A FURROW SIX FEET WIDE WITH A TRACTION ENGINE. 
















■ 

V 






■ • 

















































MODERN STEAM PLOW THAT TURNS SEVEN FURROWS AT ONE TIME. 




















AMERICAN FOLK-LORE SOCIETY — AMERICAN INSTITUTE 


interest of the working people, and influence 
public opinion by peaceful and legal methods in 
favor of organized labor.® (4) (< To aid and 
encourage the labor press of America.® 

Its executive organization at first was a sec¬ 
retary and a legislative committee, and it an¬ 
nounced that it would have no salaried officials; 
but for efficient working it has been compelled 
to modify this rule. It has a salaried president 
•and secretary, a treasurer, and six vice-presi¬ 
dents, who together form the executive council, 
which meets quarterly. The president for many 
years has been Samuel Gompers. 

The funds are derived from a per capita tax 
of 6 cents per year from each member of an 
affiliated trade-union, and $10 each from central 
unions and State federations. Until 1887 it 
could not grant money in aid of strikes; but in 
that year a revised constitution gave the execu¬ 
tive' council the right to call on the unions for 
financial aid to such strikes as it approved. This 
voluntary aid was insufficient, and in 1889 an¬ 
other amendment permitted it to levy a compul¬ 
sory tax of 2 cents a week on each member of 
an affiliated union, for not over five weeks, in 
aid of strikes or lock-outs. 

The policy of the Federation is fixed in open 
•conventions held in a different city in November 
of each year. The affiliated organizations are 
entitled to but one delegate until their member¬ 
ship reaches 4,000, two delegates up to 8,000, 
three delegates up to 16,000, four delegates up 
to 32,000, and so on. Thus, for instance, the 
largest affiliated organization, the United Mine 
Workers of America — having a membership of 
fully 225,000 — will send seven delegates, and 
is entitled to no more. 

The chief rival of the American Federation 
has been the Knights of Labor; but it has prac¬ 
tically supplanted that from the superior ration¬ 
ality of its basis. The Knights admitted anyone 
to membership except lawyers, bankers and sa¬ 
loon-keepers ; the Federation confines member¬ 
ship to workingmen, not admitting even farmers 
who are employers of labor on their farms. The 
Knights were a centralized society based on 
lodges established by the central union; the Fed¬ 
eration is based on its unions’ individuality. But 
chief of all, the Knights assumed that organiza¬ 
tions of all classes of workers in one union in 
each locality would bring about the best results, 
while the Federation realized the organization 
of each trade in its particular union and the affil¬ 
iation of all unions in a comprehensive federation 
was sure to strengthen each and bring advantage 
to all. The Knights confounded all distinctions 
and potentially overruled each trade by the vote 
of outsiders. By recognizing the common-sense 
principle that each interest can manage its own 
affairs best, the Federation has grown till, on 
1 Oct. 1903, it had in affiliation national and 
international unions, 112; State federations, 29; 
central unions, 529; and local unions, 1,725. The 
total membership of unions is estimated at about 
1,750,000, of whom more than half have joined 
since 1897. It does not contain all the trade- 
unions, a considerable section still _ remaining 
outside, as the great railroad federation of five 
unions, and the Bricklayers’ Union; but it con¬ 
tains the United Mine Workers of America (its 
largest body), the International Typographical 
Union of North America, the Brotherhood of 
Carpenters and Joiners, the Cigar Makers’ In¬ 
ternational Union, etc. 


Its activity in securing favorable and defeat¬ 
ing unfavorable legislation for laborers has been 
very great and very successful. These are too 
many to detail; but it may be said that its first 
convention of 1881 demanded a national eight- 
hour day for government employees, and exclu¬ 
sion of Chinese and contract laborers; and all 
these were granted by 1886. It also secured the 
establishment by law of Labor Day. Since then 
it has steadily favored shorter hours, non-em¬ 
ployment of children, better sanitary conditions, 
regulation of convict employment, abolition of 
<( government by injunction,® etc.; and in 1893 
pronounced decisively for free coinage. It began 
in 1894 the publication of ( The American Fed- 
erationist,* an official monthly magazine. Con¬ 
sult: Aldrich, ( American Federation of Labor,* 
Vol. III. of Economic Studies (1898) ; Gompers, 
( The Labor Movement ; McGuire, ( The Amer¬ 
ican Federation of Labor* ; and annual reports 
of the Federation. Samuel Gompers, 

President American Federation of Labor. 

American Folk-lore Society, an associa¬ 
tion founded in 1888 for the collection and publi¬ 
cation of the folk-lore of North America. Mem¬ 
bership 410. Office of the president, Field 
Columbian Museum, Chicago, Ill. 

American Forestry Association, a society 

organized in 1882 and incorporated 1897. It aims 
to promote a business-like and conservative 
treatment of the forest resources of this conti¬ 
nent ; the advancement of educational, legisla¬ 
tive, and other measures tending toward this 
end; the diffusion of knowledge regarding the 
conservation, management, and renewal of for¬ 
ests, the proper utilization of their products, 
methods of reforestation of waste lands, the 
planting of trees for ornament, and cognate sub¬ 
jects of arboriculture. Membership 2,000. Its 
official organ is ( Forestry and Irrigation.* Of¬ 
fice of secretary, Washington, D. C. 

American Geographical Society, an asso¬ 
ciation established in 1852 and aiming to en¬ 
courage geographical exploration and discovery; 
to investigate and disseminate new geographical 
information by discussion, lectures, and publi¬ 
cations ; to establish in the chief maritime city 
of the country, for the benefit of commerce, nav¬ 
igation, and the great industrial and material in¬ 
terests of the United States, a place where the 
means will be afforded of obtaining accurate 
information for public use of every part of the 
globe. It has a geographical library of 30,000 
volumes and a large and very valuable collection 
of maps, charts, and atlases relating to every 
part of the world. It publishes a ( Bulletin,* and 
co-operates and interchanges information with 
200 domestic and foreign geographical and other 
scientific societies. Membership 1,200. Office, 
15 West 81st Street, New York. 

American Historical Association, a so¬ 
ciety organized in 1884 and incorporated by an 
act of Congress in 1889 for the encouragement 
of historical research. Membership 1,100. 

American Indians. See Indians, American. 

American Institute of Architects, an asso¬ 
ciation organized in 1857 for the advancement 
of the art or profession of architecture. It has 
published its ( Proceedings > annually since 1867. 
Its permanent headquarters are in its own build¬ 
ing, the (( Octagon,® Washington D. C. Mem¬ 
bership 800. 


AMERICAN INSTITUTE—AMERICANISMS 


American Institute of the City of New 
York, an organization founded in 1828 for 
the promotion, by exhibitions and fairs, of agri¬ 
cultural, commercial, manufacturing, and artistic 
interests throughout the Union. It is now di¬ 
vided into five sections: The Farmers’ Club, 
the Henry Electrical Society, the Horticultural 
Section, the Photographic Section, and the Poly¬ 
technic Section. It has a scientific library of 
15,000 volumes. 

American Institute of Electrical Engi¬ 
neers, a society established in 1884 for the 
advancement of electrical engineering. It pub¬ 
lishes volumes of its transactions.* Member¬ 
ship 1,600. 

American Institute of Homoeopathy, a 

society organized in 1844. Membership 2,000. 

American Institute of Mining Engineers, 

an organization founded in 1871 to promote the 
arts and sciences connected with the economical 
production of the useful minerals and metals, 
and the welfare of those employed in these in¬ 
dustries, by means of meetings for social inter¬ 
course and the reading and discussion of pro¬ 
fessional papers, and to circulate, by means of 
publications among its members and associates, 
the information thus obtained. Membership 
3 , 500 . 

American Ipecac. See Gillenia. 

American-Irish Historical Society, founded 
in Boston, Mass., 20 Jan. 1897, to make better 
known the Irish chapter in American history. 
The organization draws no creed lines and is 
non-political. It has published a number of 
books and pamphlets along its chosen line of 
work. The society is national in its scope, and 
has members throughout the country. The or¬ 
ganization holds its annual gathering in New 
York city, and publishes yearly a bound volume 
called the Qournal* of the society. The mem¬ 
bership is about 1,000. In addition to the 
national officers, there is a vice-president for 
each State. 

Americanisms, in language, are words or 
phrases peculiar to the English speech of the 
United States or of British America. They may 
be (1) forms originating in America; or (2) 
forms that have emigrated from Britain and that 
have continued in use here while they are obso¬ 
lete there; or (3) that have undergone here an 
essential change of signification. Examples of 
words originating here or at least first intro¬ 
duced here into the vocabulary of the English 
language are Buncombe, Caucus, Gerrymander; 
of words here in current use but now antiquated 
in England we have Fall (the season), Wilt 
(verb), Whittle; and of words with changed 
signification we have Corn (maize), Partridge 
(quail or ruffed grouse), Store (in England 
shop). These three processes of new word 
coinage, of survival of meanings in one prov¬ 
ince of the language which in another province 
have become obsolete, and of essential change of 
signification, are inherent in all languages, and 
can be traced in a comparison of two counties as 
clearly as in two countries. Americanism ex¬ 
presses the character of English speech in 
America: it does not imply any inferiority of 
American English to British English; nor is 
American English subject to correction by the 
laws that. British English prescribes for itself: 
Americanism and Briticism in speech are mu¬ 


tually on an equal footing; unlike Gallicisms, 
Germanisms, or even Scotticisms, Americanisms 
are not aliens in English, but natives. Among 
the Americanisms to to be noted in what follows 
are many words or phrases which belong to the 
vocabulary and phraseology of slang, and are 
universally regarded as vulgarisms and sole¬ 
cisms and vicious growths of the vernacular 
speech of America; as such they are <( Ameri- 
canisms,® but they are no more part of legitimate 
American speech than is costermongers’ English 
part of the English language of the home coun- 
try. 

In the front rank of Americanisms must be 
classed those which are most racy of the soil 
and that could not have been evolved in any 
social or physical environment other than was 
and is presented in this new world. The first 
settlers had to clear the boundless forest which 
covered the land, and constantly to guard their 
lives and their possessions against the forays of 
the savages: they went always armed to their 
day’s work. Such words and phrases as Going 
on the war path, Digging up the hatchet, Bury¬ 
ing the hatchet, Scalping, Tomahawking, recall 
the hero-tales of American pioneering; and 
from the same period come Shanty, Blazing out. 
Clearing, Backwoods (in Canada, <( the Bush®). 
They Hook to the woods® or <( to the timber® 
for refuge at the approach of the redskins in 
overwhelming force. In the sparsely peopled 
settlements the necessity for neighborly help in 
gathering in the harvest or in erecting a log 
cabin or in providing comforts for the winter 
led to the custom of the Raising-bee or Build¬ 
ing-bee, the Quilting-bee, the Husking-bee: 
the origin of the word Bee in this sense is un¬ 
known ; the custom itself survives in rural dis¬ 
tricts, and a few years ago a new sort of Bee — 
the Spelling-bee had great vogue; and that was 
followed by the Definition-bee; these <( bees® 
met with much popular favor in England. Log¬ 
rolling is another example of co-operation 
among backwoodsmen, when neighbors associ¬ 
ate to collect each other’s logs for the winter 
fires. Logrolling came early into use as a term 
of the art of practical politics to signify the co¬ 
operation of members of a legislative body to 
promote one another’s schemes. Literary Log¬ 
rolling is when authors combine to create a 
market for each other’s productions by mutual 
puffery. Salt springs to which the big game 
used to resort were Salt Licks; the spaces be¬ 
tween stretches of water over which the pio¬ 
neers had to carry their canoes were Portages. 
As settlers began to seek homes in the West on 
government lands, the distribution of the public 
domain became a business of vast proportions 
and <( a Land-Office business® became a superla¬ 
tive term of comparison. A Section of land is a 
square mile or 640 acres.; a very usual subdivi¬ 
sion is the Quarter section, 160 acres. In the 
nearer West, as in the East, bodies of land were 
Farms; in the farther West, Ranches; in the 
South, Plantations. The verb to Deed is a pure 
Americanism: the phrase (( To convey by deed® 
was too slow. A settler who acquired land from 
the government (( blazed out® his grant by cut¬ 
ting with his axe marks on the bark of trees: 
the word is from the French blazon, a term 
of heraldry. A Lot of ground is any distinct 
portion of land, and in towns and cities is a 
piece of ground with a definite frontage, 
usually 25 feet. The use of the word lot in the 


AMERICANISMS 


sense of a parcel of land seems to have origi¬ 
nated with the Puritans in Massachusetts: for 
this they had scriptural authority, Joshua xv. 
To go Across lots is to take the shortest route; 
but to make a Bee line toward a place 
is to haste to it in a straight line. Im¬ 
migrant is an Americanism, and it is the 
accurately fit word to signify one who 
comes to a country as a settler. Tender¬ 
foot, a most expressive American slang word 
to designate the newcomer into a newly opened 
gold or silver mining district, is current coin no 
less in Australia than in the Rocky Mountains. 
In California, in the early days, many words 
came into use and have since remained in gen¬ 
eral circulation, for example, Placer, Prospect¬ 
ing, Diggings, Pay Dirt, Gulch. Bonanza is of 
later introduction. Crevasse is a breach in the 
embankment of a river; the word is of French 
origin in the province of Louisiana and specially 
denotes the effect of a flood of the Mississippi 
River. Of like origin is the word used to 
designate the embankment of the Mississippi, 
Levee. The word is also used to designate a 
river front of towns situate on othei rivers in 
the Mississippi valley which are naturally con¬ 
fined within their own banks. In English usage 
Levee is accented on the first syllable, but in 
the United States the accent falls usually on 
the last. Incidentally it may be remarked of 
another American usage of the word Levee to 
signify an evening reception of visitors by the 
President of the United States, (< the President’s 
Levee,® that it is a rank solecism, and means in 
effect a morning reception in the evening. 
Freshet, in obsolete English usage, meant a 
stream of fresh water: in the sense of an inun¬ 
dation it is an Americanism. Blizzard, signify¬ 
ing a violent, blinding storm of wind, snow, and 
sleet, is a word of unascertained origin. Prairie 
is as distinctly American as Veldt is South 
African or as Tundra is Russian and Siberian. 

In the vocabulary of politics, besides Log¬ 
rolling, already mentioned, we have Gerryman¬ 
der, to make an unfair distribution of electoral 
districts for party ends: this American political 
trick is called by the English political philos¬ 
opher Jerrymandering; and one of the English 
dictionaries gives as an alternative spelling Jer¬ 
rymander, while in Gerrymander it makes the g 
soft: thus pronounced, the word Gerrymander 
is a Briticism. What for the British is a political 
canvass is for us a Campaign, and a Campaign 
is conducted to a considerable extent in accord¬ 
ance with the tactics and strategy of real war. 
The successful party is the Victor, and to him, 
under the ancient laws of war, belongs the spoil. 
Speaking from the Stump, Taking the stump, 
were originally literal expressions of fact. Bun¬ 
combe, or Bunkum, seems to be authentically 
derived from the name of a county of North 
Carolina, whose representative in Congress, 
when begged not to weary the House with his 
oratory, replied that though he was addressing 
the House he intended his speech for the good 
people of Buncombe. The derivation of the 
word Caucus from Calkers is plausible. In 1770 
the calkers and ropemakers of Boston held fre¬ 
quent meetings to denounce the British govern¬ 
ment and its local agents, and those meetings 
were called by the Tories Calkers’ meetings. The 
Caucus, a preliminary meeting held for the pur¬ 
pose of selecting a candidate for office, or, in 
case of a legislative body, to decide upon the 


policy to be supported by members of a party 
in the open sessions, is an American invention; 
of late it has been introduced in England. 
Spread-Eagle oratory has its name from the ex¬ 
travagant style of stump orators and Independ¬ 
ence Day spouters when they glorify the Bird of 
Freedom. Highfalutin, a word that cannot be 
traced to its original source, denotes turgid, 
bombastic oratory. To Enthuse is unquestion¬ 
ably an Americanism, and it is base coin formed 
from the word enthusiasm, which, whether in 
Greek or English, has no corresponding active- 
transitive verb form. Of party names and nick¬ 
names may be mentioned Whig and Tory, of 
the pre-revolutionary era, Federal and Republi¬ 
can of the period after independence, then Whig 
again, and instead of Republican either Demo¬ 
cratic Republican or simply Democrat, with 
the nickname (about 1835) Locofoco (giv¬ 
en first to a body of radicals who, in 
Tammany Hall, New York, after a meet¬ 
ing was officially dissolved and the lights 
put out, produced locofoco matches, le- 
kindled the lights and continued the meeting: 
the locofoco match, or locofoco cigar was intro¬ 
duced in 1834, the word meaning ^substitute for 
fire ®—in loco foci. It was a cigar with friction- 
match attached). Other party names and nick¬ 
names are Republican, Silver-grays, Copperhead, 
Carpet-baggers, Lily Whites. The man in any 
political organization who possesses or is be¬ 
lieved to possess authority to dictate the party’s 
policies is the Boss. The word is the Dutch 
baas and is the usual designation of an employer 
or overseer of workmen. A few years ago po¬ 
litical terrorism in the South, designed to bar to 
negroes access to the polls, was known as Bull¬ 
dozing, a word which cannot be traced to its 
origin with certainty, and which is no longer in 
use. Roorback is a false and injurious report 
set afloat in the crisis of a political campaign, 
usually a very short time before the canvass is 
closed, so that it may have damaging effect be¬ 
fore contradiction or refutation can be made. 
The phrase <( a good enough Morgan till after 
election® recalls an incident in the history of 
New York politics. William Morgan, author of 
a book purporting to reveal the secrets of Free¬ 
masonry, was kidnapped, and the anti-Masonry 
party charged the Freemasons with having mur¬ 
dered him. To counteract this charge, which 
was credited largely by public opinion, the 
Masonic society, or rather its friends in the 
Whig and Democratic parties, spread reports of 
the finding of the missing man; whether true or 
false, these reports furnished <( a good enough 
Morgan till after election.® 

Right, as equivalent to very, is by some 
writers classed among Americanisms; but that 
is an error, though undoubtedly the word is 
more commonly used in that way here than 
among the English. In the style Right Rev¬ 
erend, Right Worshipful, etc., Right has the 
meaning of very: in Tyndale’s Bible occur such 
phrases as Right sorry, Right humble, and in 
writers of the 14th century the same usage is to 
be seen. But Right here, Right now, Right 
away, Right off are Americanisms and are not 
found in the colloquial speech of Britain. In 
British English of these latter days Sickness is 
hardly used save in the sense of nausea; but the 
best British authors do not countenance that 
restriction of meaning. In the United States, 
outside the circles in which the time o’ day is 


AMERICANISTS 


given from London, the words Sick and Sickness 
have the same signification they have had in the 
general language at least from the 14th century, 
when mind-sick, mind-sickness, were current 
.phrases; and in the King James version of the 
Bible sick and sickness have the same purport 
which they have in the American vernacular. 
Ugly, in the sense of cross-grained, ill-natured, 
is an Americanism, though English usage has 
the nearly parallel phrase, an ugly customer. An 
American can ride in a coach; but an English¬ 
man, if he is to ride at all, must go on horseback 
or be borne on the back of some other animal. 
British restriction of the meaning of Ride is 
inconsistent with the usage of the translators of 
the Bible, who make Joseph, for example, and 
Jehonadab ride in chariots. The garment which 
Americans style Vest is better styled by the 
English Waistcoat. Peart, pronounced, and 
often written, Peert, meaning lively, brisk, 
sprightly, without any suggestion of sauciness 
or “freshness,® is gone out of use, at least of 
literary use, in England: it is an Americanism, 
but its habitat, so to speak, is restricted. A 
special use of Peart is to signify the improved 
/one of one who is recovering from a sickness. 

The place of business at retail which in 
England is a Shop is in the United States a 
Store. Of late a tendency has appeared toward 
adoption of the British usage of these terms. 
In regions unaffected by this tendency Shop is 
still what it was 50 years ago in this country, a 
work-place, and a Store is a place where goods 
are kept in store for sale. But even 
while Shop and Store retained their cis¬ 
atlantic meanings, there were numerous 
phrases current which are inconsistent with 
the American meanings of Store and Shop, 
for example, Shop-worn, Smelling of the 
shop, Shop-boy, Shopping, Shopkeeper, Shop¬ 
lifter, etc. The grocer’s store or shop is 
here called a Grocery, not so in England: there 
Grocery signifies only the wares sold by a 
grocer. Unquestionably American is the use 
of the word Drummer in the sense of one who 
solicits or touts for custom. The phrase, He 
struck oil, will probably survive after all the oil 
wells have gone hopelessly dry. 

What we call Baggage is by the British 
called luggage, though the reason of the differ¬ 
ence can hardly be that we travel with less im¬ 
pedimenta than they. The development of our 
railway systems has brought many new words 
into the vernacular, but none more expressive 
than the verb Telescope. 

The conversational speech of Americans at 
one time seemed to be seriously threatened with 
invasion by a host of spurious, illegitimate word- 
coinages, especially of verbs made out of nouns, 
as to Advantage, to Ambition, and of pompous 
verbs made out of nouns ending mostly in -ation, 
as Orate, Donate; but that danger was happily 
averted. The use of Transpire in the sense of 
happen, occur, is of American origin, but the 
use quickly spread to England: the solecism was 
promptly branded by scholars, but it still lives 
and flourishes. Balance, in the sense of remain¬ 
der, is another Americanism which has attained 
a currency which it does not deserve. Mad, in 
the sense of angry, is an Americanism of the 
baser sort. To Wilt, on the other hand, a 
“provincialism” in England, but in America a 
word in universal use, is one of the valuable 
contributions of the American province of the 


English language to the mother tongue’s general 
store. The proverbial Whittling of the Yankee 
keeps alive an ancient native English word for 
knife. 

Among notable or curious phrases current in 
the United States may be mentioned Flying off 
the handle,— losing self-control through pas¬ 
sion : one is then like the axe-head which has 
quit the haft. To Get religion, or even to Take 
religion, is a phrase constructed on the pattern 
of “to take a cold® or “to take the measles.® 
To be Posted plainly had its origin in the 
counting-room. 

Bibliography. — Pickering, ( Vocabulary of 
Words and Phrases Suffered to be Peculiar to 
America ) (1816) ; Lowell, introduction to ( The 
Biglow Papers ) (1848) ; Elwyn, ( Glossary of 
Supposed Americanisms ) (1858) ; Bartlett, dic¬ 
tionary of Americanisms ) (1859) ; White, 
( Words and their Uses, 5 chap. 3 (1870) ; 

Scheie de Vere, Americanisms 5 (1872) ; 
Harris, ( Uncle Remus 5 (1880) ; Farmer, 
Americanisms, Old and New: a Dictionary 
of Words, Phrases, and Colloquialisms Peculiar 
to the United States, British America and the 
West Indies 5 (1889) 1 Norton, ( Political Amer¬ 
icanisms 5 (1890) ; Emerson, dialect of Ithaca 5 

Joseph Fitzgerald, 
Author of i Word and Phrase? 

Americanists (from Americanistes) , all 
those who devote themselves to the study of 

(1) the native races of America — their origin, 
distribution, history, physical characteristics, 
languages, inventions, customs, and religions; 

(2) the history of the early contact between 
America and the Old World. The name was 
probably first given to the members of the 
French Societe Americaine de France, and 
later to students of any nationality who are in¬ 
terested in the archaeology, ethnology, and early 
history of the two Americas. Since 1875 such 
students have met at irregular intervals in an as¬ 
sociation known as the Congres International 
des Americanistes. This congress grew out of 
the Societe Americaine de France, which was 
formed in 1857 by several French students who 
had become interested in the pre-Columbian civ¬ 
ilizations of South America and Mexico; after 
this society had flourished for 18 years its 
members decided to invite Americanists of for¬ 
eign countries to a congress. The first inter¬ 
national meeting was held in 1875 at Nancy, 
France, where statutes were adopted and plans 
laid for the continuance of the organization. 
Since then ten other meetings have been held 
in various European cities, and two in America 
(City of Mexico, 1895, and New York city, 
1902). At first the intention was to hold bien¬ 
nial sessions, but after a few years it was de¬ 
cided to meet at irregular intervals, the council 
of each congress determining the time and place 
of the next session. The meetings have a poly¬ 
glot character, as speakers may use either 
French, German, Italian, Spanish, or English. 
The addresses may be either written or oral, and 
are limited to 20 minutes in length. All 
papers presented may, with the approval of the 
committee, be issued in the printed Proceed¬ 
ings 5 which are usually in French ( ( Congres In¬ 
ternational des Americanistes, Comte-Rendu 5 ), 
and published in two volumes for each meeting. 
In addition to the. papers the reports contain 


AMERICAN JEWISH HISTORICAL SOCIETY— AMERICAN LABOR 


lists of the members enrolled and minutes of 
the business transacted at each session. Any 
one interested in the subjects discussed may 
become a member of any congress by a subscrip¬ 
tion (three dollars, American money, or an 
equivalent in the currency of the country where 
the congress meets), which entitles him not only 
to take part in the sessions but to receive the 
reports of the congress and all other publications 
issued by it. The subjects considered at each 
meeting range through meteorology, geology, 
archaeology, and ethnology to comparative 
philology, the history of the pre-Columbian arts 
and religions, the early discoverers of America 
and its early relations to European nations. 
Representatives from almost every nation, even 
from China and Japan, are found on the lists, 
which have included as members (not neces¬ 
sarily as attendants) many of the most eminent 
archaeologists, ethnologists, and anthropologists 
in Europe, England, and America. For a full 
account of the 13th congress, held at the Ameri¬ 
can Museum of Natural History in New York 
city 20-25 Oct. 1902, see ( Science^ New Series, 
Vol. XVI. p. 884. Previous meetings are re¬ 
ported in Mature,* Vol. XIV. p. 355; ( Popular 
Science Monthly,> Vol. XXXIV. p. 686; and 
Vol. XXXVIII. p. 685. 

American Jewish Historical Society, an 

association organized in 1892 for the purpose 
of collecting and publishing material bearing 
on the history of America. It is a national or¬ 
ganization with a membership of 243. Presi¬ 
dent, Dr. Cyrus Adler; secretary, Max J. 
Kohler. 

American Labor. According to the census 
of 1900, the total number of people in the United 
States engaged in gainful occupations of all 
kinds was 29,074,117, of which number 23,754,205 
were males and 5,319,912 females. These figures 
include wage-earners and wage-payers, employers 
and employees, engaged in manual and profes¬ 
sional service. Of this number between 18,500,000 
and 20,000,000 may be reckoned wage-earners. 
And although statistics are lacking, we will not 
be far astray if we estimate that the corre¬ 
sponding classes at the beginning of the national 
existence numbered about 500,000. 

As to the racial composition of this class, four 
fifths of the population of the United States at 
the close of the Revolutionary War was of Eng¬ 
lish descent, but at the present time careful con¬ 
sideration would indicate that only about one 
half of our population can claim the English as 
their mother tongue; and yet, during the first 
quarter of the 19th century, immigration could 
not have affected the nationality of our working 
people to any great extent, nor until 1840. In 1833 
the largest number in the first third of the present 
century arrived, being 58,640 immigrants. Great 
impetus was given in the forties by the famine in 
Ireland in 1846-7, and by political causes in 
Germany. The total immigration since the 
Revolutionary War and up to July 1901, was 
20.253,073, while the foreign-born residing in this 
country at the census of 1900 was 10,460,085, 
being 13.6 per cent of the whole population. 
These large additions to our population had a 
marked influence upon our industrial conditions, 
because in the very nature of the case their num¬ 
bers, almost en masse, went to swelling* the ranks 
of labor. The manufacturing and mechanical 


industries absorbed a much larger proportion of 
the new element than agriculture, and the tend¬ 
ency of our immigrants to assimilate with our 
mechanical industries increases the supply of 
labor in comparison to the demand, and at times 
may. have lowered wages and crippled the con¬ 
suming power of the whole body of the popula¬ 
tion. But this was not serious, and it may have 
been imperceptible, for at the time of the acceler¬ 
ated movement of immigration there was a vast 
development of the railroad interests of the 
country, which could not have been carried on 
so extensively and completely without a large 
body of common laborers. Immigration supplied 
this labor, but it soon began to find its way into 
organized industry. As the tendency of wages 
has been constantly upward since the close of the 
18th century, it cannot be argued that the 
assimilation of immigrants with our own native 
labor has reduced wages, but it can be assumed 
that such assimilation may have retarded their 
increase beyond what was experienced. During 
the years of depression after 1893 immigration 
was checked, but with the renewal of prosperity 
during the past few years the movement has 
practically assumed its old proportions of nearly 
half a million a year. The character of immi¬ 
gration has changed, and this change has not 
been for the better. If immigration could be 
left entirely to natural motives it is quite evident 
that the movement would be retarded gradually, 
but it is stimulated by transportation companies, 
in their desire to secure business, to such an 
extent that a large body of objectionable immi¬ 
grants are brought here. When it is known that 
an immigrant can be transported from Italy to 
Chicago for less money than a first-class passen¬ 
ger can travel from New York to Chicago, it 
is not strange that people flock to the United 
States; and during this past decade it is quite 
certain that labor in America has suffered 
through this class of immigration, especially in 
mining districts, where wages have been kept 
down and much distress has prevailed through 
the influx of cheap foreign labor. 

At the nation’s beginning its labor was do¬ 
mestic, and working people were engaged in 
agricultural pursuits, the fisheries, and in the 
clearing of forests, while a small percentage were 
engaged in what is known as domestic manufac¬ 
ture and in commerce. The factory system, 
dating from 1790 as the year of its birth, did not 
become influential until after 1820. With the 
complete establishment of textile factories, in 
1813, at Waltham, Mass., where the first com¬ 
plete factory in the world for the manufacture of 
finished cloth was built, labor began to find a new 
avenue of employment, and the young women of 
the rural districts were induced to enter factories 
as spinners and weavers. Thereafter growth of 
the textile factory was rapid, both in New 
England and the Middle States. Fair wages and 
easy work attracted the women of our own 
country, and English girls, until Irish immigra¬ 
tion commenced, and during the last 25 years 
or more the Irish operative has been giving 
way gradually to the French-Canadian and rep¬ 
resentatives of other nationalities. 

Of course, all manufacturing received a great 
impetus during the Revolutionary War, when 
our people were obliged to furnish their own 
supplies. At the close of the war these efforts 
ceased or production was greatly reduced, and 


AMERICAN LABOR 


America was still a subject of Great Britain in 
respect to its manufacturing interests, until the 
complete establishment of the factory system. 
The old domestic or hand system was not long 
in passing, and the regime of invention and 
machinery holds full sway. Along with this 
change in the method of production, mining has 
been developed to an enormous degree, until 
now the United States produces more iron than 
Great Britain. This industry has brought into 
employment a vast body of skilled workmen, and 
the ramifications of the industry still greater 
forces. Our large towns and cities are, as a 
rule, thoroughly equipped with sewers, and the 
manufacture of pipes and mains for this pur¬ 
pose, as well as the manufacture of gas-pipes 
and mains and plumbing work generally, has 
been the result. These latter changes have 
occurred within the last 60 years. 


be seen from the accompanying table. This 
change was largely brought about by the factory 
system, under which women could attend light¬ 
running machines with skill and with fair remu¬ 
neration. They constitute a new economic factor 
in industry, and being a new economic factor,, 
they cannot as yet hope to receive liberal wages. 
It can hardly be said that they have displaced 
men, but they have displaced boys and girls to a 
considerable extent. The first tendency under the 
factory system was to employ children, and the 
number constantly employed increased from year 
to year until the last 25 years, when the number 
has been rapidly on the decline. Public senti¬ 
ment voiced by legislation, as well as the econ¬ 
omies of production, is driving the children out 
of our factories; women are taking their places. 
In some industries men have taken the places of 
women, the change of the form of work result- 


NUMBER OF MALE AND FEMALE WAGE-EARNERS REPORTED FOR PRINCIPAL OCCUPATIONS IN iqOO. 


Occupations 


Agriculture, Fisheries, and 
Mining: 

Agricultural laborers.... 
Fishermen and oystermen 
Lumbermen and raftsmen 
Miners and quarrymen. . 
Stock-raisers, herders and 
drovers . 

Domestic and Personal Ser¬ 
vice : 

Barbers and hair-dressers 

Bartenders . 

Engineers and firemen 

(not locomotive). 

Housekeepers and stew¬ 
ards . 

Laborers (not specified) 
Launderers and laun¬ 
dresses . 

Nurses and midwives... 
Servants and waiters... 
Watchmen, policemen, 
and detectives. 

Trade and Transportation: 
Agents (claim, commis¬ 
sion, real estate, in¬ 
surance, etc.) and col¬ 
lectors . 

Bookkeepers and ac¬ 
countants . 

Clerks and copyists.... 
Draymen, hackmen, 

teamsters, etc. 

Hostlers . 

Messengers and errand 

and office boys. 

Sailors and boatmen.... 
Salesmen and saleswomen 
Steam-railroad employ¬ 
ees . 


Males 

Females 

Total 

3,747,668 

67,715 

71,920 

562,501 

663,209 

462 

100 

1,365 

4,410,877 

68,177 

72,120 

563,866 

83,056 

L 932 

84,988 

125,542 

83,377 

5,574 

440 

131,116 
88,817 

223,318 

1 77 

223,495 

8,224 

2,505,287 

146,929 

123,975 

I 55 U 53 

2,629,262 

335,282 

12,265 

276,958 

50,683 

108,691 

1,283,763 

385,965 

120,956 

U 454 , 79 i 

129,711 

879 

130,590 

230,606 

10,556 

241,162 

180,727 

544 , 88 i 

74 U 53 

85,246 

254,880 

630,127 

538,029 

64,850 

904 

79 

538,933 

64,929 

64,959 

78,253 

461,909 

6,663 

153 

149,230 

71,662 

78,406 

611,139 

580,462 

1,688 

582,150 


Occupations 


Street railway employees 
Stenographers and type¬ 
writers . 

Telegraph and telephone 
operators . 

Manufacturing and _ Me¬ 
chanical Industries: 

Bakers . 

Blacksmiths . 

Boot and shoe makers and 

repairers . 

Butchers .. 

Carpenters and joiners.. 
Cotton-mill operatives. . . 

Dressmakers . 

Iron and steel workers. . 

Machinists . 

Marble and stone cutters 
Masons (brick and 

stone) . 

Milliners . 

Painters, glaziers, and 

varnishers . 

Plumbers and gas and 

steam fitters. 

Printers, lithographers, 

and pressmen. 

Saw and planing mill 

employees . 

Seamstresses . 

Silk-mill operatives. 

Tailors and tailoresses. . 
Textile mill operatives 
(not otherwise speci¬ 
fied) ... 

Tin-plate and tinware- 

makers . 

Tobacco and cigar fac¬ 
tory operatives . 

Wood-workers (not oth¬ 
erwise specified). 

Woolen-mill operatives.. 


Males 

Females 

Total 

68,873 

46 

68,919 

26,246 

86,x 18 

112,364. 

52,459 

22,556 

75 ,oiS 

74,860 

226,284 

4,328 

193 

79,188. 

226,477 

169,393 

113,578 

599,707 

125,788 

2,090 

287,241 

282,574 

54,317 

39,519 

378 

545 

120,216 

344,794 

3,370 

57 i 

*43 

208,912 

113,956 

600,252 
246,004 
346,884 
290,611 
283,145 
54 , 46 o 

160,638 

x >739 

167 

86,120 

160,805 

87,859 

275,782 

L 759 

277,541 

97,659 

126 

97,785 

I39U66 

15,981 

155,147 

161,251 

4,837 

22,023 

160,714 

373 

146,105 

32,437 

68,935 

161,623 

150,942 

54 , 46 o 

229,649 

53,437 

51,182 

104,619 

68,730 

i ,775 

70,505 

87,955 

43,497 

I 3 L 452 

104,468 

42,566 

6,805 

30,630 

111,273 

73 D 96 . 


The change in the system of work has prac¬ 
tically done away with apprenticeships, their 
place being more than filled by manual training 
and the work of the trade schools. With the 
establishment of the factory system apprentice¬ 
ships were less obligatory. By 1850 the resort 
to them was waning, while since the vast de¬ 
velopment of the factory system, especially sub¬ 
sequent to the Civil War, they have been still 
less prevalent. Another great change which has 
come in the way of industry is the employment 
of women, who were engaged only in domestic 
labor, except in rare instances, in 1789, but are 
now represented in almost all industries, as may 


ing in such displacement. Laundry work is 
practically factory work now; and the old domes¬ 
tic hand weavers, who were to a large extent 
women, have seen their work transferred to the 
factory. These industrial revolutions have car¬ 
ried with them other changes, which perhaps 
are more ethical than economical in their rela¬ 
tions. For instance, under the old system of 
labor, employers had a paternal relation to their 
employees, and even in the early cotton-mills in 
New England the paternal system of caring for 
employees was adopted, notably at Lowell, and 
later on also in Manchester, Conn., under the 
Cheneys’ administration of the silk works; but 




















































AMERICAN LABOR 


•as the factory system has spread, this paternal 
care has been lessened, although during the last 
few years there has been a great revival in the 
discussion of the usefulness of such paternal 
oversight. The public is considering this ques¬ 
tion, and great employers here and there are 
trying the experiment of taking an interest in 
the home welfare of their employees as well as in 
their efficiency. 

1 he changes in the industrial system have had 
many ramifications. The labor movement in this 
country began with the 19th century. Prior to 
the establishment of the factory system there 
was little organization. Here and there a club 
of skilled workingmen existed, notably in the 
Eastern and Middle States. Since 1825, however, 
the movement has been rapid, and its results, 
while not always satisfactory, are indicative of 
real progress. In the early years of the labor 
movement many arguments were advanced 
against it, and the attempt made to prevent work¬ 
ingmen from joining in organization. The mer¬ 
chants and ship owners of Boston, at a meeting 
held in the Exchange Coffee Rooms on 15 May 
1832, voted to discountenance and check what 
was called the unlawful combination formed to 
control the freedom of individuals as to the hours 
of labor, and to thwart and embarrass those by 
whom they were employed and liberally paid. 
It was held everywhere that labor ought to be 
left free to regulate itself, and that neither the 
employee nor the employer should have the 
power to control the other; and the stock argu¬ 
ment that organization would drive trade from 
the country was resorted to. But the condition 
of labor as it now exists is a vast improvement 
upon its condition at any other period. It may, 
perhaps, be well simply to say that wages, even 
during the past half-century, have increased, on 
the whole, something over 60 per cent, while the 
general course of prices has been downward, 
and to such an extent that the relative real wages 
•—that is, wages measured by wholesale prices, 
and showing, on this basis, the purchasing power 
of money — have increased over 90 per cent since 
i860. To-day organized labor has many de¬ 
fenders. It is looked upon with disfavor in some 
quarters, but as a rule, employers are quite 
willing that their employees should organize, for 
they have their own organizations and do not 
feel like denying the right to others. Of course, 
a very large proportion of the working people of 
this country is unorganized, and I presume this 
is true of manufacturers and employers on their 
side; but as the methods of production are 
brought to a larger and grander scale, organiza¬ 
tion in every direction will more and more pre¬ 
vail. At present organized labor is estimated at 
2,000,000. This is the result of an estimate 
based on the claims of different organizations. I 
am inclined to think it is too liberal an estimate, 
and yet, placed in comparison with 18,500,000 
wage-earners, it does not seem large; but, as a 
rule, organized labor is employed in the manu¬ 
facturing and mechanical industries, and in this 
sense the percentage is high. The proportion of 
organized manufacturers to the whole body is 
probably much larger. As the labor movement 
has grown, strikes have become more frequent, 
and while undoubtedly the era of strikes is pass¬ 
ing away, yet it will be some time before the 
downward scale is reached as to numbers and 
importance. The great strikes in the country 


have had a marked influence in many directions. 
1 hey have excited working people to undertake 
other strikes; they have brought bitterness be¬ 
tween employer and employee, and yet on the 
whole they are bringing a new line of thought to 
the public mind, and their study will result in 
good to all classes. Strikes are teaching the 
public its interests in industry as over against 
the personal and selfish interests of the two par¬ 
ties immediately involved. 

The labor question has met with a great 
change as a result of the Civil War. Our negro 
population has lost some of the old occupations 
in which it was engaged in the North half a 
century ago, but it is gaining others. In the 
South the employment of the negro is becoming 
more varied and his condition more hopeful as 
one of pecuniary prosperity. Negro labor is 
abundant, good, and steady in certain lines. The 
question is often asked, whether the division of 
employment lessens the quality of work. Prob¬ 
ably not, for the great principles of modern in¬ 
dustry are association, concentration, and 
specialization. With the first the second is 
absolutely essential, and the third is the result 
of concentration. If these things lessen the 
quality of the work, then the opposite must be 
true — that without them quality is improved. 
This carries the argument too far. If there is 
much truth in it, then the simplest, humblest 
kind of work is best for the worker, and sawing 
wood and paving streets, the most ordinary 
manual toil, would be better for the worker than 
the employment of his intellect in tending a 
machine. 

Working people have experimented with co¬ 
operation, profit-sharing schemes, and other 
methods of increasing wages. These experiments 
have met with varying success. They are likely 
to do some good, but it will be a long time 
before the moral character of the men involved 
will permit successful management of co-opera¬ 
tive schemes. The co-operative principle is that 
of our modern system of industry. Pure co¬ 
operation, probably, cannot succeed, from an eco¬ 
nomic point of view, but the co-operative spirit 
can prevail to a higher degree than it now does; 
and these things have reduced the hours of labor 
from 11, 12, and 13 per day to 8, 9, and 10 per 
day. These changes, however, came gradually, 
and as the result of improved methods of pro¬ 
duction. Then law stepped in and made the 
custom the public voice. The first ten-hour law 
in this country, however, was not passed until 
1874, when the State of Massachusetts provided 
that women and children should not be employed 
over ten hours a day in the textile factories of 
the State. Another specific change which has 
come is the frequent payment of employees for 
their services. The method in former times was 
to pay the working people part in cash and part 
in goods, and settlements were made at long 
intervals. Now everywhere, with a few excep¬ 
tions in the West, where to some extent the truck 
system still prevails, cash payments at short 
intervals are the rule. This change has been 
brought about both by public sentiment and by 
statutory enactments. 

One of the greatest changes which has been 
wrought by the new system has come through 
corporations. When the century began, the 
workingman and his employer were practically 
associated. With the establishment of the fac- 


AMERICAN LABOR 


tory system there came the necessity of using 
large capital, more than one man or a firm of 
men contributing; so the corporation became a 
necessary factor in the development of industry. 
The ethical relations between employer and em¬ 
ployee were changed at once. In this way the 
organization of labor has grown on the ground 
that one organization should deal with another; 
that if the stockholders lose their personality and 
are represented by a manager, the large body of 
working people lose their personality, and their 
interests should be represented by a manager or 
a committee. One of the vital changes resulting 
from this growth of corporations is the liability 
of the employer to the employee for damages 
received while in the employment of the cor¬ 
poration. The old common-law rule relating to 
the liability of employers for accidents occurring 
to their employees is that a workman cannot 
recover damages for injuries received through 
the carelessness or negligence of a co-employee, 
although a stranger may recover for an injury 
following the same carelessness or negligence. 
This rule grew up under the domestic system, 
when employer and employee worked side by 
side. But when expanded methods are intro¬ 
duced this old rule becomes somewhat ridiculous. 
Yet, as the common-law rule grew up before 
great industrial enterprises were established, 
courts have been governed by it; but now it is 
being broken down by statutory restrictions in 
different parts of the world, although it still 
holds good in many States. There are very 
many other points where changes in relationship 
have been made by the change in system. Look¬ 
ing the field over broadly, the conclusion must 
be reached that on the whole the working people 
have been gainers during the progress of the past 
century — gainers not only in wages, both real 
and nominal, but in their relations to society. 

To a very marked degree, as was long ago 
pointed out by De Tocqueville, the American 
nation consists of workers. Such wealth-aris¬ 
tocracy as there is in the country is almost al¬ 
ways traceable back by the remove of a gener¬ 
ation or so to a hard-working ancestor, of (( the 
laboring class.® At the present time the younger 
members of very wealthy families are devoting 
their time and service to labor as assiduously 
as if their subsistence depended upon their earn¬ 
ings. In America, therefore, labor holds a more 
honorable place in the minds of all the people 
than it does in any other land, and individuals 
can look forward to the highest class of associa¬ 
tions, both social and intellectual, as a result of 
their application of skill, provided always they 
are ruled by integrity, and shall build up a char¬ 
acter which will sustain itself under all con¬ 
ditions. A study of conditions, however, proves 
that the base of the social structure is growing 
narrower as time, as education, as a wise altru¬ 
ism lead men out of their lowly conditions to a 
better plane; and the American laborer every¬ 
where is an active, earnest, and, I believe, an 
honest factor in keeping up the struggle to secure 
a higher standard of living. 

Our 18.500,000, and over, of wage-earners con¬ 
stitute a vast body on whose prosperity, intelli¬ 
gence, and moral worth is based the welfare of 
the Republic. With their happiness goes the 
happiness of the whole people. But they demand 
something more than is indicated by content¬ 
ment, for their experience with American inven¬ 


tions and educational systems teaches them that 
from rude instruments of toil they have become 
intelligent factors, in both a social and a political 
sense. So it is they join in the great struggle 
to lift themselves to a higher plane of living. All 
the disturbances which we have seen during the 
past score of years, and which seem, superficially 
considered, to indicate that we are approaching 
an industrial war, are but protests against fixed 
conditions. These disturbances often arise from 
unwise considerations and from ignorance of the 
conditions of production, but they all indicate 
one grand trend, and must be considered as a 
part of the progressive movements of our age. 
These views constitute the chief elements of 
what is known as the labor movement, in which 
American labor has actively participated for a 
great many years — first, seeking organization; 
second, by organization, making its protests and 
issuing its demands. Philosophically, these pro¬ 
tests and demands must be viewed as educational 
factors and not as war factors. 

<( Labor,® Ruskin says, (( is the contest of the 
life of man with an opposite; the term < life > in¬ 
cluding his intellect, soul and physical power, 
contending with question, difficulty, trial or ma¬ 
terial force. Labor is of a higher or lower order 
as it includes more or fewer of the elements of 
life; and labor of good quality, in any kind, in¬ 
cludes always as much intellect and feeling as 
will fully and harmoniously regulate the physical 
force.® So the struggle of the wage-earner be¬ 
comes of that high order which insists upon 
recognition as a factor in securing to all people 
something beyond the mere wants of existence. 
A man who is working simply to secure food, 
shelter, and raiment, that is, the conditions abso¬ 
lutely essential to keep him an efficient working 
machine, is not the best product of civilization; 
but the man who is willing to work industriously 
to secure these absolute necessaries to make his 
services efficient, and then, over and beyond 
them, something of the spiritualizing necessaries 
of life, is a credit to our civilization; and these 
spiritualizing influences can be secured only 
when, after paying for the necessary lubrication 
of his working muscles, he is able to furnish 
himself and his loved ones with elements of life 
which have heretofore been considered luxuries. 
He must be able to secure something of these 
higher elements, or he loses, and retrogression is 
the result. He must be able to educate his 
family, and to give them of the best things of 
life to such an extent that they become active 
participants in the results of invention, which 
throw around life everywhere more than could 
be secured under old conditions. 

From what has been said it will be clearly 
understood that conditions are not always favor¬ 
able ; that there are fluctuations, business de¬ 
pressions, having their discouraging influence, 
and strikes, unsettling the public mind. The 
clash between ethical and economical conditions 
leads to disruptions sometimes in business asso¬ 
ciations, and arrays, to all appearances, capital 
on the one side and labor on the other, and gives 
color to the occasional prophecy that this clash 
will lead to bloody strife. The causes 
for this clash are mostly ethical, growing out of 
the relations of men and the lack of appreciation 
of the duty which is owed to the public. Ma¬ 
caulay said that the evils arising from liberty were 
only to be cured with more liberty. So the evils 


AMERICAN LEGION OF HONOR — AMERICAN LITERATURE 


which apparently surround us at the present time, 
and which apparently grow out of the industrial 
world, are the results of an intelligence which 
did not exist in the past, and the cure for them 
is more intelligence. Capital and labor are in¬ 
telligent enough to get into difficulty; they are not 
always intelligent enough yet to keep out of 
difficulty. It requires a very high moral character 
on the part of both employer and employee for 
each to recognize the rights and the privileges of 
the other; but with this recognition, quarrels, as 
such, will largely cease, and contests of mind 
will take the place of those unhappy contests 
which are now so frequent. When the employee 
recognizes that his highest social duty is to 
render the very best service of which he is capa¬ 
ble, and the employer recognizes that his high¬ 
est social duty is to compensate the best service 
with the best wage, a vast deal of friction will 
be avoided. Integrity of business involves both 
the employing and the employed elements of 
society. Confidence in each other is the surest 
cure for many of the difficulties, and while the 
world is growing altruistic, it will not grow 
altruistic at the expense of individual develop¬ 
ment ; but after the rendering of the best social 
service there will come a co-ordinated force in¬ 
volving both altruism and individualism. Either 
means destruction in a degree. Co-ordination 
means success and reasonable happiness. The 
ethical force cannot rule at the expense of the 
economical, nor can the economical force rule 
at the expense of the ethical. Their co-ordinaticn 
is the true line of progress. As American labor 
comprehends this more and more clearly, and I 
believe it is comprehending these principles, and 
as the employer comprehends them more and 
more clearly, we may hope for the adjustment of 
difficulties on a plane of moral responsibility not 
yet reached, except incidentally. The settlement 
of labor controversies is one thing, their preven¬ 
tion another. If the intelligence of different 
elements nas not reached that degree whereby 
they can be prevented, then there should be some 
recognition of that settlement and adjustment 
which recognize the importance of each side in 
the success of industrial enterprises. 

Carroll D. Wright, 

U. S. Commissioner of Labor. 

American Legion of Honor, a beneficial 

fraternal organization founded in 1878; reported 
for 1902: total membership, 6,386; grand coun¬ 
cils, 8; sub-councils, 260; benefits disbursed in 
its last fiscal year, $628,156. 

American Literature. A hundred years 
ago and for half a century afterward, every 
assembly of students in this country was enter¬ 
tained by discussions on a (( Possible Literature® 
of America,— how soon there would be an 
American literature was a favorite question, 
grief or complaint that there was not an Amer¬ 
ican literature came in if the speaker or writer 
were of cynical vein. The introspection which 
was thus developed among people who were 
born for something better than introspection had 
its good results. Every printed word, one may 
say, was collected, which showed that between 
1602 and the 19th century, any man or woman 
had written anything in America. Such a col¬ 
lection as Samuel Kettell’s ( Specimens of Amer¬ 
ican Poetry ) shows the eagerness with which 


critics who were forecasting a glorious future 
for our literature were willing to preserve all the 
crystals from the past and eager to persuade us 
that they were jewels. The truth seems to be 
that for the 17th and 18th centuries there was 
no class of men or women who would now be 
called (( literary people.® At the same time, 
the new settlers and the men and women of half 
a dozen generations which followed, said what 
they had to say, and generally said it well. 
For they did not think much about the way of 
saying it, they did not talk much about it, they 
had no professional critics. There were among 
them those who (( harked back® to English 
models. After the establishment of newspapers 
(see Newspapers), which runs back to the year 
1704, the sad necessity of journalism (q.v.) 
compelled the press to create every week a 
given number of square inches of what is called 
<( matter.® Thus, there appeared in the three 
cities a few of those writers who have to write 
as much when they have nothing to say as when 
they eagerly proclaim something not known to 
the world before. 

It was not until 1555 that in the printed 
books of England the first fruits of the dis¬ 
covery of America appear. Richard Eden then 
published his translation of Peter Martyr’s ( Dec¬ 
ades, } and he adds to them some new narra¬ 
tives of voyages not described in the original. 
An English translation of Ribaut’s < Florida ) 
was printed in 1563. In 1576 the first edition 
of Sir Humphrey Gilbert’s plea for a northwest 
passage appeared, and an account of Frobisher’s 
voyages was published in 1578. In 1582 we 
touch solid ground as we come upon the name 
of Hakluyt. The Island of Roanoke has the 
honor of furnishing the first original American 
work to English literature. The four letters 
of Ralph Lane, who was the first commander of 
Raleigh’s first colony, are the oldest American 
writings now extant of any Englishman and 
were perhaps the first ever written. They were 
written 12 Aug. 1585 from what he calls Porte 
Ferdynando. One of them was to the famous 
Sir Philip Sidney. They were printed in i860 
for the first time in the Transactions of the 
American Antiquarian Society. The English 
archives have now been thoroughly searched 
and have probably yielded up all that can be 
found in them of intercourse with America in 
this mythical century. There are two or three 
narratives of the adventures of sailors who 
straggled from Mexico, where the Spaniards 
had made them prisoners, to the fisheries of the 
northeast, where they were relieved by the fish¬ 
ermen. The earliest of these is dated in the 
year 1582. In the collections of Hakluyt and 
Purchas will be found other narratives of a 
similar character which struggled into print 
in one way or another. Professor Tyler in his 
admirable survey of the subject, places the year 
of the birth of American literature in the ode 
of Michael Drayton, published in 1607, the year 
always assigned as the birthday of the nation, 
the year of the birth of Virginia, the year of 
John Smith and Powhatan and Pocahontas. 

The history and criticism which belong to 
this subject have been admirably handled by the 
Messrs. Duyckinck, by Professor Tyler’s his¬ 
tory of American Literature from Colonial 
Times , y by Mr. Kettell, who has been named, 
and by Professor Charles F. Richardson’s 
<American Literature ) (1607-1885). It must 


AMERICAN LITERATURE 


be enough here to say that Captain John Smith 
in his various accounts of Virginia and of his 
voyages on the coast, created a real interest in 
that (( brave new world which hath such people 
in it.® Dr. Tyler refers also to George Percy, 
William Strachey, Alexander Whitaker, John 
Pory, and George Sandys. The original edi¬ 
tions of the publications of these men are now 
among the most interesting nuggets of the 
book collectors. The Hakluyt Society has re¬ 
published many of them and has proved its value 
to the students of our early history. There is 
one interesting tract of Strachey’s which would 
answer one pathetic question. He says, <( Before 
I have done I will tell you the story of the lost 
colony.® But in nothing that has been found of 
Strachey’s is that history told. 

That school of historians whose habit is to 
draw a blue pencil, as the trade says, across 
everything entertaining in history is fond of 
stamping John Smith as a liar wherever he goes 
outside Sandy Hook or Lincolnshire or the 
Strand. It is the fashion of to-day to throw the 
story of Pocahontas overboard and even Dr. 
Tyler, who is sympathetic, calls it the <( fable 
of Pocahontas.® But this is to be said, when 
ioo men trained like cockneys, embarked on an 
unknown sea, explored an unknown bay, tried 
the adventure of an unknown river, talked in 
an unknown language with a savage chief who 
has never heard of such people before, the in¬ 
cidents of such acts when written by them will 
not be exactly like those of a London counting 
room or of a college lecture room. The Hunga¬ 
rian gentlemen, I believe, find Smith’s account 
of Hungary and its Turkish wars intelligible 
and reliable. Smith’s surveys of Massachusetts 
Bay are entirely intelligible and show an ac¬ 
curate acquaintance with the region which he 
describes. Now, it is hardly fair when you 
can verify an old author’s personal narrative 
in nine cases out of ten, to say in the tenth case 
that he is a liar, simply because you have no 
material for verification, on the one hand, or 
contradiction on the other. Close after the little 
series of Virginian writers came the series of 
the Massachusetts historians. They also have 
been most carefully edited; and it is now only 
by a fortunate accident that a student of to-day 
is able to add any anecdote new to other students 
regarding the first generation of New England. 
The journal of William Bradford, one of the first 
governors of the Plymouth Colony, has a story 
which is dramatic. With a fortunate prescience 
of the value of every word which related to the 
Plymouth emigration, William Bradford wrote 
the ( History of Plymouth Plantation. ) His 

sons and indeed all the people of the old colony 
knew of the exceeding worth of this volume. 
It was used by Morton, Prince, and Hutchin¬ 
son and the others of our earlier historians. A 
great part of it was copied and from the copy 
thus made it was consulted by our historians 

till the year 1855. In that year a quotation 

from it, which was not in our copies, appeared 
in Bishop Wilberforce’s history of the Eng¬ 
lish Church. On inquiry it proved that this 

gentleman had consulted the original which 
was in the Library of the Bishop of London in 
Fulham Palace. He immediately gave permis¬ 
sion that the whole should be copied on the 
request of Mr. Charles Deane. Subsequently, 
as a result of the efforts of Senator Hoar, the 
various authorities in England gave back the 


precious manuscript to the State of Massachu¬ 
setts, and it is now one of the treasures most 
sacredly preserved in the State House in Bos¬ 
ton. As Dr. Tyler calls Drayton’s ode the be¬ 
ginning of American literature, the Massachu¬ 
setts people may well call William Bradford’s 
chronicle the beginning of the literature of New 
England. It should not be forgotten, however, 
that the letters containing the accounts of 
Gosnold’s unsuccessful colony in 1602 were 
written before the time when Bradford began to 
write his history. 

When the larger colony of Massachusetts 
Bay was formed the general court of that col¬ 
ony, according to a very early record, directs 
that paper books shall be furnished for pre¬ 
serving all journals b}' the first settlers. For¬ 
tunately for their successors, Governor John 
Winthrop in the midst of all his other cares 
used his manuscript books, and his notes made 
almost daily are now cited as Winthrop’s his¬ 
tory -of New England. ) They cover the period 
from 29 March 1630, when he sailed from 
England, to 11 Nov. 1648. It is a con¬ 
venient aid to memory that Winthrop’s 
death followed close on the execution of Charles 
the First. Sadly enough all the other blank 
books thus furnished seem to have served other 
purposes from that for which they were in¬ 
tended. They were perhaps, used for sermons 
now forgotten, or possibly for cartridges so 
soon as cartridges were invented. Such mate¬ 
rials for the early history as have been pre¬ 
served have generally been printed by the care 
of historical societies or similar agencies. There 
is a charm about them such as belongs to all 
fresh narrative where the writers are thinking 
of the thing done and not of the methods of 
expressing it. This charm which hangs around 
Columbus’ betters 5 ; Sir Thomas More’s 
Utopia-* ; Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe ) ; Swift’s 
( Gulliver’s Travels, ) is the same charm which 
is to be found in Purchas and Hakluyt and the 
early narratives of those who wrote by the light 
of a pine knot with pens made from a bird’s 
wing. In such simple utterances we are to look 
for the first handiwork of American literature. 

The first graduates of Harvard College made 
a class of nine young men, six of whom sought 
their fortunes in Europe. The year of their 
Commencement was 1642, and the theses are 
preserved in which according to the custom of 
their time, they offered to defend 54 propositions 
against all comers. It has been observed by 
modern critics that all these propositions are 
now known to be false. This is a somewhat 
cynical statement with regard to them. But 
when one learns that these young gentlemen 
were prepared to prove that Hebrew is the 
mother of languages, one looks with caution 
upon their courageous statements on other 
points with regard to the heavens or the earth, 
the sea or the skies. Four of the number be¬ 
came clergymen. The name most distinguished 
in history is that of Sir George Downing, who 
did not distinguish himself for the courage of 
his convictions. 

As early as 1639, the government of the 
colony had cared for its future education 
by the establishment at Cambridge of a 
printing plant. This was done almost si¬ 
multaneously with the establishment of Har¬ 
vard College by the same authority. And it 
was a good omen that the first publication ac- 


AMERICAN LITERATURE 


credited to the new printing house was the 
( Freeman’s Oath, 5 as ordered by the general 
court, to be taken by those who were chosen 
into the company. Universal suffrage was not 
yet dreamed of even by Sir Thomas More. 
The first book which can be called a book which 
appeared from the press, was the <Bay Psalm 
Book, 5 the work of Thomas Welde, John 
Eliot, and Richard Mather. 

John Eliot already looking forward to his 
work among the Indians was making his first 
studies of the language of the people for whom 
he cared. The modern students speak of this 
language as the Natick dialect of the Algonquin 
tongue. Eliot’s work was of the first impor¬ 
tance and before he died the publications in 
that language alone of books printed either in 
our Cambridge or in London makes a depart¬ 
ment in literature of more than 30 volumes. 
These books were printed to be used in wig¬ 
wams and log cabins. The copies which strayed 
into libraries were but few and those Indian 
books of that century which remain are among 
the rarest treasures of the collectors. Of Eliot’s 
( New Testament 5 in the first edition there 
are but 14 copies. Of the second revised edi¬ 
tion, published more elegantly, there are 39 
copies. The work that Eliot gave in translat¬ 
ing the Bible into the Algonquin tongue has 
been spoken of more than once as work thrown 
away. But to say this is absurd. Eliot proved 
himself to be one of the first philologists of any 
period of literature. His analysis of the Indian 
language is to this moment a guide to those 
who choose to study it. With the progress of 
discovery it has proved that the Algonquin 
language, of which the Massachusetts language 
was a dialect, was the language of more than half 
the Indians of our part of the Continent. To 
this hour it is spoken by the Catawbas who are 
living in North Carolina, the Pamunkeys who 
are living in Virginia, by the Delawares who 
have been carried from Delaware Bay to Kan¬ 
sas, by the Micmacs, Penobscots and other In¬ 
dians of Maine and of the northeast, and even 
by the Arapahoes in the west. Northward and 
westward it is spoken as far as the tribes of the 
great Ojibwa family, far beyond Lake Superior, 
and often near to the Arctic Ocean. Of 300,000 
Indians, more or less, now in the territory of 
the United States, more than half would have 
been understood in conversation by Massasoit 
and Philip. An admirable bibliography of 
Algonquin literature has been prepared by James 
Constantine Pilling. It is published by the 
United States Bureau of Ethnology. The 
work of devoted Moravian ministers in Penn¬ 
sylvania in the same lines belongs rather to the 
next century. 

~ Among the early settlers of Massachusetts 
was Anne Bradstreet, a girl of 18. She was the 
daughter of Thomas Dudley, who became 
the second governor of Massachusetts. She was 
the person called the “Tenth Muse 55 by Cotton 
Mather. Her poems, many of which were writ¬ 
ten before she came to America, are an interest¬ 
ing and curious memorial- of the better educated 
colonists. She lived for most of her life 
at Andover in Middlesex County in Mas¬ 
sachusetts Bay. The most diligent search in 
her poems shows hardly any reference 
to the outward aspect of the country in 
which she lived. Her flowers and her 
birds belong to the flora and fauna of England 
Vol. 1—25. 


and not of Middlesex County. Between 1642 
and 1700 Increase Mather and Cotton Mather, 
are the names most often referred to as we look 
back on our literary history. Of Increase 
Mather we have in print 85 publications, mostly 
separate sermons. Of Cotton Mather the col¬ 
lection is much larger, the number of titles 
being 382. The modern fashion is to speak of 
the Mathers with a sneer as bigots and to dis¬ 
miss them from the lofty consideration of our 
time. But whoever remembers the duties to 
which they had to put their hands is disposed 
to regard them more favorably. There was but 
little subdivision of work for the men who had 
been educated to be the leaders of their country. 
And certainly some allowance is to be made for 
ignorance of the laws of electricity when the 
teacher whom you are judging has to study his 
electricity as Cotton Mather did while he en¬ 
courages soldiers for warfare, while he checks 
the smallpox by inoculation, while he is writ¬ 
ing the history of the past and is caring for the 
poverty of to-day. Franklin says in a letter of 
his to Cotton Mather’s son, that if he himself 
had been of any value to the world, he owed 
it to Cotton Mather’s ( Essays to Do Good. 5 
It is rather hard to throw Cotton Mather over¬ 
board either as a quack or a fanatic when such 
a man as Franklin was willing to write for 
him such an epitaph. It is fortunate for this 
generation that at a comparatively early period 
of his life Mather brought together in his 
Magnalia historical papers which he had already 
written, some of which had been printed. The 
date of the first edition of the Magnalia is 
1702, but the work belongs almost entirely to 
the 17th century. Cotton Mather was himself 
born in the year 1663, so that a good deal of 
his record of the history of the first settlement 
is put on paper at second hand. Occasionally 
an unfortunate error here has puzzled his 
readers. For instance, before the discovery of 
the original Bradford manuscript, we owed 
to Mather the statement that the Pilgrim 
Fathers came from Ansterfield in the county of 
Yorkshire. This proved to be the misprint of 
the London printer for Austerfield. It was 
only on the discovery of this error by the late 
William Hunter that the American pilgrimages 
to Scrooby and Austerfield begun. A good deal 
of injustice has been done Mather from what 
is in itself a comparative trifle, that his great 
book has not yet been edited by any competent 
editor. Even the detail that there is no decent 
index to it has greatly diminished its usefulness 
to historians in this generation. They ought to 
remember that he was but 39 years old when it 
was printed, and the corrections to his work 
which a man makes between 39 years of age and 
60 nowhere appear in it. The reader is referred 
to the articles Mather, Increase; Mather, 
Cotton, and Mather, Samuel, which in their 
place state what these men did for the growing 
colony during the period when it ceased to be 
a trading company and became really an inde¬ 
pendent State. 

Thomas Hutchinson, a governor of Massa¬ 
chusetts, was a man of letters. And if he had 
not been the unfortunate governor whose dis¬ 
loyalty to the State gained for him the hatred 
of those around him, he would have been re¬ 
membered with gratitude as such. He was. an 
enthusiast about the history of the Pilgrims 
and of the fathers of Massachusetts. The first 


AMERICAN LITERATURE 


volume of his ( History of Massachusetts ) was 
published in Boston in 1764, and the second 
volume in 1767. Alas, he was not equal to the 
duties of a great crisis, he deserted his country¬ 
men, and by his country was branded as a 
traitor. But for this he would be named to-day 
as the first in the series of distinguished Ameri¬ 
can historians. 

The assiduous and successful attention 
which has been paid to the century of coloniza¬ 
tion has very naturally given to New England 
readers a better history of what passed in the 
17th century than we have of the first half of 
the 18th century. During that time the people 
of the United States were involved in war with 
France. This meant for them a frontier war 
in which every savage was commissioned by 
French or Jesuit authorities to descend upon 
the borders of the English settlers. Excepting 
the stories of frontier warfare, there was not 
much to write history about. There are a few 
exceptions but in general the crown governors 
sent over by William and Mary, Queen Anne, 
or by the first Georges were but a poor set. 
They initiated nothing and were well pleased 
if they could avoid a quarrel with the colonial 
assemblies. The one distinguished royal gov¬ 
ernor is William Shirley, who filled so well the 
duties almost unexpected, of a commander in 
chief of North America. So it happens 
that in reviewing the literature of the 
country we have no longer such unaffected 
and simple narrative. But we find ourselves 
more in the walks of religious speculation and 
of theology. In the front of the writers on 
such subjects is Jonathan Edwards, who chal¬ 
lenged the attention of the learned in the Eng¬ 
lish-speaking world by studies and results which 
have become famous. In the penury of frontier 
villages, and living day by day in what seems 
very petty surroundings, this distinguished man 
elaborated his studies on the divine counsels 
and placed his poor limits on the infinite in 
methods and language which will survive all 
other American literature of the first half of the 
century. It is inevitable perhaps that in the 
midst of such discussions of the Idea, there 
shall appear on the other side of the horizon 
discussions of the fact, or of those realities which 
men can see with the eyes and hear with their 
ears. And in our case, Benjamin Franklin was 
born into the world in the year 1706. Before 
he was a man he was well advanced in those 
studies of the English language which gave him 
afterward his power to express himself to men. 
Long before he was a statesman and diplomatist, 
he was conducting his experiments on electricity 
and when he drew the lightning from the skies, 
he attracted the attention of all the learned 
world of his time. When we speak of the 
American authors of those 50 years the fame 
of Edwards and Franklin overshadows all the 
rest. With the discussions attendant on the 
American Revolution, a new school of author¬ 
ship began. It now seems clear enough that 
the more thoughtful leaders of English opinion 
were from the very beginning amused, not to 
say delighted, with the simple dignity with 
which such men as the Adamses, Franklin, Dick¬ 
inson, and the great Virginia statesmen con¬ 
ducted the discussions, whether of matters of 
trade, of taxation, or of government. 

(< History, my Lord,® said Lord Chatham, in 
his famous address to the House of Lords, <( has 


been my favorite study. ... I must avow 
that in all my reading, and I have read 
Thucydides and have studied and admired the 
master states of the world, for solidity of rea¬ 
son, force of sagacity, and wisdom of conclu¬ 
sion, no nation or body of men can stand in 
preference to the General Congress at Philadel¬ 
phia. The histories of Greece and Rome give 
us nothing equal to it.® 

To this moment, indeed, no careful student 
of constitutional law or of the foundations of 
states can go forward in any intelligent inquiry 
without reading with care the work of the 
American statemen of that time. 

It is interesting to observe that at the same 
time, perhaps from the same cause, the theo¬ 
logical literature of America becomes less and 
less interesting. The mind and heart and soul 
and strength of the educated men of America 
was steadily drifting into an interest of the pres¬ 
ent relations between God and man and the 
present sway of the eternal law, much more 
important to men and women, and among the 
rest, of men of letters, than theological expla¬ 
nations of the secrets of the universe. The 
student of to-day finds it worth while to read 
the publications of Thomas Mayhew, of Boston,, 
of Dr. Witherspoon, of Princeton, of Dr. Sam¬ 
uel Johnson, of New York. But this is not be¬ 
cause he cares so much for what is called theol¬ 
ogy in its narrow definition, but because these 
men enter as champions of the people into that 
larger theology of men who really believe that 
they themselves and all men may be partakers 
of the divine nature. 

Franklin with his genuine instinct for (( To- 
gether® did not live long in Philadelphia with¬ 
out bringing together one and another club of 
men of inquiring disposition. One of these 
clubs still exists in the American Philosophical 
Society (q.v.). Another founded the fire de¬ 
partment of Philadelphia. And, indeed, most 
of the activities which had given that city dis¬ 
tinction, even before 1775, may be traced to such 
origins. Franklin’s own newspaper, the Even¬ 
ing Post,* may be spoken of as really a literary 
journal. ( Poor Richard’s Almanac ) (q.v.) was 
not only an index of time and weather, but it 
was in its way a philosophical treatise. It was 
soon translated into French. Le Bonhomme 
Richard was known in French hamlets which 
knew nothing of the tea tax or the stamp tax. 
So soon as peace was declared such institutions 
as the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 
as the Massachusetts Historical Society, as 
Tammany in New York, which was originally 
a scientific and philanthropic institution, came 
into being. The governors of the colleges took 
new courage ; and Commencements and the cele¬ 
brations which accompanied them gave good 
occasions for such appeals or lamentations with 
regard to an American literature, or the want 
of it, as gave a healthy stimulus to the literary 
life of the new nation. 

A curious illustration of the increasing con¬ 
fidence in home and the literature of home, as 
years went by, would be found in the series of 
college addresses of which the first were pub¬ 
lished at Cambridge in 1796. The Phi Beta 
Kappa Society, founded in 1776 at William and 
Mary College in Virginia, soon outgrew its first 
limitations; and its annual exercises at Cam¬ 
bridge and New Haven were attended by grad¬ 
uate members who liked to renew their college 


AMERICAN LITERATURE 


memories. Branches of it were founded in 
Brown College in Providence, in Dartmouth 
College in New Hampshire, and as years passed 
on, in other similar institutions. The early 
addresses by scholarly men in these societies 
were almost uniformly exhortation that the peo¬ 
ple of America might pay more attention to 
scholarship and literature. Meanwhile, and 
under such incentives, there grew up of course 
in one centre or another, small coteries of 
literary men and literary women. With an 
amusing regard to tradition such men seemed 
to have felt that there could be no literature 
without an epic or two on which it should be 
built. Timothy Dwight’s ( Conquest of Canaan, 5 
Joel Barlow’s ^olumbiad, 5 which are all but 
forgotten, and several others which are forgot¬ 
ten, were the results, almost of a sense of duty 
in this regard. No one can suppose that either of 
these men was inspired by any divine inflatus 
of the poet. As you read the dreary lines you 
feel that the writer thought that there must be 
an epic and that because there must be he would 
write it, with the same feeling that a column 
of soldiers storms a redoubt. By the side of 
such men, however, there came to be naturally 
men and women who loved to clothe great 
thoughts or charming with fitting dress. There 
came, more and more, to such men and women, 
as there were, more and more readers to sym¬ 
pathize with them. And as popular education 
and wealth and leisure, and above all, freedom, 
brought upon the stage such men and women, 
the literature of America such as it is to-day was 
born. 

It is interesting to see that almost all of the 
early books which we should now class as 
<( efforts 5> in literature, were published by sub¬ 
scription. And there is something pathetic in 
the memoirs of the earlier literary men where 
they describe their personal visits from place 
to place as they solicited subscriptions to pay 
for the printing of their books. President 
Dwight himself visited the camp of Washing¬ 
ton in 1775 and obtained the subscription of 
Washington and the other distinguished men 
around him for the publication of the ( Conquest 
of Canaan. ) The reader must remember that 
the practical introduction of stereotyping. in 
England or America is as late as the beginning 
of the 19th century. It was necessary, there¬ 
fore, to test the market in some way when a 
book was first printed, so that the printer or 
publisher or author might know how many 
copies should be printed. It must be remem¬ 
bered, also, that the printers had no capital 
which would enable them to keep in type the 
cumbrous pages of a book which passed the size 
of a pamphlet. Paine’s ( Common Sense, 5 in 
1776, was probably the first book which attained 
at once a circulation in the least approaching 
the large editions of to-day. The trade, as the 
book-selling community still likes to call itself, 
now begins putting out as a feeler a small edi¬ 
tion printed from stereotypes. In our day in a 
vault in the side of a mountain, or perhaps 
in a vault under a sidewalk we preserve such 
plates from which a book has been printed, and 
according as the demand may prove, new edi¬ 
tions can be issued at a comparatively small 
expense. But up to the year 1813 there was no 
such resource. 

A great publisher is on record as saying that 
when you have sold 5,000 copies of a book, you 


know you can sell 100,000. But that before 
the book is printed no man or woman can do 
more than guess whether it will have 1,000 
readers or 1,000,000. There is a great truth hid¬ 
den in this exaggeration. See American Pub¬ 
lishing. 

The pecuniary poverty of the printers of the 
end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th 
century caused many American authors to go to 
England for the printing of their production. 
Barlow’s ( Columbiad ) was printed in England. 
Irving’s books appeared first in London. Indeed, 
Irving’s wide reputation may be said to have 
been English before it was American. And he 
spent much of his early life in Europe, perhaps 
from the feeling that for a man of letters Eu¬ 
rope was a home while America was a wilder¬ 
ness. James Fenimore Cooper made Europe 
his home for many years, feeling apparently that 
he could not find society of his own kind in his 
own land. The same is true of other American 
writers as far down as the thirties of the 19th 
century. That was the worse for the infant 
literature of the nation. Writers watched pain¬ 
fully for the expressions of English criticism, 
and one line from a Grub Street critic was 
sweeter to them and worth more than any words 
from their own countrymen. It is indeed im¬ 
possible to overstate the effect which was even¬ 
tually produced by the (( American system,® as it 
was called, in the discussions of tariff legisla¬ 
tion which followed the short war with England. 
From the moment when the American printer 
could send out to the world books as well 
printed as the printers of England, one may 
trace new strength in American authorship. The 
International Copyright law of 1891 compels the 
publishers of all books which claim American 
copyright to print them in America. In a truly 
celebrated article in the ( Edinburgh Review ) 
of 1820, of which no other line is remembered, 
Sydney Smith said, (( Who reads an American 
book? who looks upon an American picture?® 
The men who painted American pictures 
were very mad, as their vernacular would say; 
and the men and women who wrote American 
books were equally mad. The writers had a 
better chance to express their anger than the 
painters. The sneer implied was the more cut¬ 
ting because for most purposes of literature 
it was true. Possibly it had some share in the 
growth, almost from that moment, of a litera¬ 
ture which can fairly be called American. The 
worst of it was, perhaps, that Sydney Smith was 
in an advance guard of the Liberals of England. 
He could not be called the product of an <( effete 
civilization,® and his words could not be ascribed 
to Tory jealousy. American readers had known 
how to prize him and they read his articles if 
they did not read their own. But really an 
American author had little right to complain so 
long as Mr. Cooper called a woman a female 
simply because Walter Scott did, so long as our 
writers knew more of Robin-red-breasts and 
bulfinches than they knew of bluejays or mock¬ 
ing birds, so long as their best actors came from 
England as every play upon their stage was Eng¬ 
lish, and so long as their scholarly men read the 
Edinburgh Review ) and the ( London Quar- 
terly ) and the ( New Monthly Magazine 5 as they 
read no American journal. The American col¬ 
lege boy knew much more of the loves and hates 
of literary men in England, one might almost say, 
than the English boy of the same time did. 


AMERICAN LITERATURE 


The English reviews and magazines passed from 
hand to hand in the American reading rooms 
while their American rivals died a slow death 
due to the incompetency of most of the writers. 
But as the 19th century advanced the tide 
turned. Dr. Holmes in a happy phrase, quoted 
as often as Sydney Smith’s which has been cited, 
fixes Emerson’s first Phi Beta Kappa address as 
<( our intellectual declaration of independence.® 
I heard the address in 1837, and half a century 
afterward I heard his second Phi Beta address. 
Whoever will compare the two will see what 
Dr. Holmes means. To the thoughtful reader 
now it seems impossible that Emerson’s first 
address should have seemed extravagant or in 
any way, indeed, out of the common to the men 
of that time. But it did seem so then. 

It is true that ever since the century began 
such addresses on Commencement Days or on 
other literary occasions, have still given four 
fifths of the time to pathetic appeals to young 
men to create an American literature. The 
orators, generally, clergymen or lawyers, did not 
understand that such books as Lewis and 
Clark’s journals were American literature, that 
Pitkin’s statistics was a book of American litera¬ 
ture, that Flint’s ( Mississippi,> or Pike’s ( Ad- 
ventures ) were vigorous bits of proper national 
literature, that the Constitution of the United 
States or John Adams’ proposals for the State 
constitutions were American literature, as much 
as the Waverley Novels belong to Scotch litera¬ 
ture, or Petrarch’s < Sonnets ) to Italian literature. 
But by the middle of the 19th century, people 
had found out that literature is not a thing by 
itself to be worshipped and loved like some 
lonely classical statue in some separate shrine 
in a gallery, but that literature is simply the 
expression of what is. In the matter of Ameri¬ 
can literature it proved that Americans had to 
state for the world the foundation principles of 
government. They had to describe for the world 
physical features of a continent of which the 
larger world knew nothing. And even the lan¬ 
guage in which they spoke would bear the marks 
of the climate, the soil, and the history of that 
continent. So soon as we throw aside the follies 
of talking about literature as literature and of 
worshipping it as a separate idol, so soon Amer¬ 
ican literature can be spoken of as a thing 
in any sort distinct from the literature of the 
feudal system or other literature of the ancient 
world. 

To review in the very briefest way the lit¬ 
erary advance of the nation from the era of 
independence to the 9th of March 1904, we have 
to look first at the speeches and letters and 
pamphlets of the statesmen; and next at the 
reports of the explorers. There are individual 
poems and a few sporadic books in prose which 
linger in the remembrance of antiquaries,— 
Philip Frenau’s Revolution poems, one or two 
sermons, perhaps may be classed among such 
memorials. To speak in a broader sense the 
first work of Irving stands as the first work in 
the large calendar of our modern literature. 
His amusing studies of early New York were 
known then, but the < Sketch Book 5 as it was 
published in Londonin the years between 1820 
and 1822 at once obtained a wide reputation, both 
in London and in America. Irving showed 
from the first that he could handle American 
subjects with a pen as light and a fancy as 
charming as gave life to Bracebridge Hall 


or his other English studies. In 1825, when 
Navarrete first published in Madrid the original 
documents of Columbus’ voyage, Alexander H. 
Everett, who was then our Minister in Spain, 
called Irving’s attention to these invaluable 
memoirs and suggested his work on the life of 
Columbus. Irving went at once to Madrid and 
was attached to the American Legation, there 
while he studied the subject which is so closely 
identified with his name. And afterward, when 
the Spanish people received him as our Minister 
there, he enjoyed his well deserved fame. Here 
was an American who could meet English 
writers on their own terms. Irving was master 
as well as they of whatever is meant by style or 
method in literature, whatever secret of the 
guild there is. 

In our time there is no longer a patron who 
shall endow a book as an emperor might endow 
an opera house at his capital. For a time or a 
nation without patrons, you must have such 
patronage of the public in advance as Dr. 
Dwight sought for with his subscription book; 
or, as it has proved, in 150 years, you must have 
magazines. This means, if one speaks to the 
Philistines, that you cannot have large whole¬ 
sale business, no, and you cannot have manu¬ 
factures unless there be retail business. Dr. 
Johnson and Oliver Goldsmith had found this 
out when they worked for Cave and the ( Gen¬ 
tleman’s Magazine. 5 (See Periodical Litera¬ 
ture.) One and another adventurer tried the 
magazine experiment in Boston, or Philadelphia 
or New York. But alas, the printers of the 
magazines were almost as poor as the authors 
were. The people of the country also were very 
poor in other affairs. As late as 1834 Dr- 
Holmes wrote for the ( New England Magazine 5 
the first papers in the < Autocrat of the Break¬ 
fast Table. 5 But the ( New England Magazine, 5 
even with such contributors, died for want of 
readers. The new series of the Autocrat, in 
1857, begins with the words, <( As I was saying 
when you interrupted me, 55 which referred to 
the death of the first series a quarter century 
before. Still, the names of those old magazines 
are interesting grave stones which show the 
roadway for a struggling national literature. 
The ( Harvard Register 5 of 1807 is one of the 
earliest. The Lyceum follows the Collegian, 
Harvardiana, and now almost every university 
gives this excellent field for the tournament of 
squires and even of pages who look forward to 
golden spurs of knighthood. A few lines of the 
Harvard Lyceum 5 of 1810 may be worth copy¬ 
ing. They are from a clever parody of Barlow’s 
( Columbiad 5 and describe an early steamboat. 
They are among the boy amusements of Edward 
Everett. 

So where high Hudson belts his hundred hills, 

Winds his wide wave, and York’s broad bason fills; 
With engine force the fluid fields to plough, 

The mighty Steam-boat points his sailless prow. 

Knees from the winds no gales, the sea no tides, 

Whirls the wheel oar, and o’er the river rides. 

Lo with what art the nice machinery turns, 

With what fierce force the pitchy pine pole burns. 
See the black Boiler, in whose darksome womb, 

The prison’d water vapours into fume: 

The hollow Cylinder, whose shining side 

Cramps the crook’d Chain, and turns the densing tide: 

Etc., etc., etc. 

Of those of the magazines proper which were 
manfully and loyally sustained for many years 
is the Knickerbocker 5 which was published in 
New York monthly for several years. Most 


AMERICAN LITERATURE 


of the authors who won distinction in the litera¬ 
ture of the century made their maiden contribu¬ 
tions to its pages. In Boston a beginning, which 
proved to be a foundation, was made in the issue 
of the ( Monthly Anthology, } of which the first 
number was printed in 1809. It was the work 
of a literary club, and it is very creditable to the 
literary life of the day. Some original trans¬ 
lations from the minor poems of the great Ger¬ 
man poets slipped in. And by this time, Amer¬ 
ica had found out the resources of the German 
colleges. George Bancroft, Frederick Hedge, 
Edward Everett, Henry F. Quitman, George 
Ticknor studied in the German colleges. The 
success of the ( Anthology > and perhaps a cer¬ 
tain jealousy of the literary tyranny of the 
( London Quarterly } and the ( Edinburgh Re- 
view ) led William Tudor, with the spirited 
young fellows who wrote for the < Anthology, ) 
to announce the ( North American Review > of 
which the first number was published in 1815. 
It may be said of the ( North American Review ) 
that a desire to imitate the English quarterlies 
weakened it for perhaps a quarter of a century. 
But its tone was always dignified and on really 
national questions it was American. In the 
earlier numbers of the < Review ) it admitted 
poetry and some short articles which did not 
pretend to be criticism of books. The suc¬ 
cessive editors of the ( Review > were William 
Tudor, Edward Tyrrel Channing, Edward 
Everett, Jared Sparks, John G. Palfrey, Francis 
Bowen, Andrew Preston Peabody and Alex¬ 
ander Everett, and James Russell Lowell. A 
few years after the Civil War it was removed 
from Boston to New York under the direc¬ 
tion and charge of Allen Thorndike Rice. In 
Philadelphia what was called the ( American 
Quarterly Review* was published under similar 
auspices. 

Meanwhile what had attracted attention at 
once to a very great extent was the success of 
Cooper’s novels. The later novels of Scott 
were still engaging the attention of readers when 
Cooper’s earlier stories were published. He 
had left Yale College without a degree, disgusted 
with something or other as youngsters are apt 
to be in colleges, and had joined the United 
States navy. This as it proved, was fortunate 
for the literature of America. After the short 
war with England, he was stationed on Lake 
Ontario, which was at that time in the wilder¬ 
ness. At his father’s home he had already made 
acquaintance with the wrecks of the Six Nation 
Indians (q.v.). At Oswego he fell in somehow 
with the last of the Mohicans. His study of a 
real forest and his studies of the forecastle 
of American ships are both genuinely national, 
and although he could not resist the spell of the 
<( great enchanter,** and imitated Sir Walter Scott 
whenever he got a chance, the early Cooper 
novels have the great charm of being interesting. 
To this hour the school boy reads them as his 
grandfather read them and regards them among 
his best friends. In Cooper’s later novels there 
may be seen a tinge of ill temper because he 
fancied that he had not been esteemed fairly by 
his own countrymen. But the early novels have 
established themselves in a well assured place 
in the literature of his country. Few people 
remember them, but it is said that the German 
novels on American subjects by Sealsfield (q.v.) 
were the inducement for a time of the great 
German emigration which began as soon as 


these spirited books began to be printed. His 
German name was Karl Postel. 

Meanwhile the leaders of the nation had 
found out that a republic stands or falls accord¬ 
ing to the education of its people. It is impos¬ 
sible to estimate the change produced by the 
early determination of the more civilized States 
to improve the education of every child born in 
their borders. At the beginning of the century 
you might say that there was nobody to buy 
books, even if angels or archangels had de¬ 
scended from heaven to write them. But even 
in the middle of the century an army of readers, 
men and women, had been created. It began to 
be evident that a good book in the English lan¬ 
guage had more readers in America than it had 
in England. It began to appear that the reputa¬ 
tions of English writers depended quite as much 
upon the American readers as upon those of the 
British Islands. Scott, Byron, Wordsworth, 
Coleridge, and Southey, had more readers on 
this side of the ocean than on their own. The 
same was true later of Macaulay’s history 1 * 
and of other books of permanent value. Disraeli 
said as early as 1845 that America was the pres¬ 
ent posterity for the Englishman,— that an Eng¬ 
lish author knew what posterity would think of 
him by learning what the American of to-day 
thought of him. The creation of such a body 
of readers led to the growth of a genuine Amer¬ 
ican demand for what could be called an Amer¬ 
ican literature. A school of history grew up 
first in which Irving had led the way in which 
the great historical addresses of Webster and 
the Everetts and other orators were an essential 
part. The subserviency to English critics di¬ 
minished as more and more scholars came from 
France and Germany. It would be fair to say 
that Bancroft, Prescott and Motley, as histo¬ 
rians, Emerson as a philosopher, Longfellow, 
Lowell, Holmes, and Whittier as poets, made a 
distinct American school after the year 1830 
when Bancroft announced his plan for his his¬ 
tory, or more definitely perhaps in 1833. So far 
as this was a New England school it was some¬ 
what affected by the literature of the Continent 
of Europe, but this effect has been overstated. 
Emerson was not at all indebted to Germany 
in his work. Longfellow’s poems are distinctly 
American when they are not translations. 
Lowell won his English reputation by the ad¬ 
mirably national characteristics of the Biglow 
Papers. Still a distinct ripple on the tide of 
literary advance may be found in all the sea¬ 
board States when in the twenties of the last 
century, the Holy Alliance (q.v.) exiled from 
Germany Lieber, Follen, Beck, and some other 
young students who had displeased Metternich. 

What is familiarly galled the Lyceum Sys¬ 
tem introduced an element of value constantly 
increasing in the higher education. It ought to 
be remembered that the Lyceum introduced 
Ralph Waldo Emerson to the people of America 
in a much shorter time perhaps than any pub¬ 
lished writing would have done without its as¬ 
sistance. Where the trustees and faculties of 
colleges would have refused to invite Mr. Emer¬ 
son to speak, the students of college societies 
would gladly send him an invitation. Once 
heard he was of course sure to be remembered. 
Not to speak of other lecturers who were in¬ 
structing all the northern states, arousing curi¬ 
osity as to subjects on which they hardly touch¬ 
ed, Ralph Waldo Emerson when he took up the 


AMERICAN LITERATURE 


work of a prophet unlimited by the restrictions 
of the priesthood led the way in a revelation 
which has affected all the literature of his time, 
whether in America or in England. In the 
smaller New England circle, Margaret Fuller, 
afterward the Countess Ossoli, by (( conversa- 
tions® and published essays called the attention 
of many young people to the wider realms of 
thought and especially to the more modern 
movements of philosophy and literature. 

With the existence of a sufficient body of 
readers large circulations became possible for 
magazines. The first which succeeded pecuni¬ 
arily were those who told the most stories, and 
it was on 'the basis of story telling that the 
Southern Literary Magazine^ ( Graham’s Maga¬ 
zine. } the ( Godey’s Ladies’ Book,* and the 
Boston Miscellany of Literature and Fashion ) 
came into being and by their success with the 
public created the literary magazine of to-day. 
When a Boston publisher could say in 1841, (< We 
sell 1,000 copies every month to the Lowell fac¬ 
tory girls,® the word was spoken which showed 
that a sufficient supply of readers is necessary 
in the creation of a literature, and will in its 
time bring into being a sufficient number of 
writers. The Knickerbocker,* the ( New Eng¬ 
land Magazine,* and the ( Port-Folio* had failed 
to enlist anything like the public support which 
waited on all decent magazine work after the 
public schools had created their army of readers. 
One and another ineffectual effort was made to 
turn away the current of the English magazines 
and to introduce an American circulation in its 
stead. It is interesting to see that the early 
numbers of < Harper > were written almost 
wholly by English writers and large editions of 
( Fraser’s Magazine,* of the ( Dublin University 
Magazine,* and of < Blackwood ) still made up 
the popular reading of the reading rooms. But 
in 1857 the ( Atlantic Monthly ) was created with 
such writers as Bancroft, Prescott, Motley, 
Holmes, Lowell, and Longfellow among its 
very earliest contributors, and one may say, 
on its working staff. Lowell was an office 
editor of the < Atlantic.* ( Putnam’s Maga¬ 
zine, } in New York, sprang full armed into 
existence It introduced itself by an article 
which awakened curiosity, and perhaps one may 
say national pride, on the question, (( Have we 
a Bourbon among us?® From that day to this, 
magazine literature has held an important part 
in the work of the better literary men of 
America. 

The short story had been invented in Eng¬ 
land. The serial story as Dickens and Thack¬ 
eray had shown, gave admirable opportunities 
for feeling the public pulse. It is amusing to¬ 
day to read that the publishers of the ( Anti¬ 
slavery Standard* doubted whether they should 
pay James Lowell $400 a year for his contribu¬ 
tions to that journal, contributions among which 
are some of the best poems which he ever wrote. 
This is only one among the many illustrations 
which peep out from the books of biography as 
to what Dr. Johnson or Goldsmith would have 
called the patronage of the readers of maga¬ 
zines and their editors. The encouragement to 
authors was little but it was enough. In the 
year 1849-50 the people who read anti-slavery 
newspapers began to talk of the serial issues in 
which the story of ( Uncle Tom’s Cabin ) was 
going forward in a newspaper called ( The Na¬ 
tional Era.* The southern writers on the Civil 


War ascribe to that book the complete change 
in American politics and in the questions which 
led to the war which belongs to the middle of the 
century. In 1851 the story was published in 
book form and at once became known not simply 
in America but in England and in all the litera¬ 
ture of the civilized world by means of transla¬ 
tions. Its circulation in England, for instance, 
was the first circulation of a book on what was 
called popular prices. One edition of it ap¬ 
peared in a newspaper issue at the cost of one 
penny a copy. Mrs. Stowe’s supremacy as a 
writer of fiction established itself at once and 
from that moment to this, American literature 
can make the boast that it has furnished the 
book of which more copies have been printed 
than of any other book which originated in the 
English language. It is a little curious that its 
only possible rival, if one considers simply the 
number of copies printed, is ( Robinson Crusoe.* 
Mrs. Stowe’s story is that of a fugitive slave; 
Defoe’s story is that of a shipwrecked slave 
trader. Since the issue of ( Uncle Tom’s Cabin ) 
no American writer has cared to show his ac¬ 
quaintance with the etiquettes of marquises and 
dukes. The temptations of travel give to the 
American readers every now and then a good 
book as where ( Daisy Miller* takes them by 
night into the Coliseum, or when husband and 
wife stray together in the gardens of a German 
watering place. But no American writer selects 
a European scene from any wish to work for 
the sympathies of European readers. On our 
own continent our historians find their themes, 
our novelists their interests. With the Civil 
War the dependence upon English criticism 
and the respect for it died in a night. Up till 
that time, young America had permitted the dis¬ 
tance of the writer to be warrant for his edu¬ 
cation and his judgment. At that time in the 
nation’s struggle for its existence, it received 
no sympathy from the writers of England. They 
had been trained under feudal institutions and 
they were glad and pleased that democratic insti¬ 
tutions were to fail. The young men and women 
of America learned that for the criticism or for 
the education which belonged to this nation, they 
must study their own country. In truth the 
society of America is American society, the laws 
of America are American laws. Its prospects 
and hopes are those of a democracy. As the 
strata of its rocks and the growth of its trees 
are different from those of England, so are the 
foundations of the state and the customs of its 
administration. It is impossible here to consider 
in the least detail the methods of different 
writers who have won the love and admiration 
of their countrymen in the years which have 
followed. 

The central observation is that as soon as 
America furnished readers enough a proper 
American literature followed the demand. As 
soon as the system of the country made possible 
first-rate printing offices in rivalry with the best 
printing houses < in England, the American de¬ 
mand for American books could be answered at 
home. In naming Cooper and Irving we have 
named the _ two writers distinctly American 
whose published work was first everywhere 
known. Other authors printed their books which 
were forgotten. There was perhaps something 
ludicrous in the effort to create aboriginal en¬ 
thusiasms which did not exist. For instance, any 
early copy of the ( North American Review * 


AMERICAN LITERATURE 


will show the standing advertisement on the cover 
that the publishers had a (< supply of the 
( amoydeiP kept constantly on hand.® The 
c \amoyden ) was a poem on a supposed hero 
or heroine of Algonquin origin named the 
<( \amoyden.® But the publishers spoke of the 
volume as a commission house might speak of so 
many bushels of wheat or of barley. Books or 
essays of purely American type struggled into 
existence and some of them are still remem¬ 
bered. Edgar Allan Poe was born in the year 
1809 and died in the year 1849. Warren Bur¬ 
ton s ( District School,* Mrs. Gilman’s ( New 
England ^ Housekeeper,* some of James K. 
Paulding’s sketches and essays were distinctly 
American. Mrs. Sedgwick and Miss Sedgwick 
wrote admirable and unaffected books. Ed¬ 
ward Everett and Alexander H. Everett 
with all the advantages of early European 
training were thoroughly American in their 
orations and in the work which they did in the 
( North American Review. ) That ( Review ) it¬ 
self while it imitated aspects of the English 
quarterlies always carried an American chip on 
the shoulder and defied all foreign travelers or 
foreign critics who did not find perfection in 
everything American. A story of pure Amer¬ 
ican life, most instructive to the student of that 
older time is Sylvester Judd’s story of Mar¬ 
garet, a Tale of the Real and Ideal, Blight and 
Bloom. ) Judd was a poet, but this prose novel 
has proved his best work. 

The exquisite genius of Nathaniel Haw¬ 
thorne would have worked its way through any 
difficulties. In his own nation his favorite 
earlier subjects drawn so largely from the tradi¬ 
tions of the early centuries, undoubtedly had 
their share in introducing him to the great body 
of readers. So soon as he traveled abroad, he 
showed that he could handle any traditions and 
was at home in any atmosphere. As in all work 
of men of genius his temperament and as he 
says, the traditions of his life, governed to a cer¬ 
tain extent his choice of subject. But always 
it is Hawthorne who is the master and fascinates 
the reader; and there is no other Hawthorne. 
In other instances perhaps a certain charm is 
given in English circles to the naivete of what 
one may call the frontier habit of the American 
writer. Walt Whitman had an affectation of 
expressing a disgust which he did not really feel 
with all the conventionalities and institutions 
which did not smell of the pine knot or of kero- 
sine. He is said to be better known in England 
than in America. This is somewhat as it has 
happened with an American preacher like 
Moody and others who could be named, who has 
won attention even by the accent of his voice. 
After he had won attention abroad he needed 
nothing more. We may say again that this is 
no place to enter into an analysis or other dis¬ 
cussion of the work of different American 
authors and of their hold upon the national 
life. When one remembers that no prose writer 
of our country is more likely to be generally 
read three centuries hence than the despatches 
of Ulysses Simpson Grant, he hesitates before 
he shall say who are the literary men. Give 
time enough and Washington becomes a lit¬ 
erary man, and Judge Marshall. But 
this may be said, that of the 29 heroes 
in the New York Hall of Fame, Thomas 
Jefferson, James Kent, Joseph Story, Asa 


Gray, Jonathan Edwards, William Ellery 
Charming, Horace Mann, Henry Ward Beecher, 
Ralph Waldo Emerson, Nathaniel Hawthorne, 
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, and Washington 
Irving, would not have been named among the 
most distinguished Americans except for their 
work with the pen. Franklin might be num¬ 
bered as a naturalist, Washington or Grant 
as soldiers; but the 12 who have been named 
won their place simply as authors. And every 
one who is in any way familiar with their work 
understands that this work is distinctly Amer¬ 
ican. You could not mistake it. If you read 
25 pages from any of these authors, you would 
know that he was brought up under the insti¬ 
tutions of a Republic and that the width of 
horizon, may one say, comes in as a part of the 
atmosphere to which in the omnipotence of 
God the American is accustomed. In naming 
those to whom the country owes the growth 
of its literary taste, the charm of great 
travelers and great historians should be added 
to the great statesmen. But the list as far as 
it goes is not useless, for it shows what is the 
current of average feeling of the people of 
America. The people of America is sovereign 
of America and as everywhere the sovereign is 
the fountain of honor. We could choose no 
better instance of the encouragement given by 
the people to the author of first-rate genius and 
ability than is found in the literary career of 
John Fiske. Fiske owed none of his suc¬ 
cess to official position. No distinguished re¬ 
view called attention to the way a young man 
needed encouragement, but simply Fiske had a 
great deal to say and he said it. And by the 
time he said it there was a nation of people 
who had been educated to appreciate and enjoy 
what he said. He used to say that even in his 
young life he was looking forward to history as 
the study which he was to pursue through his 
life. The opportunity came for the gratification 
of this passion. He seized upon the opportunity, 
and the American people recognized the hand 
of a master. But Fiske was not to be shut up 
within any narrow range of study or of author¬ 
ship. He had his own views of life and 
duty, of ethics and of destiny, and he wrote 
them down. He said what he wanted to say in. 
a form which won the sympathy of all thought¬ 
ful people, and there were enough readers trained 
to careful thought to welcome the gifts which 
in such service he made to the nation. Perhaps 
in speaking of this instance we are speaking 
simply of the step forward which the conscience 
and heart of the whole nation made in obedi¬ 
ence to the word of Ralph Waldo Emerson, 
who gained a welcome in all quarters,— in the 
miner’s cabin or in the sanctum of kiln-dried 
seminaries. It has been said that of the early 
rvolumes of Emerson’s < Essays ) millions of 
copies might be found to-day in the hands of 
the most ignorant or the most learned men and 
millions of men who never heard his name are 
living under the inspiration of his prophecies. 
It is said by the English critics that Mr. Long¬ 
fellow’s poems are better known by the people 
of England than are Lord Tennyson’s. Perhaps 
this is true. 

It has also been curiously true that more 
than one English reputation has been first 
made in America. Carlyle’s first _ books were 
well known here before the critics of Eng- 


AMERICAN MANUFACTURES 


land honored them with their approval. The 
English writers whined a good deal so long as 
they had no protection at American law for 
their copyrights. This nation was creating a 
reading class at an expense such as monarcha 
never dreamed of, such as England has never 
thought of, and it was the fashion to chide 
Americans because at the outset they did not 
throw open the market thus created to the 
writers of a nation where there was not one 
reader for a hundred in America. The Inter¬ 
national Copyright Act has remedied this griev¬ 
ance. But it has not proved that either the 
English or American author has gained readers 
by any of the accidents of publication. The 
rule holds which Abraham Lincoln laid down 
so well that the people who like that sort of 
thing will read that sort of thing. But so far 
as statistics of the trade in books go, it is evi¬ 
dent that the rank and file of American readers 
are interested in American subjects treated by 
writers who feel the American impulse and 
were early baptized in the ways of democracy. 
It is more necessary to say this in this article 
because so much of the less important writing 
for the American daily press of this century 
is from the pens of men who are educated in 
the British Islands or on the Continent of Eu¬ 
rope. Such men do not fully understand the 
spirit of the life in which they live and neces¬ 
sarily treat its questions as foreigners. 

Of writers now living it is hardly becoming 
to speak in these pages. The first novelist of 
this generation born in Ohio, cradled in the 
midst of the matchless resources of that empire 
State, still lives young and vigorous, to delight 
the readers of the English language in all parts 
of the world. He has occasionally toyed with 
European scenery and experience, but his work 
is the work of a true democrat trained to know 
that men live for each other and in the 20th 
century each man has to live for each and each 
for all. After you cross the Mississippi River, 
when you buy your morning newspaper, the 
chances are that you find no reference in it to 
any lands on the eastern side of the Atlantic 
or the western side of the Pacific. The journal¬ 
ists of that region also have their affectation 
which compels them to leave Europe and Asia 
disregarded as they might disregard the govern¬ 
ments of Sesostris or of Nebuchadnezzar. For 
even the names of the leading writers of to-day, 
whose works are far too numerous to be cata¬ 
logued here, we must refer the reader to those 
names separately as they will appear on differ¬ 
ent pages of this encyclopedia. 

Edward Everett Hale, 

Author of ( The Man Without a Country P 

1 

American Manufactures. The 12th census 
marked the close of the first complete century 
of manufactures in the United States. It thus 
became the most important statistical basis by 
which to measure the future advancement of 
American industry. It was with these words 
that the final report of the 12th census on manu¬ 
factures began. It might have been added that 
the 12th census is the first to occur since the 
United States has become distinctly a manu¬ 
facturing nation and has produced a surplus of 
manufactured goods with which it has entered 
the world’s trade to acquire foreign markets. 

History .— In 1791, when Alexander Hamil¬ 


ton submitted his celebrated “Report on Manu¬ 
factures® to Congress, he was able to refer to 
the household system of manufacture by means 
of which each family unit supplied many of its 
own needs; and he described the remarkable de¬ 
velopment of this type of manufacture in south¬ 
ern New England, where considerable quantities 
of coarse cloth, clothing, and nails were pro¬ 
duced. In addition to this, some twenty indus¬ 
tries were mentioned which had reached a con¬ 
siderable development, involving special build¬ 
ings, the division of labor, the ingathering of 
raw materials from distant localities, and 
the distribution of the manufactured articles 
throughout the States. 

While this was a respectable beginning, the 
chief task of the American people for at least 
five decades was to push forward the frontier. 
Up to 1840 this work went on. By that time 
compact settlement had reached the Mississippi 
River, and the further growth of population re¬ 
quired the building of railways and the estab¬ 
lishment of manufactures. By 1850 the chief 
forms of labor-saving agricultural implements of 
American origin were introduced and began 
their work of liberating an increasing proportion 
of the population from agriculture. The Civil 
War increased the need of the country for man¬ 
ufactured articles, and, accompanied as it was 
by a high tariff to provide government revenue, 
provided a powerful impulse to develop home 
manufactures. Down to 1880 agriculture w r as 
the chief source of wealth in this country. The 
last two censuses have shown manufacture to 
be dominant. In 1900 the value of agricultural 
products was $4,700,000,000; the net value of 
manufactured products was $5,900,000,000. 

We may group our industrial history into 
periods, therefore, roughly as follows: 

1609—1789 Colonial period. 

1790—1840 Period of western settlement. 

Agriculture for home consumption except 
cotton. 

1840—1880 Period of agricultural dominance. 

Large export of raw materials. 
r88o—1900 Dominance of manufactures for home use. 

1900— Period of foreign trade in manufactures as well 

as raw materials. 

General Comparisons .— To gather some of 
the chief results of the recent census investiga¬ 
tion into a few sentences we may say that when 
we speak of “American manufactures® we mean 
512,339 establishments, using $9,835,086,909 of 
capital, and involving the labor of 397,174 offi¬ 
cials and clerks and 5,316,802 wage-earners. 
This vast equipment consumes $7,348,144,755 
worth of raw materials annually and makes out 
of the same manufactured products worth al¬ 
together $13,014,287,498. These figures all show 
a healthy increase over those of 1890. There 
are 44 per cent more establishments now than 
then; 50 per cent more capital is used; a fourth 
more wage-earners are employed; and the an¬ 
nual value of the gross product is 40 per cent 
more than in 1890. 

In 1810 the manufactured goods produced in 
this country were worth $27.58 per capita of the 
population, or $165.48 for the average family. 
In i860 manufactures were worth $60.06 per 
capita, or $318.32 for the average-sized family 
of that period. In 1890 the per capita value 
was $149.72, or, for a family of 4.9 persons, 
$733-63- In 1900 the per capita value of manu- 


AMERICAN MANUFACTURES 


factured goods was $172.21, or $809.39 for the 
average family of 4.7 persons. 

Classification of Establishments. — There are 
three ways in which manufacturing establish¬ 
ments may be classified: 

1. According to the general economic class 
to which they belong. 

The 512,254 establishments considered by the 
census as ^manufacturing establishments,® in the 
strict meaning of the term, are divided into: 


Household industries and repairing. 215,810 

Manufacturing — other. 296,444 

To these we may add small establishments pro¬ 
ducing annually goods valued at less than $500. 127,419 

Government establishments. 138 

Educational, charitable and penal establishments. 383 


2. The second classification of establishments 
is according to the form of organization em¬ 
ployed. It is as follows: 

Individual ownership. 372,703 

Partnership. 96,715 

Company or corporation. 40,743 

Co-operative association. *,765 

Miscellaneous. 174 

The corporation is the form in which the 
larger businesses are usually organized, and con¬ 
trols 59.5 per cent of the product. Co-operative 
associations are confined to the manufacture of 
butter, cheese, and condensed milk. 

3. The third classification is according to in¬ 
dustry. The 12th census has given us for the 
first time a carefully digested grouping of manu¬ 
factures, as follows: 

(1) Food and kindred products, (2) textiles, 
(3) iron and steel, (4) lumber, (5) leather, (6) 
paper and printing, (7) liquor and beverages, 
(8) chemicals, (9) clay, glass, and stone, (10) 
metals other than iron and steel, (11) tobacco, 
(12) vehicles for land use, (13) ship-building, 
(14) miscellaneous, (15) hand trades. Of these 
classes the most numerous, excepting the hand 
trades, is the first, (( food and kindred products,® 
with 61,302 establishments. The least numerous 
is that of ship-building, in which there are 1.116. 

The Manufacturing Population. — The statis¬ 
tics show that 29,000,000 persons over 10 years 
of age are engaged in productive industry. A 
little over a third of these are in agriculture, a 
fifth are in domestic and personal service, a fifth 
are in trade and transportation (16.4 per cent) 
and the professions (4.3 per cent) combined, 
and a fourth are in manufactures and the me¬ 
chanical pursuits, including mining. 

To this latter fourth belong the 5,713,976 per¬ 
sons engaged in manufacture. In the last 20 
years the number of persons in professions, 
trade, transportation, and manufacture has 
increased relatively. The number of persons in 
agriculture has decreased relatively. The do¬ 
mestic and personal service class has remained 
constant. 

The proportion of men, women, and children 
in manufacturing establishments is such that if 
a given establishment employing 100 persons 
desired the typical division of men, women, and 
children, it would be obliged to employ 77 men 
over 16 years of age, 20 women over 16 years 
of age, and three children under 16. 

Power. — Half of our manufacturing institu¬ 
tions use power of some sort to ^supplement 
hand labor. So liberally and skilfully is power 


used in the United States that the average out¬ 
put per employee is between three and five times 
what it is in England. The most prominent 
fact in the evolution of sources and forms of 
power is the increase in the use of electricity. 

Growth of Large Establishments. — The cen¬ 
sus shows the increase in the size of plants by 
showing that, while the product of manufacture 
has been increasing in almost all lines, the num¬ 
ber of establishments has been declining in 
many of them. There was in 1900 a smaller 
number of establishments than in 1890 manufac¬ 
turing agricultural implements, boots and shoes, 
carpets, glass, iron and steel, leather, woolens, 
and the products of slaughtering and meat-pack¬ 
ing; nevertheless in each of these industries 
the average capital, the average number of em¬ 
ployees, and the average product per establish¬ 
ment increased, and the total product of each of 
these industries increased. 

A more direct but not more positive proof of 
this tendency is shown by the enumeration of 
large establishments. In 1900 there were 452 
plants in each of which over 1,000 employees 
worked. Of these 120 were in textile manufac¬ 
ture (one in New Hampshire employing 7,268 
persons), 103 were in irc~ and steel manufacture 
(one in Ohio having 7,477 persons), 48 were in 
vehicle manufacture, 29 in food products, 20 in 
metals other than iron and steel, and 13:2 in mis¬ 
cellaneous lines. 

Turning to the question of industrial com¬ 
binations we find some interesting statistics in 
the census. A list of 185 such organizations is 
presented. They controlled 2,040 plants, pos¬ 
sessed a combined capital of $1,436,625,910, em¬ 
ployed 400,000 wage-earners and 24,640 officials, 
and manufactured products annually valued at 
$1,667,350,949. That is to say, 8.4 per cent of 
the wage-earners engaged in manufacturing in 
America were employed by these combinations, 
and 14.1 per cent of the value of our manufac¬ 
tures originated with them. The census report 
does not include the United States Steel Corpo¬ 
ration or any other combination organized dur¬ 
ing or since the census year. The steel corpo¬ 
ration is largely covered by the above figures, 
how'ever, since most of its constituent companies 
rank as combinations. The great dividend- 
payers among the (( trusts® in 1900 were the 
Standard Oil Company, American Steel and 
Wire Company, Federal Steel Company, Amer¬ 
ican Sugar Refining Company, Amalgamated 
Copper Company, Pullman Company, American 
Tobacco Company, Continental Tobacco Com¬ 
pany, and the United States Leather Company. 

Localisation of Manufactures. — The indus¬ 
tries of the United States are generally 
strongly localized in certain regions. This tend¬ 
ency to develop a territorial division of labor 
has always been marked in this country, in 
agriculture as well as in manufactures. The 
causes which lead to the location of industry in 
certain places are enumerated by the census: 

1. Nearness to Materials. — This is illustrated 
by the oyster-canning of Baltimore. 

2. Nearness to Market. — The agricultural 
implement manufacturers of Chicago find their 
best market in the region which is tributary to 
that city. 

3. Water Pozuer. — Fall River, Mass., with 
its textile manufacture, Cohoes, N. Y., with its 










AMERICAN MANUFACTURES 


knitting industry, and Niagara Falls, with its 
electro-chemical industries, have resulted from 
the utilization of water-power. 

4. Favorable Climate .— The Piedmont sec¬ 
tion of the South attracts cotton mills, not only 
because of its nearness to materials and its 
water-powers, but because of its favorable cli¬ 
mate. 

5. Supply of Labor .— The garment trades are 
largely monopolized by New York, Philadel¬ 
phia, and other large cities on the coast, because 
there a large population of foreign birth, with 
low standards of living, furnish adequate sup¬ 
plies of cheap labor. 

6. Capital Available for Investment in Manu¬ 
facture .— When the whaling industry declined, 
New Bedford, which had become wealthy by 
means of it and was ranked as one of the richest 
cities in the United States, put considerable of 
its capital into cotton manufacturing. The city 
of Chicago was not able to surpass Cincinnati 
as the centre of the pork-packing industry in 
the West until the local banks acquired enough 
money to aid the packers in carrying the enor¬ 
mous financial load of buying the raw materials, 
which for that business constitutes about 75 
per cent of the value of the finished product. 

7. Momentum of an Early Start .— Sir Wil¬ 
liam Johnston early brought glovers from Eng¬ 
land to Johnstown, N. Y., and started the indus¬ 
try for which that city and Amsterdam and 
Gloversville are now noted. Had the celebrated 
<( shoemaker of Lynn® settled in a neighboring 
village, Lynn might not now signify shoes wher¬ 
ever the name is heard. 

If we examine a map showing the location 
of American manufactures we shall observe that 
they are markedly concentrated along the At¬ 
lantic seaboard, from the middle of Maine to 
the latitude of Baltimore, and covering a region 
extending perhaps 100 miles back from the coast. 
West of this an irregular belt of country, in¬ 
cluding middle New York, western Pennsyl¬ 
vania, and northeastern Ohio, stands out promi¬ 
nently. Passing still farther west we find the 
manufactures not so evenly distributed, but 
rather concentrated at certain points, such as 
Cincinnati, Louisville, the gas belt of Indiana, 
Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Louis, Minneapolis, 
Kansas City, and Omaha. The South shows a 
large number of small, rather isolated manufac¬ 
turing localities. These occur most frequently 
upon the Piedmont plateau, from southern Vir¬ 
ginia to northern Alabama. In the Rocky 
Mountain States and the region west of them, 
five centres stand out separated from one an¬ 
other by wide intervals of undeveloped country. 
They are the middle portion of Colorado, Salt 
Lake valley, the Butte region of Montana, the 
Puget Sound and Columbia River cities, and 
San Francisco, with the adjacent cities from 
Sacramento to Alameda. 

The national centre of manufactures has been 
fixed at a point east of the middle of Ohio, about 
25 miles southeast of Mansfield. It has moved 
west only about 40 miles in 10 years. The 
centre of population lies 200 miles southwest of 
this, at a point about 8 miles from Columbus, 
Ind. 

California is first in preserving vegetables 
and fruits, vinous liquors, lead smelting and re¬ 
fining. 


Connecticut is first in ammunition, brass- 
ware, clocks, corsets, cutlery, needles and pins, 
and hardware. 

New York is first in 31 industries, among 
which are butter and cheese, gloves, factory- 
made clothing, furniture, chemicals, hosiery, 
malt liquors, lithographing, printing and publish¬ 
ing, millinery and lace goods, paper and pulp, 
patent medicines, soap and candles, sugar re¬ 
fining, cigars and cigarettes. 

Illinois is first in the manufacture of agri¬ 
cultural implements, bicycles, cars, glucose, and 
distilled liquors, and in slaughtering and meat¬ 
packing. 

Wisconsin is first in lumber and timber prod¬ 
ucts. 

Minnesota leads in flouring and grist-mills. 

Texas leads in cotton-ginning and the manu¬ 
facture of products from cotton-seed. 

Some manufactures are limited to very re¬ 
stricted areas, a group of States or a single State 
or even a portion of a State confining them. 
The most highly concentrated industry is the 
making of collars and cuffs, of which 99.6 per 
cent is within New York State and 85.3 per cent 
is in the single city of Troy. 

The tendency to centralize industry has given 
rise to cities which are chiefly devoted to one 
occupation. The city most wholly given up to 
one thing is South Omaha: 89.9 per cent of the 
products of this city are the output of the great 
packing houses located there. A list of cities 
of 20,000 and over in population, in each of which 
40 per cent or over of the industrial products 
belong to one branch of manufacture, is as fol¬ 
lows : 

Shoes — Brockton, Haverhill, and Lynn, 
Mass. 

Agricultural Implements — Springfield, Ohio. 

Collars and Cuffs — Troy, N. Y. 

Cotton Goods—Warwick, R. I., Fall River, 
and New Bedford, Mass., Lewiston, Me., Man¬ 
chester, N. H. 

Fur Hats — Bethel and Danbury, Conn., 
Orange, N. J. 

Glass —• Millville, N. J., Tarentum and Char¬ 
leroi, Pa. 

Knit Goods — Cohoes, N. Y. 

Iron — Youngstown, Ohio, McKeesport, 
Johnstown, New Castle, and Pittsburg, Pa., 
Joliet, Ill., Trenton, N. J. 

Jewelry—North Attleboro >and Attleboro, 
Mass. 

Gloves — Gloversville and Johnstown, N. Y. 

Pottery — East Liverpool, Ohio. 

Silk — West Hoboken and Paterson, N. J. 

Slaughtering and Meat-packing — South 
Omaha, Kansas City, Kan., St. Joseph, Mo. 

Cities .— About one half of the manufactures 
of the United States are turned out in our 100 
largest cities. These cities contain 23 per cent 
of the population. About two thirds of these 
products come from the 209 cities having over 
20,000 population. The greatest concentration 
of a manufacture in cities is found in the case 
of men’s and women’s clothing, hats and caps, 
cars, umbrellas and canes, lithographing and 
engraving. The smallest degree of concentration 
is found in the case of flour- and grist-mills, dis¬ 
tilled liquors, and brick and tile. 

New York city is most cosmopolitan in its 
manufactures, exhibiting the greatest variety of 


AMERICAN MATHEMATICAL SOCIETY — AMERICAN MERCHANT MARINE 


them, and having a number of establishments 
which are the only ones of their kind in the 
country. In 1900 there were 39,776 manufac¬ 
tories in New York city, employing $9,250,000 
capital and 500,000 persons, turning out goods 
annually to the value of $1,371,000,000. The 
most numerous class of establishments in the 
city was for custom work and repairing of boots 
and shoes, of which there were 3,341. There 
were more than 1,000 establishments each for 
the manufacture of cigars, women’s clothing, 
dressmaking, carpentering, men’s clothing, and 
also for plumbing, painting, and blacksmithing. 
There was only one establishment each for the 
manufacture of bells, felt goods, firearms, 
leather-board, and car-fare registers. 

Achievements and the Outlook. — The general 
•causes which have made us a great manufactur¬ 
ing nation, and the advantages which we now 
possess, have been placed under five headings: 

1. Agricultural Resources. 

2. Mineral Resources. — It is plain that a 
country which produces nine tenths of the 
world’s cotton, one third of its coal, one fourth 
of its iron ore, and one half of its copper, and 
a similar generous share of many other things, 
such as lumber, grain, hides, and petroleum, has 
a great advantage in the matter of raw materials 
upon which to set labor and capital at work. 

3. Transportation Facilities. — These include 
the remnants of a neglected canal system, a 
magnificent but scarcely used system of naviga¬ 
ble rivers, amounting to 18,000 miles, and a 
highly important system of Great Lakes, water¬ 
ways extending for 1,000 miles and carrying a 
tonnage <( equal to nearly 40 per cent of that of 
the entire railway system of the United States.» 
Our railway system, constructed with great ra¬ 
pidity between i860 and 1880, is now over a 
third of that of the world. In 1899 the total 
length was 189,295 miles, as against 172,621 in 
Europe, and the cost of moving goods was less 
here than in Europe, being on the average less 
than six mills for carrying one ton a distance of 
one mile. 

4. Freedom of interstate commerce. 

5. Freedom from tradition. 

As an example of American ingenuity we 
may cite the invention of the system of inter¬ 
changeable parts, which has made possible the 
use of complex machinery in agriculture or 
other industries at a distance from machine 
shops or the point of original manufacture. 
Activity, skill, and willingness characterize the 
best type of American workmen, and this will¬ 
ingness is shown in part by a readiness to 
pack bag and baggage and move to those places 
where manufacture can be carried on most eco¬ 
nomically, especially if it be to a large city. 
The organizing ability of American capitalists 
cannot be doubted. There is scarcely an indus¬ 
try upon which the peculiar genius of the Amer¬ 
ican has not wrought an effect. 

In food manufacture we began with the 
slowly revolving millstone, but Oliver Evans 
originated the system of automatic conveyors 
now in use. When later this was coupled with 
the middlings purifier, also of American origin, 
and the Hungarian roller process in a modified 
form, the modern mill first became a reality. 
Here the factory system was first applied to the 
making of cheese and butter, resulting in the 


cheese factory and creamery. An instance of 
a wonderful application of machinery to a com¬ 
plex process is afforded by our slaughtering- 
and meat-packing establishments. 

In textile manufacture we are now the sec¬ 
ond nation in the world in the number of cotton- 
spindles operated, and first in the amount of 
cotton fibre used. 

In iron and steel manufacture we have passed 
our chief rival, Great Britain, several years 
since, and now English ironmasters who visit 
us say that nowhere in the world are labor-sav¬ 
ing devices so masterfully designed and em¬ 
ployed as here. In the using of steel we are 
quite as original. To this the heavy rolling- 
stock, rails, and bridges of American railways 
testify. Here structural steel was first employed 
in buildings. The structures into which the first 
girders went are still standing—Cooper Union 
and Harper’s publishing house in New York 
city. An enormous demand for iron and steel 
is created for agricultural and mining and manu¬ 
facturing machinery, and also for electrical 
equipments and gas and water pipe. Nowhere 
are stoves and ranges made so large and beau¬ 
tiful as here, and nowhere is tin-plate used so 
lavishly. In lumber, leather, paper, and other 
lines the record is similarly encouraging. 

Edward D. Jones, 
University of Michigan. 

American Mathematical Society, an asso¬ 
ciation established in 1888 as a local organiza¬ 
tion in New York, and reorganized in 1894 
under its present name, to encourage an active 
interest in mathematical science. Membership 
400. 

American Medical Association, a society 
organized in 1847 to foster the growth and dif¬ 
fusion of medical knowledge. Membership up¬ 
ward of 12,000. Its chief publication is the 
( JournaP of the association. Office of secre¬ 
tary, Chicago, Ill. 

American Merchant Marine, The. Inter¬ 
national commerce and communication between 
nations by means of ships have always been 
prominent factors in the development and 
growth of a nation, and by their relative im¬ 
portance at any period, the power and position 
of a country among states may be estimated. 
The growth of the mercantile marine of the 
United States after independence had been de¬ 
clared and after the War of 1812 affords ample 
demonstration of this fact, as also does the 
decadence that ensued consequent on the Civil 
War, and contributory causes, the declining 
point of which is definitely located in the decade 
between 1855-65. Prior to this latter period, 
and following on Jay’s treaty of 1794 (q.v.), the 
mercantile marine of the United States de¬ 
veloped at a conspicuous rate. With the excep¬ 
tion of the United Kingdom and her colonies, 
this country possessed the greatest number of 
ships and the largest amount of tonnage among 
the nations of the world, and gave evidence at 
one time of a likelihood of surpassing Great 
Britain in becoming the most extensive carrier 
on the universal ocean. Statistics show that in 
1859, 66.9 per cent, of the foreign commerce of 
the United States in imports and exports was 
carried in American vessels. Six years later, 
after the Civil War. this had been reduced to 


AMERICAN MERCHANT MARINE 


27.5 per cent., and gradually decreased until in 
1901, it reached 8.2 per cent., since when there 
has been'an increase to 10.3 per cent, in 1904. 
From second position, the United States had 
come to rank third after Germany among the 
mercantile powers of the world; in marine 
tonnage being surpassed three to one, and on 
the ocean nine to one, by Great Britain. 

While compensation is found in the marvel¬ 
lous internal progress of the country, the de¬ 
velopment of the American merchant marine 
also exhibits, besides ordinary material growth, 
interesting phases which are worthy of exami¬ 
nation before detailing in outline the carrying 
trade of the United States prior to the Civil 
War, and its subsequent decadence for which 
various measures of relief have been recom¬ 
mended. Before and during the American 
Revolution the international struggle for the 
mastery of the seas precluded any possibility of 
freedom of trade, and one of the greatest op¬ 
ponents to the development of any foreign 
merchant marine than her own was Great 
Britain, now in the first decade of the 20th 
century, with the United States and Japan the 
foremost champions of the principle of the 
<( open door® to the w r hole trade of the world, 
and of freedom and noninterference in com¬ 
mercial affairs. In maritime relations, Great 
Britain was still governed by the navigation 
laws of the 16th century, which had been formu¬ 
lated again Dutch expansion and commerce, while 
generally similar discriminating and retaliatory 
measures were in force among European mari¬ 
time nations against rival merchant marines. 
Of this nature, illustrating the conditions of in¬ 
ternational commercial jurisprudence at the be¬ 
ginning of the 19th century, were the Orders in 
Council, directed against France and the counter 
attack of Napoleon with the Milan decree. 
Great Britain’s claim of the right of search and 
impressment, and the refusal of the United 
States to recognize that right, was one of the 
causes of the War of 1812, and the opposition 
of the United States undoubtedly inaugurated 
the era of oceanic commercial freedom, together 
with the doctrines of free ports and open doors, 
adopted and fostered later by Great Britain and 
so successfully promulgated in the case of China 
during the Boxer agitation of 1900-01 and the 
Russo-Japanese war of 1904-05 by the late 
United States Secretary of State John Hay. 
Great Britain materially assisted, although un¬ 
wittingly, in sustaining the principle of the 
freedom of the merchant marine, when protest¬ 
ing, during the Civil War, against the forcible 
action of Captain Wilkes of the United States 
ship San Jacinto in boarding and searching the 
British steamer Trent for the Confederate com¬ 
missioners James Murray Mason and John 
Slidell who were made prisoners. Secretary of 
State Seward and President Lincoln gracefully 
acceded, although against public opinion, to re¬ 
leasing the prisoners, and in so doing admitted 
that the United States had no right to search a 
British vessel, and per contra Great Britain was 
deprived of the weapons of search and impress¬ 
ment which,. by force majeure, she had so long 
wielded against weaker nations. 

Meanwhile the introduction of steam and .he 
great advances in all branches of engineering 
during the 19th century had contributed largely 
to the development of the merchant marines of 
the world, firstly by the improvement of ship 


locomotion, and secondly by the adoption of 
fixed ocean routes, the building of great ship 
canals, of which the Suez and the projected 
Panama canals are foremost examples, and by 
the improvements in harbors, wharves, dock ap¬ 
pliances and accommodations at the termini of 
commerce. Of equal importance were the suc¬ 
cessive changes from wooden to iron hulls 
(about 1863), yielding larger and stronger ships 
with better and cheaper service; from iron to 
steel hulls, a fresh advantage in economy and 
capacity; the change from paddles to screws 
about 1850; from simple to compound engines 
about 1856, securing increased radius through 
decreased expenses for steam coal; the adoption 
of twin screws since 1889, and the development 
of the turbine steamer since 1895. 

After the conclusion of the War of the 
Revolution, the United States merchant marine 
commenced its national existence. In Maj', 
1789, James Madison, in the House of Repre¬ 
sentatives, stated that only 160,907 tons were 
foreign of the 437,641 tons (including repeated 
voyages) registered as entered in the ports of 
Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, Mary¬ 
land, Virginia, South Carolina, and Georgia. 
(< This circumstance,® continued Mr. Madison, 
<( annexed to our capacity of increasing the quan¬ 
tity of our tonnage, gives us a favorable presage 
of our future independence.® On 31 Dec. 1789, 
the merchant fleet of the United States 
amounted to 201,562 tons, of which 123,893 tons 
were registered for foreign trade, 68,607 tons 
for coasting trade, and the remainder for fish¬ 
eries. By 1795 the tonnage of the United States 
merchant fleet had increased to 747,965 tons, 
and in 1820, notwithstanding the oppressive in¬ 
fluence of the embargo acts, to 1,280,167 tons, 
583,657 tons of which were in foreign trade, 
compared with a tonnage for the entire British 
empire of 2,648,593 tons. Three years later the 
American tonnage (including repeated voyages) 
entering the United States from foreign ports, 
amounted to 810,761 tons, compared with 119,487 
foreign, of which 89,553 tons were British. 

In 1850 the new ships built by the United 
States amounted to 272,218 tons, while those 
built by Great Britain amounted to only 133,695 
tons. These relative positions changed in the 
decade preceding the Civil War; in i860 our 
new tonnage was 214,798, that of Great Britain 
3 OI >535 tons. In 1855, the year of greatest con¬ 
struction, the United States built 2,027 vessels, 
of an aggregate tonnage of 583450, of which 381 
were full-rigged ships. But, by 1859, in a steady 
and rapid decline, without equal in our marine 
history, the product of the yards in four years 
fell to 875 vessels, of 156,602 tons, of which only 
89 were full-rigged ships. In i860 the new 
tonnage rose to 214,798, the steam fleet aggre¬ 
gating 867,937. tons, of which 97,296 tons were 
registered against a total steam tonnage of only 
500,144 for the entire British empire. The de¬ 
cline of 1859 was not to be attributed to the 
substitution of steam for sail, this country, as 
the home of Robert Fulton, easily taking and 
maintaining the first rank in the early years of 
steam navigation. But the substitution* of iron 
for wood — the staple shipbuilding material of 
this country at the period — completely altered 
the conditions of shipbuilding in our own and 
competing merchant marines, and gave the ad¬ 
vantage to Great Britain with its cheap produc¬ 
tion of iron and lower cost of labor. 







, 


THE OLD-TIME WOODEN SHIP 


















AMERICAN MERCHANT MARINE 


Previous to the decline, however, these dis¬ 
advantages, largely offset by the superior skill 
and energy of the Americans in the building 
and management of ships, were also modified 
by the United States government extending its 
fostering care over the maritime interests of the 
nation in the same manner that other govern¬ 
ments did to theirs. And, while our govern¬ 
ment pursued this course, our shipbuilders were 
enabled to produce ocean steamers superior in 
speed and fully equal in any other respect to 
those built elsewhere, while rapid progress was 
being made toward assuming a position in ocean 
steam navigation equal to that held in the days 
of sailing vessels. But when, owing to internal 
troubles, the government’s fostering care was 
withdrawn, while foreign governments adhered 
to the policy of granting pecuniary aid to estab¬ 
lish steamship lines with other countries, then 
did the United States maritime trade begin to 
decline, until it was comparatively driven from 
the ocean, but few American-built steamers 
crossed the Atlantic, and rarely was the Ameri¬ 
can commercial flag seen in any port in Europe. 

During the Civil War a large amount of 
American shipping was sold to foreigners, and 
the capital thus released was invested in the 
building of railroads under a system of enor¬ 
mous land grants — really subsidies, which the 
country was ready to vote for its immediate ad¬ 
vantage, but denied to the shipping interests. 
The subsidies which should be granted to our 
builders to create a mercantile navy superior to 
any are, instead, paid to foreign shipowners in 
the shape of freight money, to an amount vari¬ 
ously estimated at from $90,000,000 to $110,000,- 
000 per annum, the greater part peacefully ab¬ 
sorbed by Great Britain. 

Confederate cruisers almost annihilated the 
Union merchant marine during the Civil War, 
capturing and burning most of the ships which 
had not been sold or hastily transferred to 
foreign flags. In 1861 the merchant marine was 
registered at 5,539,813 tons, and it was not until 
41 years later, in 1902, that this figure was 
passed with a total of 5,797.902 tons. In 1903 
it had reached 24,425 vessels of 6,087,345 tons, 
including canal boats and barges; there being 
registered 12,836 sailing vessels of 1,965,924 tons, 
exclusive of canal boats and barges, and 8,054 
steam vessels of 3,418,088 tons, distributed 


among the geographical divisions of the At-, 
lantic, Gulf of Mexico, the Pacific, Northern 
Lakes, Western rivers, Porto Rico, and Hawaii. 
In the coasting trade the tonnage of vessels 
registered was 5,141,037, or 282,323 tons more 
than 1902, and in the foreign trade and whale 
fisheries 888,776 tons, an increase of 15,541 tons 
over 1902. 

Since 1898, throughout the world there has 
been a period of extraordinary activity in ship¬ 
building, in which the yards of the United 
States have shared, their average annual output 
being approximately 400,000 gross tons. This 
revival is due principally to the construction of 
the new navy. In anticipation of a steady run 
of work on government ships, new plants, 
equipped with the most modern appliances, were 
laid down, available, of course, for merchant 
ships also. During 1901 we built 1,491 vessels 
of 468,831 gross tonnage. Of 1,000 tons and 
upward there were launched 16 merchant ves¬ 
sels from 2,036 to 12,760 tons each, 95,105 in all; 
5 steel ferry, river, and bay steamers, of 5,479 
tons; with 7 square-rigged vessels aggregating 
j 2,336 tons, 21 wooden schooners of 36,122 tons, 
and 4 rigged barges of 7,359 tons; total sea¬ 
going vessels of 1,000 tons and over, 53, aggre¬ 
gating 156,431 tons. It is interesting to note 
that that of the Great Lakes exceeded it, 
amounting to 41 vessels of 158,631 tons, while in 
1904 there was launched for service on the Great 
Lakes the steamer ^Wolvin,^ 560 feet long, then 
described as the largest fresh-water ship in the 
world, but surpassed in 1905 by four other 
mammoth fresh-water steamers, each of over 
12,000 tons, 569 feet long, 56 feet beam, and 31 
feet depth; these four vessels alone representing 
a total carrying capacity equal to the entire fleet 
of the Great Lakes 25 years ago. At the be¬ 
ginning of the fiscal year 1902-3 there were 
under construction or contracted for in our 
yards 25 steel steamships of 1,000 tons and up¬ 
ward. For the transatlantic trade there were 
7 large vessels of 76,960 tons; including two 
6oo-foot ships for the Atlantic Transport Line 
of 13,400 tons; the Finland of 12,760 tons, for 
the International Navigation Company; the 
Missouri and Maine of 9,800 tons each, for the 
Atlantic Transport Line; and for the same line 
two vessels of 8,900 tons each. For the trans¬ 
pacific trade there were two immense vessels of 


AMERICAN SHIPPING COMPANIES, I905. 


Name of Owners. 


No. of Gross 

V essels. Tonnage. 


Routes. 


American-Hawaiian Co. 

American Mail S.S. Co. 

Atlantic & Caribbean Co. 

Boston & Philadelphia S.S. Co 

California Shipping Co. 

Chapman, I. F., & Co. 

Clyde S.S. Co. 

Cromwell S.S. Co. 

Empire Transit Co. 

International Nav. Co. 

Mallory, Chas. H., & Co. 

Merchants’ & Miners’ Co. 

N. Y. & Cuba Mail S.S. Co... 

Oceanic S.S. Co. 

Old Dominion S.S. Co. 

Pacific Coast S.S. Co. 

Pacific Mail S.S. Co. 

Sewall, A., & Co., Bath, Me... 

Southern Pacific Co. 

Standard Oil Co. 

U. S. & Porto Rico S.S. Co. . . . 


4 

4 

5 

6 

16 

6 

16 

5 

2 
12 

8 

9 

17 
5 

18 
11 
11 
IS 
1 7 

3 
2 


14,816 

7.540 

6,207 

16,674 

28,851 

11,125 

25,460 

5,084 

10,311 

64,573 

18,671 

14,437 

38,771 

10,518 

27,890 

15,860 

28,713 

32,342 

41,658 

9,080 

5,038 


New York, San Francisco, Honolulu. 
Boston, Philadelphia, Jamaica. 

New York, Porto Rico, Venezuela. 
Boston, Philadelphia. 

Pacific Coast Ports. 

Foreign Ports. 

New York, Philadelphia, San Domingo. 
New York, New Orleans. 

Foreign and Domestic Ports. 

New York, Southampton, Antwerp. 
New York, Mobile, New Orleans. 
Baltimore, Boston. 

New York, Havana, Mexican Ports. 
Honolulu, Australian Ports. 

Baltimore, Boston. 

S. Francisco, Mexico, British Columbia. 
San Francisco, Panama, Hong Kong. 
Foreign Ports. 

New Orleans, Havana, Galveston. 
European Ports. 

New York, Porto Rico. 


































AMERICAN MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY — AMERICAN MINES 


20,000 tons each building at New London, Conn., 
for the Great Northern Steamship Company; 
same trade via Hawaii, the Siberia of 11,726 
tons, for the Pacific Mail Company; Hawaii 
coasting trade, two of 8,600 tons each. For the 
Atlantic coasting trade there was a 9,000-ton 
vessel for the Standard Oil Company, a 6,250- 
ton for the New York & Texas Steamship Com¬ 
pany, and a 5,252-ton ship for the Ocean Steam¬ 
ship Company; beside nine vessels from 1,000 
to 4,577 tons. 

Among notable modern passenger steamers, 
all steel, are the following: 

The Kroonland, 12,760 tons, launched in 1901 
(as was her sister the Finland) ; the largest 
ocean steamer ever built in America; con¬ 
structed by the Cramps in Philadelphia for the 
International Navigation Company. Length 
over all, 580 feet; molded breadth, 60 feet; 
molded depth, 42 feet; displacement, 23,100tons. 
Speed, 17 knots; engines, two triple-expansion, 
cylinders 32^, 54, and 89^2 inches, 42-inch 
stroke; indicated horse-power, 10,200; boilers, 
9 single-ended Scotch, 170 pounds pressure. 
Passenger capacity, 364 first class, 190 second 
class, 1,000 steerage. 

The Korea, 11,276 tons, launched 1901; her 
sister, the Siberia, followed in 1902; they are 
largest and fastest steamers of any nationality 
running on the Pacific, the Korea the very fast¬ 
est. They were built by the Newport News 
Shipbuilding Company for the Pacific Mail 
Steamship Company, and run between San Fran¬ 
cisco, Japan, and China. Korea’s average sea 
speed, 17.78 knots.; on the trial trip she made 
the remarkable record of 18 to 19. Length over 
all, 572 feet 4 inches; molded depth, 41 feet 10 
inches; displacement, 18,400 tons on 27-foot 
draft. Coal-bunker capacity, 2,600 tons; en¬ 
gines, twin quadruple-expansion, vertical in¬ 
verted cylinders, 35, 50, 70, and 100 inches di¬ 
ameter, 66-inch stroke; boilers, 6 double and 2 
single-ended Scotch, 200 pounds pressure. Pas¬ 
senger capacity, 210 first class, steerage 54 white 
and 1,144 Chinese. 

The Sierra, built by the Cramps in 1900 for 
the Oceanic Steamship Company, one of three 
sister ships recently launched, to run from San 
Francisco to Honolulu (every 10 days), Samoa, 
Australia, and New Zealand (every three 
weeks), and Tahiti (every month). The Sierra 
is a very handsome twin-screw ship of 6,253 tons. 
Length, 400 feet; breadth, 50 feet 2 inches; 
molded depth to spar deck, 37 feet 2 inches. En¬ 
gines, triple-expansion vertical, cylinders, 28, 46, 
and 75 inches diameter, 48-inch stroke; indi¬ 
cated horse-power, 8,000; speed, 17knots; actual 
speed for the 7,200 miles from San Francisco to 
New Zealand, 15 knots. The three are con¬ 
structed as auxiliary cruisers at need; with 
double bottom. 

The Morro Castle, built by the Cramps in 
1900 for the expanding West India trade; 6,004 
tons gross; 8,280 displacement; length, 416 feet; 
breadth, 50 feet; molded depth, 3614 feet. She 
has a double bottom and seven steel bulkheads 
to the main deck. Engines, triple-expansion, 
4-cylinder; cylinders, 32, 52,. 60, and 60 inches 
diameter, 42-inch stroke; indicated horse-power, 
8,000 at 170 pounds pressure. Sea speed, 17 
knots. Passenger capacity, 104 first class, 60 
intermediate, 44 second class. Crew, 117. 

Other interesting facts are that the two 
largest cargo steamers ever built in America, 


the Shawmut and the Tremont, both of 9,606 
tons, are plying regularly on their routes be¬ 
tween Puget Sound, Japan, China, and Manila; 
that the Alaskan, of 8,716 tons, built at San 
Francisco, and now trading between Hawaii 
and the Atlantic coast, is the largest merchant 
steamer ever launched on the Pacific; while in 
river passenger boats a new vessel is being built 
in 1905 for service on the Hudson which sur¬ 
passes in size, speed, and general equipment all 
hitherto constructed, the dimensions of the new 
boat being length, 400 feet, breadth, 82 feet, 
with accommodation for 5,000 passengers, and a 
speed of 23 miles an hour. 

The year 1902 saw the consummation of a 
steamship combine, by which five of the largest 
transatlantic companies, the White Star, Do¬ 
minion, Leyland, Atlantic Transport, and Ameri¬ 
can Red Star, were merged into a single com¬ 
pany with nearly 1,000,000 tons of shipping un¬ 
der its control. The combination was formed 
on strictly international lines, with a joint 
American and British control, the general man¬ 
ager of the line being an American with resi¬ 
dence in this country. The organization was so 
arranged that the various companies included in 
the consolidation preserved their autonomy, and 
every consideration is shown their national and 
local surroundings. The combination was ar¬ 
ranged to afford better transatlantic service at 
decreased cost, with more uniform rates, and a 
better distribution of traffic over the American 
and Canadian seaports. During the year 1902 
both the largest vessel in the world and the 
fastest vessel at that time were launched, the 
Cedric, of 37,870 tons, about 1,000 tons larger 
than her sister ship the Celtic, and the Kaiser 
Wilhelm, with a sea speed of 24 knots. In size, 
although not in speed, these vessels were sur¬ 
passed in 1905 by the steamship Amerika; 
length over all, 700 feet; breadth, 74 feet; 
depth, 53 feet; displacement, 42,000 tons; cargo 
capacity, 22,000 tons; built at Belfast, Ireland; 
while in 1906 will be launched the steamship 
Kaiserin. Auguste Victoria, length over all, 705 
feet; breadth, 77 feet; depth, 53.9 feet; built at 
Stettin, Germany. Innovations on these two 
steamers include elevator service between the 
five passenger decks, Turkish and electric baths, 
and modern a la carte restaurants. 

Consult: Bates, ( American Navigation' 
(1902) ; Marvin ( American Navigation' (1902). 

American Microscopical Society, an asso¬ 
ciation organized for the purpose of promot¬ 
ing microscopical studies by granting aid to 
members from invested funds, and by publi¬ 
cation. Office of secretary, University of 
Nebraska, Lincoln, Neb. 

American Mines and Mining. The adop¬ 
tion of new methods in mining operations has 
been justified by an improved product, a reduced 
productive cost, or an increased rate of produc¬ 
tion. The introduction of machine methods in 
mining marked a revolution in this field of 
activity, and the history of mining since that 
time has been largely the history of the develop¬ 
ment of mining machinery. There is no more 
significant evidence of this fact than is to be 
found to-day in the coal mines of this country. 
In this work the unusual conditions have been 
met by the development of special types of 
machines. 

Coal is to-day the most powerful factor in 


AMERICAN MUSEUM—AMERICAN NEWSPAPERS 


the industrial life of the world. Its production 
is the most important industry of the age, and 
it alone has made possible the marvelous devel¬ 
opment of the 19th century. In point of value, 
coal exceeds the total production of all other 
minerals. It will be conceded that an industry 
which in a few years has overshadowed all 
others is one to which the best thought must 
have been given and the highest skill applied. 
While this is true in every department which 
pertains to the handling of the product from 
the miner to the consumer, there has not been 
until quite recently a corresponding advance in 
the actual mining of the coal over the crude and 
laborious methods which obtained 50 years ago. 

The rapid advancement of the American 
mining industry, aided by modern and inexpen¬ 
sive handling and splendid transportation facil¬ 
ities, is appreciated when it is noted that out 
of the world’s annual production of 50,000,000 
tons of pig iron, the United States alone fur¬ 
nishes about 20,000,000 tons, which if made into 
telegraph wire one-fifth of an inch thick, would 
extend from the earth to the sun. The yearly 
valuation of this product of pig or cast-iron is 
more than $250,000,000, while nearly $50,000,000 
are annually paid in wages to about 85,000 men 
and boys employed in its production. 

Legitimate mining, conducted as a business 
on business principles, is more certain of large 
profit than any mercantile or industrial occupa¬ 
tion. A retrospect of mining in the United 
States will show that where skill and economy 
have figured in mining operations, the result has 
been to create riches for companies and indi¬ 
viduals, in many instances beyond the dreams of 
avarice. The foundations of states and pros¬ 
perous cities have been laid by mining men, due 
principally to the enormous profits that legiti¬ 
mate mines of this country have paid. Govern¬ 
ment statistics show that American mining 
properly conducted is one of the safest invest¬ 
ments for capital, besides possessing the attrac¬ 
tion, speculative to an extent, that everv ten 
feet of shaft or tunnel made in a meritorious 
mine is liable to strike a bonanza of still richer 
ore. American mining has progressively gone 
forward until the present annual output in the 
United States exceeds $1,000,000,000 in value. 
The minerals, including natural gas and petro¬ 
leum, contributing to this aggregate are in great 
variety, and may be classed as follows: Anti¬ 
mony, asbestos, asphaltum and bituminous rock, 
barytes, bauxite, borax, buhrstones and mill¬ 
stones, cement, clay, coal—anthracite and bitu¬ 
minous, copper, corundum and emery, crystal¬ 
line quartz, feldspar, flint, fluorspar, fullers’ 
earth, garnet, gold, graphite, grindstones and 
pulpstones, gypsum, infusorial earth, tripoli and 
pumice, iron ore, lead ore. lithographic stone, 
limestones and dolomites, lithium ore, manga¬ 
nese ore, marble, marl, mica—sheet and scrap, 
mineral pigments, monazite, oilstones, whet¬ 
stones and scythestones, ozocerite, phosphate 
rock, platinum and iridium, precious stones, 
quicksilver, sandstones and quartzites, silica 
sand, siliceous crystalline rocks, silver, slate, 
sulphur and pyrite, talc and soapstone, tung¬ 
sten, uranium and vanadium, zinc ore, chrome 
ore, magnesite, molybdenum, nickel and cobalt, 
and rutile. 

When mining was in its infancy, the methods 
of drawing were primitive and cruel. First it 


was done by women and girls, who were used 
as beasts of burden. Then came the car run¬ 
ning on wooden stringers, which in time gave 
place to iron rails, and finally dogs, ponies, 
mules and horses were substituted for hand 
labor in hauling. As the mines became larger 
in output and more extensive in distance, the 
need of better methods became imperative. The 
next improvement was the tail and endless rope, 
which through long years of service has proved 
both reliable and economical. Sometimes the 
power engines are at the surface, and often 
underground, operated by compressed air. Then 
there is the steam locomotive, the electric motor, 
the air locomotive, and the gasoline motor, the 
latter still experimental. Of these steam is 
used to a very limited extent, as the legal and 
mining conditions which admit of its operation 
are rarely found. Electric power is now suc¬ 
cessfully applied to such operations as hoisting, 
hauling, drilling and cutting, as well as lighting 
and the driving of pumps and ventilating ap¬ 
paratus. Electric wires may be run anywhere 
and under any conditions to be found in a 
mine; they are easily and quickly laid, occupy 
small space, and may be readily tapped when¬ 
ever it is desired to operate machinery. In con¬ 
trast with other means of power transmission, 
electricity does not require many isolated boiler 
and engine plants, With long, inflexible and 
costly lines of piping, nor does it involve com¬ 
plicated and troublesome mechanism which is 
costly to attend and maintain, but it makes pos¬ 
sible a considerable saving through the utiliza¬ 
tion of water-power or the consolidation of 
independent steam-power plants. See Mines 
and Mining. Edward S. Farrow, 

Consulting Railroad and Mining Engineer. 

American Museum of Natural History. 

See Museum. 

American Newspapers. The history of the 
printing of newspapers in America properly 
begins on 25 Sept. 1690, for it was upon that 
date that Richard Pierce, of Boston, issued the 
first number of what was to have been a pe¬ 
riodical publication. Strange as it may seem, 
however, this first American journalist was en¬ 
dowed with a sense of originality of which even 
the makers of the modern sensational news¬ 
paper might find reason to be proud, for, in 
his salutatory, he stated that as there were many 
false rumors being circulated in the town of 
Boston which were constantly doing a great 
deal of harm, he requested his readers to fur¬ 
nish him with a list of those persons who were 
starting such stories that he might advertise 
them in the succeeding issues of his paper. I11 
other words, his plan was to print a regular 
weekly list of all the liars in town, a scheme 
which would certainly have sold many copies 
of the sheet had not the authorities put an end 
to the project by promptly suppressing the news¬ 
paper. This journal was to have borne the 
name of ( Public Occurrences, both Foreign and 
Domestic. > 

As only one issue of this strange newspaper 
appeared, the historians of journalism have usu¬ 
ally failed to mention it, but, instead, have given 
the credit for the publication of the first periodi¬ 
cal to John Campbell, a Scotchman, and the 
postmaster at Boston, who issued the first num¬ 
ber of ( The Boston News-Letter,* on 24 April 


AMERICAN NEWSPAPERS 


1704. It was printed on half a sheet of pot 
paper, with a small pica type, folio, and its 
entire contents consisted of several extracts 
from ( The London Flying Post, 5 in relation to 
the pretender; the queen’s speech to Parlia¬ 
ment regarding that subject; a few items of 
local news; four short paragraphs of marine 
intelligence from New York, Philadelphia, and 
New London, and a single advertisement — that 
of the proprietor. This was just 82 years after 
the appearance of the first English newspaper in 
London, and 99 years after the first newspaper 
in France. Germany had antedated all other 
countries, having made several short-lived at¬ 
tempts to establish periodical journals as early 
as the latter part of the 16th century. 

For more than 15 years Campbell had the 
journalistic field entirely to himself, but, in the 
latter part of 1719, another paper, called ( The 
Gazette, 5 was started in Boston, and, in 1721, 
a third was established by James Franklin un¬ 
der the name of ( The New England Currant. 5 
In the meantime there had appeared at Philadel¬ 
phia the first newspaper published outside of 
New England. It was called ( The American 
Weekly Mercury, 5 and its first number was is¬ 
sued by Andrew Bradford, the son of William 
Bradford, 22 Dec. 1719. The first paper to be 
printed in New York was ( The New York Ga¬ 
zette, 5 established in Oct. 1725, but by 1740, the 
number of newspapers in the English colonies 
in America had increased to 11, three of which 
had been established in Pennsylvania — one be¬ 
ing printed in German — one in New York, one 
in Virginia, one in South Carolina, and the re¬ 
maining five in Boston. 

In the beginning the American newspaper 
was a very small affair, being little more than 
an abstract of such papers as might chance to 
arrive from Europe on or about the date of 
publication. In fact, little change was made in 
them until after the time of the Revolution when 
the political agitators found it convenient to 
make use of them in presenting their appeals 
to the people. It was largely for this purpose 
that the first daily newspaper, ( The American 
Daily Advertiser, 5 was established in Philadel¬ 
phia by Benjamin Franklin Bache, in 1774. 
During the time that the seat of government 
was at Philadelphia, it was this paper that was 
used by Jefferson to oppose the Federal section 
of Washington’s administration as well as all 
measures which originated with Hamilton or 
his friends. In 1802, Zachariah Poulson became 
its proprietor, and the name which he gave to it, 
( Poulson’s Advertiser, 5 was retained until 1839, 
when it was consolidated with ( The North 
American. 5 

The second daily newspaper was ( The New 
York Daily Advertiser, 5 first issued on 1 Mar. 
1785, by Francis Childs & Company. About a 
year later, 29 July 1786, the first newspaper ap¬ 
peared west of the Alleghany mountains. It was 
published at Pittsburg, Pa., and was called <The 
Gazette. 5 During the early post-Revolutionary 
days, Alexander Hamilton’s special organ was 
( The United States Gazette, 5 a paper established 
m New York in 1789, by John Fenno, of Boston. 

The territory comprised within the New Eng¬ 
land States had no permanent daily newspaper 
until 3 Mar. 1813, when the Boston ( Daily Ad¬ 
vertiser’ was started by William W. Clapp. 
Prior to that time two distinct attempts to 


establish such papers had been made. As early 
as 6 Oct. 1796, Alexander Martin, an Irishman, 
started ( The Polar Star, 5 which lived about six 
months. It was followed, 1 Jan. 1798, by Caleb 
P. Wayne’s ( Federal Gazette, 5 which ceased 
publication in less than three months. Of the 
hundreds of papers started in New York be¬ 
tween 1725 and 1827, when the first number 
of ( The Journal of Commerce 5 appeared, only 
two now survive, ( The Commercial Advertiser, 5 
now better known as ( The Globe and Cominer- 
cial Advertiser, 5 and ( The Evening Post. 5 

The history of the penny newspaper dates 
from 1830, the idea having been suggested by 
the ( Illustrated Penny Magazine, 5 first issued in 
London during that year. During the next few 
years, therefore, several similar attempts to in¬ 
troduce cheap papers were made in the United 
States, notably at Philadelphia and Boston. As 
these publications were always as small as they 
were cheap, however, they were but short-lived, 
and it was not until 1 Jan. 1833, when the price 
of ( The Morning Post, 5 was reduced to one cent 
by its publishers, Dr. Shepard, Horace Greeley, 
and Francis V. Story, that any pretentious effort 
was made to print a cheap newspaper. Although 
this experiment was not a success its failure 
was due to causes other than that, of the price, 
so, when Benjamin H. Day established the New 
York ( Sun, 5 3 September of the same year, he 
also fixed its price at one cent, and the day of 
the cheap press had come. 

During the time which elapsed between the 
beginning of the 19th century and the year 1833 
American journalism passed through two of the 
most important transition periods in its history. 
After having served its purpose as the mouth¬ 
piece of more or less patriotic agitators, it en¬ 
tered upon a period of party conflict, which, 
while fierce enough, was not always directed 
along judicious lines. Edited by adventurers, 
often brilliant men whose flashing wit attracted 
widespread attention to their utterances, this 
was the time in which the purpose of the Ameri¬ 
can press could in no sense be depended upon. 
It was not until 1815, or a little later, that the 
newspapers of the country became pretty 
thoroughly emancipated from the control of these 
politicians. It was still more a political tract 
than anything else, however; it was narrow in 
its field and intolerant in its expressions, but 


DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN JOURNALISM FROM 

1773 TO I905. 


Year 

Daily 

Weekly 

Semi- 

Weekly 

Monthly 

Semi- 

Monthly 

Ouar- 

~terly 

Total 

177 ^. 







37 

150 

•961 

861 

1,403 

2,526 

4,051 

5,871 

11,314 
10,100 
13,304 
17,712 
20,217 

21,235 

22,312 

1800. 






1810. 

27 

282 

37 

*15 



1828. 



1840. 






1S50 (U S). 

i860 (U S). 

1870 (U S). 

1880 (U S). 

1880 ( A). 

1885 (A). 

1890 (Ai. 

1895 (A). 

1900 (A). 

1905 (A). 

254 
387 
574 
97 i 
909 
1,207 
1,662 
1,988 
2,200 
2,377 

1,902 

3 U 73 

4,295 

8,633 

7 , 8 n 

10,241 

13,562 

15,196 

15,681 

16,152 

31 

79 

ii 5 

133 

134 
146 
202 

329 

5 i 5 

too 

100 
280 
622 
1,167 
929 
1,284 
1,7:2 
2,150 
2,328 
2, s;o 

95 

96 

160 

no 

189 

260 

249 

261 

262 

19 

30 

49 

122 

68 

96 

99 

158 

256 

180 


(A) Ayer’s American Newspaper Annual. 
*Tri-weekly. 









































AMERICAN NEWSPAPERS 


still, at the same time, its utterances were deliv¬ 
ered with freedom and courage. It was not 
until 1833 that the first real newspaper appeared. 
1 his was the New York ‘SuiV and the success 
of its policy of publishing the news instead of 
devoting its columns to the editor’s personal and 
often eccentric opinions upon political matters 
was so immediate that it was soon followed by 
many rivals. Thus commenced the last and 
greatest period in the development of the Ameri¬ 
can press. 


STATISTICS OF AMERICAN NEWSPAPERS 


(Taken from Ayer’s American Newspaper Annual for 1905) 


State or Territory. 


A'abama. 

Alaska. 

Arizona. 

Arkansas. 

California. 

Colorado.. 

Connecticut. 

Delaware. 

District of Columbia 

Florida. 

Georgia. 

Hawaii... 

Idaho. 

Illinois. 

Indiana. 

1 ndian Territory.... 

Iowa. 

Kansas. 

Kentucky. 

Louisiana. 

Maine. 

Maryland.. 

Massachusetts. 

Michigan. 

Minnesota. 

Mississippi. 

Missouri. 

Montana. 

Nebraska. 

Nevada. 

New Hampshire.... 

New Jersey. 

New Mexico. 

New York. 

North Carolina. 

North Dakota. 

Ohio. 

Oklahoma. 

Oregon. 

Pennsylvania. 

Philippine Islands... 

Porto Rico. 

Rhode Island. 

South Carolina. .•_ 

South Dakota. 

Tennessee. 

Texas. 

Utah. 

Vermont. 

Virginia. 

Washington. 

West Virginia. 

Wisconsin. 

Wyoming. 

Totals. 


Daily 

1 

Weekly 

Semi- 

Weekly 

Monthly 

Semi- 

Monthly 

Quarterly 

Total 

23 

198 

2 

12 

8 

I 

2 45 

3 

9 

2 





15 

43 


3 



1 4 

29 

2 45 

6 

10 

2 

• • • • 

292 

127 

474 

2 4 

9 2 

IO 

3 

736 

38 

286 

5 

35 

6 

I 

37 2 

37 

97 

IO 

19 

.... 

4 

474 

4 

2 7 

I 

3 



35 

3 

2 4 

.... 

34 

I 

3 

66 

x 9 

136 

4 

12 

2 


473 

24 

271 

IO 

38 

7 

I 

355 

8 

18 

3 

8 



qq 

7 

96 

6 

I 



III 

182 

1,185 

41 

267 

2 4 

43 

4,724 

156 

582 

29 

59 

6 

2 

838 

12 

174 

4 





69 

889 

5 2 

94 

8 

I 

I» 119 

65 

632 

9 

30 

3 

2 

74 2 

30 

235 

J 7 

2 4 

4 

3 

3i4 

24 

165 

5 

*3 

4 

• • • . 

212 

17 

98 

4 

35 

2 

I 

158 

17 

140 

3 

27 

3 

5 

198 

81 

413 

7 

142 

IO 

26 

690 

86 

586 

26 

79 

8 

3 

79 2 

46 

662 

6 

6l 

l6 


793 

14 

207 

5 

9 

7 

.... 

242 

84 

775 

l6 

125 

7 

8 

1,021 

I I 

79 

7 

6 

I 

.... 

IO4 

28 

557 

15 

35 

I 

.... 

641 

8 

24 

3 




35 

17 

128 

I 

II 

I 

• • • • 

459 

5 6 

280 

4 

26 

2 

2 

371 

6 

63 

I 

3 



73 

210 

1,069 

5i 

574 

l6 

36 

2,007 

32 

182 

20 

U 

8 

I 

263 

8 

246 

2 

6 

I 

.... 

• 263 

174 

771 

4 2 

133 

15 

16 

1,166 

28 

295 

.... 

II 

2 

.... 

337 

23 

170 

14 

J 7 

3 

.... 

227 

214 

910 

44 

2 34 

9 

23 

1,456 

12 

8 

2 

I 

I 

.... 

3 2 

IO 

9 

I 

3 



2 4 

14 

39 

3 

I 

7 

.... 

66 

13 

114 

15 

9 

2 

.... 

156 

15 

281 

a 

16 

2 

.... 

319 

17 

242 

3 

34 

5 

47 

^22 

86 

7°5 

18 

47 

7 

3 

865 

9 

56 

6 

9 

3 

. • • • 

84 

IO 

84 

.... 

8 

I 

I 

405 

30 

i 6 3 

8 

3 2 

4 

4 

246 

2 3 

226 

5 

3 1 

3 

.... 

288 

35 

173 

5 


IO 

.... 

225 

64 

57 1 

23 

55 

2 

.... 

720 

4 

40 

6 


2 

.... 

5 2 

377 

16,152 

600 

2 ,55o 

262 

180 

22,312 


No reliable statistics of newspapers were kept 
prior to 1810, at which time there were 366 pub¬ 
lications of all classes in the United States. 
None of these publications appeared west of the 
Mississippi River, and only 25 of them were 
published daily. It is interesting to compare 
the number of newspapers published at that time 
with those issued in 1905. (The American 
Newspaper annual gives the preceding tables) 
The comparison is given in the tables at the top 
of the next column : 

Vol. 1—26 



Total 

Daily 

Semi- 

Weekly 

Tri- 

Weekly 

Weekly 

1810 

366 

2 5 

36 

15 

290 

1905 

2 3,558 

2 ,457 

634 

56 

i 6,935 


From reliable sources the following list of 
newspapers, which were started prior to or dur¬ 
ing the year 1800 and which are still in exist¬ 
ence, was compiled: 


MAINE. 

Portland.Advertiser. 

NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

Keene.New Hampshire Sentinel 

Cheshire Republican .... 

Portsmouth.New Hampshire Gazette 

Journal.. 

VERMONT. 

Rutland.Herald. 

Windsor.Vermont journal. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

Greenfield..Gazette and Courier. 

Haverhill.Gazette. 

Newburyport... Herald (weekly). 


Pittsfield.Berkshire County Eagle (weekly).... 

Sun. 

Salem.Gazette and Mercury. 

Register. 

Worcester.Spy. 


1785 


1799 

1793 

1756 

1793 


1794 

17S3 

1792 

1795 

1793 

1786 

1789 

1800 

1768 

1800 

1770 


RHODE ISLAND. 

Newport.Mercury. 


1753 


CONNECTICUT. 

Bridgeport.Republxan Farmer.. 

Hartford.Courant. 

New Haven.Connecticut Herald and Journal 

Norwalk.Gazette. 

Norwich.Courier. 

NEW YORK. 

Ballston Spa ...Journal. 

Cambridge.Washington County Post. 

Catskill.Recorder. 

Hudson.Gazette. 

Newburg.Register. 

Owego.Gazette. 

Troy.Northern Budget. 

Utica .Herald and Gazette. 

N. Y. City.Commercial Advertiser. 

Shipping and Commercial Lis 
New York Prices-Current... 

NEW JERSEY. 

Newark.Sentinel of F reedom. 

New Brunswick Times. 

Trenton.State Gazette. 


1790 

1764 

1766 

1800 

1796 

1798 

1798 

1792 

1785 

1796 
1800 

1797 

1793 

1797 

1795 

1796 
1792 
1792 


PENNSYLVANIA. 

Chambersburg.. Franklin Repository. 

Gettysburg.Star and Sentinel. 

Greensburg.Westmoreland Democrat. 

Lancaster.Intelligencer. 

Norristown.Herald. 

Philadelphia... .North American. 

Pittsburg.Commercial Gazette. 

Reading.Adler (German). 

York.Gazette. 


179° 

1800 

1798 
1794 

1799 
1784 
1786 
1796 
1796 


DELAWARE. 

Wilmington.Delaware Gazette and State Journal. 1784 


MARYLAND. 

Annapolis.Maryland Gazette. 

Baltimore.America. 

VIRGINIA. 

Alexandria.Alexandria Gazette 

GEORGIA. 

Augusta.Chronicle. 


1745 

i7/3 

1784 

1785 


OHIO. 

Cincinnati.Commercial Gazette 


1793 


In point of age the following are the ten 
oldest newspapers in the United States: 


1. Annapolis, Md., Maryland Gazette. 1745 

2. Portsmouth, N. H., New Hampshire Gazette. 1756 

3. Newport, R. I., Mercury. 1758 

4. Hartford, Ccnn., Courant. 1764 

5. New Haven, Conn., Connecticut Herald and 

Journal. 1766 

6. Salem, Mass., Gazette and Mercury. 1768 

7. Worcester, Mass., Spy. 177° 














































































































































































































AMERICAN NEWSPAPERS 


8. Baltimore, Md., America... 1773 

9. Windsor, Vt., Vermont Journal.. 1783 

10. Alexandria, Va., Alexandria Gazette. 1784 


Prior to 1810 the circulation of the most 
widely read daily newspaper did not exceed 900 
copies, while there were few publications, either 
weeklies or semi-weeklies, that could boast of a 
larger circulation than that of 600 copies. Sup¬ 
posing that there were 25 dailies in 1810, issuing 
310 times a year; 36 semi-weeklies; seven tri¬ 
weeklies, and 290 weeklies, each with a circula¬ 
tion of about 600 copies, the aggregate circu¬ 
lation for the year would have been considerably 
less than 2,000,000 copies, while the value of the 
paper used could not have been in excess of 
$125,000. Compare those figures, therefore, with 
these from the United States census report for 
1900, when the total sum invested in the news¬ 
paper and periodical publications of the country 
was stated to be $192,443,708; when there were 
94,604 persons employed in this business, their 
total wages for the year amounting to $50,- 
333>05i, and when the total value of the news¬ 
papers and periodicals produced was fixed at 
$222,893,569. During the year 1900, no less than 
956,335,921 pounds of paper were used by the 
newspapers in producing their aggregate circula¬ 
tion of 8,168,148,749. The cost of this paper 
was $22,197,060. During this year the amount 
received from advertising was $95,861,127, while 
the amount from subscriptions and sales was 
$79,928,483. Enormous as these figures may 
seem, however, they are now far too low, for 
the five years that have elapsed since the last 
census was taken has been a period of wonder¬ 
ful growth in every branch of the newspaper 
field. The following table is interesting as 
showing the steady development in number and 
circulation of the industry of daily paper making 
in America: 


Y EAR 

Number of Daily 
Papers Published 

Total Circulation 
Per Issue 

iS^O. ... 


758,454 

1 , 478,435 

2,601,547 

3,566,395 

8,387,188 
15,102,156 

i860. 

387 

CH ± 

1870. 

1880. 


1800. 

V/ A 

IQOO. 

2,235 



To attempt to tell the story of the growth 
of the American newspaper without relating 
some particulars in regard to the wonderful 
feats which it has from time to time performed 
■would be to give but a superficial view of the 
subject. Prior to the days of the telegraph the 
daily press had great difficulty in obtaining its 
information about current events in other parts 
of the country. To offset this disadvantage 
they adopted three methods of quick communi¬ 
cation. One was by pony express; another was 
by carrier pigeons, and, when steam had been 
sufficiently developed to make fast travelling by 
rail or steamboat possible, special trains and 
boats were frequently chartered for special occa¬ 
sions. The New York ( Herald ) and the New 
York ( Journal of Commerce ) were the first 
papers to own swift sailing yachts which were 
used to obtain early information from incoming 
European vessels, while A. S. Abell, of the Bal¬ 
timore ‘Sun,* established his own overland 
express between New Orleans and Baltimore. 
This consisted of 60 blooded horses, housed at 


conveniently located relay stations, and the pro¬ 
ject was so successful that, during the Mexican 
War, he not only beat all the other newspapers 
in getting news, but he secured his information 
so far ahead of the government’s own despatches, 
that he was able to advise the officials at Wash¬ 
ington of important events, sometimes more 
than 30 hours before the reports of the happen¬ 
ings had been received at the War Office. An¬ 
other instance of conspicuous enterprise was 
shown by Henry J. Raymond. While a reporter 
for the New York ( Tribune, J he was sent to 
Boston to report a notable speech by Daniel 
Webster. Returning by boat, he arranged to 
have the necessary composition frames and cases 
erected in his room, that, as fast as he could 
write, the sheets might be put into type, so that 
all were ready for publication the instant he 
reached the office. 

In 1846, when the entire country was so 
greatly excited over the Oregon boundary dis¬ 
pute with Great Britain, several of the news¬ 
papers combined to send a swift pilot boat to 
England. There all the important news was 
obtained; the boat returned as quickly as it went, 
and the American people were provided with 
the information they craved many days before 
it could possibly have arrived if it had come by 
the ordinary channels, the slow-sailing vessels 
of that day. 

As so much enterprise was shown by news¬ 
paper publishers at a time when the means of 
quick communication were few and costly, it 
was but natural that they should have hailed 
the steam railroad and the electric telegraph 
with delight. During the 10 years between 1840 
and 1850, the period in which these inventions 
were first generally extended, the circulation 
of the American papers increased more than 
two-fold. In fact, they seized upon the tele¬ 
graph ' with such avidity, that, to overcome the 
inconvenience and delay caused by the manner 
in which they were crowding one another, the 
press associations were formed, in 1850. By 
means of these associations the ordinary news 
which occurred in the populous parts of the 
country was sent, practically in duplicate, to all 
the papers subscribing to the service, and indi¬ 
vidual papers were compelled to rely upon 
special correspondents only for reports of such 
important events as they might desire to <( cover® 
with more attention to detail. It was the same 
story in the latter sixties, when the cable had 
been laid, for it was this invention that made 
it possible for papers in the United States to 
obtain long reports of the progress of the 
Franco-Prussian War of 1870. Although the 
revision of the New Testament was completed 
at a time when cable rates were still very high, 
W. W. Story, of the Chicago < Times, ) ordered 
that 8,000 words of the new version should be 
cabled to his paper, and, when the complete work 
arrived at New York on the steamer, it was tele¬ 
graphed to him in its entirety, 21 wires being 
used for that purpose. 

Owing to the high rates at first charged for 
telegraph and cable messages the papers of those 
days did not get the almost unlimited news 
service which they receive to-day. Even as late 
as 1879 the night rate from California to Boston 
was 10 cents a word; between Chicago and Bos¬ 
ton it was five cents a word, and between Wash¬ 
ington and Boston, two cents a word. Since 


















AMERICAN NEWSPAPERS 


that time the rates have been reduced fully 66 
per cent, while the tolls paid by press associa¬ 
tions is now about 14 cents per hundred words, 
irrespective of the number of papers to which 
the despatches are delivered. The original cable 
rate was $100 for 20 words, whether served to 
newspapers or to the general public, while the 
rate to newspapers is now but 10 cents a word, 
either for day or night service. 

The result of the high tolls was shown in 
the compact despatches published by the news¬ 
papers of that day. For example, when the 
America won the international yacht race, 22 
Aug. 1851, no report of the event was received 
by any American paper until 4 September, when 
the news came in the form of a despatch from 
Halifax. On this day the report in the New 
York ( Sun ) contained about 500 words, the 
/Tribune J used but 250 words about the con¬ 
test, and the ( Evening Post ) was content with 
200 words. So, too, when Brooks assaulted 
Sumner, the Senator from Masachusetts, in 1854, 
the longest report sent to any Boston paper com¬ 
prised less than half a column, and this was 
printed quite inconspicuously at the bottom of 
the page. In i860, when Lincoln was nominated 
for the Presidency, at Chicago, one operator 
was able to send out all the press matter that 
was offered to him, while, at recent conventions, 
the hundred and more operators have had all 
they could do to handle the millions of words of 
descriptive matter filed with them by corre¬ 
spondents representing every newspaper of 
prominence in the country. When these facts 
are remembered, however, it does not seem so 
strange that the aggregate number of words of 
press matter that went over the Western Union 
wires in 1879 was but 28,000,000, whereas the 
total number of words contained in press 
specials handled by the same company in recent 
years has been no less than 10 times as great. 

At the same time there was some excuse for 
the lack of interest displayed in news events. 
Those were the days of small and compact 
papers and even the best printing plants of that 
time would have been utterly unable to cope 
with such an avalanche of news as that which 
daily floods the modern newspaper office. At 
that day stereotyping had not been discovered, 
presses were slow, and hand-composition was 
the only method known to the trade. As papers 
were printed directly from the type, and as even 
the Hoe lightning steam-presses, patented in 
1847, had a capacity which seems exceedingly 
slow when compared to that of presses to-day, 
newspapers with large circulation were com¬ 
pelled to go to press much earlier than their 
less popular rivals, a fact which placed them at 
great disadvantage in obtaining late news. The 
facilities for the distribution of papers were also 
few' and inadequate, even for those days. 
Scarcely more than 40 years ago some of the 
most progressive journals in this country de¬ 
pended solely upon boys to carry their papers 
to their subscribers, while larger lots, the papers 
intended for dealers, were trundled through the 
streets on wheelbarrows. To-day all the news¬ 
papers have their own systems of fast delivery 
wagons, and the most progressive publishers 
charter ^special® trains, not only for their Sun¬ 
day editions, but frequently for other occasions 
during the year. 

The first paper to begin the work of stereo¬ 


typing its pages was the New York ( Tribune. 
This was in 1861. Four years later the Bullock 
perfecting press, made in Philadelphia, made it 
possible to print a paper from plates, both sides 
at the same time, at a rate of from 6,000 to 
10,000 an hour. The R. Hoe & Company per¬ 
fecting press appeared in 1871. This printed 
from 10,000 to 12,000 eight-page papers an hour, 
and it w r as quickly followed by the other Hoe 
inventions, the double press, the quadruple press, 
and, finally, the sextuple, with its working 
capacity of from 60,000 to 75,000 eight-page 
papers an hour, and with attachments capable of 
printing from 4 to 64 pages. The latest inven¬ 
tions are the color presses, made both by Hoe 
and by Scott, by means of which papers may 
be printed in several colors at once. As the 
result, every up-to-date newspaper office is now 
equipped with facilities for printing in almost 
every hue of the rainbow, although it is only 
within the last quarter of a century that pub¬ 
lishers have attempted to use illustrations of 
any kind. During the late seventies an attempt 
was made to establish an illustrated daily, but 
the publication had but a brief existence. From 
that day illustrated journalism was practically 
unknow'n in America for many years. It was 
more than 20 years ago when the wood-cut 
was the only form of illustration adapted to 
newspaper uses, and as it required tw r o or three 
days to make each w'ood-cut they were not avail¬ 
able at short notice. Now, however, with all 
our facilities for almost instantaneous illustra¬ 
tion it is no rare thing to find midnight happen¬ 
ings graphically pictured in the morning editions 
of the daily newspapers. 

The invention of type-setting machines is 
another innovation that has an almost incal¬ 
culable effect in the development of the modern 
newspaper. By the use of such a machine one 
operator is capable of performing as much work 
as three men could formerly do by the old 
method of hand composition. Some of these 
machines make a new cast of type each day, and 
all of them represent a marked increase of 
product at a great reduction in cost. 

The growth of the Sunday newspaper dates 
from the Civil War, but it was many years after 
the conclusion of that struggle before the large 
Sunday editions began to make their appearance. 
In fact, it was less than 35 years ago that one 
of the leading papers in Boston increased the 
size of its Sunday issue from four to eight 
pages, and, strangely enough, the change met 
with all kinds of adverse criticism. During the 
next few days many of the subscribers to this 
journal called at the office to protest that the 
new paper was much too large, and this same 
criticism has continued as the great Sunday 
papers have steadily increased in size. Ir. spite 
of the protests of these indignant critics, how¬ 
ever, the fact remains that the American news¬ 
paper has simply kept pace with the development 
of the country. With greater facilities for 
news gathering, and with modern methods of 
distribution, the circulation of the prominent 
newspapers has increased to a degree that would 
once have been considered beyond all bounds 
of possibility. So, too, is this true in regard 
to advertising. Whereas, in 1810, the total 
amount of advertising printed in all the papers 
in the United States could scarcely have ex¬ 
ceeded a few hundred thousand dollars, the in- 


AMERICAN NOTES —AMERICAN PARTY 


come from such sources to-day is now in excess 
of $100,000,000 per annum. To print all the 
news that the modern newspaper is required to 
print, to give space to all the features and special 
articles that the public has come to demand, and 
to find room for all these columns upon columns 
of advertisments, is certainly beyond the scope 
of any small, compact sheet. If it is true, as its 
friends claim, that the newspaper is one of the 
great sources of education in this country, upon 
what does this reputation rest? Certainly not 
upon its news alone, for the papers of every land 
describe the important happenings of the day. 
No, it is these special features, the articles de¬ 
scriptive of travel and of all the progress of the 
world in every field of human endeavor — in 
other words, the (< magazine® articles that have 
now found wider circulation through the col¬ 
umns of the daily newspaper — that have made 
these organs what they now are, a great edu¬ 
cational factor which has exerted more influence 
upon the development of the intelligence of the 
American people than it would be possible to 
estimate. Whatever the critics may think or 
say, therefore, one cannot deny the fact 
that newspapers are big to-day for the 
simple reason that they are required by 
the public, and those who are best acquainted 
with the journalistic situation find that every 
indication points to larger rather than to smaller 
papers. Great as this country is, it has by no 
means reached the end of its development, and, 
as it grows in population, and expands commer¬ 
cially, the demands upon the newspapers will 
necessitate a corresponding growth in this prod¬ 
uct of American industry. 

Charles H. Taylor, 

Editor c Boston Globe P 

American Notes, a work by Charles Dick¬ 
ens, published in 1842 and embodying his im¬ 
pressions of the United States. 

American Numismatic and Archaeological 
Society, an association organized 1858, incor¬ 
porated 1865. Its objects are the collection and 
preservation of coins and medals, the investiga¬ 
tion of matters connected therewith, and the 
popularization of the science of numismatology; 
also the collection, examination, and elucidation 
of the antiquities of this and other countries. 
Membership about 300. See Numismatics. 

American Oriental Society, an association 
organized in 1842 for the promotion of Oriental 
scholarship. All its publications are in the semi¬ 
annual journal of the society (cited as <( Jaos®), 
which for 60 years has been an authority on 
Oriental subjects and in which appear mono¬ 
graphs and special articles of all sorts relating 
to the Orient. The society has numbered among 
its presidents some of the most distinguished 
scholars of the country—Hadley, Woolsey, 
Whitney, etc., and from its inception has been 
a medium of communication between the East 
and the West. In age it outranks the German 
Oriental Society and all others except the Royal 
Asiatic Society of England. Membership, 350. 

American Ornithologists Union, an asso¬ 
ciation organized in 1883 for the advancement 
of its members in the science of ornithology. 
Membership, 825. It issues a quarterly maga¬ 
zine, ( The AukP See Ornithology. 


American Party, the name of three sepa¬ 
rate political organizations in the United States. 

1. The only one of great importance, usually 
styled (< Know-Nothings.® The genesis of this 
party lay deep in the nature of American set¬ 
tlement and history. The Constitution crystal¬ 
lized political parties definitely into Federalists 
and Anti-Federalists: the one upholding firm 
government on the general European model, 
with the local aristocracies in the ascendant; 
the other desiring the least possible govern¬ 
ment of any sort, and no upper-class ascendancy. 
Immigrants who had left Europe because of 
too free indulgence in freedom of speech, 
thought, and action, allied themselves with the 
Anti-Federalists, which led the incensed Fed¬ 
eralists, on gaining power in 1795, to raise the 
term for naturalization from two to five years, 
and in 1798 to 14 years, besides passing the Alien 
and Sedition Laws (q.v.). The Republicans, 
coming into power with Jefferson in 1801, in 
1802 repealed the obnoxious acts and restored 
the term to five, swelling their ranks for years 
with a relay of acrid foreign democrats. Six 
members of the Congress which declared the 
War of 1812 against Great Britain were mem¬ 
bers of the Society of United Irishmen; and 
the Federalist Hartford Convention of 1814 
brought forward a provision against aliens hold¬ 
ing office. Quiescent for many years, the move¬ 
ment revived (1835) in New York city, where 
a compact and clannish foreign body of immi¬ 
grants, avid of office and openly allying them¬ 
selves as foreigners against the natives, was 
accumulating; one procession bore a transpa¬ 
rency lettered <( Americans shan’t rule us.® The 
religious question was also then, as since, a 
formidable factor in the trouble. In 1843 the 
Democrats carried the city by a close vote, ana 
distributed the majority of the offices to foreign¬ 
ers, with the result that in the November elec¬ 
tion for State Senator an (( American Repub¬ 
lican® candidate polled nearly a fourth of the 
vote, and the next spring a <( Native American® 
candidate defeated the Democrat by 4,000, and 
the regular Whig party nearly vanished in the 
city. The excitement spread to New Jersey 
and Philadelphia; riots between natives and 
foreigners cost some lives and much property, 
including two Catholic churches. The Whigs 
voted with the Native party to secure its vote 
for Clay; but finding that it resulted in Native 
local officials and Democratic presidential ma¬ 
jorities, drew off, and by 1847 the Native party 
had pretty much disappeared. Clay in 1844 
had six Native American electoral votes, four 
from New York and two from Pennsylvania; 
and for some years the Middle States cast small 
votes for the party. 

A new birth came to it about 1852. The 
Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 had largely dis¬ 
solved and recombined both Whig and Demo¬ 
cratic parties, and those of the former who 
wanted the status quo on slavery without public 
agitation cast about for a new issue to keep 
their organization together. The Native Amer¬ 
ican issue was temptingly at hand, and indeed 
had never ceased to be a sore in the Whig mind. 
The tremendous flood of foreign immigration 
set going in part by the Irish famine of 1847, 
in part by the revolutionary movements of 
1848-50 on the Continent, had kept a steady 
stream of reinforcements pouring into the 
Democratic party which almost swamped the 


AMERICAN PARTY 


Whigs and made it quite impossible to win 
elections except by fusions that sacrificed all 
political principle or consistency; they felt it a 
genuine wrong to the native or long-resident 
classes, and there was nothing in the use to 
which the other party put their victories to 
make them feel otherwise. They now developed 
a secret oath-bound society whose real name 
was (( Sons of 76, or Order of the Star-Spangled 
Banner®; but its name or precise object (of 
course they knew its general aim) was not re¬ 
vealed to members till the Hodges,® which they 
instituted in imitation of the Masons, had raised 
them to the higher degrees. Hence their stock 
answer to questions concerning it was <( I don’t 
know,® which became the popular motto of the 
order and gave them the nickname of (( Know- 
Nothings.® The evils it (( viewed with alarm® 
were the increasing power of the Roman Catho¬ 
lic Church, the vast sudden flood of immigra¬ 
tion which was taking the control of the United 
States out of the hands of its citizens, and the 
greed of foreigners for office which greatly 
multiplied the danger from their actual number. 
Its motto, or at least the essence of its princi¬ 
ples, was (< Ameiicans must rule America,®— 
doubtless with a reminiscence of the foreign 
motto before mentioned; and the countersign 
at its lodges was an order said to have been 
issued by Washington at some unspecified occa¬ 
sion, «Put none but Americans on guard to¬ 
night.® It acted in politics, not by putting up 
separate tickets, which would have kept tally 
on it and given the other parties a clear target 
and open victory, but by indorsing selected can¬ 
didates of the others in secret convention of 
delegates from lodges, at which every member 
must vote or be expelled. This could not be 
known till election, and hence made havoc of 
all political calculations and left the workers 
beating the air. The Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 
which extinguished the Whig and created the 
present Republican party, and made the slavery 
issue one of life or death, drove into the Know- 
Nothing party a vast number of the moderate 
section not yet ready to oppose the South; it 
now took or was given the name of the Amer¬ 
ican party, and came into the open field. In 
1854 it carried Massachusetts and Delaware and 
polled over 120,000 votes in New York State. 
Thus far it had been almost wholly a Northern 
party; but in 1855 it made deep inroads in the 
South as well, where foreigners were few and 
the issue was locally innocuous. In that year 
it elected the governors and legislatures of New 
Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Con¬ 
necticut, New York, Kentucky, and California; 
the controller and legislature of Maryland and 
the land commissioner of Texas; and narrowly 
missed carrying the legislature of the latter, 
and those of Virginia, Georgia, Alabama, Mis¬ 
sissippi, and Louisiana. But even at this time, 
when it was sweeping all before it, and the con¬ 
servatives of both parties were crowding into 
it panic-stricken to avoid the real issues hurry¬ 
ing the country to the precipice, keen observers 
saw its hollow ephemerality: Horace Greeley of 
the New York Tribune said that <( it contained 
about as much of the elements of permanence 
as an anti-cholera or an anti-potato-rot society.® 
With 1856 it came into the national field, and 
for slavery tried to substitute terrific visions of 
a revival of the terrors of the Inquisition; de¬ 
nounced Archbishop Bedini, the papal nuncio, 


as an emissary of diabolic designs; and forced 
public discussions in which all the misdeeds 
of the mediaeval Christian Church before and 
after 1520 were recounted. February 1856 a 
national nominating convention was held at 
Philadelphia; and its outcome, to the disgust 
of the majority, turned on slavery after all. 
A secret c( grand council® held a session 19-21 
February to draft a platform; and after three 
days of violent contention reported as part of 
it this curious <( straddle,® in later political 
slang: That all public offices should be given 
to native-born citizens, and the term before 
naturalization be 21 years; that <( all laws® (that 
is, the Fugitive Slave Law) should be enforced 
till repealed or declared unconstitutional; that 
Pierce’s administration be reprobated for re¬ 
pealing the Missouri Compromise; and that 
State councils be recommended to drop their 
<( degrees® and substitute a pledge of honor from 
members,— that is, that it cease to be a secret 
terror to other parties and be one itself. But 
this meant death, as did its absurd attempt to 
gain Northern votes by opposing the Kansas- 
Nebraska Bill, and Southern votes by upholding 
the Fugitive Slave Law. In the open convention 
of 22 February, 50 Northern delegates offered 
a resolution that the secret grand council could 
not bind the convention by a platform; and on 
its rejection withdrew. The convention then 
nominated Millard Fillmore of New York for 
President, and Andrew Jackson Donelson of 
Tennessee for Vice-President; and the Whig 
national convention later adopted the nomina¬ 
tions, but made no reference to the platform. 
In the spring of 1856 the party still increased 
its power, there being only local issues at stake; 
New Hampshire and Rhode Island elected 
<( American® governors, making eight of the 
32 States in their hands. But the presidential 
election showed what a phantom the party was: 
Fillmore gained the electoral vote of but one 
State, Maryland, with eight electors; the popu¬ 
lar vote was 874,534 out of a total of 4,053,967; 
and in New Hampshire it sank from 32,119 for 
governor in spring to 422 in face of the real 
issue. It elected 15 or 20 Congressmen, car¬ 
ried Rhode Island and Maryland State elec¬ 
tions in 1857, and in the Senate of December had 
five members. I11 the Congress of 1859 it had 
become a Border State party, with one Senator 
from Kentucky and one from Maryland, and 
23 Congressmen,— three from Maryland, five 
from Kentucky, seven from Tennessee, one from 
Virginia, four from North Carolina, two from 
Georgia, and one from Louisiana. In the cam¬ 
paign of i860 its members largely made up 
the Constitutional Union (Bell-Everett) party, 
which tried to avert the war. The party was by 
no means without its use: it brought forward 
many strong leaders who did good service in the 
real parties when the issues had shown them¬ 
selves inevitable. 

2. A party directly adverse to the first in 
being founded on opposition to secret societies: 
organized by the National Christian Association 
at the adjournment of its convention at Oberlin, 
Ohio, in 1872. Organization was completed and 
the name adopted at a convention in Syracuse, 
N. Y., in 1874. At Pittsburg, 9 June 1875, a 
platform was adopted demanding recognition of 
the Sabbath, introduction of the Bible into 
public schools, prohibition of the sale of 
liquors, withdrawal of the charters of secret 


AMERICAN PATRIOTIC SOCIETIES — AMERICAN POLITICAL ISSUES 


societies and prohibition of their oaths, inter¬ 
national arbitration, restriction of land monopo¬ 
lies, resumption of specie payments, justice to 
the Indians, and direct popular vote for Presi¬ 
dent and Vice-President. James B. Walker of 
Illinois was nominated for President. In 1880 
it again made nominations; in 1884 S. C. Pome¬ 
roy was nominated, but withdrew in favor of 
John P. St. John, the Prohibition candidate. 

3. A party organized at a convention in 
Philadelphia, 16-17 Sept. 1887. Its platform de¬ 
manded a 14-years’ residence for naturalization; 
exclusion of anarchists, socialists, and other 
dangerous characters; free schools; the building 
of a strong navy and coast fortifications, and 
internal improvements; prohibition of alien pro¬ 
prietorship ; permanent separation of church and 
state; and enforcement of the Monroe Doc^ 
trine. Forrest < Morgan, 

Connecticut Historical Society. 

American Patriotic Societies. See Patri¬ 
otic Societies. 

American Philological Association, a so¬ 
ciety inaugurated by William D. Whitney, of 
Yale, at Poughkeepsie, 1869 as an outgrowth of 
the Oriental Society, Classical Section. Its ob¬ 
ject is the same as that of the British Philologi¬ 
cal Society (q.v.) ; it publishes an annual 
volume of ( Transactions > and also Pro¬ 
ceedings, 5 detailing its meetings and giving 
titles of papers presented. It has a member¬ 
ship of some 600. 

American Philosophical Society, The, is 

the oldest scientific society in America. Ben¬ 
jamin Franklin, in his ( Autobiography, ) states 
that in the year 1727 (( I united the majority of 
well-informed persons of my acquaintance into 
a club which we called the Junto, the object of 
which was to improve our understandings.® As 
the population of the colonies grew, Franklin 
saw the need of a society of larger scope and 
usefulness than the Junto; therefore, in 1734, he 
issued a circular, entitled ( A proposal for pro¬ 
moting useful knowledge among the British 
plantations in America^ in which he urged 
(( that one society be formed of virtuosi or in¬ 
genious men residing in the several colonies, to 
be called The American Philosophical Society, 
who are to maintain a constant correspondence. 
That Philadelphia, being the city nearest the 
centre of the colonies, communicating with all 
of them northward and southward by post, and 
with all the islands by sea, and having the ad¬ 
vantage of a good, growing library, be the cen¬ 
tre of the society.® 

The proposition was favorably received, and 
in the following spring Dr. Franklin wrote to 
Gov. Cadwallader Colden, of New York, that 
the Society (( is actually formed and has had sev¬ 
eral meetings to mutual satisfaction.® He gave 
a list of the members, and added that (( there are 
a number of others in Virginia, Maryland, Car¬ 
olina, and the New England colonies who we 
expect to join us as soon as they are acquainted 
that the Society has begun to form itself.® 

In January 1769 this society united with an¬ 
other which had been subsequently formed in 
Philadelphia with a similar object, and entitled 
<( The American Society held at Philadelphia 
for promoting Useful Knowledge,® and the 
consolidated societies took the fused name 
of (( The American Philosophical Society held at 


Philadelphia for Promoting Useful Knowledge,® 
and elected Benjamin Franklin its first presi¬ 
dent, and he held this office by successive annual 
reelections until his death in 1790. 

The Society at once entered upon arrange¬ 
ments to carry out a notable scientific under¬ 
taking of great magnitude for those days, 
namely, to make observations of the expected 
transit of Venus in the following June — a 
rare phenomenon which had not occurred for 
130 years and would not recur for 105 years. 
It erected three temporary observatories and 
appointed a committee, of which David Ritten- 
house was the head, to have charge of the ob¬ 
servations on the day of the eclipse. The 
weather in northern Europe was cloudy, but in 
the neighborhood of Philadelphia it was per¬ 
fectly clear, and a high European authority 
has said that <( the first approximately accurate 
results in the measurement of the spheres 
were given to the world, not by the schooled 
and salaried astronomers who watched from 
the magnificent royal observatories of Eu¬ 
rope, but by unpaid amateurs and devo¬ 
tees to science in the youthful province of 
Pennsylvania.® The results of these observa¬ 
tions were printed in the first volume of the 
Society’s transactions,* which was published 
in quarto form in 1771. The publication of the 
quarto < Transactions ) still continues, and in 
addition the Society publishes ( Proceedings* in 
octavo form. 

Franklin was succeeded in the presidency by 
David Rittenhouse, the eminent astronomer, who 
held the office for five and a half years, until his 
death in 1796, and he in turn was succeeded by 
Thomas Jefferson, who held the office until 1815, 
including the eight years of his incumbency of 
the Presidency of the United States. the tran¬ 
quil pursuits of science,® he wrote, were his 
(( supreme delight,® and the most exciting polit¬ 
ical duties could never withdraw him from them. 
Jefferson was succeeded in the presidency by 
Dr. Caspar Wistar, the eminent anatomist, and 
subsequent incumbents were Dr. Robert Patter¬ 
son, Chief Justice Tilghman, Peters S. Du 
Ponceau, Robert M. . Patterson, Dr. Nathaniel 
Chapman, Dr. Franklin Bache, Prof. Alexander 
Dallas Bache, Judge Kane, Dr. George B. Wood, 
Frederick Fraley, and Edgar F. Smith. 

The . membership of the Society since its 
foundation has included names distinguished in 
science on both continents. The number of 
members who may be elected in any one year 
is limited to 15 residents of the United States 
and 5 foreign residents. The election of mem¬ 
bers is held during the general meeting in April 
of each year. The ordinary meetings of the 
Society are held on the first and third Friday of 
each month, from October to May inclusive. 
The society possesses a library of over 40,000 
volumes,, which is specially rich in the files of 
the publications of the learned societies of the 
world, and is housed in a fire-proof building 
erected in Independence Square on land granted 
to it by the State of Pennsylvania in 1785. 

I. Minis Hays, 

Secretary American Philosophical Society. 

American Political Issues, 1788-1852. By 

this term is here meant the issues which swayed 
the voters in the Presidential elections, and in the 
congressional elections of the Presidential years. 
These elections were the (( round-up® or register 


AMERICAN POLITICAL ISSUES 


of the accumulated drift during the four years 
previous, and formed one of the influences de¬ 
ciding the drift during the next four. They 
fall into five periods: 1788-1800, 1804-12, 1816- 
20, 1824-40, 1844-52. In the first, the Federalists 
are in power; the controlling issues are those of 
strong v. weak government, and of deference to 
the educated classes v. the vox populi. In the 
second, the Federalists are the opposition, 
fling away the excuse for their existence, and 
after a casual sectional revival are extinguished. 
In the third, there are no issues and no party, 
properly speaking; the candidate is accepted by 
inertia from the old line of leaders, and the 
administration is able to grant the chief wishes 
of both the old sections. In the fourth, the 
former Federalist elements recombine under new 
names, with the basis of a strong spending and 
nationalizing government, replacing the dead is¬ 
sue of a strong executive one. In the fifth, the 
slavery question is the central issue. 

1788.—’The division over candidates has usu¬ 
ally and naturally coincided with the division 
over policies; but in the first election, of 1788, 
it was not so. There was but one possible can¬ 
didate, Washington; he represented all parties. 
He had seen the Revolution nearly aborted first, 
and the Confederation nearly wrecked after¬ 
ward, by the weakness of the central govern¬ 
ment ; this confirmed his natural bias as a 
^nationalizing® Federalist, anxious above all 
things for a government which could keep order, 
pay its debts, and secure respect from other 
nations. On the other hand, as a Southern 
farmer, he commanded the confidence of that 
section, which distrusted the Northern commer¬ 
cial interests; and as Washington, he was the 
idol of the masses everywhere. Furthermore, 
the very basis of the election had cut the ground 
from under the chief opposition party. The 
overshadowing issue, almost the only one, of the 
Confederation,— which had no president nor 
regular elections, but only scattering (( by-elec- 
tions® of congressmen,— was whether it should 
be replaced by a stronger government; the adop¬ 
tion of the Constitution had settled that, and 
the Anti-Federalists were shut down to voting 
for the personnel to administer a system they 
disliked and dreaded. Besides this, all their 
ablest sympathizers were Federalists for the time 
being, not from love of a strong government 
but experience of too weak a one; so that 
^Federalist® for election purposes meant not 
so much a party as almost every one in the coun¬ 
try of capacity, experience, or business or in¬ 
tellectual standing. 

1792.— Again Washington was the unan¬ 
imous candidate. The same men substantially 
were sent to Congress; indeed, there were few 
Anti-Federalists to send who would not dis¬ 
credit and weaken the cause. But the Anti-Fed¬ 
eralist voters had the less hesitation, because 
their natural leaders had now begun to split 
away and lay the foundations of the Demo¬ 
cratic-Republican party. Jefferson was the first 
to take a stand against the Federalist policy, in 
the matter of the Bank; shortly reinforced by 
Madison and Edward Randolph. 

1796.— Washington, who could have held the 
office for life, refused it further. There was now 
a contest over policies represented by candidates 
identified with them, and each representing a 
section as well: John Adams stood for the 


Northern commercial States, with most to lose 
from conflicting local impositions on commerce, 
or foreign depredations and restrictions which 
a weak government could not repel; Jefferson, 
the lifelong champion of the extreme democratic 
principle,— the least government, the cheapest, 
and the most unshowy, possible,— stood for the 
mass of farmers, largely in the South and West, 
who simply wished to be let alone and have no 
taxes, and thought commerce of no benefit or 
concern to them. The latter also formed a part 
of the rapidly growing mass who resented the 
Federalist claim that political office needed any 
superior ability or training, and were eager to 
pass it around in rotation. Quite as strong as 
either was the sympathy of the masses for the 
French Revolution, which the Federalists de¬ 
tested. The latter won, but only by grace 
of two Southern electors and in reality by a 
single vote; they lost save for these the entire 
South beyond Maryland, and all but one elec¬ 
toral vote of Pennsylvania as well. In a word, 
the party had represented a temporary national 
necessity which was ceasing to be imperative, 
and a minority business interest; and as the 
former vanished, it was shrinking to the basis 
of the latter. 

1800.— For the personal feuds which rent the 
Federalists in twain, see Adams, John, and 
Hamilton, Alexander; but the influence of 
these in defeating the party is always overrated. 
If Hamilton had loved Adams like a brother, 
and all Adams’ cabinet had been loyal and 
united, the general result of the election would 
not have been different; unless we are to sup¬ 
pose that New York Federalists voted for Jef¬ 
ferson because their chiefs hated each other, or 
that the party’s recent policy had gained it 
votes since 1796, which is notoriously the re¬ 
verse of truth. It had not only angered the 
Democrats, but displeased many of its own 
moderates, by the Alien Law for deporting all 
foreigners politically disagreeable to it, and the 
Sedition Law to shut the mouths of its oppo¬ 
nents (see Alien and Sedition Laws) ; the 
Hamilton wing had tried to force through a war 
with France to strengthen its domestic policy; 
the growing popular sentiment now was to make 
the United States a political island, severed 
from all relations with the rest of the world 
which would cause us difficulties. The election 
was decided for Jefferson by the reversal of 
New York’s 12 electoral votes: local feuds had 
something to do with it, Burr’s political (( boss- 
ship® much; but beyond all, the growth of the 
country was away from Federalism, and at best 
the party had not one electoral vote to lose with¬ 
out being displaced. 

1804.— Had the relations of the parties re¬ 
mained the same as in 1800, there is still no 
reason to think there would have been any re¬ 
turn to a Federalist administration. From 1789 
to 1797 their programme had been not merely 
the best, but the only one as a whole possessing 
either utility, dignity, or even safety; yet the 
disintegrating forces were so strong, and the 
squalor of the Confederation so thoroughly for¬ 
gotten, that the party barely escaped expulsion 
in the very prime of its usefulness. Even in the 
next four years, its errors were trivial compared 
with its services, especially in creating the navy; 
yet it was beaten — not very heavily, but with 
incidents proving that its lost sections would 


AMERICAN POLITICAL ISSUES 


not come back to it. But so far from the issues 
remaining the same, the Federalist representa¬ 
tives, with that egregious blindness to the 
sources of popular strength which is never seen 
except in <( practical politicians,® committed the 
amazing folly of attempting to tie their oppo¬ 
nents’ hands by borrowing all their discarded 
doctrines. The Democrats in power had at 
once become converts to a strong government 
and a liberal construction of the Constitution; 
the Federalists, instead of outdoing them and 
claiming support as the originators of the policy, 
adopted the strict-construction theories and the 
decentralizing policy of their opponents. The 
Democrats having appropriated the Federalists’ 
strength, the latter revenged themselves by ap¬ 
propriating their enemies’ weakness. This was 
especially glaring in the case of the Louisiana 
Purchase, an extreme Federalist measure, and 
by far the greatest title of Jefferson to the name 
of statesman: it is quite incredible that the 
Federalists should have opposed this, even as 
partisans, or as possessing the rudiments of 
political common-sense. Their astute policy re¬ 
ceived its fitting reward: in 1800 Jefferson had 
won by 73 to 65; in 1804 he received 162 to 14. 

1808.— The Democrats, having had full power 
to put in force their cherished theories of in¬ 
sularity and independence of international ties, 
at once proceeded to make a reductio ad absur- 
dum of them, and hang them like a sack of 
stones about their own necks. Jefferson was 
placed between the upper millstone of the Eng¬ 
lish right of search and impressment, ending in 
the bloody outrage of the Leopard on the Chesa¬ 
peake (q.v.), and the nether of his own resolve 
not to fight, the disbelief of all parties alike in our 
ability to fight a naval war with England, and 
the determination of the North, which pos¬ 
sessed most of the fighting resources, not to 
use them against England. He solved the prob¬ 
lem by the Embargo (q.v.), which saved the 
need of fighting by sacrificing the commerce he 
did not value, and the prosperity of a section he 
was quite resigned to see unprosperous. The 
moribund Federalist party gained a galvanic 
life from this, which for the time looked like a 
real one: in 1804 it had carried only Connecticut 
and Delaware and part of Maryland; in 1803 
it carried all New England but Vermont (the 
one State which had no commerce to lose), 
three votes from North Carolina and Delaware, 
and the two Marylanders as before,— 47 in all. 

1812.— The same causes which had operated 
during the previous four years had continued 
with ever growing efficacy during this four. The 
feeling against England among the Democrats, 
the feeling among the Federalists that England 
was fighting the world’s battle against Napoleon 
and must not be crippled, ever grew in intensity; 
the misery and hate in New England with its 
hamstrung commerce kept pace with either; a 
generation of youths was growing up who never 
saw the Revolution,— the War of 1812 was 
officially determined by four Southerners be¬ 
tween 26 and 29; and the conquest of Canada, 
instead of a naval war where it was universally 
believed our entire fleet would be at once seized 
and impressed into the British navy, had struck 
the war party as a happy resource. The politi¬ 
cal campaign of 1812 was made on the issue of 
war or a repeal of the non-intercourse act. 
Madison was given a second term on the ex¬ 
press condition of his approving the war; he 


detested it as strongly as Jefferson, but as the 
majority had its teeth set, felt that he might as 
well head it as any one else. He secured it by 
189 to 89; the Federalists by a fusion had car¬ 
ried, besides their old States, New York and 
New Jersey, and more of Maryland. A new era 
seemed coming for the Federalists; but it was 
an illusion. They had no party principles, and 
not even a party candidate except a borrowed 
one (George Clinton) ; and their entire basis of 
life now was on an issue by its nature temporary. 

1816-20.— The close of the War of 1812 ex¬ 
tinguished the old issues. The mostly inglorious 
land war had been forgotten in the blaze of New 
Orleans; we had proved that our navy not only 
could fight the queen of the world on equal 
terms, but would never again be wantonly de¬ 
fied ; the people were full of satisfaction at com¬ 
ing out so well, and of anger at the Federalists, 
whose chief section had carried opposition to 
the point of discussing secession. Federalism 
was in many minds tainted with treason. Fur¬ 
thermore, the New England capital driven out 
of commerce by the embargo and the war had 
begun to re-embark in manufacturing, wished 
for a protective tariff, and could only have it 
from the governing element, which was hope¬ 
lessly Democratic. Rhode Island, the first to 
establish mills, was the first of the southern tier 
to break away from its old allegiance. Massa¬ 
chusetts, Connecticut, and Delaware, by small 
majorities, clung to the ancient faith; but in 
1816 the Democrats carried 16 States with 183 
votes, including the rest of New England. The 
government had bid for these votes by a United 
States Bank and a light protective tariff; and 
in 1820, the <( Era of Good Feeling,® or rather 
of (( No Issues,® Monroe was elected unani¬ 
mously save for the vote of one elector, disgusted 
with the business (< rings® growing up around the 
administration. 

1824.—-The administration still further car¬ 
ried out Federalist ideas by a great system of 
internal improvements, and by strengthening the 
tariff. In a word, while nominally Democratic- 
Republican, its policy had become so Federal¬ 
ized as to have a stronger hold on its new allies 
than on its old constituents, and the issue in 
1824 was whether that policy should be sustained 
or reversed. John Quincy Adams and Henry 
Clay represented the former, in different sec¬ 
tions; Andrew Jackson the reaction to old- 
fashioned Democracy, with strict construction, 
economy, and no intermeddling'with business de¬ 
velopment ; William H. Crawford the regular 
Democratic <( machine,® with no ulterior purpose 
but office. Thus divided, no candidate had a 
majority. Jackson had the most; Adams was 
elected by the House of Representatives, still 
so far dominated by educated politics as to con¬ 
sider Jackson an ignorant and pestilent dema¬ 
gogue ; he made Clay — who had the lowest 
vote of the four, but was the Southern leader 
most in accord with his policy, and the most 
of a statesman — secretary of state. This 
(( Coalition® (q.v., No. 2) was denounced by 
the enraged Jacksonites as a corrupt bargain, 
and the House election as defeating the people’s 
will; but there is no reason for assuming, as 
is currently done, that the anger gained Jackson 
any electoral votes. 

1828.— The Democratic reaction had gained 
strength, and the Jackson enthusiasm swept all 
the factions into his fold, by virtue of the State 


AMERICAN POLITICAL ISSUES 


Conventions which had now assumed the office 
of nominating. On that side the issue was 
much more Jackson than any definite party pro¬ 
gramme; but Jackson as representing the hatred 
of the masses, especially the Southern and West¬ 
ern masses, for the <( money power,® for all ac¬ 
tivities of government beyond keeping itself 
alive, for tariffs and government subventions, 
and for all claim of superiority in the educated 
class, and all political initiative except by spon¬ 
taneous popular movements. In short, Jackson 
was the agent of a democratic revolution, which 
supported him with a swarm of new men, and 
approved his policy of turning out the trained 
officials neck and heels. Adams held his vote 
well: the stock reasons for his defeat — his un¬ 
graciousness, his refusal to employ patronage, 
his revival of charges against the New England 
Federalists — are absurd in face of the fact that 
he had but one vote less than in 1824, and of 
Jackson’s enormous plurality. No candidate 
representing trained statesmanship, culture, and 
a liberal government policy, could have won 
this election. 

1832.— The Democratic tide swept on over¬ 
whelmingly. Jackson’s unprecedented use of the 
veto power to defeat internal-improvement 
schemes voted for by members of his own party, 
only bound the majority more tightly to him; 
his war against South Carolina for attempted 
nullification cost him her votes, but brought 
him reinforcements from the nationalist section; 
his hostility to the Bank of the United States 
was a prominent issue in the canvass, and was 
that of his constituents. Nothing better proves 
the senselessness of accounting for great politi¬ 
cal results by personal factions or squabbles, 
than the fact that Adams in 1824 and 1828 had 
more electoral votes than all Jackson’s oppo¬ 
nents together in 1832. 

1836.— The issues of this year were the 
carrying on of Jackson’s policy, though its great 
objects had been accomplished,— the deposits 
had been placed in State “pet banks® instead of 
the United States Bank,— and his dictation of 
his own successor. To oppose this dictation, 
one party sprung up with the ardent Jacksonian 
Hugh L. White as nominee, another as a 
Georgia State Rights faction,— though Jackson 
had championed the Georgia rights in the mat¬ 
ter at issue (see Cherokee Case) ; Jackson’s 
influence, however, was powerful enough to 
nominate Van Buren as the “regular® candi¬ 
date, and he was elected by a much reduced vote 
from Jackson’s. 

1840.— Few men have had a worse legacy 
than Van Buren received in the Presidency; and 
few have made a better use of it. Almost his 
entire term was occupied by the panic of 1837 
and the three years of hard times which suc¬ 
ceeded it; caused entirely by Jackson’s “monkey¬ 
ing® with the currency of which he knew noth¬ 
ing. The State banks which replaced the United 
States Bank as depositaries, and were used as 
Democratic political machinery, instead of man¬ 
aging the funds with discretion as the old bank 
had done, issued masses of notes till a tre¬ 
mendous inflation of the currency had created 
a vast land speculation; then he suddenly with¬ 
drew recognition of the paper currency and 
brought the whole structure down with a crash. 
Van Buren was a politician, but he was a sound 
statesman and financier and an honorable public 
man: he would have no more meddling by the 


government with the banking business for which 
it w’as unfit, even to extricate his own adminis¬ 
tration from a scrape; and after three years’ 
struggle he established the Sub-Treasury sys¬ 
tem, to the lasting benefit of the country. But 
with the customary popular perspicacity, he was 
made the scapegoat for calamities which he had 
not caused and whose renewal he had prevented. 
Furthermore, the Whigs outbid the Democrats 
in avowed submission to the “popular man¬ 
date,® their candidate Harrison promising to 
disuse the veto; they outdid them in the “popu¬ 
lar hero® line by turning a useful but not very 
brilliant Indian battle into a second Marathon, 
or rather repeating the name without discussing 
the details; capped their swarms of mythical 
anecdotes of Jackson’s homespun habits and 
unpretentious heroism by an equal number about 
Blarrison, models of his hypothetical “log cabin® 
and bibulous reproduction of his “hard cider® 
days; they made bargains and absorbed both 
the Southern free-lance opposition parties: and 
by all this and their campaign of “noise, num¬ 
bers, and nonsense,® carried all but three old 
States and four small new ones, 234 to 60 — a 
majority which suggests that possibly the noise 
and nonsense were not needed nor efficacious, 
and a quieter campaign of sensible argument 
might equally have won, with a real leader like 
Clay and no ruinous bargains. 

1844.— Harrison had barely survived his in¬ 
auguration ; and the usual policy of “placating® 
the strongest part of the opposition by giving 
them the Vice-Presidency (Tyler) had produced 
its usual and deserved fruit of turning the ad¬ 
ministration over for the whole four years to the 
Nullification party, except so far as the Whigs 
tied its hands. This under Clay’s leadership 
they did, consolidating the party by steady war 
on Tyler, and heartening themselves at last to 
do what they had not before and did but once 
again — put forth a platform. It was a very 
compact and well-expressed one, excellent from 
the Whig or present Republican standpoint; but 
it was displaced as an issue by far more exi¬ 
gent and pungent practical ones. The tariff of 
1842, which was almost weeded of protectionist 
features by the joint efforts of Tyler and the 
Democrats, was made one of the arguments; but 
the decisive one was Texas. For years the great 
object of the Calhoun wing of the Democrats 
had been to annex Texas; partly to increase 
slave territory and balance Northern growth, 
partly with the immediate aim of disrupting the 
Whig party by forcing it to take a position which 
would drive away either the Northern or the 
Southern wing. Tyler, deprived of Whig sup¬ 
port, again drew near to the Calhoun party to 
which he had formerly belonged; in 1844 Cal¬ 
houn was made secretary of state; and with 
this administration backing, the Calhoun party 
obtained control of the Democratic national con¬ 
vention, committed it to Texas annexation, and 
gave the nomination to the Southerner Polk in¬ 
stead of the Northerner Van Buren. Clay was 
asked to declare himself on this point; he wrote 
an evasive letter which cost him the support 
of the political abolitionists (see Liberty 
Party), who nominated a ticket of their own 
with disastrous results to both. The three tick¬ 
ets were those of Polk, Clay, and Birney; the 
first on the issues of protection, distribution of 
land sales, cutting down Presidential power, and 
dodging all phases of the slavery question; the 


AMERICAN POLITICAL ISSUES 


second on the ^-occupation of Oregon and the 
^-annexation of Texas® ; the third on immediate 
abolition of slavery. The last-named cast only 
62,300 votes; but enough of those were in New 
York and Michigan to turn the former’s 35 and 
the latter’s 6 electoral votes from Clay to Polk, 
electing the latter, bringing in Texas, and bring¬ 
ing on the Mexican War. 

1848.— The Mexican War had been the dom¬ 
inant issue for a couple of years before, and the 
Democrats had striven to make it destructive to 
the Whigs by forcing them into obnoxious dec¬ 
larations of principle; but the latter voted sup¬ 
plies for it, and evaded abstract pronouncements 
as to its righteousness. The Wilmot Proviso 
(q.v.) was a heavier blow, for the Southerners 
looked on it as a primary touchstone of sectional 
loyalty, which stood above party loyalty. The 
one salvation was a popular moderate candi¬ 
date who could be accepted by the voters to 
whom the Democrats were simply impossible; 
and such a one was found in Gen. Zachary Tay¬ 
lor. A Louisiana slaveholder, no Southerner 
could suppose he would sign a bill endangering 
his own property; known to dislike the veto, he 
could be trusted by the North to obey the ver¬ 
dict of Congress if it passed the Proviso; a pop¬ 
ular hero, he commanded the great unreflecting 
brute vote which supposes military and civil 
functions somehow related. He was elected by 
reason of a split in the New York Democracy, 
the country being about evenly divided; that he 
was elected at all, however, is remarkable proof 
of the terror of the conservative masses at hav¬ 
ing the slavery firebrand thrown into politics. 
It was this vote which elected the Whigs Clay 
and Taylor (the former really elected so far 
as the Democratic competitor went), and the 
Democrats Pierce and Buchanan, each in the 
hope of suppressing the question altogether. 

1852.— Taylor died in 16 months, and the 
Vice-President Fillmore completed the term; 
but all through the four years each of the two 
parties of unlimited slavery extension and sla¬ 
very restriction was drawing its ranks together, 
and forming into the parties soon to contest the 
final mastery. In place of Whig and Democrat, 
it was increasingly North and South. Unfor¬ 
tunately, the South was willing to fight and the 
North as yet was not; and the so-called Com¬ 
promise of 1850, like most compromises, was 
practically all on one side, the Northern Whigs 
letting the measure go by default. They did not 
like it, but the South insisted, and they had 
much more confidence in placating their own 
constituents for adhering to it than the South 
for not doing so; once passed, therefore, they 
proclaimed it a sacred and irrepealable decision, 
as being a ^compromise,® and the Fugitive Slave 
part as being a sacred obligation to uphold. As 
always, the (( reopening of agitation® was ex¬ 
ecuted by the Southern wing: before the Presi¬ 
dential nominations were made, they had de¬ 
termined to force the Whigs to an absolute 
declaration of party policy, a touchstone of 
legitimate membership. First at the Whig caucus 
of 20 April, then at the Baltimore national con¬ 
vention of 16 June, they insisted on the party 
recognizing the Compromise as a finality; in 
the platform, the last article, of great length 
and minuteness, made the Fugitive Slave Law, 
by name, a part of the organic constitution of 
the party. This was death, and the Southern 
Whigs must have so intended it. Gen. Scott, 


as a military hero, was made the candidate. 
The Southern Whigs, instead of voting for him 
on account of the Fugitive Slave plank, largely 
voted against him because the anti-slavery men 
in the convention, for no assignable reason, had 
voted for him, and he was said to be partial to 
Seward; the Northern Whigs largely voted 
against the platform: and the Whigs carried 
only four States, Massachusetts, Vermont, Ken¬ 
tucky, and Tennessee, and less than a third of 
the next Congress even nominally, a third even 
of that being Southerners who soon became 
Democrats. The Whig party was no more: 
<( died of an attempt to swallow the Fugitive 
Slave Law® was the epitaph proposed for it. 

Forrest Morgan. 

Connecticut Historical Society . 

American Political Issues, 1856-1900. My 

review will begin with the year 1856 — the year 
in which I cast my first vote, also one in 
which James Buchanan was chosen President. 
But it must be premised that each election 
does not represent a debate; not infrequently 
it is merely a stage in a debate. It was so 
in 1856; it has been so several times since. 
Indeed, since 1840 — the famous <( Log Cabin 
and Hard Cider® campaign of <( Coon-Skin 
Caps,® and <( Tippecanoe and Tyler too,® prob¬ 
ably the most humorous, not to say grotesque, 
episode in our whole national history, that 
in which the plane of discussion reached its low¬ 
est recorded level — since 1840 there have been 
only six real debates, the average period of a 
debate being therefore 10 years. These debates 
were (1) that over slavery, from 1844 to 1864; 

(2) that over reconstruction, from 1868 to 1872; 

(3) legal tenders, or <( fiat money,® and resump¬ 
tion of specie payments were the issues in 1876 
and 1880; (4) the issue of 1888 and 1892 was 
over protection and free trade; (5) the debate 
over bimetallism and the demonetization of sil¬ 
ver occurred in 1896; and, finally (6), imper¬ 
ialism, as it is called, came to the front in 1900. 
Since 1856, therefore, the field of discussion has 
been wide and diversified, presenting several 
issues of great moment. Of necessity also the 
debates have assumed many and diverse aspects, 
ethnical, ethnological, legal, military, economical, 
financial, historical. The last is that which in¬ 
terests us. 

Slavery Issue .— The first of the debates I 
have enumerated, that involving the slavery 
issue, is now far removed. We can pass on it 
historically; for the young man who threw his 
maiden vote in i860, when it came to its close, 
is now nearing his grand climacteric. Of all 
the debates in our national history that was the 
longest, the most elevated, the most momentous, 
and the best sustained. It looms up in memory; 
it projects itself from history. As a whole, it 
was immensely creditable to the people, the com¬ 
munity at large, for whose instruction it was 
conducted. It has left a literature of its own — 
economical, legal, moral, political, imaginative. 
So far as the historical aspect of that great de¬ 
bate is concerned, two things are to be specially 
noted. In the first place the moral and econom¬ 
ical aspects predominated; and, in the second 
place, what may be called the historical element 
as an influencing factor was then in its infancy. 
The slavery debate was so long and intense 
that all the forces then existing were drawn 
into it. The pulpit, for instance, participated 


AMERICAN POLITICAL ISSUES 


actively. The physiologist was much concerned 
over ethnological problems, trying to decide 
whether the African was a human being or an 
animal; and, if the former, was he of the family 
of Cain. Thus all contributed to the discussion; 
and yet I am unable to point out any distinctly 
historical contribution of a high order; though 
on both sides the issue was discussed histori¬ 
cally with intelligence and research. Especially 
was this the case in the arguments made before 
the courts and in the Scriptural dissertations; 
while on the political side the speeches of Sew¬ 
ard and Sumner, of Jefferson Davis and A. H. 
Stevens, leave little to be desired. The climax 
was perhaps reached in the memorable joint de¬ 
bate between Lincoln and Douglas, of which it 
is not too much to say the country was the au¬ 
ditory. 

Beginning in its closing stage, in December 
1853, when the measure repealing the Missouri 
Compromise of 1820 was introduced into the 
Senate of the United States, and closing in De¬ 
cember i860, with the passage of its ordinance 
of secession by South Carolina, this debate was 
continuous for seven years, covering two Presi¬ 
dential elections, those of 1856 and i860. Of 
the great slavery debate it may then in fine be 
said that, while the study of history and the 
lessons to be deduced from history contributed 
not much to it, it made history, and on history 
has left a permanent mark. Of the canvass of 
1864, from our point of view little need be said. 
There was in it no great field for the historical 
investigator, the issue then presented to the peo¬ 
ple being of a character altogether exceptional. 
The result depended less on argument than on 
the outcome of operations in the field. Nor was 
it greatly otherwise in the canvass of 1868. The 
country was then stirred to its very depths over 
the questions growing out of the war. The 
shattered Union was to be reconstructed; the 
slave system was to be eradicated. These were 
great political problems; problems as pressing 
as they were momentous. For their proper 
solution it was above all else necessary that they 
should be approached in a calm scholarly spirit, 
observant of the teachings of history. Never 
was there a greater occasion; rarely has one 
been so completely lost. The assassination of 
Lincoln silenced reason; and to reason and to 
reason only does history make its appeal. The 
unfortunate personality of Andrew Johnson now 
intruded itself; and, almost at once, what should 
have been a calm debate degenerated into a 
furious wrangle. Looking back over the can¬ 
vass of 1868, and excepting General Grant’s 
singularly felicitous closing of his brief letter 
of acceptance — <( Let us have peace®— I think it 
would be difficult for anyone to recall a single 
utterance which produced any lasting impres¬ 
sion. 

Reconstruction .— The debate over recon¬ 
struction, begun in 1865, did not wear itself out 
till 1876. In no respect will it bear comparison 
with the debate over slavery which preceded 
it. Sufficiently momentous, it was less sustained, 
less thorough, far less judicial. Toward its 
close, moreover, as the country wearied, it was 
gravely complicated by a new issue; for, in 1867, 
began that currency discussion destined to last 
in its various phases through the lifetime of a 
generation. It thereafter entered in greater or 
less degree into no less than nine consecutive 


Presidential elections, two of which, those of 
1876 and 1896, actually turned on it. 

Currency Issue .— The currency debate pre¬ 
sented three distinct phases: First, the proposi¬ 
tion, broached in 1867, known as the greenback 
theory, under which the interest-bearing bonds 
of the United States, issued during the Civil 
War, were to be paid at maturity in United 
States legal tender notes, bearing no interest 
at all. This somewhat amazing proposition was 
speedily disposed of; for early in 1869 an act 
was passed declaring the bonds payable <( in 
coin.® But, as was sure to be the case, the so- 
called (( fiat money® delusion had obtained a 
firm lodgment in the minds of a large part of 
the community, and to drive it out was the work 
of time. It assumed too, all sorts of aspects. 
Dispelled in one form, it appeared in another. 

It is difficult to say what the dividing issue 
of 1876 really was. The country was then slowly 
recovering from the business prostration which 
followed the collapse of 1873. The living de¬ 
bate was over material questions, the cause of 
the prolonged business depression and the rem¬ 
edy for it. The favorite specific was at first a 
recourse to paper money. The government 
printing-press was to be set in motion in place 
of the mint; and even hard-money Democrats 
of the Jacksonian school united with radical 
Republicans of the reconstruction period in guar¬ 
anteeing a resultant prosperity. Again the 
teachings of history were ignored. What, it was 
contemptuously exclaimed in the Senate, do we 
care for (( abroad !® From this calamity the coun¬ 
try had been saved by the veto of President 
Grant in 1874; and the following year an act 
was passed looking to the resumption of specie 
payments on 1 Jan. 1879. Seventeen years 
of suspension were then to close. Over this 
measure the parties nominally joined issue in 
1876. The Republicans, nominating Governor 
Hayes of Ohio, demanded the fulfilment of the 
promise; the Democrats, nominating Governor 
Tilden of New York, insisted on the repeal 
of the law. Yet it was well understood that the 
candidate of the Democracy favored the policy 
of which the law in debate was the concrete ex¬ 
pression. The contest was thus in reality one 
between the <( ins® and the (( outs.® 

But not the less for that, in the canvass of 
1876 a field of great political usefulness was 
opened up to the historical investigator; a field 
which, I submit, he failed adequately to de¬ 
velop. A public duty was left unperformed. 
From time immemorial to tamper with the es¬ 
tablished measures of value has been the con¬ 
stant practice of men of restless and unstable 
mind, honest or dishonest, whether rulers or 
aspirants to rule. 

The Tariff Issue .— The administration of 
President Hayes was curiously epochal. During 
it the so-called <( carpet-bag governments® dis¬ 
appeared from the Southern States; the country 
resumed payments in specie; and on 28 Feb. 
1878, Congress passed over the veto of the Presi¬ 
dent an act renewing the coinage of silver dol¬ 
lars, the stoppage of which, five years before, 
constituted what was destined thereafter to be 
referred to as <( the crime of 1873.® This issue, 
however, matured slowly. Public men, having 
recourse to palliatives, temporized with it; and 
through four Presidential elections it lay dor¬ 
mant, except in so far as parties pledged them¬ 
selves to action calculated, in the well-nigh 


AMERICAN POLITICAL ISSUES 


idotic formula of politicians, to <( do something 
for silver.® The canvasses of 18S0 and 1884 are 
therefore devoid of historical interest. The first 
turned largely on the tariff; and yet, curiously 
enough, the single utterance in that debate which 
has left a mark on the public memory was the 
wonderful dictum of Gen. Hancock, the can¬ 
didate of the defeated opposition, that the tariff 
was a local issue, which a number of years be¬ 
fore had excited a good deal of interest in his 
native State of Pennsylvania. Nor is the rec¬ 
ollection of the debate of 1884 much more in¬ 
spiring. It was a lively contest enough, under 
Grover Cleveland and James G. Blaine as op¬ 
posing candidates, a struggle between the <( outs® 
to get in and the <( ins® not to go out. But a 
single formula connected with it comes echoing 
down the corridors of time, the alliterative 
<( Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion® of the unfor¬ 
tunate Burchard. 

That of 1888, presenting at last an issue, rose 
to the dignity of debate. In his annual message 
of the previous December the President, in dis¬ 
regard of all precedent, had confined his atten¬ 
tion not only to the tariff, but to a single feature 
in the tariff, the duty on wool. In so doing he 
had, as the well understood candidate of his 
party for re-election, flung down the gauntlet, 
for only three years before the Republicans, in 
the Presidential platform, had laid particular 
emphasis on <( the importance of sheep industry® 
and (( the danger threatening its future prosper¬ 
ity.® They had thus pledged themselves to (< do 
something® for wool, as well as for silver, and 
the President now struck at wool as <( the tariff- 
arch keystone.® But, while in this debate the 
economist came to the front, there was no pro¬ 
nounced call, and, indeed, small opportunity for 
the historian. 

Three Great Issues .— Returning to the re¬ 
view of our national debates, we find that in 
1892 the shadow of coming events was plainly 
perceptible. The tariff issue had now lost its 
old significance; for the infant industries had 
developed into trade- and legislation-compelling 
trusts. These were suggestive of new and, as 
yet, inchoate problems; but to them the con¬ 
stituency was not prepared intelligently to ad¬ 
dress itself. Populism was rife, with its crude 
and restless theories; a crisis in the history of 
the precious metals was clearly impending with 
the outcome in doubt; indiscriminate and un¬ 
precedented pension-giving had reduced an over¬ 
flowing exchequer to the verge of bankruptcy. 
The debate of 1892 accordingly dropped back 
to the politician’s level, that of 1876, 1880, and 
1884. 

Of quite another character were the two can¬ 
vasses of 1896 and 1900. Still fresh in memory, 
the echoes of these have indeed not yet ceased 
to reverberate; and I assert without hesitation 
that not since 1856 and i860 has this people 
passed through two such wholesome and edu¬ 
cational experiences. In 1896 and in 1900, as in 
the debates of 40 years previous, there was a 
place, and a larger place, for the student, 
whether investigator or philosopher. Great 
problems, problems of law, of economics and 
ethics, problems involving peace and war, and 
the course of development in the oldest as in 
the newest civilizations, had to be discussed on 
the way to a solution. That the prolonged de¬ 
bate running through those eight years was at 
all equal to the occasion I do not think can be 


claimed. Even his most ardent admirers will 
hardly suggest that Mr. Bryan in 1896 and 1900 
rose to the level reached by Lincoln 40 years 
before, nor do the utterances of Mr. Roosevelt, 
Mr. Depew, or Mr. Hanna bear well a compari¬ 
son with those of Seward, Trumbull, and Sum¬ 
ner. Indeed, in the whole wordy canvass of 
1896 I now recall but two instances of the pro¬ 
fessor or philosopher distinctly taking the floor; 
but both of those were memorable. They im¬ 
parted an elevation of tone to discussion, im¬ 
mediately and distinctly perceptible, in the press 
and on the platform. I refer to the single utter¬ 
ance of Carl Schurz before a small audience at 
Chicago on 5 Sept. 1896 and to the subsequent 
publications of President Andrew D. White, in 
which, from his library at Ithaca, he drew 
freely on the stores of historical experience in 
crushing refutation of demagogical campaign 
sophistry. 

What were the issues of the last Presiden¬ 
tial canvass? On what questions did its debate 
turn? Three in number, they were, I think, 
singularly inviting to those historically minded. 
To the reflecting man the matter first in im¬ 
portance was what is known as ^imperialism,® 
the problem forced on our consideration by the 
outcome of the war with Spain. Next I should 
place the questions of public policy involved in 
the rapid agglomerations of capital, popularly 
denominated trusts. Finally, the silver issue 
still lingered at the front, a legacy from the 
canvass of four years previous. The debate of 
1900 is a thing of the past. Each of those issues 
can now be discussed, as it might well then have 
been discussed, in the pure historical spirit. Let 
us take them up in their inverse order. 

Silver and Trusts .— Shortly after 1870 the 
policy of demonetizing silver was entered on; 
and in 1873 the United States gave its adhesion 
to that policy. Thereafter, in the great system 
of international exchanges, silver ceased to be 
counted a part of that specie reserve on which 
drafts were made. Thenceforth the drain, as 
among the financial centres, was to be on gold 
alone. In the whole history of man no precedent 
for such a step was to be found. So far as the 
United States was concerned the basis on which 
its complex and delicate financial fabric rested 
was weakened by one-half; and the cheaper and 
more accessible metal, that to which the debtor 
would naturally have recourse in discharge of 
his obligations, was made unavailable. It could 
further be demonstrated that without a com¬ 
plete readjustment of our currencies and values 
the world’s accumulated stock and annual pro¬ 
duction of gold, could not, as a monetary basis, 
be made to suffice for its needs. A continually 
recurring contest for gold among the greatest 
financial centres was inevitable. (( A change 
which,® in the language of Lecky, (( beyond all 
others affects most deeply and universally the 
material well-being of man had been unwittingly 
challenged.® The only question was, Would the 
unexpected occur? Then, if it did occur, what 
might be anticipated? Such was the silver issue, 
as it presented itself in 1896. On the facts, the 
weight of argument was clearly with the ad¬ 
vocates of silver. 

Four years later, in 1900, the unexpected had 
occurred. As then resumed, the debate was re¬ 
plete with interest. The lessons of 1892 and 
1896 had a direct bearing on the present, and 
in the light shed by them the outcome could be 


AMERICAN POLITICAL ISSUES 


forecast almost with certainty; but it was a 
world question. Japan, China, Hindustan, en¬ 
tered into the problem, in which also both Amer¬ 
icas were factors. It was a theme to inspire 
Burke, stretching back, as it did, to the Middle 
Ages, and involving the whole circling globe. 
Rarely has any subject called for more intelli¬ 
gent and comprehensive investigation; rarely has 
one been more confused and befogged by a 
denser misinformation. The discoverer and sci¬ 
entist, moving hand in hand, had during the re¬ 
mission of the debate, been getting in their work, 
and under the touch of their silent influence the 
world s gold production rose by leaps and 
bounds. Less than 10,000,000 ounces in 1896, 
in 1899 it had nearly touched 15,000,000; and in 
money value it alone then exceeded the com¬ 
bined value of the gold and silver production of 
the period. 

So much for the silver question and its pos¬ 
sible treatment. In the discussion of 1900 the 
last word in the debate of 1896 remained to be 
uttered. A page in history, both memorable and 
instructive, was to be turned. Next, trusts — 
those vast aggregations of capital in the hands 
of private combinations, constituting practical 
monopolies of whole branches of industry, and 
of commodities necessary to man. Was the 
world to be subject to taxation at the will of a 
moneyed syndicate? The debate over this issue, 
if debate it may be called, is still very recent. 
In it the lessons of history were effectually 
ignored; and yet, if applied, they would have 
been sufficiently suggestive. The historian was 
as conspicuous for his absence as the demagogue 
was in evidence. 

The curious feature in the present discussion, 
that which in the mind of the student of things 
as opposed to words imparts a special interest 
to it, is that, while the trust of vast aggregation 
of capital and machinery of production in the 
hands of individuals intended to control com¬ 
petition is in fact the modern form of monopoly, 
is is in its methods and results the direct op¬ 
posite of the old time monopoly; for, whereas 
the purpose and practice of that was to extort 
from all purchasers an artificial price for an in¬ 
ferior article through the suppression of com¬ 
petitors, the first law of its existence for the 
modern trust is, through economies and magni¬ 
tude of production, to supply to all buyers a bet¬ 
ter article at a price so low that other producers 
are driven from the market. The ground of 
popular complaint against them is not that they 
exact an inordinate profit on what they sell, but 
that they sell so low that the small manufac¬ 
turer or merchant is deprived of his trade. This 
distinction with a difference explains at once the 
wholly futile character of the politician’s outcry 
against trusts. It is easy, for instance, to de¬ 
nounce from the platform the magnates of the 
sugar trust to a sympathizing audience; and yet 
not one human being in that audience, his sym¬ 
pathies to the contrary notwithstanding, will 
the next morning pay a fraction of a cent more 
per pound for his sugar, that by so doing he 
may help to keep alive some struggling manu¬ 
facturer who advertises that his product does 
not bear the trust stamp. . 

As to the outcome of conflicts of this char¬ 
acter history tells but one story. They can have 
but one result, a readjustment of industries. A 
single familiar illustration will suffice. Any one 
who chooses to turn back to it can read the story 


of. the long conflict between the loom and the 
spindle. Formerly, and not so very far back, 
the distaff and spinnmg-wheel were to be seen 
in every house; homespun was the common 
wear, lo-day the average man or woman has 
never seen a distaff, or heard the hum of a 
spinning-wheel. Ceasing long since to be a 
commodity, homespun would be sought for in 
vain. Yet the struggle between the loom of the 
manufacturing trust and the old dame’s spin¬ 
ning-wheel was, literally, for the latter a fight 
to the death. The operator’s time was worth 
absolutely nothing except at the wheel; she 
must needs work for any wage; on it depended 
her bread. A vast domestic, industrial readjust¬ 
ment was involved; one implying untold human 
suffering. The result was, however, never for 
an instant in doubt. The trust of that day was 
left in undisputed control of the field; and it 
always must, and always will be, just so long 
as it supplies purchasers with a better article at 
a lower price than they had to pay before. The 
process does not vary; the only difference is that 
each succeeding readjustment is on a larger 
scale and more far-reaching in its effects. 

Such, stripped of its verbiage and appeals to 
sympathy, is the trust proposition. But the 
popular apprehension always has been, as it now 
is, that this supply of the better article at a lower 
price will continue only till the producer, the 
monopolist, has secured a complete mastery of 
the situation. Capital, it is argued, is selfish 
and greedy, corporations are proverbially soul¬ 
less and insatiable; and, as soon as competition 
is eliminated, nature will assert itself. Prices 
will then be raised so as to assure inordinate 
gains; and when, in consequence of such profits, 
fresh competitors enter the field, they will either 
be crushed out of existence by a temporary re¬ 
duction in price, or absorbed in the trust. All 
this has a plausible sound; and of it as a theory 
of practical outcome the politician can be relied 
on to make the most. But on this head what 
has the historical investigator to say? His will 
be the last word in that debate also; his ver¬ 
dict will be final. The lessons bearing on this 
contention to be drawn from the record cover a 
wide field of both time and space; they also 
silence discussion. They tend indisputably to 
show that the dangers depicted are imaginary. 
The subject must, of course, be approached in 
an unprejudiced spirit and studied in a large, 
comprehensive way. Permanent tendencies are 
to be dealt with; and exceptional cases must be 
instanced, classified, and allowed for. Attempts, 
more or less successful, at extortion in a con¬ 
fidence of mastery, can unquestionably be pointed 
out; but in the history of economical develop¬ 
ment it is no less unquestionable that, on the 
large scale and in the long run, every new con¬ 
centration has been followed by a permanent 
reduction of price in the commodity affected 
thereby. The world’s needs are continually sup¬ 
plied at a lower cost to the world. Again, the- 
larger the concentration the cheaper the prod¬ 
uct ; till now a new truth of the market place 
has become established and obtained general ac¬ 
ceptance, a truth of the most far-reaching con¬ 
sequence, the truth that the largest returns are 
found in quick sales at small profits. 

Does history furnish any instance of a finan¬ 
cial, an industrial, or a commercial enterprise—• 
a bank, a factory, or an importing company — 
ever having been powerful enough long to regu- 


AMERICAN POLITICAL ISSUES 


late the price of any commodity regardless of 
competition except when acting in harmony with 
and supported by governmental power? Is not 
the monopolist practically impotent unless he has 
the constable at his call? To answer this ques¬ 
tion absolutely would be to deduce a law of the 
first importance from the general experience of 
mankind. So doing would call for a far more 
careful examination than is now in my power 
to make, were it even within the scope of my 
ability; but if my supposition prove correct the 
corollary to be drawn therefrom is to us as a 
body politic and at just this juncture one of the 
first and most far-reaching import. In such case 
the modern American trust, also, so far as it 
enjoys any power as a monopoly, or admits of 
abuse as such, must depend for that power and 
the opportunity of abuse solely on governmental 
support and cooperation. Its citadel is then the 
custom-house. The moment the United States 
revenue officer withdrew his support the Amer¬ 
ican monopolist would cease to monopolize, ex¬ 
cept in so far as he could defy competition by 
always supplying a better article at a price lower 
than any other producer in the whole world. 

The Issue of Imperialism .— It remains to 
pass on to the third and last of the matters in 
debate during 1900, that known as imperialism. 
This was the really great issue before the Amer¬ 
ican people then; and it is the really great issue 
before them now. That issue, moreover, I with 
confidence submit, can be intelligently consid¬ 
ered only from the historical standpoint. In¬ 
deed, unless approached through the avenues of 
human experience, it is not even at once ap¬ 
parent how the question, as it now confronts us, 
arose and injected itself into our political ac¬ 
tion ; and accordingly, it is in some quarters even 
currently assumed that it is there only fortui¬ 
tously, a feature in the great chapter of accidents, 
a passing incident, which may well disappear as* 
mysteriously and as suddenly as it came. Stud¬ 
ied historically, I do not think this view of the 
situation will bear examination. On the con¬ 
trary, I fancy even the most superficial investi¬ 
gator, if actuated in his inquiry by the true his¬ 
torical spirit, would soon reach the conclusion 
that the issue so recently forced on us had been 
long in preparation, was logical and inevitable, 
and for our good or our evil must be decided, 
rightly or wrongly, on a large view of great and 
complex conditions. 

Leslie Stephen, in one of his essays, truly 
enough says: <( The Catholic and the Protestant, 
the Conservative and the Radical, the Individu¬ 
alist and the Socialist, have equal facility in 
proving their own doctrines with arguments 
which habitually begin, ‘All history shows.’ 
Printers should be instructed always to strike 
out that phrase as an erratum, and to substi¬ 
tute ‘I choose to take for granted.’® And else¬ 
where the same writer lays it down as a general 
proposition that: <( Arguments beginning ‘All his¬ 
tory shows’ are always sophistical.® What is 
by some known as the doctrine of manifest des¬ 
tiny is, I take it, identical with what others, more 
piously minded, refer to as the will, or call, of 
God. The Mohammedans say: (< God clearly 
calls us® to this or that work; and with a con¬ 
science perfectly clear proceed to rob, slay, and 
oppress. In like manner the political buccaneer 
and land pirate proclaims that the possession of 
his neighbor’s territory is rightfully his by mani¬ 
fest destiny. The philosophical politician next 


drugs the conscience of his fellowmen by declar¬ 
ing solemnly that <( all history shows® that might 
is right; and with time, the court of last appeal, 
it must be admitted possession is 9 points in 
the law’s 10. It cannot be denied, also, that 
quite as many crimes have been perpetrated in 
the name of God and of manifest destiny as in 
that of liberty. That, at least, <( all history 
shows.® But, all the same, just as liberty is not¬ 
withstanding a good and desirable thing, so God 
does live and will, and there is something in 
manifest destiny. As applied to the develop¬ 
ment of the races inhabiting the earth it is, I 
take it, merely an unscientific form of speech; 
the word now in vogue is evolution, the phrase 
<( survival of the fittest.® When all is said and 
done that unreasoning instinct of a people which 
carries it forward, in spite of and over theories 
to its manifest destiny, amid the despairing out¬ 
cries and long-drawn protestations of theorists 
and ethical philosophers, is a very considerable 
factor in making history; and consequently one 
to be reckoned with. 

In plain words, then, and Mr. Stephen to the 
contrary notwithstanding, <( all history shows® 
that every great, aggressive, and masterful race 
tends at times irresistibly toward the practical 
assertion of its supremacy, usually at the cost 
of those not so well adapted to existing condi¬ 
tions. In his great work Mommsen formulates 
the law with a brutal directness distinctly Ger¬ 
manic : (< By virtue of the law that a people which 
has grown into a state absorbs its neighbors 
who are in political nonage, and a civilized peo¬ 
ple absorbs its neighbors who are in intellectual 
nonage — by virtue of this law, which is as uni¬ 
versally valid and as much a law of nature as 
the law of gravity — the Italian nation (the only 
one in antiquity which was able to combine a 
superior political development and a superior 
civilization, though it presented the latter only 
in an imperfect and external manner) was en¬ 
titled to reduce to subjection the Greek States 
of the East which were ripe for destruction, and 
to dispossess the peoples of lower grades of cul¬ 
ture in the West—Libyans, Iberians, Celts, Ger¬ 
mans— by means of its settlers; just as England 
with equal right has in Asia reduced to subjec¬ 
tion a civilization of rival standing, but politically 
impotent, and in America and Australia has 
marked and ennobled and still continues to mark 
and ennoble extensive barbarian countries with 
the impress of its national^.® 

The following quotation I must commend to 
the thoughtful consideration of those classified 
in the political nomenclature of the day as Anti- 
Imperialists. A most conscientious and high- 
minded class, possessed with the full courage 
of their convictions, the efforts of the Anti-Im¬ 
perialists will not fail, we and they may rest as¬ 
sured, to make themselves felt. They enter into 
the grand result. Nevertheless, for them there 
is food for thought, perhaps for consolation, in 
this other general law, laid down in 1862 by 
Richard Cobden: 

(( From the moment the first shot is fired, or 
the first blow is struck, in a dispute, then fare¬ 
well to all reason and argument; you might as 
well attempt to reason with mad dogs as with 
men when they have begun to spill each other’s 
blood in mortal combat. I was so convinced of 
the fact during the Crimean War, which, you 
know, I opposed, I was so convinced of the utter 
uselessness of raising one’s voice in opposition 


AMERICAN POLITICAL ISSUES 


to war when it was once begun that I made up 
my mind that as long as I was in political life, 
should a war again break out between England 
and a great power, I would never open my 
mouth on the subject from the time the first 
gun was fired till the peace was made, because 
when a war is commenced it will only be by the 
exhaustion of one party that a termination will 
be arrived at. If you look back at our history 
what did eloquence in the persons of Chatham 
or Burke do to prevent a war with our first 
American colonies? What did eloquence in the 
persons of Fox and his friends do to prevent 
the French Revolution, or bring it to a close? 
And there was a man who at the commence¬ 
ment of the Crimean War opposed it in terms of 
eloquence, in power, and pathos, and argument 
equal — in terms, I believe, fit to compare with 
anything that fell from the lips of Chatham and 
Burke.— I mean your distinguished townsman, 
my friend Mr. Bright — and what was his suc¬ 
cess? Why, they burnt him in effigy for his 
pains? 

Turning from the authorities and the lessons 
by them deduced from the record called history, 
let us now consider the problem precipitated on 
the American people by the Spanish war of 1898. 
The first and most important lesson is one 
which, in theory at least, is undisputed; though 
to live up to it practically calls for a courage 
of conviction not yet in evidence. That a de¬ 
pendency is not merely a possession, but a trust, 
a trust for the future, for itself, and for human¬ 
ity, is accepted by us in this debate as a postu¬ 
late. Accordingly, our dependencies are in no 
wise to be exploited for the general benefit of 
the alien owner, or that of individual components 
of that owner, but they are to be dealt with in 
a large and altruistic spirit with an unselfish 
view to their own utmost development, materi¬ 
ally, morally, and politically. And, through a 
process of negatives, <( all history shows® that only 
when this course is hereafter wisely and con¬ 
secutively pursued, should that blessed consum¬ 
mation ever be attained, will the dominating 
power itself derive the largest and truest benefit 
from its possessions. As yet no American of 
any character, much less of authority, has come 
forward to controvert this proposition.. But, as¬ 
suming the correctness of the proposition I have 
just formulated, a corollary follows, from it. A 
formidable proposition, I state it without limita¬ 
tions, meaning to challenge contradiction, I sub¬ 
mit that there is not an instance in all recorded 
history, from the earliest precedent to that now 
making, where a so-called inferior race or com¬ 
munity has been elevated in its character, or 
made self-sustaining and self-governing, or even 
put on the way to that result, through a condition 
of dependency or tutelage. I say “inferior race® ; 
but, I fancy, I might state the proposition even 
more broadly. I might without much danger as¬ 
sert that the condition of dependency, even for 
communities of the same race and blood, always 
exercises an emasculating and deteriorating in¬ 
fluence. I would undertake, if called on, to show 
also that this rule is invariable — that from the 
inherent and fundamental conditions of human 
nature it has known and can know no excep¬ 
tions. This truth, also, I would demonstrate 
from well-nigh innumerable examples, that of 
our own colonial period among the number. In 
our case it required a century to do away in 
our minds and hearts with our dependential tra¬ 


ditions. The Civil War and not what we call 
the Revolution was our real war of independ¬ 
ence. And yet in our time of dependency you 
will remember we were not emasculated into a 
resigned and even cheerful self-incapacity as the 
natural result of a kindly, paternal, and protec¬ 
tive policy; but, as Burke with profound insight 
expressed it, with us the spirit of independence 
and self-support was fostered “through a wise 
and salutary neglect.® But, for present pur¬ 
poses, all this is unnecessary, and could lead but 
to a poor display of commonplace learning. 
The problem to-day engaging the attention of the 
American people is more limited. It relates 
solely to what are called <( inferior races®; those 
of the same race, or of cognate races, we as 
yet do not propose to hold in a condition of per¬ 
manent dependency; those we absorb or assim¬ 
ilate. Only those of “inferior race,® the less de¬ 
veloped or decadent, do we propose to hold in 
subjection, dealing with them, in theory at least, 
as a guardian deals with a family of wards. 

What History Teaches .— My proposition then 
broadens. If history teaches anything in this 
regard it is that race elevation, the capacity in 
a word for political self-support, cannot be im¬ 
parted through tutelage. Moreover, the milder, 
the more paternal, kindly, and protective the 
guardianship, the more emasculating it will 
prove. A (< wise and salutary neglect® is the 
more beneficent policy; for, with races as with 
individuals, a state of dependency breeds the 
spirit of dependency. Take Great Britain, for 
instance. That people, working at it now con¬ 
secutively through three whole centuries, after 
well-nigh innumerable experiences and as many 
costly blunders, Great Britain has, I say, de¬ 
veloped a genius for dealing with dependencies, 
for the government of “inferior races® ; a genius 
far in advance of anything the world has seen 
before. Yet my contention is that, to-day, after 
three rounded centuries of British rule, the Hin¬ 
dus, the natives of India, in spite of all 
material, industrial and educational improve¬ 
ments— roads, schools, justice, and peace—* 
were in 1900 less capable of independent and 
ordered self-government, than they were in the 
year 1600, the year when the East India Com¬ 
pany was incorporated under a patent of Eliza¬ 
beth. The native Indian dynasties, those natural 
to the Hindus, have disappeared; accustomed to 
foreign rule, the people have no rulers of their 
own, nor could they rule themselves. The rule 
of aliens has with Hindustan thus become a 
domestic necessity. Remove it — and the high¬ 
est and most recent authorities declare it surely 
will some day be removed — chaos would inevi¬ 
tably ensue. What is true of India is true of 
Egypt. Schools, roads, irrigation, law and 
order, and protection from attack, she has them 
all — 

“ But what avail the plow or sail, 

Or land or life, if freedom fail? ” 

The capacity for self-government is not acquired 
in that school. 

But of this England itself furnishes an ex¬ 
ample in its own history, an example well-nigh 
forgotten. In fundamentals human nature is 
much the same now as 20 centuries back. During 
the first century of the present era the Romans, 
acting in obedience to the law laid down b$ 
Mommsen—the law quoted by me in full, and 
the. law of which Thomas Carlyle is the latest and 


AMERICAN PRINTING TRADE 


most eloquent exponent, the law known as the 
Divine Right of the most Masterful — acting 
in obedience to that law the Romans in the year 
of grace 43 crossed the British channel, over¬ 
threw the Celts and Gauls gathered in defense 
of what they mistakenly deemed their own, and, 
after reducing them to subjection, permanently 
occupied the land. They remained there four 
centuries, 100 years longer than the English 
have been in Calcutta. During that period they 
introduced civilization, established Christianity, 
constructed roads, dwellings and fortifications. 
Materially, the condition of the country vastly 
improved. The Romans protected the inhabi¬ 
tants against their enemies; also against them¬ 
selves. During hundreds of years they benevo¬ 
lently assimilated them. Doubtless on the banks 
of the Tiber the inhabitants of what is now Eng¬ 
land were deemed incapable of self-government. 
Probably they were; unquestionably they became 
so. When the legions were at last withdrawn, 
the results of a kindly paternalism, secure pro¬ 
tection, and intelligent tutelage became apparent. 
The race was wholly emasculate. It cursed its 
independence; it deplored its lost dependency. 
As the English historian (Green) now records 
the result: (( They forgot how to fight for their 
country when they forgot how to govern it.® 

Man is always in a hurry; God never! is a 
familiar saying. Certainly, nature works with 
a discouraging indifference to generations. Each 
passing race of reformers and regenerators does 
indisputably love to witness some results of its 
efforts; but, in the case of England, in conse¬ 
quence of the emasculation incident to tutelage 
and dependency on a powerful, a benevolent, and 
beneficent foreign rule, after that rule ended — 
as soon or late such rule must always end — 
throughout the lives of 18 successive generations 
emasculated England was overrun. At last, 
with some half dozen intermediate rulers, the 
Normans succeeded the Romans. They were 
conquering masters; but they domesticated 
themselves in the British Islands, and in time 
assimilated the inhabitants thereof, Saxons, Piets, 
and Celts, benevolently or otherwise. But, as 
nearly as the historian can fix it, it required 800 
years of direst tribulation to educate the people 
of England out of that spirit of self-distrust and 
dependency into which they had been reduced by 
four centuries of paternalism, at once Roman 
and temporarily beneficent. Twelve centuries is 
certainly a discouraging term to which to look 
forward. But steam and electricity have since 
then been developed to a manifest quickening of 
results. Even the pace of nature was in the 19th 
century vastly accelerated. 

Briefly stated then, the historical deduction 
would seem to be somewhat as follows: Where 
a race has in itself, whether implanted there by 
nature or as the result of education, the ele¬ 
vating instinct and energy, the capacity of mas¬ 
tership, a state of dependency will tend to edu¬ 
cate that capacity out of existence; and the more 
beneficent, paternal, and protecting the guardian 
power is, the more pernicious its influence be¬ 
comes. In such cases the course most bene¬ 
ficial in the end to the dependency, now as a 
century ago, would be that characterized by <( a 
wise and salutary neglect.® Where, however, a 
race is for any cause not possessed of the innate 
saving capacity, being stationary or decadent, a 
state of dependency while it may improve ma- 
< erial conditions, tends yet further to deteriorate 


the spirit and to diminish the capacity of_ self- 
government; if severe, it brutalizes, if kindly, 
it enervates. Charles Francis Adams, 

• Historian and Diplomat. 

American Printing Trade. Although the 
printing trade had its inception in America con¬ 
siderably prior to the Revolutionary War, it 
was not until some time after the conclusion of 
that struggle for liberty that it began to assume 
the proportions of a national industry. In the 
year 1775, f° r example, there were less than 100 
printing establishments upon American soil, and 
these were almost exclusively confined to the 
coast towns. Even as late as the year 1810 there 
were but 35 printing shops scattered about 
throughout the interior of the country, while, in 
1775, with the exception of the two or three 
offices that were located in Massachusetts and 
Pennsylvania, the art of printing had no inland 
representation. A few years later a printing 
establishment was opened at Lexington, Ky.; 
another soon followed at Pittsburg, Pa., and the 
third office was finally located at Cincinnati, 
Ohio. In almost every instance these printing 
offices were established for the primary object 
of printing newspapers, although each of them 
not only possessed the necessary facilities for 
the production of jobwork, but were also able 
to print and bind books on the rare occasions 
upon which such contracts presented themselves. 

From the earliest days in the history of the 
printing trade in America, New York, Phila¬ 
delphia, and Boston have been the three great 
centers of this industry. Other seaport towns 
had their local shops, but the bulk of their busi¬ 
ness was small. In fact, during the first 50 
years in the life of the new nation it was Phila¬ 
delphia that took the lead in every branch of the 
printing industry, and, by the beginning of the 
18th century the Quaker City presses, of which 
there were no less than no constantly in opera¬ 
tion, were producing more English publications 
than any city in the world, with the single ex¬ 
ception of London. It was here that Matthew 
Carey, the first great American publisher, estab¬ 
lished his plant, and with all its daily and 
weekly newspapers, and its book-printing and 
binding establishments, Philadelphia was indeed 
the most important center of the American 
printing trade. 

Gradually, however, as the demands for 
printed works increased, other cities came into 
line, Albany, Hartford, and Worcester being 
among those that developed a comparative large 
trade. Their chief industry was in the printing 
of pamphlets. The newspapers of that day con¬ 
tained so little matter that they were easily 
read, and, as they were passed from man to 
man, their numerical circulation was extremely 
small. As the result, therefore, little effort was 
made to enlarge them, and persons who, like 
the politicians, wished to reach the general pub¬ 
lic were compelled to address themselves to the 
people through the medium of pamphlets. So 
far as actual literature was concerned the 
country was practically devoid of authors, and 
the books which were printed upon American 
presses were almost exclusively those which had 
been pirated from English publishers. Later 
some religious and technical books appeared, but 
it was many years before general literature began 
to display any marked degree of development. 

In the beginning everything that was used 


AMERICAN PRINTING TRADE 


in the art of printing was imported from Eng¬ 
land. The American printers had English 
presses. It was from England that they ob¬ 
tained their type. Even the better qualities of 
printer’s ink was imported, for the ink that was 
produced in this country was of such an in¬ 
ferior grade that it could be used only in the 
roughest kinds of jobs. From time to time va¬ 
rious American printers made some slight im¬ 
provements upon the old presses, but no great 
evidence of progress was shown until the estab¬ 
lishment of a permanent type foundry. 

Although it was the latter part of the 18th 
century before there was any permanent estab¬ 
lishment for the making of type in this country, 
several attempts had previously been made to 
introduce such an innovation in the printing 
trade. As early as 1775 Benjamin Franklin had 
•sent the complete equipment for a type foundry 
from Paris, but the attempt to establish this 
branch of the industry was not a financial suc¬ 
cess, and it was accordingly soon discontinued. 
Some ten years later a Scotch firm opened a 
foundry in Philadelphia, but it did not thrive, 
and the few other scattered efforts that were 
made to provide American workmen with 
American-made type met with the same fate. 
In 1796, however, two Scotchmen opened a type 
foundry in Philadelphia under the firm name of 
Binny & Ronaldson, and, as the time now 
seemed ripe for such an establishment, they were 
sufficiently successful to be able to continue 
operations. In 1805 another foundry was opened 
by the firm of Wing & White, Jn Hartford, but 
they found themselves unable to compete with 
the Philadelphia foundry until, in 1810, the 
establishment was removed to New York. Two 
years later the firm of David & George Bruce 
established a stereotyping plant in New York, 
and, when the already established foundries re¬ 
fused to supply them with tyoe for their opera¬ 
tions, they began to cast it for themselves, and 
soon became one of the most successful type- 
making houses in America. Their success, in 
fact, as much as the increasing demand for type, 
inspired others to follow their example. In 1816 
a foundry was established in Boston; in 1817 
another was opened in Baltimore, and, by 1830, 
there were no less than twelve foundries in full 
operation in various parts of the country. At 
the present time there are about thirty of these 
foundries in the United States, many of which 
are under the control of the American Type- 
Founders Company. 

In the early days of the printing trade in 
America stereotyping was, of course, unknown, 
and the local publishers were accordingly com¬ 
pelled to recompose the type for each new 
edition that might be required. The introduc¬ 
tion of stereotyping by the Bruces in 1813, there¬ 
fore, suggested such economy that the enter¬ 
prise could scarcely have failed to meet with 
favor at the hands of the printers. While the 
plaster process, the first method of stereotyping 
in vogue, was invented in England by Lord 
Stanhope, tidings of this great discovery were 
soon brought to this country, qnd David Bruce 
at once set sail for the old world for the express 
purpose of securing the information that would 
enable him to make practical use of the new in¬ 
vention in America. Although the stories that 
had reached this country had pictured the new 
discovery as a perfected invention, Lord Stan¬ 
hope’s experiments had actually by no means 
Vol. 1—27 


been concluded, and, as the result, Bruce found 
it impossible to acquire anything more than the 
most superficial knowledge concerning the 
process. Finding that all material facts were 
being withheld from him, and that it would be 
useless to attempt to persuade Lord Stanhope 
to disclose his secret, Bruce returned to the 
United States. So far from admitting his de¬ 
feat, however, he promptly went to work, and, 
with the little information he had obtained, he 
managed by his own genius and mechanical skill 
to make a plate that was in every respect su¬ 
perior to any that had as yet been cast in Eng¬ 
land. Through his own diligence he had 
mastered the defects which Lord Stanhope had 
been unable to overcome, for his plate was not 
only perfectly level on both sides, but it was of 
uniform thickness in every part. In fact, so 
successful was he that an Englishman named 
Watts, who had succeeded in learning his 
process, went back to Europe with his knowl¬ 
edge. There he found scores of master-printers 
who, disgusted with the English invention, were 
glad to be taught how the American plates were 
made, and it was through his efforts that both 
Austria and Germany acquired the art of 
stereotyping. 

From the day on which David & George 
Bruce opened their foundry in New York they 
had all the orders that they could fill, for 
American publishers were quick to appreciate 
the economical advantage of the new invention. 
It was the time when the public was just be¬ 
ginning to demand books, and as the plaster 
casts were not only made without great expense 
but also guaranteed plates of great durability, 
printers were eager to stereotype all books that 
might by any possibility require a second edition. 
From this simple beginning, therefore, came the 
great stereotyping industry of America. By 
1850, the year in which the making of plaster 
plates attained its greatest development, there 
were more than 50 firms engaged in this busi¬ 
ness in the United States, while more than i,ooo 
men were employed in the work. Then came 
the modern improvements — the electrotyping 
for book-work and the introduction of the 
papier-mache process in the making of news¬ 
papers —■ since which time the making of plates 
has become practically an art by itself. 

Prior to 1805 comparatively little printer’s 
ink was made in this country. Although print¬ 
ers were supposed to know how to mix the com¬ 
pound, the preparations that they concocted 
proved such a poor substitute that all the good 
inks were imported. In 1805, however, two 
firms — one in Philadelphia and the other in 
Cambridgeport — began the manufacture of 
printing ink, and, since that time, the industry 
has been steadily extended until there are now 
about 35 firms engaged in this branch of the 
printing trade. About i860 the cheapness of 
aniline colors inspired a more general use of 
colored inks, but as many of these tints soon 
lost their brilliancy they did not become very 
popular until the chemists had succeeded in cor¬ 
recting this fault. 

The period between 1819 and 1833 witnessed 
many great improvements in the art of printing. 
One of the most important innovations was the 
substitution of iron for wood in the making of 
hand presses. Although wooden presses had 
been used since the time of Gutenberg they had 
always proved a handicap to good printing. 


AMERICAN PRINTING TRADE 


Even the strongest wood was weak, and as the 
machine was liable to give way in some part at 
any pull, the pressmen found it impossible to 
obtain a good impression, even when the type 
surface was no larger than 12 bv 20 inches. 
As the natural result, all hand-presses were 
small affairs, and as they required the services 
of two expert workmen to keep them going the 
process was as costly as it was slow. In the 
adoption of the iron press American printers 
followed the example of their English brethren. 
The first iron press to be made in America was 
completed about 1820, but, sometime previous 
to that date, such presses had been imported 
from England. Recognizing the advantage of a 
machine that was capable of printing a sheet 
three times as large as the old press and with 
no greater muscular effort, American printers 
soon demanded them, but, in spite of this de¬ 
mand, it was several years before the wooden 
presses were relegated to the junk-heap, some 
of them having been in use, even in New York, 
as late as 1850. In the beginning presses were 
made by Turney, Worrall, Wells, and Smith, 
but gradually the business began to center with 
Hoe in New York and Ramage & Bronstrup in 
Philadelphia, until, finally, nearly all the presses 
were manufactured by these houses. 

Another invention that proved an invaluable 
aid to the progress of the art of printing was 
the making of elastic rollers for inking the type. 
The original method of inking was a most 
laborious system, the application of the ink 
being made with balls of pelt. Early in the 19th 
century, however, an English compositor dis¬ 
covered that a composition of glue and molasses, 
long used in the making of pottery, could be ap¬ 
plied in the inking of type, and from this idea 
was evolved the composition roller which was 
so necessary to the success of the first machine 
presses. This roller was first employed in this 
country about 1826. Another invention that 
played an important part in the production of 
cheap printing was the improved method of 
paper manufacture which came with the intro¬ 
duction of Fourdrinier’s machine. This, too, was 
introduced in America soon after 1826, and, since 
that time the growth of the printing industry 
has been a steady and rapid evolution. 

Of course, the great necessity under the new 
conditions was more rapid printing facilities, and 
this demand was met by the inventors about 
T829. Some 15 years prior to that time a 
German printer named Konig went to England 
to produce a cylinder machine for the use of the 
London Times. While the press that he con¬ 
structed was rather successful, he returned to 
Germany before it was perfected, leaving the 
English inventors to complete the improvement 
of his work. This they did in many respects, 
but the credit for the first actual success in the 
making of cylinder presses is due to the Ameri¬ 
can manufacturers, firms like R. Hoe & Co., who 
took the somewhat unsatisfactory foreign ma¬ 
chines and brought them to a state of com¬ 
parative perfection. By depending only upon 
good material and thorough workmanship they 
produced cylinders that were so much more 
satisfactory than the foreign goods, that, in spite 
of the fact that the home product is cheaper, 
English printers have long found it expedient 
either to import American printing machines, or to 
make their own presses from American models. 


After 1833, therefore, America needed no 
further help from England in the development 
of her printing industry. With the best of paper, 
ink, type, and presses, all made in this country, 
and with plenty of money to invest in manu¬ 
facturing enterprises connected with this trade, 
it was unnecessary for her to turn to any foreign 
nation for assistance, and when, in 1830, the 
system of cloth book-binding was introduced, 
all the requisites for literary progress were in 
her own hands. 

Of course, with the development of the power 
press the character of the newspapers of this 
country also began to change. Whereas they 
had originally been small and dull, having but 
little news in them, the ability to print many 
copies enabled them to increase their circulation 
as well as their size. In 1833 the New York 
Sun, printing a sheet nj/2 by 17 inches on a 
hand press, could not produce more than 400 
copies an hour. As the demand for the paper 
continued to increase, however, a cylinder press, 
propelled by a man at a crank, was introduced 
in 1834, and a year later, this was supplanted by 
a double-cylinder operated by steam power. As 
other papers in other parts of the country met 
with similar experiences, the demand for rapid 
newspaper presses continued, and, by 1845, it was 
found that even the double-cylinder machine 
was too slow for the requirements of the con¬ 
stantly growing circulation of the great dailies. 
See American Newspapers. 

It was to comply with this demand that R. 
Hoe & Co., in 1847, invented the type-revolving 
rotary printing press, a machine in which the 
type was fastened to the cylinder and succes¬ 
sively presented to each of the impression 
cylinders placed around it. For more than 20 
years this press was able to meet every demand 
of periodical publications, but, in 1869. finding 
that it had at last become too slow, R. Hoe & 
Co. perfected their web-printing machine, a 
press which prints continuously from stereo¬ 
typed plates on a cylinder against an endless roll 
of paper. In spite of the almost incredible speed 
at which this press can be run, other inventions, 
which have since been perfected, now enable it, 
not only to print 4, 8, 12, or even more pages, 
but at the same time, to fold, count, and paste 
them; to insert sheets or add the necessary 
covers, or even to print illustrations in many 
colors. In 1834 William A. Bullock perfected 
the first cylinder machine that was capable of 
printing a newspaper from a roll on both sides 
at the same time, but the other improvements 
have been the work of R. Hoe & Co., or some of 
their business rivals like Cottrell, Babcock, 
Campbell, Potter, Huber, Miehle, Joss, and 
others. 

Great as has been the improvement in the 
making of machine-presses, however, the other 
branches of the art of printing have succeeded 
in keeping pace with it. In stereotyping, for 
example, the invention of the papier-mache 
process enabled printers to make a number of 
impressions of the same page of type, while the 
demand for a convex plate was met, in 1834. 
when Charles Craske, of New York, succeeded 
in stereotyping a curved surface. 

The period between 1833 and the outbreak 
of the Civil War also witnessed manv improve¬ 
ments in the art of printing, the most important 
being the. introduction of fast printing in fine 
book and job work. The invention of the power 


AMERICAN PROTECTIVE ASSOCIATION — AMERICAN PUBLISHING 


press had been a blessing to the newspapers, but, 
for a long time, book and fine job work was still 
done on hand presses. It was not until 1836 
that Harper & Brothers introduced a power- 
press, although Daniel Fanshaw of New York, 
the printer of the Bible Society, had 10 power 
printing machines in operation in his shop prior 
to that time. These machines were manu¬ 
factured by Daniel Treadwell of Massachusetts, 
and, although they were both bulky and incon¬ 
venient, they were the best presses on the market 
until the Adams press came to take their place. 
During all this period, however, it was believed 
that cylinder machines were incapable of doing 
fine work, and it was not until Francis Hart, of 
New York, had demonstrated the fallacy of this 
theory that the incredulous could be persuaded 
to make the change which the proper develop¬ 
ment of the trade had so long demanded. 

To Joseph A. Adams belongs the credit of 
devising the American method of making-ready 
woodcuts, and he it was who first demonstrated 
the feasibility of the new process of electrotyp¬ 
ing by making successful electrotype plates, in 
1839. It was in 1838 that the type-casting 
machine was invented by David Bruce, and 
about 1850 that the method of printing illustra¬ 
tions on dry paper was discovered. 

The art of engraving on wood was practiced 
until comparatively recent times, but the intro¬ 
duction of the art of photo-engraving destroyed 
its usefulness, for, while wood engravings were 
extremely costly, the new process made the 
cheapest of illustrations possible. Lithography, 
or the art of printing upon stone, has been em¬ 
ployed in the United States since 1819. It was 
not until 1825 that its use became commercially 
practicable, but, since that time, this form of 
printing has developed so rapidly that, in 1904, 
the amount of such work done was estimated to 
be nearly $40,000,000, a production which re¬ 
quired the employment of more than 9,000 
persons. 

One of the latest, and, unquestionably, one 
of the greatest improvements in the art of 
printing was the invention of the typesetting 
machine, which is now in such general use in all 
large establishments that it may be said to have 
practically supplanted hand composition. It is 
by such inventions, however, that the printing 
trade has been revolutionized until it has grown 
from the small proportions of a business which 
engaged the attention of less than 500 men to a 
great national industry, in which the capital in¬ 
vested, according to the 1904 estimate, is in 
excess of $300,000,000, that has an annual output 
that is valued at more than $350,000,000, and 
which gives employment to not less than 175,000 
persons. Albert Buckley Nichols, 

The Herald Company of Binghamton. 

American Protective Association, or 
«A. P. A.,® a secret order organized through¬ 
out the United States and Canada. Its chief 
doctrine, as announced, in its declaration of 
principle, is that (( subjection to and support of 
any ecclesiastical power not created and con¬ 
trolled by American citizens, and which claims 
equal, if not greater, sovereignty than the gov¬ 
ernment of the United States of America, is 
irreconcilable with American citizenship®; and 
it accordingly opposes <( the holding of offices in 
national, State, or municipal government by any 
subject or supporter of such ecclesiastical 


power.® Another of its purposes is to prevent 
all public encouragement and support of sec¬ 
tarian schools. It does not constitute a separate 
political party, but seeks to control existing par¬ 
ties, and to elect friendly and defeat objection¬ 
able candidates by the concerted action of citi¬ 
zens affiliated with all parties, much after the 
style of the American or ^Know-Nothing^ party. 
The order was founded 13 March 1887, and in 
1900 claimed a membership of over 2,000,000. 

American Psychological Association, a so¬ 
ciety founded in 1892 for the advancement of 
psychology as a science. Persons are eligible to 
membership who are engaged in this work. 
Membership, 135. Office of secretary, Columbia 
University, New York. 

American Publishing. The book trade or 
publishing industry in the New World had its 
origin in a more remote period than is gen¬ 
erally supposed. It began within 100 years of 
the invention of printing, and from the date of 
the first American book, 1535, to the year 1799, 
over 7,000 different books had been published, 
nine tenths of them however being pamphlets. 
The 19th century saw almost the full develop¬ 
ment of book publishing, the establishment of 
colleges and schools and the founding of many 
libraries, creating an ever-increasing demand for 
the best in literature. 

Early American Books .— The first book 
printed on the American continent is said to 
have been (( La Escalera Spiritual de San Juan 
Climaco,® published in Mexico in 1535. It was 
a translation from the Latin into Castilian. 
Other books were printed on the first press set 
up in Mexico and six or seven books are known 
to have been published in Peru before 1600. In 
the United States the earliest publication was a 
pamphlet called (( The Freeman’s Oath,® printed 
in Boston in 1639. This was followed in the 
year 1640 by the (( Bay Psalm Book,® printed by 
Stephen Daye at Cambridge, Mass. After its 
publication in the colony it was reprinted in 
England, where it went through 17 editions, 
the last one bearing the date of 1754. It was 
also a highly popular work in Scotland, 22 edi¬ 
tions having been printed there, the last dated 
1759. The first original American book pub¬ 
lished in this country was Mrs. Anne Brad- 
street’s <( Poems,® and this volume, issued in 
Cambridge, Mass., in 1640, was republished in 
London in 1650. Cambridge remained the only 
publishing town for a long time, and for 21 con¬ 
secutive years issued about one volume a year. 
In 1653 Samuel Green published John Eliot’s 
famous (( Catechism® in the Indian language, fol¬ 
lowed in 1659 by the Psalms in Indian, in 1661 
by the Indian New Testament, and in 1663 bj 
the whole Bible in the Indian tongue. This 
was the first Bible printed in America. 

Early Publishers .— In New York city the 
original book publisher was William Bradford, 
who became official printer in 1693, for (< 40 
pounds a year and half the benefit of his print¬ 
ing, besides what served the public.® In 1694 
he issued the <( Laws of the Colony,® the first 
bound book published in New York. In 7738, 
Christopher Sauer established a publishing 
house at Germantown, Pa., and issued the first 
German Bible printed in America in 1743. The 
firm of Little, Brown & Company was estab- 


AMERICAN PUBLISHING 


lishcd in 1784 in Boston while in the following 
year in Philadelphia, Lea Brothers & Company 
and Henry Baird & Company began business. 
It was also in 1785 that S. E. Bridgeman & 
Company began publishing books at Northamp¬ 
ton, Mass. The existing house of J. B. Lippin- 
cott & Company was established in Philadelphia 
in 1798. The firm of Harper & Brother began 
business in New York in 1817. From this date 
the publishing business had a rapid growth, 
among the firms established being the following 
in New York: Baker, Voorhis & Company, 
1820; D. Appleton & Company, 1825; D. Van 
Nostrand, 1830; Ivison & Company, 1831; John 
Wiley & Sons, 1832; John F. Trow, 1835; A. S. 
Barnes & Company, 1838. In other cities the 
early firms included the following: Cincinnati, 
O., U. P. James, 1831; Springfield, Mass., G. & 
C. Merriam Company, 1831; Louisville, Ky., 
John P. Morton, 1825; Richmond, Va., J. W. 
Randolph Company, 1831; Mobile, Ala., G. H. 
Randall, 1831; Montgomery, Ala., Joel White & 
Company, 1833; Lancaster, Pa., John Baer’s 
Sons, 1817. 

The Early Book Trade. — As an adjunct to 
publishing, the selling of books originated in 
Boston as early as 1652, when Hezekiah Usher 
opened the first shop. Many colonial book¬ 
sellers printed and published their wares. Ben¬ 
jamin Franklin (q.v.) was among the early book 
printers. In 1732, Richard Fry, an Englishman 
and bookseller of Boston, advertised: “ Whereas 
it has been the common method of the most 
curious merchants of Boston to procure their 
books from London, this is to acquaint these 
gentlemen that I, the said Fry, will sell all sorts 
of accompt books, done after the most acute 
manner, for 20 per cent cheaper than they can 
have them from London. * * * For the 

pleasing entertainment of the polite parts of 
mankind, I have printed the most beautiful 
poems of Stephen Duck, the famous Wiltshire 
poet. It is a full demonstration to me that the 
people of New England have a fine taste for 
good sense and polite learning, having already 
sold 1,200 of these poems.® The first conven¬ 
tion of booksellers for the regulation of trade 
seems to have been held in Boston, 1724; it 
was for the special purpose of increasing the 
prices of certain works. Toward the close of the 
century bookselling began to take rank among 
the most considerable commercial pursuits, 
though it then only foreshadowed its present 
comparative importance. Works of standard 
character, involving large expenditures, were 
undertaken by publishers, who, in such cases, 
usually subscribed together as a guarantee for 
the printer’s outlay. The trade was conducted 
upon established principles, and innovators were 
held in poor esteem. All these usages were, 
however, disturbed by competition, and after 
the publication of the Waverly novels, of which 
rival editions were issued, the individual mem¬ 
bers of the trade acted more independently of 
each other, and their customs afterward partook 
of a less narrow spirit. The American company 
of booksellers was founded in 1801. Books were 
formerly sold in sheets, to be bound as pur¬ 
chasers might desire, a practice which no longer 
obtains. The universal diffusion of education 
in America, and the inquiring mental character 


of its people, not only increased the circulation 
of books but reduced their price, and the old- 
fashioned veneration which literary works had 
once inspired experienced no little modification. 
Externals were of small consequence to the 
great body of readers, and works were pur¬ 
chased not so much for preservation as for im¬ 
mediate reading. 

Statistics .— From 1825 to 1840 the number 
of American publications show an aggregate of 
1,115. Of rhese 623 w&re original and 492 were 
reprints from foreign works. The population 
of the United States in that year was about 
17,000,000. In 1853, 733 new works were pub¬ 
lished in the United States, of which 278 were 
reprints of English works, 35 were translations 
of foreign authors, and the remainder were orig¬ 
inal American works. The population of the 
United States had reached about 25,000,000, an 
increase of 50 per cent compared with 1840. 
The original American works published in 1853, 
compared with the 15 years ending in 1840, 
show an increase of about 800 per cent in less 
than 20 years. In other words, the original 
American publications of the book trade seem 
to have advanced about 15 times as fast as the 
population. In 1880, with a population of 
50,000,000, the new books published during that 
year amounted to about 2,000 — nearly three 
times more than in 1853, whereas the population 
had only doubled. The total number of new 
books published in each year, according to the 
records of the ^Publishers’ Weekly® from 1881 
to 1903 inclusive, were as follows: 



NEW BOOKS 

PUBLISHED. 


1881. 


1893. 


1882. 


1894. 


1883. 


1895. 


1884. 


1896 .. 


1885. 


1897. 


1886. 


1898.. 


1887. 


1899. 


1888. 


1900 . 


1889. 


1901. 


1890.. 


1902 . 


1891. 


1903. 

.7.865 

1892. 





Included in these figures are different edi¬ 
tions of the same book issued by different pub¬ 
lishers. The total for 190L of 7,865 books 
includes 2,072 new editions. Of the new books, 
5,621 were by American, 1,356 by English and 
other foreign authors. The 888 books required 
to make up the total of 7,865, were imported 
<( in sheets,® i. e., they were printed abroad, and 
bound in this country. Fiction leads, with 977 
American and 483 foreign books. Law comes 
next with 605 titles, all but three American; 
education holds third place, (627 titles) and re¬ 
ligion and theology fourth, with 513 titles. The 
output for 1902 and 1903 may be compared as 
follows: 

1902. 1903. 


Fiction, American. Q03 977 

Fiction, Foreign. 818 483 

Law .... 622 605 

Education. 408 627 

Theology. 433 513 


A more detailed classification of the output 
of books in the United States during a single 

































*‘ v r- 


*4 

—^ I 






N 


HI V* 
** * 




Of 




yy oec 


ij /// 


k '-> 

k 
S 5 > 

'J <J 

^ Q. 


AMOUNT OF MATERIAL CONSUMED ANNUALLY IN THE UNITED STATES IN THE 

MANUFACTURE OF BOOKS AND PERIODICALS. 












































































































' 






























. 
























' 








AMERICAN PUBLISHING 


year will be found in the report for 1902, as 
follows: 


BOOK PUBLICATIONS FOR I<p 02 . 


Classes 

Copyright books 
by American au¬ 
thors including 
new editions. 

Books by English 

and other foreign 

authors including 

new editions. 

Books in English 

imported in edi¬ 

tions. 

Fiction. 

903 

818 

76 

Law. 

622 

2 

16 

Juvenile. 

388 

39 

87 

Education... 

408 

108 

63 

Theology and religion. 

433 

78 

128 

Political and social science... 

223 

8 

40 

Biography, correspondence... 

253 

37 

95 

History. 

178 

59 

64 

Poetry and drama. 

220 

130 

49 

Literature and collected works 

311 

136 

96 

Physical and math, science... 

259 

19 

80 

Descrip, geog., travel. 

Medicine and hygiene. 

267 

13 

83 

243 

30 

26 

Fine arts, illust. gift books ... 

no 

47 

60 

Useful arts. 

126 

6 

33 

Philosophy. 

62 

26 

15 

Domestic and rural. 

73 

9 

14 

Sports and amusements. 

46 

8 

7 

Humor and satire. 

49 

3 

2 

Works of reference. 

98 

2 

II 

Totals. 

Grand total. 

5,210 

1,578 

1,045 

1,578 

5,210 

7,833 


Popular Books. — In 1903 there were 1,700 
book publishers in the United States. While 
Boston and Philadelphia remain true to their 
earlier reputations as leading book centres, New 
York has become the largest book mart and 
the leading factor in the manufacture of books. 
Chicago too has assumed an important place in 
the book trade, while some hundreds of books 
are published annually in Cincinnati, San Fran¬ 
cisco, Cleveland, and other smaller cities. The 
majority of American books are published by 
100 firms in New York, Boston, Chicago, and 
Philadelphia. During 1902 and 1903 the his¬ 
torical novels enjoyed widespread popularity, 
and nine books of this class circulated to the 
extent of 1,400,000 copies. This enormous out¬ 
put, however, did not lessen the sale of older 
and more standard books. These were largely 
reprints. A popular work 75 years after its 
first publication is often found to have been 
reprinted 20 times by as many different pub¬ 
lishers. Of the world’s great standards, hun¬ 
dreds, and in some cases thousands, of editions 
have appeared. There is, nevertheless, a dis¬ 
tinction to be made between the manufacturer 
of books who takes old works and reprints 
them, and the publisher who issues entirely 
fresh and original matter. Among early suc¬ 
cessful books Mrs. Stowe’s <( Uncle Tom’s Cabin® 
had a phenomenal sale, 500,000 copies being sold 
in less than five years in the United States, and 
by April 1852 more than 1,000,000 had been re¬ 
printed in Great Britain. Of Longfellow’s 
poems, without taking into account unauthor¬ 
ized English reprints, the American sales in 
1839-57 amounted to 325,550; from the latter 
date till 1901, 220,000. 


School Books. — No small factor in book¬ 
making during the 19th century was the phe¬ 
nomenal production of school and college text¬ 
books. In fact, the publication of educational 
works has increased steadily. In 1902 the re¬ 
ports showed a list of 433 educational works, 
while in 1903 this was increased to 607. This is 
illustrative of the remarkable growth in school¬ 
book publishing. Of books for use in the public 
schools editions of 500,000 copies, intended for 
one year’s consumption, are not an unusual 
event. Messrs. D. Appleton & Company for 
many years sold over 1,000,000 copies of Web¬ 
ster’s (( Speller® every year; and W. B. Smith 
& Company, of Cincinnati, Ohio, sold over 
1,000,000 copies of the Eclectic Series during 
each year. The electrotype plates of school¬ 
books, Bibles, prayer-books, and hymn-books, 
are very rarely changed, and enormous quanti¬ 
ties are sold every year. 

Miscellaneous Books. — In the United States 
many encyclopedias, dictionaries, the complete 
works of standard authors in definitive editions, 
anthologies of literature, etc., are sold by sub¬ 
scription ; and the initial expense of such books 
being enormous, before a single copy of the book 
is made, the sales must be enormous also. Then 
there are many (( books which are not books® — 
such as city directories, which are usually pub¬ 
lished by a company devoted exclusively to the 
publication of this one book; State directories, 
list of dealers in each business, and commercial 
agency reports (each of these agencies makes 
four revised editions of its books each year, 
each book measuring about 11x13 inches, and 
containing about 2,500 pages of matter in close 
print. There are also innumerable genealogies, 
indexes, catalogues, together with many other 
productions which are truly books, but which 
cannot be called literature. 

Commercial Value. — In the publishing of 
books the following are the items of outlay 
which need to be taken into account: Copy¬ 
right, paper, typesetting, author’s corrections, 
electrotyping, press work, binding, advertising. 
Publishing means a great deal more than merely 
printing and binding a book. It means putting 
it where it is likely to sell. The machinery of 
distribution, which means the method of get¬ 
ting books finally into the hands of readers 
through the various middlemen, is vastly im¬ 
portant. The manufacture of a book now de¬ 
mands the assistance of various branches of 
mechanical skill. Besides the paper-maker, the 
type-founder, and the printer, to whom it gives 
a large proportion of employment, it engages, 
exclusively, the bookbinder. Its material form 
has, till the present era of cheap publications, 
always borne a commercial value extravagantly 
disproportionate to its matter. 

Copyright. — A common arrangement be¬ 
tween the American author and publisher is a 
payment of 10 per cent royalty on the retail 
price of all sales; sometimes a cash sum is paid, 
and the publisher secures the copyright, which 
is granted for 28 years, subject to renewal by 
the author, his widow, or children for other 
14 years. A condition is that a copy of a title- 
page must be registered with the librarian of 
Congress, and two copies of the book lodged 
there within ten days of publication. The entry 
fees are 50 cents for an American author, $1.00 































AMERICAN PUBLISHING 


for a foreigner, and 50 cents additional for a 
certificate of record. A copy of any new edi¬ 
tion must also be sent to the librarian. (See 
Copyright.) By the provisions of the Inter¬ 
national Copyright Act (1886), a foreign au¬ 
thor’s rights are protected in Great Britain, 
Belgium, France, Germany, Hayti, Italy, Spain, 
Switzerland, and Tunis. Colonial authors can 
also secure copyright without publication in the 
United Kingdom, and a work copyright in the 
United Kingdom is copyright in Canada. Ameri¬ 
can cheap reprints of British books are admitted 
to Canada subject to a customs duty of 12^4 
per cent, to be paid over to the British author, 
but the returns from this source have been very 
small. 

Bookbinding .— Since 1885, in the book-mak¬ 
ing industry, many improvements have been 
made in wire-stitching machines. One of these 
machines will stitch anything from two sheets 
to a book two inches thick, and with several of 
them either round or flat wire may be used. 
There has also been introduced a noteworthy 
combination folding and wire-stitching machine, 
which, by a continuous and automatic operation, 
takes the sheets from the feeders, and folds, 
gathers, collates, covers, and wire-stitches them. 
Paper-cutting machines have been improved by 
the introduction of automatic clamps, indicators, 
and gauges. The invention of a steam round¬ 
ing and backing machine has increased the ca¬ 
pacity of from 500 to 1,000 books per day to a 
capacity of from 5,000 to 6,000 in the same time. 
The latest case-making machine feeds itself from 
a roll of cloth which it automatically cuts into 
pieces of proper size for use. The cloth is first 
covered with glue by contact with a cylinder 
revolving in a pot of glue. It is then cut by 
the machine and nicked in corner sections; 
boards are supplied from a holder and a back 
lining from a roll, both receptacles forming part 
of the machine. This process completed, the 
nearly finished product drops a little, the cloth 
is folded over the boards and back lining, and 
the binding, after passing through a case 
smoother, is delivered in a finished state. 
Among other inventions are a casting-in ma¬ 
chine, for putting the body of a book into its 
cover, and a gathering machine. This latter in¬ 
vention promises important developments in 
economy. 

Book Plates .— About the year 1804 the art of 
stereotyping was invented in England, and in a 
few years was introduced into this country. 
With the type-printed book under the old con¬ 
ditions a publisher did not dare print a large 
number of copies of any book unless he believed 
it would have a quick sale. Books were bulky, 
and took up too much space. Consequently, 
the types for a first edition were distributed 
when they left the press; then had to be reset 
with renewed chances of error in the second 
edition. Resetting for two or more editions 
added largely to the cost of the book and lim¬ 
ited its supply. The process of stereotyping 
first used, known as the plaster process, served 
book printers for about 50 years. The practice 
of the art was brought to New York by David 
Bruce in 1813, but the first book stereotypes in 
America was the <( Westminster Catechism,» 
made by J. Watts & Co. of New York in June 
of the same year. For the printing of books. 


all methods of stereotyping have been super¬ 
seded by electrotyping, which was experiment¬ 
ally tried in New York as early as 1841, and was 
in general use before 1855. 

Book Imports .— The summary of imports of 
books and other printed matter for 1902 and 
1903 shows the following: 


(free of duty.) 


Imported from 

1902 

1903 

United Kingdom.. 

$i,°57,9°9 

174,326 

615,140 

379,047 

42,091 

20,379 

l 1 ,327,750 
167,965 
623,889 
264,037 

33.563 

21,658 



Other Europe.-. 

Fritish North America. 


T otals.. 

$2,288,802 

$2,438,862 



(dutiable.) 


Imported from 

1902 

1903 

United Kingdom . 

$1,112,017 

76,201 

261,464 

83,059 

48,228 

3.3o8 

15,256 

5,869 

$1,181,049 

82.800 

307,961 

96,381 

46,127 

3,728 

21,117 

5,266 



Other "Europe. 

Rritish North America... 

China..... 


Other Countries. 

Totals..... 

$1,605,402 

$1,744,159 



The total imports for 1903 amounted to 
$4,183,021 as against $3,894,204 for 1902. 

Book Exports .— The books and other printed 
matter of domestic manufacture exported from 
the United States during 1902 and 1903 repre¬ 
sent the following: 


Countries to Which Exported 

1902 

1903 

United Kingdom . 

$i,'094,341 
25,183 

$1,102,248 

Belgium. 

Franee... 

49,852 

Germany...... 

199,060 

*7,317 

11,695 

35,867 

1,362,903 

T taly... 

27,038 

I0.73S 

Netherlands. 

Other Europe. 


Rritish North America... 

*,557,33* 

*5,978 

152,499 

80,864 

32,3*6 

46,9*1 

Central American States and British 

Mexico... 

/d 

220,129 

7°, *34 
3*,517 
35,232 

30,927 

44,488 

36,612 

19,700 

47,1*5 

30,740 

29,796 

59,897 

239,677 

140,881 

23,258 

109,293 

11,465 

Cuba... 

Other West Indies and Bermuda... 
Argen tina... 

Rrazil... 

Chili. 

37,582 

Colombia.. 

Venezuela.... 




Chinese Empire. 


Rritish Fast Indies.. ... 

22,826 
56,083 
19*,031 



Philippine Islands... 

Other Asia and Oceanica. 

20,698 

50,164 

9,979 

Pritisb Africa. 


Other Countries. 




T otals... 

$4,016,845 

$3,9*1,634 



During the decade 1894 to 1904 the only 
striking change recorded in the book-publishing 
trade was the enormous and phenomenal circu¬ 
lation of a dozen popular novels. During this 









































































AMERICAN QUARRYING—AMERICAN RAILROADS 


period the advance in good taste and in artistic 
beauty of product was a marked characteristic 
of the industry. Fashions in bindings changed 
annually, but a widening range of materials 
and patterns, more daring use of designs and 
inks, and the invention and general use of au¬ 
tomatic binding machinery supplemented im¬ 
provements in printing, permitting lower prices 
for books^ and promoting phenomenal sales. It 
is a significant coincidence that the decade which 
witnessed extraordinary advance in all details 
of mechanical productions in this industry 
should be characterized also by the most note¬ 
worthy advance in the good taste and apprecia¬ 
tion of the general public. 

H. H. McClure, 

Of McClure, Phillips & Co., New York. 

American Quarrying. See Quarrying. 

American Railroads. The first railroads in 
the United States were built to carry stone, 
gravel, anthracite coal, and other heavy ma¬ 
terials. These of necessity were short. One was 
built on Beacon Hill in Boston, in 1807; one in 
Delaware County, Pa., in 1809; and one at Bear 
Creek Furnace, Armstrong County, Pa., in 1818. 
Other short roads were simultaneously con¬ 
structed, all having tracks composed of wooden 
rails. In 1812, Col, John Stevens, of Hoboken, 
N. J., issued a pamphlet stating (< that trains of 
carriages would be drawn on railways at 20 or 30 
miles an hour,® and further said, (( I can see 
nothing to hinder a steam carriage from moving 
on these rails with a velocity of 100 miles an 
hour.® This was a daring prophecy; but in 1827 
the Delaware & Hudson Canal Co. began the 
construction of the Carbondale R.R., extending 
from Hohendale, Pa., to Carbondale, a distance 
of 27 miles. Horses were the motive power for 
drawing the cars which were used in transport¬ 
ing coal from the mines to the canal. In 1828 
this company sent Horatio Allen, a machinist 
and civil engineer, to England to purchase iron 
rails, and to order 3 locomotives of such pattern 
as he might determine upon after his arrival in 
England. The first of these made its trial trip 
on 9 Aug. 1829, and was the first locomotive 
ever run in America. Mr. Allen ran the engine 
himself, and would permit no one else on it, as 
he considered the risk of life and limb too 
great. 

The Baltimore & Ohio R.R., the first under¬ 
taking to transport passengers, was projected in 
1827, constructed in 1829, and opened for busi¬ 
ness from Baltimore to Ellicott Mills, 15 miles, 
in May, 1830. Horses were used, and where the 
change of teams was made, gave rise to the 
well-known relay station 9 miles from Baltimore. 
In 1830, Peter Cooper built a locomotive, the 
first ever constructed in the United States, and 
congratulated himself that he made better time 
than the horses on the Baltimore & Ohio R.R. 
This engine weighed less than a ton, the boiler 
was about the size of a flour barrel, and the 
flues were made of gun barrels. 

In 1830 there were but 23 miles of railroad 
in use. During the succeeding 10 years the total 
mileage reached 2,818. The line from Albany to 
Schenectady, 17 miles, was opened in 1831. Five 
years later Albany and Utica had rail connec¬ 
tion, and in 1842, Buffalo was reached. In the 
meantime lines had been built from New York 
and Boston to Albany, so that the then East and 
West were in easy communication by way of 
the railroads and the Great Lakes. In the year 


1850, the length of the railroads in the United 
States aggregated 9,021 miles; in i860, 30,635 
miles; in 1870, 52,914 miles; in 1880, 93,296 
miles; in 1890, 163,597 miles; in 1900, 193,346 
miles. I he present mileage of the railroad 
systems of the United States, in excess of 200,- 
000, only partially indicates their magnitude, 
when it is remembered that the present total 
value of railroad assets ($13,000,000,000) is 
about one-seventh of the total present wealth of 
the United States ($90,000,000,000). 

There are about 1,000 operating railroad com¬ 
panies in the United States; but the railroad 
system of the United States is conveniently di¬ 
vided into 7 groups, each group occupying a 
nearly distinct section of the country, the basis 
of the grouping being found in differences in 
production, density of population, and various 
social and ecomonic conditions prevailing in the 
7 sections of the country. In each of these sec¬ 
tions there is considerable unity in the operation 
and ownership of the railroad systems. These 
territorial groups are as follows: (1) The New 
England States; (2) the region west of New 
England and the middle Atlantic seaboard, north 
of the Ohio and James rivers, and east of Chi¬ 
cago and Saint Louis (trunk line territory) ; 
(3) the section south of the Ohio and James 
rivers and east of the Mississippi (southern 
territory) ; (4) the region west and north of 
Chicago and Saint Louis, including the chief 
grain-raising States of the United States 
(granger territory) ; (5) south and west of 
Saint Louis (southwestern territory) ; (6) west 
of the granger and southwestern territories 
(trans-continental or Pacific lines) ; (7) a sub¬ 
division of lines within the trunk-line territory 
whose business consists chiefly of transporting 
anthracite coal from the Pennsylvania mines to 
the seaboard. 

This grouping of the American railroads into 
7 systems, based upon physical differences in 
territory and economic conditions, is not entirely 
satisfactory, as it gives little or no information 
regarding ownership and management. A 
grouping along this line would be as follows: 
(1) The Boston & Maine, 3,283 miles; (2) New 
York, New Haven & Hartford, 2,027 miles; (3) 
the Vanderbilt roads, 20,798 miles; (4) the 
Pennsylvania system, 19,301 miles; (5) the 
Philadelphia & Reading system, 2,145 miles; 
(6) Morgan roads, 11,229 miles; (7) Morgan 
& Atlantic Coast Line Company roads, 10,071 
miles; (8) Illinois Central, 5,380 miles; (9) 
Seaboard Air Line, 2,611 miles; (10) Gould 
roads, 15.504 miles; (11) Moore roads. 13,003 
miles; (12) Chicago, Milwaukee & Saint Paul, 
6,604 miles; (13) Chicago Great Western, 956 
miles; (14) Hawley roads, 2,376 miles; (15) 
Wisconsin Central, 978 miles; (16) Harriman 
roads, 16,468 miles; (17) Morgan-Hill roads, 
24,711 miles; (18) Atchison, Topeka & Santa 
Fe, 7.876 miles. This classification, subject to 
constant change by transfers of ownership, 
shows that four-fifths of the railroad mileage of 
the United States is now in the hands of a few 
large interests and capitalists, between whom 
there is developing a community of interest or 
harmony of action that is restraining competition 
in rate-making. 

The United States government has sought to 
supervise or regulate the entire business of rail 
transportation in order to establish and main¬ 
tain equitable relations between the carriers and 


AMERICAN REPUBLICS— AMERICAN SHIPBUILDING 


the people served. This result cannot be at¬ 
tained solely by statutory prohibitions. In 
America, laws to be enforced must give expres¬ 
sion to public opinion and in order to make 
unjust discriminations impossible, the public 
must declare that it is as much a crime for 
public carriers to deny to one individual or 
community advantages to which they are justly 
entitled, as it would be for the government to 
show favors to some citizens, and discriminate 
against others. The problem is a continuing one, 
the specific necessity for government regulation 
varying from time to time. In 1870 it was 
necessary to secure cheaper rates to the seaboard 
for the agricultural products of the Central 
States; during the period from 1870 to 1890 it 
was necessary to adjust the rates charged at 
small local towns and large cities; at the present 
time it is imperatively necessary to secure rela¬ 
tively reasonable rates for rival areas of pro¬ 
duction and for rival economic interests in the 
same area of production. In the last few years 
new ideas have led to the betterment of railroad 
management and operation and the railroad 
personnel has been educated to a high standard. 
The system of to-day is a development resulting 
from 75 years of experience. From the first crude 
plant by gradual stages has been evolved the 
modern economical transportation machine of 
to-day. From the first crude rate sheet has been 
evolved the present successful, if complicated 
scheme of charges, successful because it moves 
the traffic to the satisfaction of the shippers, 
the benefit of the country at large, and produces 
a profit to the corporation owning the properties. 
See Railway Systems, American. 

Edward S. Farrow, 

Consulting Railroad and Mining Engineer. 

American Republics, Bureau of. The 
Pan-American Congress held in Washington in 
1889, though ostensibly convened merely to con¬ 
sider arbitration and the improvement of com¬ 
merce between the republics of the western 
hemisphere, had a much broader object in 
view: to express in practical form the solidarity 
of American interests, and devise means to pro¬ 
tect them. Believing that a closer union be¬ 
tween us is possible only through confidence 
born of closer intimacy, the Congress created 
the International Union of American Republics 
and organized the Bureau of American Repub¬ 
lics (with a supervisory International Executive 
Committee) to effect that purpose. 

The Bureau’s original function of publishing 
tariff data, port regulations, trade statistics, etc., 
was soon extended to the diffusion of all sorts 
of exact knowledge concerning the American 
republics, showing their natural solidarity and 
mutual protective necessities. To this end it 
publishes a monthly bulletin in English, Span¬ 
ish, Portuguese, and French, now in its nth 
volume; handbooks to the Central and South 
American states; their tariff, immigration, and 
other laws of general interest, and a great va¬ 
riety of information otherwise inaccessible on 
their commerce, industries, and general condi¬ 
tions ; also an alphabetical code of commercial 
nomenclature in parallel English, Spanish, and 
Portuguese columns comprising over 50,000 du¬ 
tiable commodies, for the use of customs and 
consular officers and shippers. In 1900 it began 
compiling from the best sources special large- 
scale maps of various republics, containing all 
economic data, lines of rail and wire, mines, 


areas of cultivation, etc. As a further instru¬ 
ment it has built up a library of ( American > 
of nearly 10,000 volumes, and a valuable col¬ 
lection of maps and photographs, in the subject- 
catalogues of which are noted all the works and 
articles on America, and cognate maps, in 
Washington libraries. It also receives all offi¬ 
cial documents published by American countries. 

American Revolution. See United States 
—■ American Revolution. 

American River, in north central Califor¬ 
nia, is formed by the union of its northern and 
southern forks near the western boundary of 
the county of El Dorado, whence it flows south¬ 
west between the counties of Placer and Sacra¬ 
mento and falls into Sacramento River near the 
city of Sacramento. For about six miles it has 
been rendered navigable for small steamers. 
The north fork, considered by some as the true 
American River, rises among the hills at the 
base of the Sierra Nevada, flows west-south¬ 
west, forming the boundaries between Placer 
and El Dorado counties for 100 miles, and 
unites with the south fork 30 miles above the 
city of Sacramento. The south fork flows from 
Bonpland Lake through El Dorado County, and 
forms part of the division between the counties 
of Sacramento and El Dorado. 

American Scenic and Historic Preserva¬ 
tion Society, a national organization estab¬ 
lished in 1895 for the protection of American 
scenery and the preservation of American land¬ 
marks. 

American Schools of Law. See Law, 

American Schools of. 

American Shipbuilding. The inception and 
development of this industry in America is 
primarily due to the enterprise of the early 
colonists of New England, who thus wove into 
the fabric of a history of isolated colonization, 
replete with incidents of hardships and self- 
sacrifice, the magical thread of commerce which 
connected them with the outside world. 

The first effort was inspired by the desire of 
the members of the Church of England Colony, 
established at Sagadahoc, Maine, in 1607, to re¬ 
turn to the mother country after the discourag¬ 
ing experiences of a hard New England winter. 
Thus, at the mouth of the Kennebec River, near 
one of the most important shipyards of the 
present time, the keel of the first American-built 
ship was laid, a little two-masted vessel about 
60 feet long, which was named the ^Virginia.® 
From that time up to 1630, a few small vessels 
were built for various special purposes; but, 
shipbuilding did not assume the dignity of an 
industry until the trade of Brazil and the Dutch 
West Indies, monopolized by the Dutch West 
India Company, was thrown open to the col¬ 
onists of New Amsterdam. This gave an im¬ 
petus that was felt all along the coast. Boston 
and Salem builders produced several vessels 
ranging in size from 150 to 300 tons, which en¬ 
gaged in profitable trade with Spanish ports; 
while the shipping owned in the port of New 
Amsterdam increased in less than 20 vears, from 
a fleet of 15 or 20 small vessels, to one of 60 
good-sized ships, and over 100 sloops, engaged 
in both foreign and coast-wise trade, and from 
this time up to the middle of the 18th century, 
the industry grew steadily under impulses from 
one source or another. New York (New 
Amsterdam) was engaged in an extensive ex- 




ONE OF THE LARGEST CARGO CARRIERS EVER BUILT FOR THE ATLANTIC TRADE IN AMERICAN SHIPYARDS, 


















AMERICAN SHIP BUILDING. 



p h 


Copyright, 1903, by Scientific American. 

THE MINNESOTA, THE LARGEST VESSEL BUILT IN AMERICA 

Length, 630 feet; Breadth, 73 feet 6 inches; Molded Depth, 56 feet; Displacement on 33 feet draft, 

33,000 tons; Speed, 14 knots. 


rU 


—i 















AMERICAN SHIPBUILDING 


porting trade of flour and biscuits, while Massa¬ 
chusetts employed at least 1,000 vessels in the 
development of her fishing trade. The period 
from i 75 ° - 7 ° rnay, therefore, be considered the 
first epoch of the industry. In the latter year, 
the American vessels represented a tonnage of 
about 400,000, approximately one-third that of 
Great Britain, and nearly one-half of this 
amount was turned out of the shipyards of Mas¬ 
sachusetts. By this time, however, Philadelphia 
had become a big center of activity. It was the 
most accessible port to the West Indies, our 
principal market at that time, and consequently 
turned out a large proportion of the 400 or more 
vessels built annually in the country. 

The beginning of the Revolution, therefore, 
found the industry in a most flourishing con¬ 
dition, and although during the following war 
the merchant marine and the fishing and whaling 
fleets of the country were practically annihilated, 
the demand for privateers and vessels of war 
served to sustain the effort until the close of 
hostilities allowed its redevelopment, so that at 
the close of the 18th century, the tonnage of 
American shipping amounted to nearly 700,000. 
From 1800 to 1812, however, the commercial 
hostility of Great Britain practically manifested 
by the exclusion of the West Indian trade from 
the Americans, the seizure and confiscation of 
their ships, and the detention of a large number 
of them in various ports, for alleged evasions of 
British laws, prevented the much greater de¬ 
velopment probable under different conditions. 

The War of 1812 gave the finishing stroke 
and caused a sharp decline in the industry until 
1815, when a new impulse was given by a rapidly 
increasing coast-wise trade, and the demand for 
a larger number of packets in the line of trans¬ 
atlantic passenger transportation, due to the in¬ 
creased emigration from Europe to America at 
the close of the war. The annual tonnage in¬ 
creased steadily from about 50,000 in 1820, to 
about 600,000 in 1855. Several packet lines were 
established between New York, Philadelphia, 
and Boston and British and French and other 
European ports, and also a great many lines 
touching at the important ports along the coast 
from Portland, Maine, to New Orleans, La., and 
the gulf ports of South America and Mexico. 
The vessels were built on speedy lines; had 
roomy accommodations for passengers; ranged 
in size from 500 to 1,000 tons, and marked one 
of the most prosperous periods of the industry. 
About the year 1840, English steamers were 
placed in competition with those sailing packets, 
and aided by their superior carrying capacity, 
slowly but surely supplanted them in the course 
of a few years. 

The vessels thus thrown out of the packet 
line service were converted into freighters, and 
caused a slight decline in the industry, which, 
however, was relieved about the year 18^5 by 
the demand for large and swift-sailing vessels 
for the Chinese tea trade. This inaugurated the 
era of famous clipper ships, the construction of 
which being still further stimulated by the Cali¬ 
fornian gold discoveries of ’49, extended the 
period of their maximum usefulness to the be¬ 
ginning of the Civil War in i860. 

These vessels represented the highest skill of 
the American naval architect. The shipyards of 
New York, Boston, and Philadelphia built them 
in sizes ragging from 750 to 2,400 tons. 

Their lines were laid down sharp, and under 


their lofty masts and enormous spreads of 
canvas, they made the best records ever made by 
sailing vessels, and the tonnage of American 
shipping very nearly equalled that of Great 
Britain. 

The Civil War, however, terminated their 
career. English-built Confederate privateers, 
running under steam, swept the seas, and 
American ships representing hundred of thou¬ 
sands of tonnage were either destroyed or were 
compelled to seek protection under foreign flags. 

At the end of that war, America was no 
longer a maritime nation. The events of that 
war had developed new principles and new 
methods of shipbuilding. The advantages to be 
derived from the use of iron as a material of 
construction had been demonstrated beyond a 
doubt sometime previously, and while the in¬ 
dustries of America were paralyzed by the inter¬ 
necine conflict, the English shipyards had taken 
full advantage of their opportunity, and backed 
by governmental subsidies, had re-established 
Great Britain’s old-time supremacy of the sea. 

From i860 to 1882, the stagnation in the 
American effort was extreme. In 1855 the num¬ 
ber of vessels turned out of the American yards 
amounted to 381 ships and barks, and 126 brigs, 
while in 1885 only 11 ships and barks left the 
ways. 

The seriousness of the situation was recog¬ 
nized by the American capitalists as early as 
1870. It was plain that a great producing nation 
could not be truly great, or develop itself to an 
extent commensurate with its vast natural re¬ 
sources, without the possession of an ample 
merchant marine, and they decided to revive the 
shipbuilding industry. Accordingly, 4 steamers, 
the Ohio, Indiana, Pennsylvania, and Illinois, 
were built by the Cramp Company, of Phila¬ 
delphia, for the transatlantic trade. They were 
unquestionably as fine as any vessels of their 
time, but they were unable to compete with the 
British vessels which operated under larger sub¬ 
sidies. 

It was apparent that adequate governmental 
subsidies were necessary to sustain the effort of 
private capitalists, and that the growth of the 
British merchant marine was directly due to 
such liberal assistance. 

Therefore, steps were taken by the various 
steamship companies, to obtain large concessions 
from the government, and the Pacific Mail 
Steamship Company, which was already receiv¬ 
ing a subsidy of $500,000 per annum, for a 
monthly mail service to Japan and China, 
offered to double the service for an additional 
$"00,000 per annum. A bill granting this sub¬ 
sidy was passed by Congress in 1873. but dis¬ 
closures confirming the fact that a million dol¬ 
lars had been spent by the company to influence 
a favorable vote in Congress, and the subsequent 
failure of the compn~^ to comply with the re¬ 
quirements of the bill, led to the abrogation of 
the new contract by the government. The total 
subsidies paid to the Pacific Mail Company dur¬ 
ing its 10 years of contract service amounted to 
$4,583,000; but, as no increase in the Oriental 
trade of the United States could be traced di¬ 
rectly to the influence of a subsidized mail 
service, the resultant effect was a steady decline 
of the merchant marine. 

Another attempt to ameliorate these con¬ 
ditions and affect a revival was made when the 
steamships New York and Paris, of the Inter- 


AMERICAN SILKWORM—AMERICAN SOCIETY OF ENGINEERS 


national Navigation Company’s line, were ad¬ 
mitted to an American register on the condition 
that two other vessels, their equal in every par¬ 
ticular, should be built in American ship yards. 
The government granted to these vessels a pay¬ 
ment of $4 a mile for carrying the mails upon 
the condition that they were capable of main¬ 
taining a sustained speed of 20 knots an hour. 

The result of this agreement was the con¬ 
struction of the steamships St. Louis and St. 
Paul in 1895, and the effective application of 
the system of mail-carrying contracts. 

At the present time the subsidies for carry¬ 
ing the mails are defined on a mileage basis. It 
amounts to $4 per mile for first class steamers; 
$2 a mile for second class steamers; $1 a mile 
for third class steamers; and 66 2/3 cents per 
mile for fourth class steamers. In addition to 
this the post-office department pays American 
mail steamships $1.60 a pound for first class 
matter, and 8 cents a pound for all matter below 
that grade. 

The first general subsidy measure designed 
to establish a system of direct navigation boun¬ 
ties was introduced in the United States Senate 
in 1898, and was passed by that legislative body 
in March, 1902. It consisted of four titles: 
(( Ocean mail steamers,® (( general subsidy,® <( deep- 
sea fisheries,® and <( general provisions.® Pay¬ 
ments for carrying mails were based upon speed 
and tonnage instead of mileage, and the ocean 
mail steamers were divided into seven classes 
on this basis. For 100 miles sailed, steamers of 
the first class received 2.7 cents per gross ton; 
those of the second class, 2.5 cents; third class, 
2.3 cents; fourth class, 2.1 cents; fifth class, 1.9 
cents; sixth class, 1.7 cents; and those of the 
seventh class, 1.5 cents. The section entitled 
(( general subsidy,® provided for the payment of 
a bounty of 1 cent per gross ton for every 
100 nautical miles sailed, to all vessels not re¬ 
ceiving the mail subsidy, and was intended to 
offset the alleged greater cost of construction, 
and the greater expenses incurred in the naviga¬ 
tion of American' vessels. Under the title 
<( deep-sea fisheries,® provision was made to 
grant a bounty of $2 per gross ton per annum 
on American vessels engaged for at least three 
months in deep-sea fishing, and $1 per month 
to each sailor employed on such vessels. This 
measure was brought before the Plouse during 
the last session of the Fifty-seventh Congress; 
but was adversely reported upon by the com¬ 
mittee in charge and failed to become a law. 

The period of great internal development of 
the country is practically at an end. The great 
railroad systems are practically built, and the 
vast accumulations of wealth in the country are 
seeking investment. If it is demonstrable 
that the margin of profits on present investments 
can be enhanced or even prevented from de¬ 
clining by investments in ships, such investments 
will be made and the industry will grow steadily 
but surely under the normal conditions of trade. 

In this connection it is interesting to note the 
evolution of that distinctly American type of 
vessel, the (( schooner.® From a handy two- 
masted craft of about 100 or 150 tons, extremely 
serviceable in the coast-wise trade, it has been 
developed to the mammoth <( seven master® of 
the Thomas W. Lawson type. The development 
of the larger schooners appears to have been 
along the lines of maximum carrying capacity 


at the minimum operative expense. Yet, since 
the building of the Thomas W. Lawson, in 1902, 
no effort has been made to duplicate her, al¬ 
though she has made several fast trips from 
Chesapeake Bay to Boston, and they were un¬ 
doubtedly remunerative. 

In fact only one six-masted schooner is un¬ 
der construction at the present time (1905), and 
no seven-masted schooner is even under con¬ 
templation. 

The reasons for this are quite clear. Her 
extreme length of 395 feet makes her unavailable 
for the general coasting trade, as she is unable 
to load for crooked river ports, and is a misfit at 
many of the wharves at other places. 

It is, therefore, apparent that in the matter 
of size the sailing vessel has reached her limit, 
and is already showing a tendency to go back to 
the less unwieldy five-master, well adapted, not 
only to the coast-wise trade, but also to the 
trade with foreign countries, involving extended 
deep-sea voyages. 

For detailed information relative to the de¬ 
velopment of the American shipbuilding in¬ 
dustry during the last decade in special lines, 
consult the articles under the titles Naval Con¬ 
struction ; Sailing Vessels ; Ship; Shipbuild¬ 
ing; and Steam Vessels, in this encyclopaedia. 

American Silkworm. See Silkworm. 

American Social Science Association. See 

Social Science Association, American. 

American Society of Civil Engineers, 

an association organized 5 Nov. 1852, in the City 
of New York, its object being the professional 
improvement of its members, the encourage- 
ment of social intercourse among men of prac¬ 
tical science, the advancement of engineering in 
its several branches, and of architecture, and the 
establishment of a central point of reference and 
union for its members. Among the means to 
be employed for attaining these ends are period¬ 
ical meetings for the reading of professional 
papers, and the discussion of scientific subjects, 
the foundation of a library, the collection of 
maps, drawings and models, and the publica¬ 
tion of such parts of the proceedings as may 
be deemed expedient. 

The early life of the Society was a struggle 
for existence and it was not until 1867 that 
the organization had a permanent headquarters, 
and began its work in earnest. The first pub¬ 
lication was the address of 'President James 
P. Kirkwood, delivered 4 Dec. 1867, and print¬ 
ed in Vol. I. of ‘Transactions* bearing date of 
1872. The first Annual Convention was held 
in New York 16 June 1869, 55 members being 
present. The second and third conventions 
were also held in New York, but the fourth 
was held in Chicago and the annual conventions 
are now held at widely separated points. In 
1869 the membership of the Society was 160; 
the membership in 1904 is over 3.200. The so¬ 
ciety has a splendid library of over 50,000 vol¬ 
umes, thoroughly classified and indexed and 
which is kept up to date by new additions. A 
monthly publication of ‘Proceedings* is issued 
in which are printed the professional papers 
in advance of their presentation at the semi¬ 
monthly meetings. These papers with all the 
discussion to which they give rise, are subse¬ 
quently printed in ‘Transactions, ) two and some¬ 
times three volumes of which are issued an- 


AMERICAN SOCIETY OF ENGINEERS 


nually. 1 he last report of the Secretary shows 
the assets of the Society to be over $235,000. 

1 he organization is in no sense a local one, 
and it has never had any subsidiary branches 
or been affiliated with other organizations. Its 
membership is made up of practitioners engaged 
in all branches of Civil Engineering, the broad¬ 
est interpretation of that term being used. From 
the beginning, admission to its privileges has 
been dependent solely upon professional expe¬ 
rience and personal character. 

That the Society is beneficial to the pro¬ 
fession is evidenced by the eagerness with which 
membership in it is sought. The reasons for 
this are apparent, inasmuch as among its ob¬ 
jects are to assist the young engineer pro¬ 
fessionally during the earlier years of his career, 
and, when he has proved himself worthy, to 
stamp him as one qualified to direct <( the great 
sources of Power in Nature for the use and 
convenience of Man.® 

That its influence is far-reaching is shown 
by the fact that it has members in 51 of the 
54 subdivisions of the United States, as well 
as in 31 foreign countries. This foreign mem¬ 
bership constitutes g l / 2 per cent of the total 
list. Charles Warren Hunt, 

Secretary of the Society. 

American Society of Mechanical Engi¬ 
neers, a professional organization composed 
of engineers practising principally in the depart¬ 
ment of generation, distribution and utilization 
of mechanical power. It is one of four organ¬ 
izations of engineers, national in its character 
and with a considerable foreign membership 
also, which exists for the purpose of the reading 
and discussion and publication of papers on en¬ 
gineering subjects and for the advancement of 
the profession of engineering in any direction 
within its scope. 

The society was formed in 1880 by a group 
of persons in and near New York city, who rec¬ 
ognized that the existing societies of mining and 
civil engineers did not naturally and instinctively 
offer a scope for the developing strength of 
mechanical engineering in the United States. 
Its first meeting was held in New York city in 
the autumn of 1880. Since that two meetings 
have been held each year; the annual meeting in 
the city of New York, and the other meeting 
in various cities of the Union; meetings have 
fallen in Boston, Providence, Philadelphia, Al¬ 
toona, Pittsburg, Cleveland, Nashville, Rich¬ 
mond, St. Louis, Chicago, and San Francisco. 

These meetings last three or four days and 
are always made the occasion of visits to im¬ 
portant engineering enterprises in the city which 
is entertaining the society. Usually from 15 to 
20 papers are read and discussed at each of 
these meetings and the papers with their discus¬ 
sions are issued to all members in the form of 
an annual volume, averaging a thousand pages 
and copiously illustrated. These volumes which 
are designated ( Transactions } are an accumula¬ 
tion of most valuable professional literature, re¬ 
sults of tests and experiments, researches into 
new fields and are filled with recorded data of 
observation. 

The society was incorporated as a national 
organization under the laws of New York 
State in 1881, and has maintained its execu¬ 
tive offices in New York city. For seven 


or eight years its headquarters were in 
office buildings in the business district, but in 
1889 the movement was started of having its 
library of professional literature open in the 
evenings and for this purpose the society rented 
quarters in the Mott Memorial Library build¬ 
ing, Madison Avenue near 27th Street. The 
success of the evening opening of its library 
warranted the step which was taken in 1890 of 
purchasing the property which had been altered 
by the New York Academy of Medicine for this 
purpose and which included not only a library 
space and equipment, but a convenient audi¬ 
torium of small size for the holding of meetings. 
The society expects to be a participant in the 
provision of a wealthy engineer and donor 
whereby three of these national societies will be 
accommodated in a special building designed 
specifically for the needs of organizations of 
this class. 

In addition to the publication of an annual 
volume the society conducts a free public refer¬ 
ence library of engineering. This library is 
particularly rich in the current contributions 
to other scientific and engineering societies 
both in English and in other languages and in 
periodical literature published through the jour¬ 
nals of technical journalism, both at home and 
abroad. This class of literature is of special 
significance in lines in which progress is as rapid 
as in the industrial departments of engineering. 
The library contains (1904) over 9.000 books 
and 3,000 pamphlets. It has also a valuable 
collection by bequest of antiquities in engineer¬ 
ing and scientific matters, and obtains by ex¬ 
change the scientific publications of the United 
States Government and corresponds with the 
important technical societies of Europe and the 
continent. The cosy auditorium and the library 
exhibit much material in portraits, busts, and 
memorials of engineering achievement. It is 
specially rich in drawings and other documents 
belonging to the work and history of Robert 
Fulton and early steam navigation. 

The society has also discharged a valuable 
function by the service of professional commit¬ 
tees on special subjects. These professional 
committees have mainly been concerned with 
the work of formulating the best procedure in 
various lines, with a view of having such pro¬ 
cedure a species of standard whereby uniformity 
might be secured. Committees of the society 
have reported on uniform methods for conduct¬ 
ing tests of boilers, on uniform methods of con¬ 
ducting tests of engines; on uniform standards 
in structural material, and have prosecuted re¬ 
search on the fire resisting properties of ma¬ 
terial, advisable methods for conducting tests 
of strength and similar problems. 

These reports are made by the best exnerts 
connected with the society, and while the society 
officially never adopts their recommendation by 
legislative action, these recommendations carry 
great weight by reason of the sources from 
which they come. 

The society is governed by a council, con¬ 
sisting of a president, six vice-presidents, nine 
managers, a secretary and a treasurer. 

F. R. Hutton, 
Secretary of the Society. 

American Society of Naval Engineers, 

organized 1888 for the purpose of publishing a 
quarterly journal covering the general field of 


AMERICAN STREET RAILWAYS 


marine engineering and naval architecture with 
cognate subjects bearing on these. The publica¬ 
tions of this society are regarded as works of 
reference by the marine-engine builders of the 
world, as well as by the admiralty officials of 
the various countries. During the existence of 
the society special effort has been made to cover 
every distinct feature of marine engineering 
design. While the council of the society has 
been exceedingly conservative as regards ad¬ 
mitting original material to the columns of the 
( Journal } of the society, special encouragement 
has been given to naval officers to take uo origi¬ 
nal work, and to particularly note the engineer¬ 
ing weaknesses of warship construction, so that 
each new type of war vessel, at least as far as 
machinery design is concerned, will be a dis¬ 
tinct improvement upon its predecessor. Sub¬ 
scribers to the ( JournaP are members. Office 
of secretary, Washington, D. C. 

American Street Railways. As far back as 
1630 an enterprising mine owner at Newcastle- 
on-Tyne, finding the roads between his mines 
and the river so bad as to seriously interfere 
with the hauling of coal, conceived the idea of 
laying in the road wooden rails, and running 
thereon cars with wooden wheels. From that 
time to the present the transportation of goods 
and passengers has been a leading industry. 
The idea of the street railway grew out of the 
steam railroad agitation, when the first steam 
railroad was built in the United States in 1829. 
This idea rapidly materialized and the first 
street railway was built in New York City in 
1832, the tracks being laid on Fourth Avenue 
from Prince Street to Harlem, the rail consist¬ 
ing of strips of flat-iron laid on granite blocks. 
The cars resembled the stage coach then in use 
and were mounted on flanged wheels. This 
road being a financial failure, it was not until 
1836 that the next street railway was built in 
Boston. After this time street railways were 
built in all large American cities, and between 
i860 and 1880 the horse railway had become an 
established institution. As cities grew and dis¬ 
tances became longer, there was created a need 
of a motive power to draw the cars faster than 
horses could transport them. In some cases 
steam locomotives were used in the suburbs of 
large cities, but this was considered impracti¬ 
cable on account of the noise, dirt, and danger. 

Numerous systems of propulsior ,vere pro¬ 
posed and large expenditures were made in 
tests and trials. The first practicable method 
found was that of drawing the cars by an end¬ 
less wire cable, and this method was first used 
in San Francisco in 1873 with much satisfaction 
where it was well suited for roads with heavy 
traffic and steep grades. This system was used 
in nearly all the large cities during the next 10 
years. It was soon conceded, however, that the 
cable system was not the ideal one for moving 
cars as there were certain mechanical difficulties 
in its operation which were extremely burden¬ 
some, and experiments were continued with 
other systems between 1880 and 1890, resulting 
in the use of electric motors. The names of 
Edison and Thompson are identified with this 
work. The first street railway to be entirely 
equipped with electric cars and successfully and 
continuously operated, was a road 12 miles long, 
in Richmond, Va., built in 1888. As soon as 
this road demonstrated that the electric motor 


could pull street cars reliably and economically, 
horse roads all over the United States were 
changed to electric roads, and many new roads 
and extensions were built into the suburbs of 
the great cities. 

The electric railway, a distinctly American 
institution, has now spread all over the world. 
In the United States there are more than 25.000 
miles of electric railway track, covering an in¬ 
vestment of more than $2,200,000,000, employing 
more than 150,000 persons and daily transporting 
about 15,000,000 people. Besides the transporta¬ 
tion of passengers, express and freight cars, 
mail cars, parlor cars, and even funeral cars, 
are familiar sights on the street railways of 
American cities. Interurban electric railways 
have been built in the outskirts of the large 
cities, and between towns, on a large scale, and 
there are now very few towns of more than 
5,000 inhabitants which are not connected with 
their neighbors by means of an electric railway. 

Many problems in electricity have been de¬ 
veloped in keeping pace with the street railway, 
the latest of which is the alternating current. 
It is readily seen that an alternating current 
system of electric traction which would permit 
the use of a high transmission line potential and 
avoid the transformation to direct current by 
means of the rotary converter, would give an 
impetus to the electrical solution of transporta¬ 
tion problems greater even than that which fol¬ 
lowed the introduction of the rotary converter. 
That the direct current, because of its limitation 
as to voltage, is inadequate as a system for the 
distributing of power over a wide area, is now 
firmly established. The alternating current sys¬ 
tem, permitting a change of potential by means 
of the simple and efficient static transformer, 
has already successfully met the requirements 
of transmission and distribution of electric 
power. The necessity of using direct current 
for the operation of cars has, however, greatly 
restricted its application to general railway serv¬ 
ice, involving, as it does, the introduction of 
the rotary converter with its auxiliary apparatus, 
increasing the cost both of installation and op¬ 
eration and reducing the commercial efficiency 
of the system as a whole. 

Catenary line construction is intended for 
high tension trolley roads, operated at potentials 
up to 6,000 volts or more. It is especially 
designed for use in conjunction with single 
plase alternating current railway equipment, and 
marks one step further in the movement to 
secure a greater degree of economy and effi¬ 
ciency in the operation of electric trolley lines. 
The employment of high tension currents for 
traction purposes necessitates the use of an im¬ 
proved trolley equipment, possessing an effici¬ 
ency and a reliability of a high order. The 
speed attained upon interurban lines makes it 
difficult to obtain satisfactory service with a 
trolley wire which dips between supports and 
sags and sways with every impulse. Increased 
precautions against accidents and faulty con¬ 
struction are also necessary because of the in¬ 
creased liability of damage from any diversion 
of the line current from its proper channel. 

In late years there has been a rapidly increas¬ 
ing demand for a controlling system applicable 
to trains of motor cars as well as to cars 
operated singly. This demand has been met bv 
the development of the unit switch system of 
multiple control, which consists of a skillful 



TOTAL. LENGTH OP TRACK 19 5 087 miles 


DISTANCE FROM EARTH TO MOON 


• f * lil f ^ ^ — 
oo lu »;»j 


d». MK.RCADS »!7di5 MUIS.d* »0 O* 1 *- 1 *^ 


«5r«2oo 


)S887 MU.es TOTAL LtNOlH OF 
^OBSTKSB SIOHT TIMF3AROOKO 


''-'HivaTT 


STUOtSrO/V ff 040 fl£0 Of 
C'-S./JA/A/TOAOT EQUALS 133 PYflANIOS 


wooo rtes or the us aahj imps 

WK/lO MA A£ SP.EAT f>YK*MtOS 


STEEL HAILS 


GREAT PYRAMID 


WASHlK^rON WONUMLflfT 


GREAT PYRAMID 


THE 35811 PASSENGER CARS EOUAL 3^ 


THE 39729 LOCOMOTIVES SOCIAL 3 GREAT PYRAMIDS 


GREAT PYRAMIDS 


THIS CAR EQUALS IN LENGTH THE BROOKLYN 


EQUAL IN BULK 42. GREAT PYRAMIDS 


CARS OF THE 


THE 140947 1 FREIGHT 


****"'.•*!&>?*&%% 




*V* 


«&\ 5 SAVr\tA<l. 


PVftAMfQPJ 


RAILWAY STATISTICS OF THE UNITED STATES. 





















































AMERICAN SUNDAY-SCHOOL UNION—AMERICAN UNIVERSITIES 


combination of electro-magnetic and pneumatic 
devices, each applied to those operations in 
which experience has shown it to be most 
effective. 1'he construction is noticeable for the 
liberal design of its working parts and contacts, 
and the great margin of power available for 
their operation; while the general design and 
simplicity of operation insures great reliability 
of service and low cost of maintenance. See 
Street Railways. Edward S. Farrow, 

Consulting Railroad and Mining Engineer. 

American Sunday-School Union, a re¬ 
ligious association having for its object the 
organization and support of Sunday-schools in 
needy neighborhoods, or those where religious 
sentiment is too divided to sustain denomina¬ 
tional ones; the publication of religious juvenile 
literature, etc. It is not a union of churches, 
but of Christians of various denominations, re¬ 
quiring no common creed but a desire to save 
souls and promote the study of the Bible; and 
is managed entirely by laymen, though employ¬ 
ing both ministers and laymen as officials and in 
its work, which of course includes the main¬ 
tenance of missionaries to organize schools and 
enliven religious sentiment. It has had but six 
presidents in nearly 80 years of work,—Alex¬ 
ander Henry, John McLean, John A. Brown, 
Robert L. Kennedy, William Strong, and the 
present president, Morris K. Jesup. It has also 
a board of managers, the members elected for 
one, two, and three years; and an executive 
committee. Its headquarters are at Philadel¬ 
phia, where it first came into being. Its germ 
was the First-Day Society, founded in 1791, 
whose managers petitioned for free schools in 
Pennsylvania; this led to the formation of the 
Philadelphia Sunday and Adult School Union 
in 1817 which later united with similar socie¬ 
ties and changed its name to the present title in 
1824. In 1821 the Philadelphia union published 
one book and supported one missionary; in 
1906 it maintained nearly 125 permanent mis¬ 
sionaries and published several thousand books 
and other publications. Its income is about 
$125,000 a year, and it organizes on an average 
about 1,350 Sunday-schools annually. 

American Sycamore. See Plane. 

American System. See Tariffs, American, 
United States—History of the Tariff. 

American Temperance University, a co¬ 
educational (non-sectarian) institution in Har- 
riman, Tenn., organized in 1891. Professors, 
30; students, 400; volumes in the library, 1,000; 
grounds and buildings valued at $100,000; grad¬ 
uates, 200. 

American Textile Industry. See Textile 
Industry, American. 

American Universities, The Problem of 
Research in. The subject is an immense one, 
and the following discussion makes no pretense 
of being exhaustive in detail. It aims to pre¬ 
sent the great problem in its spiritual bearings, 
in its larger and deeper aspects, to elevate it 
to its appropriate high level of importance, 
and to point out its harder conditions and the 
leading principles and distinctions involved in 
any serious attempt at its solution. 

The problem may not be easy to appreciate, 
at least by a people devoted by tradition, cir¬ 


cumstance and habit to practical affairs and 
distinguished throughout the civilized world for 
their lack of profound and implicit faith in the 
divine quality of pure curiosity, but the problem 
is at all events easy to state. It is the problem 
of securing in American universities suitable 
provision for the work of pure research, or 
investigation, and productivity. For a gener¬ 
ation the large majority of the ablest men in 
these universities have regarded that problem 
as the most urgent and important educational 
problem confronting these institutions and the 
American people. Meanwhile something has 
been done towards a solution. Here and there a 
chair of research has been established. Now 
and then in recent years a professor of proved 
ability as an investigator in pure science has 
been appreciably relieved of excessive teaching 
and administrative burdens. But these phenom¬ 
ena are sporadic and do not worthily represent 
the policy or the attitude that the civilized world 
rightly expects a great people to adopt in the 
affairs of the mind. None of the American 
universities has made adequate provision for 
the untrammeled prosecution of scientific in¬ 
vestigation, and the majority of them but little 
or none at all. 

In the abstract the problem is simple and the 
solution is easy: given a body of able and en¬ 
thusiastic men, provide them with proper facili¬ 
ties, afford them opportunity to devote their 
powers continuously to research, and the thing 
is done. But in the concrete, the problem is 
exceedingly difficult, being frightfully compli¬ 
cated with American institutional history and 
life, in particular with educational traditions 
and tendencies, with the prevailing plan of 
university organization and government, and 
especially with the characteristic temper, ideals 
and ambitions of the American people. 

Somebody besides foreign friends and critics 
ought to tell the truth about American edu¬ 
cation and American universities. The Amer¬ 
ican people have never ceased to believe in 
education. Their belief has not always been in¬ 
telligent. They have been prone to ascribe to 
education efficacies and potencies that do not 
belong to any human agency or institution. 
But their faith in what they have called edu¬ 
cation, though not always critical or enlight¬ 
ened, has been implicit and steadfast; and they 
have diligently pursued it, generally as a means 
no doubt, but sometimes as an end, and oc¬ 
casionally as a thing in itself more precious 
than power and gold. In all this they have 
been, quite unconsciously and contrary to all 
appearances, very humble. That is to say, they 
have been content for three and a half centuries 
to educate themselves with knowledge dis¬ 
covered by others, and to subsist spiritually 
upon doctrines, truths and disciplines produced 
only by the spiritual activity and life of other 
lands. They have been at great pains to shut 
out industrial competition while humbly learn¬ 
ing their science, morals and religion, second¬ 
hand, from literary fraements brought largely 
by chance selection and fortuitous determinations 
from Europe. They may have been vain but 
they have not been proud. Besides a marvelous 
practical sense, the American people have had, 
in degree quite unsurpassed or never matched, 
two of the elements of genius—intellectual 


AMERICAN UNIVERSITIES 


illustrious recollections. There is in and about 
them nothing or but little of c( the shadow and 
the hush of a haunted past.** They have as 
yet no antiquity. In them the utilitarian spirit, 
having learned the lingo of service, contrives 
to receive an ample share of honor, and the 
Genius of Industry that has transformed the 
country into an abode of wealth and for gener¬ 
ations assigned an attainable upper limit to 
a people's aspiration, shapes educational policy, 
holds and wields the balance of power. The 
classic distinctions of good, better and best in 
subjects and motives of study receive but slight 
regard. The traditional hierarchy of educa¬ 
tional values and the ascending scale of spiritual 
worths have fallen into disrepute. All things 
have been leveled up or leveled down to a 
common level; so that the workshop and the 
laboratory, schools of engineering, of agriculture 
and of the classics, the library, the model dairy 
and departments of architecture and music, ex¬ 
ist side by side under a common administration, 
and often contend on equal terms for the 
patronage and the support of the rich and the 
powerful. In at least one institution, so it is 
reported, the profesor of poetry rubs shoulders 
with the <( professor of poultry.® In this general 
mixing and coordination of industry and art, 
concrete and abstract, pure and impure, physical 
and spiritual, worldliness and wisdom, there 
is little or no distinction of dignities, but little 
perspective, and the beholding public, if they 
find all interests ranked equally high, find them 
equally low also. No wonder that a distin¬ 
guished critic has recently said that some of 
the biggest of American universities appear as 
hardly more than episodes in the wondrous 
maelstrom of American industrial life. 

Thus it appears that the American university, 
child of a predominantly material and industrial 
civilization half-blindly aspiring to higher 
things, strikingly resembles its parent. Begot¬ 
ten in the hope that it would be as a savior 
and serve to rescue from national idols and 
respectable sins, it straightway became their 
most enlightened servant, lending them the 
sanction and the support of its honorable name. 
It is by no means contended that this fact is 
the whole truth. It would be a grievous error 
to believe that American universities are en¬ 
tirely devoted to the service of industry; they 
are not wholly committed to teaching youth the 
known from utilitarian motives and for im¬ 
mediate and practical ends; they are not ex¬ 
clusively concerned with the applications of 
science; out of a too general devotion to the 
Useful, something is saved for the True; science 
is not always regarded as a commodity; the 
judgment of the great Jacobi is sometimes 
recognized as just: <( The unique end of science 
is the honor of the human spirit.® And it is 
a pleasure to be able to proclaim the fact 
that in a few of the American universities 
something like a home has been provided for 
the free spirit of pure research and that by its 
activity there, American genius has had a share 
in extending the empire of light, in enlarging 
the domain of the known, in astronomy, in 
physics, in chemistry, in mathematics, in the 
science of mind, in biology, in criticism, in let¬ 
ters, in economics, in history, in almost all of 
the great fields where the Instinct of Truth for 


the sake of Truth, the Army of Curiosity, con¬ 
tends against the dark. In this clear evidence 
of growing freedom and exaltation, Americans 
should rejoice; but they should be candid also. 
They should not fail to see that they have only 
begun the higher service of the soul; they 
should own, because they should feel, in be¬ 
coming humility that, in comparison with their 
wealth, their numbers, their energies and their 
talents, in comparison, too, with the intellectual 
achievements of some other less favored peoples 
and less favored lands, the service they have 
rendered to Science and Art and Truth is 
meagre. 

Why such emptiness, such poverty, such 
meagreness in the fruits of the highest activi¬ 
ties ? The immediate cause is easy to find. It 
is not incompetence or defect of genius in the 
American university facilities. These are not 
inferior to the best in the world. It is not 
mainly due, as it is often said to be, to inade¬ 
quacy of material compensation, though one 
of the greatest of living physicists, Professor 
J. J. Thompson, has recently said that American 
men of science receive less remuneration than 
their colleagues in any other part of the world. 
While the lack of proper professorial compensa¬ 
tion is not the chief deterrent or embarrass¬ 
ment to the prosecution of research, it is un¬ 
doubtedly in part responsible and is a matter 
which the universities and the people can by no 
means afford to ignore. Already many an able 
and distinguished professor is compelled to do 
clerical and other forms of drudgery because 
his salary does not enable him to employ 
stenographers, computers, and laboratory assist¬ 
ants. If the waste of time and energy thus 
enforced by the prevailing niggardliness of pre¬ 
vailing university salaries could be computed 
and presented in readily intelligible terms, the 
intelligent public would be amazed and indig¬ 
nant. But there is even a more serious aspect 
of the matter. Unless the universities in the 
near future provide for university service re¬ 
muneration, not such as would attract men 
whose first ambition is to acquire the ease and 
luxury that wealth is supposed to afford, but 
such as will not by its utter inadequacy to the 
reasonable demands of modern social life, deter 
men of ability and predilection for scientific 
pursuits from entering upon them, the faculties 
will inevitably suffer a declension and sink in 
time to the level of mediocrity. The writer 
knows personally half a score of men of 
demonstrated fitness for the pursuit of science 
Avho have relinquished the pursuit for the 
reason, as they allege, that the university 
career furnishes either not at all or too 
tardily a financial competence and consequent 
relief from practical condemnation to celibacy. 
For such reasons there can be no doubt 
whatever that the university career, par¬ 
ticularly in case of the more abstract sciences, 
which have no market value but which are 
nevertheless the chief glory of man, fails to 
attract a due proportion of the summit-intel¬ 
lects of the land. For one should know enough 
to know that successful investigation in such 
austere and recondite sciences is possible to 
none but men of intellectual resources of the 
highest order, men of power, of vast energy and 
persistence, of divine boldness, of creative im- 


AMERICAN UNIVERSITIES 


agination, of spiritual audacity, and such men 
know themselves to be easily the intellectual 
peers of the greatest financier, or soldier, or 
statesman, or administrator. So that if too many 
of such men, rare at best, are not to be drawn 
away from scientific fields by the assured pros¬ 
pect of achieving elsewhere not only fame but 
fortune also, it stands to reason that the uni¬ 
versity career must assure a competence to the 
competent, and therewith an emancipation from 
the sordid anxieties and interruptions that prey 
upon genius and defeat and darken its life. 
That such is the case and that the future will 
condemn the present for its blindness to the 
fact, is a matter that can hardly admit of doubt. 
Immeasurably important as such considerations 
are, both for the maintenance of present uni¬ 
versity standards and for their future advance¬ 
ment and elevation, yet these considerations do 
not lay bare the answer to the foregoing 
question, why? 

The answer to that question is simply: lack 
of opportunity. The difficulty is near at hand 
and is as plain as the mid-day sun. It inheres 
in the composition and organization of the uni¬ 
versities. Let the facts be noted, reflected on, 
and weighed. Most of the universities are built 
about and upon, and largely consist of, immense 
undergraduate schools. These are thronged by 
young men (and often by young women, too) 
mainly bent upon practical aims and neither 
qualified nor intending to qualify for scientific 
research. The interests of these schools, which 
fill the public eye and imagination, are naturally 
the paramount concern. The great and growing 
burdens of administration tend to assume the 
appearance of end instead of means and tend 
to distribute themselves among the professors. 
These have, besides, to give the most and the 
best of their energies to elementary teaching, to 
teaching not only but to teaching of a kind that 
does not pertain to a university proper but to 
gymnasia, lycees and high schools—a worthy, 
important, necessary kind of work, but a kind 
that drains off the energy in pedagogic, non¬ 
productive channels and tends to form and 
harden the mind of those engaged in it about 
a small group of simpler ideas. What is left, 
what can be left, of spirit, of plasticity, of 
buoyant energy, of nerve, of opportunity, to meet 
the austere conditions of significant investi¬ 
gation? One man attempting the enterprise of 
three: administration, elementary teaching, dis¬ 
covery and creative work. Who can suitably 
characterize the absurdity? Who can compute 
the wickedness of the waste and the folly in 
the impossible attempt to effect daily the de¬ 
manded transition from mood to mood? This 
matter of mood is of the very greatest im¬ 
portance, and is not likely to be duly appreciated, 
if it be not wholly ignored, by such people, 
whether presidents or trustees, as have never 
undertaken artistic creation or scientific re¬ 
search. The teaching mood, the administrative 
mood, the creative mood, these are profoundly 
different; and the last in particular, not easy 
to command, is, when it exists, the most sacred 
of mental states. It seems strange that uni¬ 
versity authorities should not come to recognize 
it as fit to be the chief object of their respect 
and care. A mind, by prolonged effort, at 
length immersed in the depths of a profound 


and difficult investigation—how poignant the 
pain of interruption, the rending of continuity, 
the rude disturbance of poise and concentration. 
How easy to fail of due respect for, because 
it is so easy not to understand, the creative 
mood, oblivious to the assailing outer world of 
sense, the brooding “maternity of mind,^ more 
delicate than fabric of gossamer, of infinite sub¬ 
tlety, of infinite sensitiveness, a woven psychic 
structure finer than ether threads; and how 
easy to forget that a sudden alien call may 
disturb and jar and even destroy the structure. 
Occasionally, once in a long time, there appears 
a man of such extraordinary genius and en¬ 
durance that he breaks through all hampering 
conditions and achieves great things despite the 
lack of co-operation of the community, and in 
spite of inimical circumstances, and people 
foolishly suppose and are sometimes encouraged 
in supposing by those who ought to know better, 
that such a phenomenon is normal, while a little 
knowledge of biography and a little reflection 
make it absolutely certain that genius is a deli¬ 
cate thing, exceedingly perishable, and that it 
is the highest folly not to cultivate it with the 
greatest care as the most sacred agency for 
good among men. If mere stupidity might be 
arraigned on moral grounds, it ought to be 
regarded as a crime against society and the 
human race to ignore great ability and compel 
a great brain, because the man happens to be 
poor, to squander its power and time perform¬ 
ing the tasks of mediocrity. But it is precisely 
that great wrong that is committed daily in 
almost every American university simply be¬ 
cause these institutions are not suitably pro¬ 
vided with sufficient means for their proper con¬ 
duct. In Germany an ordinary professor lec¬ 
tures from four to six hours a week. In France 
the professor is expected to give one course of 
lectures. These take place twice a week and 
last from one to one and a half hours. These 
lectures are usually of graduate character, and 
are often connected with an investigation that 
the professor has under way. Contrast this 
with the ten to fifteen, and often even twenty 
and sometimes twenty-five, hours of actual 
class teaching demanded of the American pro¬ 
fessor, consider that most of such teaching is of 
a sub-university grade and but remotely or not 
at all connected with research work, then add 
the faculty meetings, the committee service and 
the multitudinous examinations and petty book¬ 
keeping incident to the overwhelming presence 
of undergraduate interests, and the wonder 
grows not that the American professor as a 
researcher is outclassed by his foreign colleagues, 
but that the American is enabled to share at 
all in the extension of knowledge. 

A year or two ago an eminent professor of 
mechanics and mathematical physics in a for¬ 
eign university was invited to give a course of 
lectures in a great American university. He 
came, gave the lectures, and meanwhile visited 
and inspected several of the leading universities 
of the Atlantic seaboard. In his farewell ad¬ 
dress to his American colleagues assembled to 
do him honor he spoke substantially as follows: 

I have been much impressed with the ma¬ 
terial equipment of your universities, with your 
splendid buildings, with the fine instruments 
you have placed in them, and with the enthu- 


AMERICAN UNIVERSITIES 


siasm of the men I have found at work there. 
But I hope you will pardon me, gentlemen, for 
saying, as I must say, that when I found you 
attempting serious investigation with the rem¬ 
nants of energy left after your excessive teach¬ 
ing and administrative work, I could not help 
thinking you did not appreciate the fact that 
the finest instruments in those buildings are 
your brains. I heard one of you counsel his 
colleagues to care for the astronomical instru¬ 
ments lest these become strained and cease to 
give true results. Allow me to substitute brain 
for object-glass, and to exhort you to care for 
your brains. I have been astonished to find 
that some of you, in addition to much execu¬ 
tive work, teach from ten to fifteen and even 
a greater number of hours a week. I myself 
teach two hours a week, and I can assure you 
that if I had been required to do so much 
of it as you do you never would have invited 
me to lecture here in a difficult branch of 
science. That, gentlemen, is the most important 
message that I can leave with you. 

Such, then, is the situation. No need that 
enlightened Americans should behold it in pic¬ 
ture drawn by foreign hand. They need no 
copy. The original lies before them in all its 
proportions. The challenge addresses itself at 
once to their pride and to their practical sense. 
Of all peoples, the American people, it would 
seem, should feel the challenge most keenly, for 
the problem is a problem in freedom. It is the 
problem of emancipating American genius, of 
providing free and ample opportunity for the 
highest activity of the highest talent of a great 
nation of gifted people. 

Hope of solution lies in division of labor. 
The universities and the people they represent 
must reduce their exactions. For three men’s 
work three must be provided. There must be 
men to administer, and men to teach, and men 
to investigate. Three distinct varieties of serv¬ 
ice, entirely compatible in kind, entirely in¬ 
compatible as co-ordinate vocations combined 
in one. Any one of them may be as an avoca¬ 
tion to one other of the three, but only so of 
choice and not by constraint or compulsion. 
No invidious comparisons are implied. The 
distinctions are not of greater and less; they 
are distinctions of economy in the domain of 
mind. The differences are not differences of 
dignity or of glory, they are not differences in 
the display of genius or power. They are 
simply different forms or determinations of 
potential activity equally possible in a given age 
and place to any one of generous endowments. 

The great administrator is not a clerk or an 
amanuensis or a dictator or a boss; he is a 
man of constructive genius, a senser of needs, 
times and opportunities, one for whom the 
atmosphere of his day and institution is charged 
with inspiration, with possibilities, suggestions, 
and indications of the coming day; he is a 
creator of policies and plans where even the 
raw material, ere it is wrought into living 
effective form, is unseen by the common man. 

The great teacher is not a pedagogue; he 
is a source of inspiration and of aspiration, pro¬ 
ducing children of the spirit by the <( potent, 
felt, interior command,® the <( urge and ardor,® 
of a deep and rich and enlightened personality; 
he was in the mind of Goethe when he said 


of Winckelmann that (( from him you learned 
nothing, but you became something.® 

And the great investigator is not a mere 
collector and recorder of facts; he is not a 
compiler or a statistician; he is a discoverer, a 
discloser, a revealer, of the harmonies and the 
invariance hid beneath the surface of seeming 
disorder and of ceaseless change. 

The three great powers are compatible, and 
in fact are usually found united in a single 
gigantic personality, just as the ordinary ad¬ 
ministrator and ordinary teacher and ordinary 
investigator together compose one unit of 
mediocrity. But while the powers are com¬ 
patible, their simultaneous exercise by one man 
is not practicable and in strictness not possible. 
Just here is where the American university 
commits a fundamental error. By requiring 
one man with one will and uni-punctal atten¬ 
tion and one physical frame and set of organs 
to attempt the simultaneous determination of 
his power in three different forms and in 
accordance with three mutually exclusive tem¬ 
pers or moods, the university dissipates and 
scatters its intellect and deprives itself and all of 
its real interests of the continuous and concen¬ 
trated labor of its most capable minds. A 
single man who, if left to pursue a single 
course, would attain excellence and distinction 
and greatly serve both learning and man as an 
administrator, or as a teacher or as an investi¬ 
gator, is, on the contrary and in violence to 
the most obvious psychological principles, com¬ 
monly compelled to trisect himself. It requires 
no extraordinary wisdom to foresee the result: 
administrators, teachers, investigators, too fre¬ 
quently condemned to deny the promise of their 
gifts and, following three vocations, to fail of 
eminence in any. 

It is perfectly evident that the total service 
demanded of the universities will not diminish. 
On the contrary, it will continue, as now, to 
increase in response to growing need. The 
case, then, is clear: the number of servants 
must be increased, the number of those who are 
to do the work must be greatly multiplied. And 
thus the problem becomes a financial one. But 
a university is not a money-making institution. 
Its function is to convert the physical into the 
spiritual, to transform the things of matter into 
the things of mind. It has, however, a physical 
body, without which it may not dwell among 
men; and, for the support of it, it depends and 
must . depend, whether through legislative ap¬ 
propriation or the benefaction of individuals, 
ultimately upon the people. These now possess 
the means in abundance, and the promptings 
of generosity are in the hearts of many wealthy 
and sagacious men. 

And so the problem revolves upon itself and 
once more turns full upon us its theoretic 
aspect. . Its solution awaits public appreciation 
of its significance and its terms. It is a ques- » 
tion of enlightenment—that is to say, a matter 
of standards and aspirations. Despite many 
indications to the contrary, the American people 
are idealists. They will have what they deem 
the best, and their sense of relative, values in 
the things of mind and spirit is susceptible of 
cultivation, and is even eager, sometimes patheti¬ 
cally eager, for it. Just here is the measureless 
opportunity of the university president. Beyond 


AMERICAN UNIVERSITIES 


energy and intellectual audacity; and by means 
of these they have created a material, industrial, 
commercialistic civilization so elaborate, so ob¬ 
trusive and so efficient as to amaze the world. 
But now at length there begin to appear in¬ 
dicia of change, of change for the better. A 
new day has dawned. The sun is not yet risen 
high, but it is rising. The people have begun 
to suspect that genuine civilization is essentially 
not a thing of hogs and cattle and vast corn¬ 
fields, and railroads and huge cities begrimed 
and darkened by the smoke and gloom of noisy 
factories, but is essentially an affair of the 
spirit. The people are beginning to surmise 
that a civilization worthy of a great and proud 
nation cannot be borrowed or imported like 
a commodity or improvised as for an occasion 
or appropriated from without, but that it is a 
growth from within, a slow and gradual efflor¬ 
escence of mind and soul. They begin to see 
and to feel that the highest tokens of such a 
civilization are not huge fortunes but great men, 
not soldiers but savants, not purchasers and 
admirers of art but artists, not imitators but 
originators, not mere retailers of knowledge or 
teachers of the familiar and the known, but 
discoverers of the unknown, not mere invent¬ 
ors but men of science. And so they have be¬ 
gun to feel their way towards the establishment 
of true universities, that is to say of insti¬ 
tutional centres for the free activity of the 
human spirit, and of organs, the most potent 
yet invented by human society, for giving effect 
to the noblest instinct on earth, <( civilization- 
producing instinct of truth for truth’s sake.® 
Just here there is a danger. For a generation 
progress in the matter has been so swift and 
so conspicuous that both the universities them¬ 
selves and the educated public opinion upon 
which, in a democratic society, university sup¬ 
port and advancement must ultimately depend, 
are in danger of very much overestimating it, 
and that would be a misfortune. Absolutely 
the progress has indeed been great, but rela¬ 
tively and judged by the very highest standards, 
it has not. It is not first or mainly a 
question of achievements, of things done. It 
is a question of ideals, of standards and aspi¬ 
rations. Speaking from the eminence here indi¬ 
cated it must be said that a clear concept of 
a great university unconsciously serving the 
highest interests of man by absolute devotion to 
Truth for its own sake and without extraneous 
motive, end or aim, docs not yet exist in the 
mind of the American public and is not yet in¬ 
carnate in any American institution. American 
universities are young, strong and robust. They 
are full of potence and promise. But they have 
not yet purified their own conceptions of what 
they ought to be. They have not even ad¬ 
equately impressed their own imperfect ideals 
upon the people. They have not yet given 
forth the light necessary for their own proper 
beholding and appreciation. Their perfections 
and their imperfections, their merits and their 
defects, remain alike obscure. The old colleges 
about which as about nuclei some of the uni¬ 
versities have been formed, have done much to 
leaven and temper the American mind and to 
subdue it to the influences of beauty and truth. 
Corresponding services in corresponding meas¬ 
ure have not been rendered by the universities 
Vol. i—28 


as such. No one can doubt that they are 
destined to assume in future the permanent and 
masterful leadership in all that goes to deepen 
thought, and to exalt and refine standards, 
character, and taste. At present, however, they 
are themselves in the formative and impression¬ 
able stage; they resemble improvisations often 
and in many respects; they are as clay under 
the molding hand of the potter; and to under¬ 
stand them, to see clearly both what they are 
and what they are not, it is necessary to regard 
them as being at the present time less the pro¬ 
ducers than the products of the American civil¬ 
ization. 

So regarded they are seen to embody and 
to reflect alike the merits and the defects of 
their progenitor. Like the latter they are un¬ 
surpassed in boldness, in energy, in enthusiasm, 
in their craving for bigness, and their genius 
has been mainly directed to material and outer 
ends. Their first and chief concern has been, 
naturally at all events whether wisely or not, 
with the physical and exterior, with buildings 
and grounds and instruments and laboratories, 
and while their material equipment is still far 
from adequate to their purposes and ambitions, 
it has already evoked astonishing and admiring 
commentary from visiting scholars of European 
seats and centres of learning. Like the civili¬ 
zation whence they have sprung, American uni¬ 
versities are intensely modern and up-to-date, 
and they are intensely democratic in everything 
but management. The difference between exist¬ 
ing democracies and monarchies is not so great 
as is commonly assumed. Speaking of things, 
not as they are definitionally or ideally, but as 
they are actually, it may be said that a democ¬ 
racy is a monarchy in which the subjects are 
allowed the inestimable privilege of complain¬ 
ing freely. The government of American uni¬ 
versities tends to become monarchical; so that 
a distinguished German scholar, after lecturing 
for some months in one of the largest of Ameri¬ 
can universities, said: (( A German university is 
a genuine democracy in a monarchy; an Ameri¬ 
can university is a despotic institution in a 
democracy.® The American universities set 
great store by organization, each of them is 
mainly under the control of one man, the uni¬ 
versity president, selected in many cases less 
on account of scholastic attainment or scientific 
eminence than because of his generalship and 
industrial predilections; and the president is 
sustained in his rule by a board of trustees or 
curators not frequently distinguished for edu¬ 
cational and scientific competence or leadership. 
This state of things is confirmed and perpetu¬ 
ated by the national preference for the doer of 
deeds, the executive head, the manager, or 
<( boss,® as compared with the quiet scholar, or 
teacher, or artist, or thinker, or man of science. 
The result is that American universities more 
and more exalt the function of administration, 
and they tend to be regarded, to regard them¬ 
selves, and in fact to be, as vast and complicate 
machines or industrial plants naturally submit¬ 
ting to the control of centralized authority. 
These institutions are notably lacking in senti¬ 
ment; they are far from ideal homes for men 
of the Platonic, or, to be more modern, of the 
Paternal, type. They are almost devoid of 
sacred and hallowing traditions, of great and 


AMERICAN UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES 


all others, he is spokesman and representative 
before the people of their highest spiritual in¬ 
terests. Their ideals and aspirations may 
scarcely be expected to surpass his own. To 
him the people look for guidance, for leader¬ 
ship, for wisdom above the worldly, for knowl¬ 
edge and appreciation of eternal values and the 
highest good possible to man. The problem 
must be seen and be felt to be the supreme 
problem of American civilization; it must be 
conceived boldly in truth, and it must be pre¬ 
sented through every agency of enlightenment 
with the cogency of fact and argument, with 
the urgency of deep conviction and felt concern, 
with the fire and kindling deliverance of seer 
and prophet. The people require to be taught 
what a university ought to be and what a gen¬ 
uine university is. This they do not know at 
present. They judge by the graduates known to 
them personally. Most of these graduates do 
not themselves know the meaning of university 
in its higher functions. They have learned les¬ 
sons from books and heard numerous lectures 
on the rudiments of many subjects, but they 
have not engaged in original research them¬ 
selves, nor learned to know either the per¬ 
sonalities or the activities of the few men 
among their instructors who have made im¬ 
portant contributions to the sum of knowledge. 
Of the hosts yearly graduated from the univer¬ 
sities, very few have seen creative genius en¬ 
gaged in its proper business, much less co¬ 
operated with it, and the vast and rapidly 
increasing army of alumni, honorable and useful 
as they are in manifold ways, do not really 
represent, but actually and positively, through 
no fault of their own, serve to misrepresent the 
university in its proper character as an institu¬ 
tion for training investigators by engaging the 
candidates, not in school exercises, but in re¬ 
search itself. This is a most important con¬ 
sideration, and one almost always overlooked. 
In some way the American public must be made 
to understand that the average university grad¬ 
uate leaves the university just before he is 
qualified or could have been qualified to en¬ 
gage in university work proper, in that higher 
work, namely, which marks off the function 
of the university from the function of the col¬ 
lege or technical school. If this be not done 
in some way by president, professor or extra 
academic teacher, then there will exist the 
curious and paradoxical situation that the 
greater the number of ordinary four-year alumni 
the universities turn out, the blinder will the 
general public become respecting the highest 
aims and activities of these institutions. 

The American people as a people have yet 
to learn the lesson deeply that research, the 
competent application in any field whatever of 
human interest of any effective method what¬ 
ever for the discovery of truth and enlarging 
the bounds of knowledge, is the highest form 
of human activity. Thev believe in investiga¬ 
tion that leads to tangible results, to results, 
that is, that are immediately applicable to in¬ 
dustry or commerce, and such hand-to-mouth 
investigation finds ready applause and support. 
They appreciate, too, the products of the in¬ 
ventor because these are useful, but they do 
but little appreciate the fact that invention and 
technological discoveries and improvements are 


rendered possible only by those who pursue 
science for the love of science, and with no 
concern for its applications and utilities. Never¬ 
theless, it is these men, moved by pure curiosity, 
seeking truth because they are drawn to it, 
fascinated by it in its purity, it is these heroes 
of the field, the laboratory, and the cloister who 
not only make possible the continued ameliora¬ 
tion of the condition of mankind, but achieve 
for a nation its greatest glory and lasting 
renown. Who knows who designed the vessels 
of the Athenian fleet or engineered the aque¬ 
ducts, roads and bridges of ancient Rome? 
Who, on the other hand, has not heard of 
Socrates and Plato, of Cicero and Lucretius? 
It is faith in scientific curiosity, faith in research, 
that scorns to promise aught that can be eval¬ 
uated in terms of worldly goods, it is that faith 
that as a nation we sadly lack. This nation 
has yet to learn that a nation, a State, a univer¬ 
sity without that faith and without investigators 
animated and sustained by it, is a community 
without men of profoundest conviction. For 
conviction is not to be gained by conning 
books; it cannot be acquired by learning 
lessons in school; it cannot be inherited 
or bought or gained by gift; it is not 
a pious hope or a pleasing superstition; neither 
is it an obsession. Pupils cannot come under 
its influence from teachers who have it not, and 
teachers have it not who know not the austere 
discipline of investigation. As Helmholz has 
said: <( A teacher who desires to give his 
hearers a perfect conviction of the truth of his 
principles must, first of all, know from his own 
experience how conviction is acquired and how 
not. He must have known how to acquire con¬ 
viction where no predecessor had been before 
him—that is, he must have worked at the con¬ 
fines of knowledge and have conquered new 
regions.® 

The American people have yet to learn that 
the value of a university professor cannot be 
estimated by the simple process of counting the 
hours he stands before his classes or by reckon¬ 
ing the improvements he has made in methods 
of engineering or bridge construction, but by 
the genius he brings to bear in the building 
of character or in the clarification or discovery 
of knowledge—in the demonstration he gives of 
the dignity of man. They have yet to learn to 
prefer standards of quality to units of quantity 
—to prefer the excellent to the big. They have 
yet to learn that the spirit of pure research, the 
highest mood of the greatest men, has no direct 
or conscious concern whatever with the Useful 
as such. They have yet to learn that (( the 
action faculty is imperious and excludes the 
reflection why it acts.® When these and kindred 
lessons shall have been taken to heart and be¬ 
come at once the principles and the impulses 
of policy and conduct, national emancipation, 
now well begun, will advance towards comple¬ 
tion; the American university will come to its 
own; and American civilization will speedily 
pass to the rank of the highest and best. 

Cassius J. Keyser, 

Adrian . Professor of Mathematics , Columbia 
U niversity. 

American Universities and Colleges. 

Among the universities and colleges of the 
United States are the following: Adrian, 


AMERICAN 


UNIVERSITY 


Alabama, Albion, Albright, Alfred, Alleghany, 
Amherst, Andover, Amity, Antioch, Armour 
Institute of 1 echnology, Atlanta, Baker, Bald¬ 
win, Barnard, Bates, Baylor, Beloit, Berea, 
Bethany, Biddle, Boston, Bowdoin, Brown, 
Bryn Mawr, Buchtel, Bucknell, Butler, Cali¬ 
fornia, Catholic Central, Chicago, Cincinnati, 
Clallin, Clark, Clemson, Colby, Colgate, College 
of the City of New York, Colorado, Columbia, 
Concordia, Converse, Cornell, Creighton, 
Cumberland, Dakota, Wesleyan, De Pauw, 
Denver, Des Moines, Dickinson, Drake, Fargo, 
Fisk, Franklin and Marshall, Furman, Georgia, 
Georgetown, George Washington, Girard, 
Grant, Greer, Hamilton, Hampden Sydney, 
Hartford, Harvard, Haverford, Heidelberg, 
Hobart, Howard, Idaho, Illinois, Iowa, Jacob 
Tome, John B. Stetson, Johns Hopkins, Kansas, 
Kentucky, Kenyon, Knoxville, Lafayette, Lake 
Forest, Lehigh, Leland Stanford Jr., Louisiana, 
Luther, Maine, Marquette, Marietta, Massachu¬ 
setts Institute of Technology, Mercer, Miami, 
Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, 
Mount Holyoke, Nashville, Nebraska, Ne¬ 
vada, New Mexico, New York, Niagara, 
North Carolina, North Dakota, Northwestern, 
Norwich, Notre Dame, Oberlin, Ohio, Okla¬ 
homa, Oregon, Otterbein, Pacific, Pennsylvania, 
Presbyterian, Princeton, Purdue, Radcliffe, 
Randolph-Macon, Rensselaer Polytechnic In¬ 
stitute, Richmond, Rochester, Rose Polytechnic 
Institute, Rutgers, Saint John’s, Saint 
Lawrence, Saint Louis, Saint Mary’s, 
Taylor, Tennessee, Texas, Trinity, Tufts, 
Tulane, Tuskegee, Union, Utah, Vassar, Ver¬ 
mont, Vincennes, Virginia, Wabash, Wake 
Forest, Washington and Jefferson, Washington 
and Lee, Waynesburg, Wellesley, Wells, 
Wesleyan, Western Reserve, Western Univer¬ 
sity of Pennsylvania, West Virginia, West¬ 
minster, Wilberforce, Wiley, Willamette, Wil¬ 
liam and Mary, William Jewell, Wyoming, Yale, 
Yankton, etc. For history of education and a 
study of American systems see Education in the 
United States; Education: Compulsory; 
Elementary; Engineering; Higher; The 
Development of the Office of School Super¬ 
intendent; National Systems of; Profes¬ 
sional; Roman Catholic; Scientific and 
Technical; Secondary; Supplemental; In 
Latin America; Of Women; United States 
Bureau of; Educational Organization and 
Administration; Adult Education; Agricul¬ 
tural Education; Co-education; State Uni¬ 
versities; College, The American; American 
University; Medical Education; Manual 
Training; Parish Schools; Public Schools; 
School Supervision ; Kindergarten ; Study of 
Education ; etc. 

American University, The. Prof. Ladd of 
Yale University, in an essay originally read be¬ 
fore the <( Round Table® of Boston, about 1888, 
says: (< Any one possessed of the requisite in¬ 
formation knows at once what is meant by the 
university of France, the English universities, 
or a German university; but no one can be¬ 
come so conversant with facts as to Jell what 
an American university is.® And again: <( — it 
is scarcely less true than it was a score of years 
ago, that, although there may be universities 
in America, no one can tell what an American 
university is.® 


While not so accurate at the present day as 
when first made, it is still true enough, if one 
fail to free himself at the very start from de- 
oendence imon the name as necessarily indicative 
of the thing. It is incontestable that within 
recent years the conception of the natural and 
necessary relation of the <( university® to the 
(< college® has become much clearer, and that 
many and important changes of organization 
and administration have resulted, so that it is 
certainly easier than it was in 1888 to define, 
or at least to describe, the American university. 
However, there remain difficulties of many 
kinds; and it still is, and will undoubtedly be 
for years to come, if not actually impossible, at 
least very difficult, to give a definition broad 
enough to include all institutions of learning 
in the United States which possess true uni¬ 
versity character, and precise enough to ex¬ 
clude all others. 

The first difficulty is this: The names ft uni- 
versity® and (( college,® as used in the official 
titles of institutions, are absolutely worthless 
as indications of the character of these insti¬ 
tutions. Among the scores of titular <( universi- 
ties® in this country most are merely colleges, 
some good, some indifferent, some so badly 
endowed and organized as to be not even good 
high schools. On the other hand, Bryn Mawr 
(( college® has never assumed, even in informal 
use, the name <r university,® yet offers true uni¬ 
versity instruction of the highest order in most 
of the subjects covered by the philo so phis che 
Fakultat of a German university; and even 
Harvard and Columbia, though they have now 
acquired a true university character, of a very 
elaborate type, and are habitually spoken of as 
such, have retained in their corporate titles their 
ancient designation of <( college.® It happens 
that in the most eastern States the word <( um- 
versity® is much less used as a title, the higher 
institutions of learning having mostly been 
founded while the English influence was still 
strong, many of them indeed in colonial times, 
under direct English authority, and so having 
adopted the peculiarly English name of <( col- 
lege.® In the newer States more ambitious plans 
prevailed, and the consideration of conditions in 
non-English European countries—notably those 
of Germany, where the universities had ob¬ 
tained a more commanding position and influ¬ 
ence than elsewhere by the beginning of the 
19th century—led to the choice of the name 
of apparently greater dignity. This considera¬ 
tion seems also to have been paramount with 
the founders of the countless purely sectarian 
institutions which sprang up all over the coun¬ 
try, and still lead a precarious existence, striv¬ 
ing to hold the attention of their brethren in 
the faith by promiscuously showering down 
honorary degrees. Yet it would be grossly un¬ 
fair to assume that in all cases the name of 
university was adopted out of pure conceit; in 
many the choice of name was the proclamation 
of a purpose sincerely cherished, and resolutely 
carried forward, amid difficulties of which the 
European critic can form no conception, to a 
realization more or less complete. It will be 
necessary then to get rid of this first difficulty 
by ignoring completely the difference in title. 
If we shall succeed in describing the thing, 
though we may be ever conscious of the un- 


AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 


fortunate ambiguity of terms, now doubtless 
too firmly fixed in official and legal use to be 
easily changed, we may rest content. 

Another difficulty is this. It is now clearly 
seen that, as institutions, the college and the 
university, having very different functions, de¬ 
mand a different organization and administra¬ 
tion. Yet the full recognition of this fact is 
comparatively recent, and the logical conse¬ 
quences have been reached in only a few in¬ 
stances. The circumstances of foundation and 
the necessities of the hour have made it prac¬ 
tically impossible for the university and the 
college in the United States to exist apart. 
There are still but two institutions which may 
be called even fragmentary universities entirely 
unconnected with a college: The Clark Uni¬ 
versity of Worcester, Mass., and the Catholic 
University of America at Washington. Down 
to 1876, when the Johns Hopkins University 
was opened, whatever real university instruction 
was offered was organized at a college already 
existing, and even the founders of the Johns 
Hopkins, though their chief purpose was avow¬ 
edly to provide for university instruction of 
the highest grade, felt it necessary or at least 
advisable to organize a college also. The wide 
scope planned for Cornell University, opened 
in 1868, from the first necessarily included a 
college, nay, many colleges, as part of the 
scheme. In all discussion of the American uni¬ 
versity, therefore, in this article it must be 
borne in mind that the term (with the two 
exceptions noted above) is used to include only 
certain parts of institutions whose organism is 
often highly complex, and that probably no two 
institutions coincide in theory or even in prac¬ 
tice, though certain principles and practices are 
common to those of more complete type. 

What then is that American university, a 
description of which is here undertaken, if it 
does not anywhere exist in completeness and 
exactness, unobscured by contact with institu¬ 
tions of different character and divergent aims? 
It will be least misleading to say at the outset: 
It is nowhere. In so far, therefore, Prof, von 
Holst’s famous pronouncement is right; a uni¬ 
versity in the European sense does not exist 
in America. And yet, from Harvard on the 
Atlantic tidewater to the University of Cali¬ 
fornia, which looks out through the Golden 
Gate upon the Pacific, and from Minneapolis to 
New Orleans, will be found many institutions 
which offer training in the methods of scien¬ 
tific research, opportunities for the prose¬ 
cution of such research, and abundant fa¬ 
cilities in the way of libraries, museums 
and laboratories, to those individuals who 
have had such preliminary training as to 
be able to profit fully by these advantages, 
and which certify by the formal bestowal of a 
particular degree or degrees that the individual 
receiving one of them has proved himself or her¬ 
self to have acquired the methods and habits of 
such scientific research. This is equivalent to 
saying, in the technical language in vogue in the 
United States, that these institutions offer to 
graduate students courses leading to advanced or 
higher degrees. Where such courses are well 
organized and equipped and successfully main¬ 
tained, there is a university at least in part, 
and, it may be, in the whole. Whether the in¬ 
stitution do only this, or this and many other 


things besides, and whether it be called uni¬ 
versity or college, may be important questions 
from some points of view; for the point of 
view of this discussion the existence of such 
organization for research work by graduates is 
the test, and it is its purpose to describe as 
clearly as possible such organization of this 
character as may be found in the United States 
of America. Apparent or evident divagations 
from this strict purpose will perhaps find read¬ 
ier pardon from the foregoing allusions to some 
of the difficulties in the way. 

It has often been remarked by observant 
foreign travelers in the United States that 
among this young people many institutions 
change less rapidly than in the older nations 
of Europe. This conservatism, in large part 
an English trait persisting through many gener¬ 
ations, is particularly observable in the field of 
education; experiments are carefully tried, 
downright innovations still less willingly 
adopted. Only where occasion is offered for 
new foundations are we apt to find a ready 
breaking with traditional forms. When, on re¬ 
viewing the American institutions of learning 
to discover which of them give the opportuni¬ 
ties for training in the methods of research 
that we have taken as our standard of measure¬ 
ment, we find them to be almost without excep¬ 
tion colleges, or technical schools, or professional 
schools as well, or all of these together, we also 
find that they were generally colleges first of 
all, and that training in research was made a 
part of the system only later, very gradually 
and hesitatingly, the two institutions which dis¬ 
claim all ^college® work being almost the young¬ 
est, and one of them not yet displaying a very 
encouraging vitality. We find also that one of 
the oldest and most famous colleges of all, 
Yale, was also the first to institute regular 
courses of instruction for those who wished 
to pursue their studies after receiving the degree 
of bachelor of arts. 

The union of college and university may 
fairly be called the typical American form of 
organization for the higher education. Only in 
the institutions of comparatively recent origin 
do we find that university organization was at¬ 
tempted from the first. The professional and 
technical schools have generally occupied a 
position of great independence toward the in¬ 
stitution as a whole, in many cases having hardly 
more than the name in common, but possessing 
their own budgets and boards of trustees, some¬ 
times even being administered as proprietary 
schools, wherein the professors divided among 
themselves the fees paid by the students. The 
medical schools have been the most independent 
in this respect. It should be borne in mind 
that in the case of such complex institutions the 
name ^university® is applied to the whole, so 
that, theoretically at least, the university may 
include the equivalent of a German university, 
technische Hochschule (formerly called Poly - 
technicum), landwirtschaftliche Hochschule or 
agricultural college, and Gymnasium. Passing 
under review the many types of organization 
wherein university and college are united, we 
find that in most cases the graduate and under¬ 
graduate work are carried on by the same in¬ 
dividuals, so that, instead of a university and 
a < college being in alliance, so to speak, as 
might be said if the body of instructors of each 


AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 


part were composed of quite different individu¬ 
als, with one governing body for the whole, we 
have to do really with a complex and overlap¬ 
ping structure. Herein lies, it must be said, 
one of the greatest disadvantages for the Amer¬ 
ican university, though there are valuable com¬ 
pensations. T he American university profes¬ 
sor is rarely able to devote himself exclusively 
to advanced scientific work with well-prepared 
students, but must, in most cases, carry on a 
good deal of mere class work as well, which 
cannot but prove detrimental to the progress of 
his researches. 

The State Universities .— At the present 
time, in each of 29 of the States of the Union, 
there is maintained a single (( State university,® 
supported exclusively or prevailingly from pub¬ 
lic funds, and managed under the more or less 
direct control of the legislature and adminis¬ 
trative officers of the State. In some cases 
private benefactions have notably supplemented 
the support given from public revenues. These 
States are the following: Alabama, California, 
Colorado, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kan¬ 
sas, Louisiana, Maine, Michigan, Minnesota, 
Mississippi, Missouri, Nebraska, Nevada, North 
Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, South 
Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Vir¬ 
ginia, Washington, West Virginia, Wisconsin, 
Wyoming.* The organization of these institu¬ 
tions, while more similar than that of the uni¬ 
versities which are autonomous corporations, 
yet shows many points of divergence; and their 
extent and standards of scholarship vary even 
more widely. The larger among them exhibit 
a very complete development of technical and 
professional schools, with the exception of 
schools of theology, which naturally have no 
place in a country where otate aid is not ex¬ 
tended to religion. The professional schools of 
law and medicine, however, are generally sup¬ 
ported, at least in greater part, by the fees re¬ 
ceived from students, and up to the present time 
none of them has been put on a true university 
basis. Otherwise, the sources of income of these 
universities are mainly the following: (1) The 
proceeds of land-grants made in 1862 by 
the Federal government, in accordance with 
the famous <( Morrill Act® of 1862, for the main¬ 
tenances of colleges whose leading object should 
be instruction in those branches of learning re¬ 
lating to agricultural and mechanical arts, in¬ 
cluding military tactics, and not excluding other 
scientific and classical studies. (2) State tax¬ 
ation, whether by way of annual appropriations 
from the general taxes of the state, or by con¬ 
tinuous appropriations from a permanent spe¬ 
cial tax. (3) Tuition fees (only in some of the 
universities, while in many instruction is entirely 
gratuitous). (4) Private gifts and endowments 
— the least common source of revenue, al¬ 
though some brilliant exceptions are to be noted. 

The universal verdict of public opinion, in 
the States where such institutions are main¬ 
tained, is that they, as State organizations sup¬ 
ported directly by public taxation from which 
no taxable individual is exempt, should be open 
without distinction of sex, color or religion to 
all who can profit by the instruction therein 

* The University of the State of New York is not a 
university at all, but rather a State board of education, 
with supervision of all instruction given in the State. 
The “ University of France,” as constituted under 
Napoleon I., is closely analogous to it. 


given. Each forms the uppermost division of 
the general system of public education of the 
State in which it is maintained, and is man¬ 
aged with a view to completing the scheme of 
instruction begun in the primary and carried 
on in the secondary schools. Control is vested 
in a board of public officials, generally called 
<( regents.® For example, the board of regents 
of the University of Minnesota consists of the 
governor of the State, the superintendent of 
public instruction, the president of the uni¬ 
versity, and seven members appointed by the 
governor and confirmed by the senate. In 
Michigan the regents are elected by popular 
vote for terms of eight years — an unusual fea¬ 
ture. The composition and mode of choice of 
these boards varies greatly in different States, 
and not less their fitness for the responsibilities 
entrusted to them. In some States, as in Michi¬ 
gan and Wisconsin, the result of many years’ 
endeavor has been, though after many vicissi¬ 
tudes and bitter struggles, the creation of noble 
schools of training; in others the constant 
changes in political complexion of the legis¬ 
lature, and the self-seeking of party leaders, 
have made the universities mere shuttlecocks 
of public or party opinion, and not only has 
their development been hindered, but in some 
cases their usefulness deliberately crippled. In¬ 
stances are not unknown where particularly able 
and courageous professors, who would not cut 
their scientific opinions after the prevailing fash¬ 
ion in politics, have been driven from their 
chairs, even by outrageously underhanded 
methods. Of the State universities the most 
prominent and successful are those of Michi¬ 
gan, Minnesota, Wisconsin, and California. 
The first mentioned is the oldest and perhaps 
the best known. Under the direction of a 
series of singularly able men it has grown, since 
its foundation in 1837, into a position of com¬ 
manding importance. The three others, while 
considerably younger, have shown a surpris¬ 
ingly rapid growth. See State Universities. 

Contrast with European Universities .—The 
foregoing account of the chief types of univer¬ 
sity organization in the United States will, it is 
hoped, have made clear most of the details in 
which their structure is peculiarly American. 
The older institutions, starting from the English 
type of college, never developed in the direction 
of universities of Oxford and Cambridge, where 
the idea of the university as a great teaching 
body was lost in the excessive development of 
the college as a place of residence, and of the 
university as primarily a congeries of colleges. 
The early mediaeval universities of Europe, on 
the continent as well as in England, generally 
provided for their students places of residence 
in buildings set apart for this purpose, instruc¬ 
tion of the lower grades in connection with 
these residence halls, and higher instruction 
independently of them. On the continent, how¬ 
ever, especially in France and Germany, the 
residential feature rapidly became less impor¬ 
tant, and finally, with a few unimportant excep¬ 
tions, disappeared altogether, so that the entire 
resources of the universities, though often 
scanty enough, could be turned to account for 
the work of instruction. In England exactly 
the opposite occurred; the residential halls be¬ 
came, through the impulse of successive pious 
foundations, the important factors in the uni¬ 
versity life, even attaining corporate independ- 



AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 


ence and ultimately great wealth, and gradually 
assumed most of the instruction of the stu¬ 
dents, though the examinations and the award 
of degrees remained the prerogatives of the uni¬ 
versity as a whole — conditions which made 
directly for the fixity of residence characteristic 
of English universities, and adopted as a matter 
of course in the American colleges patterned 
after the English model. If the establishment 
of Harvard and Yale colleges had been fol¬ 
lowed at brief intervals of time by the founda¬ 
tion of other residential colleges in Cambridge 
and New Haven, and if there had existed in the 
colonies an established church with a prestige 
such as that possessed by the Church of England 
in the home country, keeping the colleges under 
its control, a state of affairs similar to that at 
Oxford would doubtless have resulted. The 
scanty population and limited means of the 
colonies, and their independence of the Church 
of England, prevented such a result, fortunately, 
on the whole, for the educational welfare of the 
country at large. Yet the residential feature 
has persisted throughout the history of the 
American college; though abandoned here and 
there, as at Columbia and the University of 
Pennsylvania, it has been restored at the latter, 
has again been adopted in principle, if not yet 
in practice, at Columbia, and deliberately in¬ 
troduced, in various forms, at many new insti¬ 
tutions, even in some which at first had made 
no provision for students’ residence. The 
American institutions differ furthermore from 
the English universities in this, that their 
growth has been so largely in the direction of 
professional and technical schools, though these 
have been thus far in less than a half a dozen 
instances placed on a real university basis. 

The points of difference between the Amer¬ 
ican and the continental European universities 
are not less apparent. Taken as a whole, the 
American institutions exhibit only a portion of 
what in Europe is thought necessary to the con¬ 
stitution of a complete university, viz., the tra¬ 
ditional four faculties of theology, law, medi¬ 
cine and philosophy, because, although all four 
may be in existence (as for example at Har¬ 
vard), they are not all organized and admin¬ 
istered on the same plane; but on the other hand 
they include elements which in Europe are 
sharply marked off from the universities, namely, 
technical schools, and undergraduate schools, 
which in some cases correspond fairly well to 
the lycee or gymnasium of France or Germany, 
in others to the last two or three years of these 
institutions and the first year of the university 
or technical school. If we separate the strictly 
graduate schools of the American universities 
from the remainder of their respective institu¬ 
tions, we shall find them in general covering 
pretty nearly the ground of the ,(< philosophical 
faculties® of Germany, and more or less closely 
approximating them in methods of work. A 
decided point of difference, however, consists in 
the comparative infrequence of migration on the 
part of students from university to university, 
which is so nearly the universal rule in Ger¬ 
many. 

Present Day Problems .— When the prob¬ 
lems of education are all solved, education 
itself will be dead, and the need of it greater 
than ever. The entire range of education in the 
United States has been in a state of rapid tran¬ 
sition for many years already, and nowhere have 


the changes been more constant than in the 
domain of college and university education. 
From the establishment of graduate courses at 
Yale in 1847 until the present day, probably no 
year has passed without seeing some new ex¬ 
periment tried, some old institution reorgan¬ 
ized or new one founded. If the new institu¬ 
tions have often shown too little willingness to 
profit by the experience of others, or to adopt 
the ways and means of other lands, it must be 
remembered that the educational problem has 
been but one of many with which the leaders of 
thought in this country have been confronted, 
and that in the attempt to conform institutions to 
the spirit of the country it has been necessary 
first to discover, often at great pains and heavy 
cost to the experimenter, what that spirit was. 

Naturally the most important question has 
been and still is that of organization. It has 
doubtless become apparent from the foregoing 
description that no two universities are just 
alike, and that the differences do not by any 
means concern unimportant points. Every pos¬ 
sible variety of organization and administration 
seems to the observer — especially the foreign 
observer — to have been tried, except that of a 
consistent and rigid adherence to forms sanc¬ 
tioned by centuries of permanence in Europe. 

The vacillation has come from uncertainty 
as to the true purposes of the university. In 
Europe these purposes were long ago settled: the 
university exists to train servants of the state, 
or, as prevailing in England, to train up a race 
of gentlemen who shall never forget the obli¬ 
gations of their caste. It is the glory of Ger¬ 
many that she has seen more clearly than other 
nations how truly the highest scientific train¬ 
ing is none too good for her public servants. 

The wholly different conditions prevailing 
in the United States have been reflected in the 
organization of our universities and colleges. 
There is no state religion, and the national 
Constitution forbids the patronage or proscrip¬ 
tion of any sect; consequently the theological 
faculty, originally the most important in the 
universities of western and northern Europe, 
found no state recognition. The practice of 
the law was subject to few restrictions, and in¬ 
deed in at least one State is still open to every 
citizen of mature age, so that the schools of 
law, when they began at all, grew up mostly on 
a basis of private organization, with purely 
practical training as their object, and often un¬ 
derbid one another in their eagerness for stu¬ 
dents. With such exceptions as the nature of 
the profession brings with it, the regulation of 
the study and practice of medicine went the 
same course, proprietary schools being the most 
frequent form of organization for instruction 
in the healing art. As for the faculty of arts 
or philosophy, which, originally preparatory for 
one of the others, had in Germany been put on 
a par with them and made the doorway to the 
new profession of teaching in the State schools, 
its ground was partially covered by the cur¬ 
ricula of the best colleges. The character of these 
colleges, however, resembled more nearly that 
of the German philosophical faculty of two cen¬ 
turies ago. The state systems of education did 
not at first include more than elementary 
schools, so that there was no great incentive 
for prescribing a college course for those per¬ 
sons who wished to teach in them; nor would 
such a regulation have been popular in intensely 


AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 


democratic communities, or, in the poverty of 
many of the states, easily possible of fulfilment. 
Under these circumstances the European con¬ 
ception of a university was lost; and when it 
began to be regained, different systems, imper¬ 
fect and incongruous it is true, but still in many 
ways useful, had grown up to fill the needs 
which are supplied in Europe by the university. 
Other needs had made themselves felt in Amer¬ 
ica even more keenly: the needs incident to 
the rapid settling and exploitation of a new 
country, where vast distances and a phenomenal 
growth of population made imperative some pro¬ 
vision for training in the technical professions 
and mechanical arts. It is not strange, then, 
though it has been unfortunate for the country 
at large, that the last need to be recognized in 
education has been the need of thorough train¬ 
ing in the humanities and in pure science, in 
what has been admirably well called (( disinter- 
ested scientific thinking, as distinguished from 
technical or commercial science.® 

American educators are not yet at one as re¬ 
gards the true function of the university. In 
general, two opposing views are chiefly held. 
The purpose of the Leland Stanford, Jr., Uni¬ 
versity is declared to be: <( To fit young persons 
for success in life.® An admirable purpose, no 
doubt, but one which the university must share 
in common with many other institutions. Of 
a like breadth of conception is the avowed pur¬ 
pose of Ezra Cornell: (( I would found an insti¬ 
tution where any person may find instruction 
in any study.® The brilliant history of Cornell 
University is chiefly due to the wisdom of the 
men who have seen what limitations should be 
put upon this great plan. This view of the true 
function of a university is chiefly prevalent in 
the West; one sometimes hears it said that the 
western universities exist solely for the sake of 
the students, while some of the eastern universi¬ 
ties seem to think that the students exist chiefly 
for the sake of the universities or of science at 
large. The universities of private foundation 
are proceeding more and more on the assump¬ 
tion that their function is to train, in their 
graduate departments or faculties of philosophy, 
specialists, as teachers, and to a less extent as 
investigators; those which have raised some of 
their professional schools to true university rank 
by refusing admission to all who have not re¬ 
ceived a non-professional degree aim not merely 
to instruct the future physicians and lawyers in 
the technique of their professions, but to give 
them true scientific insight and philosophic 
grasp. Until there is agreement as to the true 
function of a university, there cannot be agree¬ 
ment as to their organization and administration. 
Whoever holds to the Stanford idea will wish 
to see all departments of instruction put on pre¬ 
cisely the same plane; whoever believes that 
scientific research is the highest and noblest aim 
of education will demand for the university an 
organization which shall emphasize this, leaving 
to other institutions the teaching which is en¬ 
tirely practical. 

As a whole, American universities seem to be 
trying to do too many things at once, generally 
with an altogether inadequate equipment of in¬ 
structors, and with an insufficient endowment 
Each university aims to cover the entire field 
of instruction; the result is that the professors, 
who are, except in the professional faculties, 
almost always college instructors as well, are 


cruelly overburdened with teaching and admin¬ 
istrative duties, with the inevitable result that 
few of them can carry on much research. The 
organization of most of our universities is too 
complicated. Many professors have to attend 
two, three, or even four faculty meetings each 
month, and serve on committees without num¬ 
ber ; some of them are even expected to do 
purely clerical work. 

Perhaps the most important of American 
university problems at present, as bearing di¬ 
rectly upon the necessary organization and de¬ 
termining it, is the relation of university or 
graduate work to undergraduate work and to 
professional training. With the very liberal 
regulation, often lack of regulation, exercised 
by the State governments over the practice of 
the professions of law and medicine, the number 
of practitioners has inevitably become exces¬ 
sively great. The need of stricter control has 
been seen, and many States have increased the 
requirements for admission to practice. That any 
of the States will require a complete collegiate 
education as a preliminary to admission to prac¬ 
tice is a very remote possibility. It rests with 
the universities to raise the plane of their pro¬ 
fessional schools so that only the fittest will 
survive. Experience has shown that raising the 
standard of an institution is surely followed in 
a few years by an increase in numbers as well 
as in the quality of students entering. A be¬ 
ginning has already been made, as indicated 
above, for the professional schools of law and 
medicine. As for the technical schools, most 
of them, whether connected with the universi¬ 
ties or not, have been too ready to admit stu¬ 
dents on very slight requirements. Perhaps in 
time the best of these will see that a good pre¬ 
liminary training ought to be demanded of their 
students, and so put themselves also on a uni¬ 
versity level. 

Enough has been said, it is hoped, to show 
that there is little chance of re-establishing in 
any American university the traditional four 
faculties, unaccompanied by any other depart¬ 
ments of instruction. If means were abundant, 
it would perhaps be advisable to separate en¬ 
tirely from the universities the technical schools, 
except such as should be willing to demand a 
preliminary degree for admission and to develop 
more fully the theoretical and research side of 
their teaching. At present undue prominence 
is given to the technical schools in many insti¬ 
tutions, largely because they are the best pay¬ 
ing parts, and the tone of the whole institution, 
as an organization that should exist as largely 
for the advancement of research as for any 
other cause, is distinctly lowered thereby. 

The graduate school, or faculty of philoso¬ 
phy, bears closer relations with the collegiate 
course than can be borne by any professional 
faculty. The overburdening of professors al¬ 
luded to above might be remedied by the ap¬ 
pointment, where endowments would allow, of 
professors exclusively for graduate work on the 
lines of the faculty of philosophy, who should 
be able to engage in extended research work 
with advanced students. Hitherto no institution 
has been in a position to do this in any large 
degree. Nor has it been possible to try on a 
really instructive scale the experiment of a uni¬ 
versity without college or technical schools. 
Whether such a university could properly main¬ 
tain a faculty of theology, it is hard to say, 


AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 


The Union Theological Seminary in New York, 
while under Presbyterian management, is in 
many respects a real university faculty, and 
the same may be said of some few others. The 
relations between Columbia and the Union 
Seminary have become close, with the good 
result that many students of the latter attend 
courses at Columbia under the faculties of po¬ 
litical science and philosophy, and are eligible 
for Columbia degrees. 

Concerning the precise relation to be borne 
by the graduate work to that of the college, no 
general agreement has yet been reached. Even 
where the two are carefully separated, no such 
great dissimilarity in methods exists as prevails 
in Germany between the gymnasium and the 
university. Where, as at Harvard, the lines of 
demarcation are partly obliterated, the change 
from one method to another is very gradual. 
Johns Hopkins aims above all at producing spe¬ 
cialists, and even her college courses are largely 
shaped to this end. The results certainly jus¬ 
tify her policy. 

The preparation which the candidates for ad¬ 
mission to the graduate schools bring with them 
is naturally very varied. For many kinds of ad¬ 
vanced work, the general training given in the 
college is not enough; so that the student, in 
order not to lose much valuable time afterward, 
has to begin his special studies before receiving 
his first degree. This is encouraged by the 
system in vogue at Columbia, especially in the 
case of students looking forward to medicine or 
the law. A tendency to over-early specializa¬ 
tion is showing itself in many places; the stu¬ 
dents are naturally anxious to begin the active 
duties of life as soon as possible, and are un¬ 
willing to postpone the acquirement of the pro¬ 
fessional degree until the 25th or 26th year of 
their age. A remedy for this has been sought 
in several directions, but none of the plans tried 
has been successful enough to prevail over the 
others. The trouble seems to lie largely in the 
loss of time during the earlier school years. 
The pupils are not taken in hand early enough, 
nor do they receive severe enough training. 
With the improvement in organization and 
methods which is everywhere noticeable, it 
ought to be possible after a few years to send 
young men and women to college at 16 as well 
prepared as they are now at 17 or 18. With 
this done, the college course might well be 
shortened to three years. 

It may be asked, what of the Lehrfreiheit and 
Lernfreiheit, the freedom for teacher and 
learner, as they are claimed for the universities 
of Germany, in those of America? As for the 
first, the American university professor has lit¬ 
tle cause for complaint; whatever may have been 
the case 25 years ago, he may now teach what 
he likes nearly everywhere, though now and then 
the regents of a State university, or the re¬ 
ligious body controlling a divinity school, raise 
noisy protest. In one respect there is yet much 
room for improvement: as yet no serious effort 
has been made to introduce one of the most val¬ 
uable features of the German university sys¬ 
tem, the system of Privatdozenten. It is not 
yet possible for a young man of ability to secure 
the right of lecturing at a university by merely 
proving that he is competent to do it. The in¬ 
troduction of this custom has been several times 
attempted, but so far with quite insignificant 
results. 


As for the Lernfreiheit, that too has be¬ 
come naturalized among us; even the under¬ 
graduate enjoys a large measure of it, largest 
in those colleges where the elective system has 
taken firm root. One development of it, the 
migration of students from one university to 
another without loss of standing, is still unsat¬ 
isfactory. The custom is highly desirable, and 
is steadily gaining ground in America; it is 
much commoner from the colleges to the purely 
professional schools, students of law and medi¬ 
cine naturally seeking the large cities; the chief 
obstacles to its adoption are the differences be¬ 
tween the various universities in the matter of 
organization and of requirements for degrees, 
and the close connection between college and 
university which lead the college graduate in 
many instances to remain for graduate work 
where he has taken his bachelor’s degree, out of 
pure attachment to his alma mater. 

It is interesting to observe how rapidly the 
spirit of independence with responsibility is de¬ 
veloping among the graduate students. At 22 
or more institutions which maintain graduate 
schools the students in these have formed them¬ 
selves into associations for the furtherance of 
their mutual interests, and these clubs have 
formed a national federation which holds an¬ 
nual meetings, where papers are read, and ques¬ 
tions affecting the whole range of graduate work 
are discussed. The interest shown in these pro¬ 
ceedings, and the intelligent spirit in which many 
important questions are approached, make these 
associations into a most valuable adjunct to the 
work of the graduate schools. At the fourth 
annual convention, held at Cambridge, Mass., 
in December, 1898, addresses were delivered by 
President Eliot and Prof. J. W. White, of Har¬ 
vard, and papers were read, followed by ani¬ 
mated discussion, on the following topics: The 
migration of students; the regulations concern¬ 
ing major and minor subjects; specialized 
scholarship v. preparation for teaching, as a 
basis for graduate study; the master’s degree; 
graduate studies in European universities; the 
regulation of graduate to undergraduate courses. 
The federation of graduate clubs also carries on 
a determined opposition to the practice of con¬ 
ferring the Ph. D. honoris causa. 

A project vigorously advocated by many emi¬ 
nent American educators is the foundation of a 
national university for the United States, to be 
situated at Washington, to be controlled by a 
board of regents under the chairmanship of the 
President of the United States, and to be con¬ 
stituted on the true university basis of admitting 
to any of its schools only those who have re¬ 
ceived the preliminary training shown by the 
possession of a bachelor’s degree. The plan 
is an alluring one from some points of view. 
(See National University.) To add another 
institution of learning to those that swarm 
in the United States, unless the new comer 
should at once outrank them all in the mag¬ 
nitude and completeness of its equipment, and 
unless its rise should imply the setting of 
a number of the minor lights, would be a 
very doubtful service to the cause of univer¬ 
sity education. So far no endowments at all 
comparable with those of half-a-dozen of the 
universities already existing have appeared; 
and it is extremely doubtful whether con- 
gress. could be depended upon to give 
the institution the thoroughly adequate sup- 


AMERICAN UNIVERSITY —AMES 


port without which it must remain at best one 
additional “torso of a university.® 

Edward Delavan Perry, 
Columbia University, New York. 

American University, The, a post-graduate 
institution in Washington, D. C., founded under 
the auspices of the Methodist Episcopal Church 
in 1891, with Bishop John F. Hurst as chan¬ 
cellor. 

American Water-color Society. See 

Water-Color Society, American. 

American Whigs. See Whigs. 

America’s Cup. See Yachts and Yacht¬ 
ing. 

Americus, Ga., county-seat of Sumner 
co., on the Georgia & A. and Central of Ga. 
R.R.’s, about 75 miles southwest of Macon. The 
town was settled in 1832, and is governed under 
a charter granted in 1889. There is a mayor and 
council of six. It is the business centre for a 
large cane and cotton region and has also sev¬ 
eral manufacturing industries. Pop. (1900) 
7 , 674 . 

Amerighi Michelangelo. See Caravaggio. 

Amerigo Vespucci. See Vespucci. 

Amerind, a word suggested by Maj. J. W. 
Powell to describe the American Indians as dis¬ 
tinguished from other Indians. 

Amerling, a'mer-ling, Friedrich, Austrian 
painter: b. Vienna 1803; d. there 1887. He 
studied painting in Vienna, and also in London, 
Paris, and Munich, and spent some years in 
Italy. Upon his return to Austria he was se¬ 
lected to paint a portrait of the Emperor Franz 
I., and from that time ranked as the most prom¬ 
inent portrait painter of that country. His 
portraits number about 1,000, and are distin¬ 
guished by brilliant coloring, but sometimes fail 
of definiteness of characterization. Consult: 
Bodenstein, ( Hundert Jahre Kunstgeschichte 
Wiens ) (1888) ; and Frankl, < Life > (1889). 

Amersfoot, a town in Holland, in the 
province of Utrecht, and 12 miles northeast of 
the town of Utrecht. By the Eem, on which it 
stands, it has a navigable communication with 
the Zuyder Zee. It manufactures woolen goods, 
tobacco, glass, and silk-yarn, and carries on an 
extensive trade in grain. The Roman Catholic 
church of St. Mary, built in the 14th century, 
has a Gothic tower 308 feet high, considered 
to be one of the finest in Europe. There is a 
college of the Jansenists in the city, it being one 
of the chief centres of this sect, which does 
not now exist outside of Holland. The Grand 
Pensionary of Holland, Jan von Oldenbarne- 
veldt, commonly called Barneveldt, was born 
here. Pop. (1902) 20,500. 

Ames, Adelbert, American soldier and 
Reconstruction official: b. Rockland, Me., 31 
Oct. 1835. Graduating at West Point in 1861 he 
was assigned to the artillery and served through 
the Civil War with distinction: was wounded 
at Bull Run and brevetted for gallantry there; 
took part in nearly all the battles of the Penin¬ 
sular campaign, in Fredericksburg, Chancellors- 
ville, Antietam, Gettysburg, and before Peters¬ 
burg; was brevetted colonel, was brigade and 
division commander at times, brevetted major- 
general of volunteers for conduct at the cap¬ 
ture of Fort Fisher, and major-general in the 


regular army for general conduct in the war. 
In 1866 he was made lieutenant-colonel. From 
1868, when he was appointed provisional gov¬ 
ernor of Mississippi (extended the next year 
to the 4th military district of the States lately 
in insurrection), to 1876, he was in the thick 
of the “carpet-bag® troubles; upheld by 
United States troops, the negro vote, and a 
small section of whites, mostly recent immi¬ 
grants, and bitterly fought by the mass of the 
white inhabitants. Mississippi was among the 
last of the revolted States to accept Recon¬ 
struction or the War Amendments as fixed 
facts. The preponderant negro population and 
the backwardness of much of the white made 
the race problem more acute there than any¬ 
where else in the South; the elements at Ames’ 
disposal were unfit to base even a decent civil¬ 
ized structure upon, and they frightfully plun¬ 
dered and misgoverned the State; on the other 
hand, according to his side, the white portion 
would not do its best to reduce the evils by co¬ 
operating in good faith with the administration, 
and simply defied all orders: and the State went 
into anarchy tempered by local vigilance com¬ 
mittees. He held an election for a legislature 
30 Nov. 1869, convened it 11 Jan. 1870, was 
elected United States Senator for the unex¬ 
pired term from 4 March 1869, and in 1873 was 
elected governor of Mississippi and resigned 
his seat in the Senate — the whites regarding 
all these elections, under the conditions, mere 
military usurpation and illegality. His gover¬ 
norship was charged with sacrificing the civil¬ 
ized interests of the State to the blacks, and on 
7 December there was a bloody race riot at 
Vicksburg, followed by others through the 
State. Ames sent to Washington for more 
troops to maintain order, the white party coun¬ 
tered with fresh charges, a congressional in¬ 
vestigating committee was appointed, and for 
two years the State had — like several Southern 
States through this period — a formal govern¬ 
ment perfectly powerless, and a real government 
consisting of the rough consensus of interest 
among the larger white landowners. In No¬ 
vember 1875 these recovered control of the 
State by suppressing the negro vote wherever 
troops were not actually present. The legisla¬ 
ture which met in January impeached Ames and 
all his executive officers; the State Administra¬ 
tion was paralyzed; the national administration 
was sick of upholding impossible local govern¬ 
ments ; and Ames finally agreed to resign if the 
impeachment were withdrawn. He at once re¬ 
moved to New York; later to Lowell, Mass. 
In the Spanish-American war he was a briga¬ 
dier-general of volunteers. 

Ames, Charles Gordon, an American 
clergyman, editor, and lecturer: b. Dorchester, 
Mass., 3 Oct. 1828. He graduated at the Ge¬ 
auga Seminary, Ohio; was ordained in 1849 as 
a Free Baptist, but later became a Unitarian and 
pastor of the Church of the Disciples, Boston. 
He was editor of the Minnesota Republican, 
the first Republican paper in the Northwest, in 
1854, and the Christian Register of Boston, 
1877-80. He wrote ( George Eliot’s Two Mar- 
riages ) (1886) ; ( As Natural as Life* (1894) ; 
< Poems ) (1898) ; ( Sermons of Sunrise ) (1901) ; 
( Five Points of Faith* (1903) ; etc. He has 
always been deeply interested in social and phil¬ 
anthropic questions. 


AMES 


Ames, Eleanor Maria (Easterbrook), 
pseudonym (( Eleanor Kirk,” author: b. Warren, 
R. I., 7 Oct. 1831. Besides numerous contribu¬ 
tions to newspaper and periodical literature, she 
has published: ( Up Broadway, a Life Story 5 
(1870) ; ( H. W. Beecher as a Humorist: Selec¬ 
tions 5 (1887) ; ( Information for Authors 5 

(1888) ; ( Periodicals that Pay Contributors 5 
(privately printed) ; editor ( Eleanor Kirk’s 
Idea, 5 a monthly magazine. 

Ames, Fisher, American orator and states¬ 
man: b. Dedham, Mass., 9 April 1758; d. there, 
4 July 1808. His father died when he was six. 
A precocious scholar, he graduated from Har¬ 
vard at 16; taught school some years to support 
his impoverished family, cultivating himself by 
wide reading and profound study of the classics 
and the Scriptures; studied law, and began 
practice in Dedham in 1781. He made a repu¬ 
tation as <( Brutus 55 and <( Camillus )5 in the Bos¬ 
ton papers, was sent to the legislature in 1788, 
won laurels, and was elected to the convention 
to ratify the Federal Constitution. His speech 
there on biennial elections gave him fresh re¬ 
pute as one of our foremost orators. In Decem¬ 
ber he was elected (Federalist) Representative 
to Congress, and re-elected through Washing¬ 
ton’s administration to 1797: he was chosen to 
pronounce the congressional address to Wash¬ 
ington on his retirement; and on 28 April 1796 
delivered his masterpiece of eloquence and ef¬ 
fectiveness, on the appropriation to carry Jay’s 
treaty of 1794 into effect,— so impressive that 
the other party protested against taking a vote 
until after an adjournment, because the House 
was too excited to decide rationally. Retiring 
from public life on account of feeble health, he 
spent his later years mainly on his Dedham 
farm, though writing papers in 1798 to urge the 
Federalists to resist French aggressions, which 
was pouring oil on a conflagration (see 
Adams, John; Alien and Sedition Laws, and 
the names of the various political parties 
of the time), serving for a time on the State 
Council, and delivering a eulogy on Washington 
before the legislature. He declined the presi¬ 
dency of Harvard in 1804. He was an orator 
by inspiration, studying his subject and taking 
notes to expand on the moment, and full 
of flashing epigrams and pregnant laconics. A 
large public school in Dedham Centre com¬ 
memorates his name. ( ( Works and Life, 5 1 
vol. 1809; 2 vols. 1854, by his son Seth; selected 
speeches, four new, 1 vol. 1871, by his grand¬ 
son.) 

Ames, James Barr, professor of law: b. 
Boston, 22 June 1846. Graduated at Harvard 
in 1868, the Law School, 1872. Instructor in 
history, Harvard, 1872-3; associate professor of 
law, 1873-7; professor of law since 1877, and 
dean of the law school since 1895. He is the au¬ 
thor of numerous articles in the ( Harvard Law 
Review 5 and other legal periodicals, and has 
compiled collections of cases on torts, pleading, 
partnership, notes and bills, and suretyship. 

Ames, Joseph, painter: b. Roxbury, N. H., 
1816; d. New York, 30 Oct. 1872. Though 
wholly self-taught he early began portrait¬ 
painting, opened a studio in Boston, and had 
success enough to obtain means to go to Rome 
and study. While there he painted a fine por¬ 
trait of Fiu* IX. He was elected member 


of the National Academy of Design, 1870, 
and soon had more orders than he could fill. 
Some of his best known portraits are those of 
Ristori, Prescott, Emerson, Rachel, and Presi¬ 
dent Felton of Harvard. ( Maud Muller 5 and 
<The Death of Webster 5 are his best known 
ideal paintings. 

Ames, Joseph Sweetman, professor of 
physics: b. Manchester, Vt. 3 July 1864. He 
graduated at Johns Hopkins in 1886 and is pro¬ 
fessor of physics there. He is author of ( Theory 
of Physics 5 (1897); ( Manual of Experiments 
in Physics 5 (1898); ( Free Expansion of Gases 5 
(1898) ; < Induction of Electric Currents 5 . (2 
vols. 1900) ; editor Scientific Memoir Series, 5 
<Fraunhofer’s Papers 5 ; assistant editor ( Astro- 
physical Journal, 5 ( American Journal of Sci¬ 
ence. 5 

Ames, Mary Clemmer, American journal¬ 
ist and author: b. Utica, N. Y., 1839; d. 18 
Aug. 1884. Educated in Westfield, Mass., she 
began very young to write for the Springfield 
Republican; then removed to Washington and 
became for many years a regular weekly cor¬ 
respondent of the New York Independent, her 
( Woman’s Letter from Washington 5 in which 
made her one of the best known and most 
influential woman writers in the country. Her 
style, especially on attractive masculine per¬ 
sonalities, was somewhat Oriental; but she was 
honest and sincere in a time of pervasive lob¬ 
byism and self-seeking. She wrote also bio¬ 
graphical sketches of the Cary sisters, Emerson, 
Longfellow, Charles Sumner, Margaret Fuller, 
and George Eliot; ( Ten Years in Washington 
(1871) ; ( Outlines of Men, Women, and 

Things 5 (1873) ; the novels ( Victoria 5 (1864), 
( Eirene 5 (1870), and ( His Two Wives 5 (1874) 5 
and a volume of poems (1882). She married 
early Rev. Daniel Ames, and was divorced; in 
1883 Edmund Hudson, proprietor of the ( Army 
and Navy Register. 5 Her home in Washing¬ 
ton was long a social and literary centre. 
(Works, Boston, 1885; memorial by her hus¬ 
band, 1886.) 

Ames, Nathan P., American manufacturer: 
b. 1803; d. 23 April 1847. In 1829 he established 
cutlery works at Chicopee Falls, Mass., which 
attained a national reputation, their swords 
especially being largely bought by the United 
States. In 1834 he removed the works to Cabot- 
ville (Chicopee), where he lived and died; and 
incorporated with others the Ames Mfg. Co., 
which in 1836 added a bell and bronze can¬ 
non foundry that had equal fame and furnished 
the larger part of the government’s brass can¬ 
non in the Civil War, as well as the bronze stat¬ 
ues of De Witt Clinton in Greenwood Cemetery, 
Brooklyn, N. Y., of George Washington in 
Union Square, New York, and of Benjamin 
Franklin in School Street, Boston. The works 
supplied the British government just before the 
Crimean war with machines for making mus¬ 
kets. 

Ames, Oakes, manufacturer and pro¬ 
moter: b. Easton, Mass., 10 Jan. 1804; d. 8 May 
1873. The son of a blacksmith who had become 
a manufacturer of highly reputed picks and 
shovels, he trained himself in his father’s works, 
and with his brother joined the firm as Oli¬ 
ver Ames & Sons. The opening up of California 
in 1848 and Australia in 1851 by the gold dis- 


AMES — AMHERST 


coveries created an immense demand for their 
goods in mining, settlement, and railroad build- 
mg, which raised the firm to the front rank in 
business and wealth; and in the Civil War they 
had great contracts for shovels, swords, etc. 
Mr. Ames was in the Massachusetts executive 
council 1861, and congressman 1862 till death. 
In 1864 the failure of attempts to carry through 
the nationally exigent Pacific Railroad led Presi¬ 
dent Lincoln’s government to call on Mr. Ames 
to undertake it. He risked financial ruin if it 
failed, investing $1,000,000 and making his whole 
fortune responsible for the rest: it could not 
be expected that he should forego a corre¬ 
sponding profit if it succeeded. The work was 
finally accomplished by organizing a construc¬ 
tion company (see Credit Mobilier of Amer¬ 
ica), which paid itself largely in stock and bonds 
of the Union Pacific, practically making the 
two companies one, and enabling the former 
to charge the latter its own prices for work and 
supplies, the government paying the bills. 
Credit Mobilier stock became enormously valu¬ 
able, and the directors were charged with cheat¬ 
ing the government and using the stock to buy 
congressional support for the fraud. Mr. Ames’ 
anomalous position as congressman, director in 
both companies, contractor for immense sup¬ 
plies to the railroad, and the ablest manager of 
the whole enterprise, caused the chief fury of 
the assault to fall on him; and in the tremen¬ 
dous public scandal and investigation which fol¬ 
lowed he was censured by the Forty-second 
Congress and died shortly after. His son Oli¬ 
ver (q.v.), however, induced the Massachusetts 
legislature to re-examine the case, and on 10 
May 1883 (the 14th anniversary of the comple¬ 
tion of the railroad) it passed a resolution ex¬ 
onerating Mr. Ames. The Union Pacific Rail¬ 
road erected a monument to his memory at 
Sherman, Wyoming, the crest of the road, 8,550 
feet above the sea. 

Ames, Oliver, manufacturer, brother of 
Oakes above: b. Plymouth, Mass., 5 Nov. 1807; 
d. 9 March 1877. His brother’s partner, he was 
a sharer in all his business enterprises; president 
pro tem. of the Union Pacific Railroad 1866-8, 
formal president 1868-71; a director in the Credit 
Mobilier. After his brother’s death he became 
head of the manufacturing firm. He was a 
member of the State Senate 1852 and 1857. 

Ames, Oliver, manufacturer, son of Oakes 
above: b. North Easton, Mass., 1831; d. 1895. 
He was trained in his father’s works, and as 
his heir spent several years in paying off the ob¬ 
ligations of millions of dollars incurred by the 
Union Pacific Railroad and other undertakings. 
Entering public life avowedly to vindicate his 
father’s memory, he was lieutenant-governor of 
Massachusetts 1882-6; in 1883 obtained the 
vindicatory resolution he sought; and 1886-8 
was governor. 

Ames, Samuel, jurist: b. Providence, R. I., 
6 Sept. 1806; d. there 20 Dec. 1865. Graduated 
at Brown, 1823; studied law with Judge Gould 
at Litchfield, Conn. He served for many years 
in the Rhode Island State Assembly, being 
speaker 1844-5. He was elected chief justice of 
the State supreme court 1856, but resigned in 
1865 on account of ill-health. In 1839 he mar¬ 
ried Mary Throop Dorr, daughter of Thomas 
W. Dorr, leader of the rebellion in 1842. Au¬ 


thor and editor of ( Angell and Ames on Cor¬ 
porations,' ) and vols. 4-7 of the ( Rhode Island 
Reports.* 

Ames, Iowa, city in Story County, on the 
Chicago & N.W. R.R. It is the seat of the 
State Mechanical and Agricultural College and 
has a public library, banks, churches, schools, 
and two newspapers. It was first settled in 
1864. Pop. (1900) 2,422. 

. Amesbury, Mass., town in Essex County, 
situated on the Merrimac River and on the 
Boston & Maine R.R.; 27 miles north of Salem. 
It has manufactories of cotton and woolen 
goods, boots and shoes, machinery, and car¬ 
riages, and was long the residence of the poet 
Whittier. The town was settled in 1630. Pop. 
(1900) 9,473. 

Ametabola, those insects in which devel¬ 
opment is direct, there being no metamorphosis. 

Am'ethyst (from the Greek amethystos, 
ff not intoxicated®). In mineralogy (1) a violet 
or purple variety of crystallized quartz, the color 
being probably due to traces of manganese or 
iron. It is esteemed as a gem, and was worn by 
the Greeks in the belief that it lessened the 
intoxicating effects of alcoholic drinks upon its 
possessor. It is widely distributed, but speci¬ 
mens pure enough in color to be used as gems 
are not common. The finest amethysts come 
from Brazil, India, Siberia, Pennsylvania, and 
North Carolina. 

(2) The precious (or Oriental) amethyst is 
a crystalline oxide of aluminum, violet in color 
from the presence of traces of some other metal¬ 
lic oxide, and very brilliant and beautiful. Min- 
eralogically the Oriental amethyst is a variety 
of corundum (q.v.). 

Amhara, am-ha'ra, a district of Abyssinia, 
lying between the Tacazze and the Blue Nile, 
but of which the limits are not well defined. 
The Amharic language, next to the Arabic the 
most widely used of all the Semitic languages, 
has gradually gained ground in southern and 
central Abyssinia, and has become the court lan¬ 
guage. It has a literature of its own, including 
a version of the Scriptures. 

Amherst, Jeffery, Baron, British soldier 
remembered for his American services: b. Kent, 
England, 29 Jan. 1717; d. 3 Aug. 1797. He was 
a duke’s page, by his favor entering the army as 
ensign at 14, and became Gen. Lord Ligonier’s 
aide; served through the war of the Austrian 
Succession, 1741-8, and was at Dettingen (1743), 
Fontenoy (1745), and Roncoux (1746) ; in the 
Seven Years’ war beginning 1756 he was at 
the French victory of Hastenbeck, 1757. He 
had become noted as a brilliant soldier and 
ranked as lieutenant-colonel; in 1758 Pitt se¬ 
lected him to co-operate with Prideaux in con¬ 
quering Canada from the French, made him 
major-general, and gave him command of the 
expedition against Louisburg, which he speed¬ 
ily reduced, 27 July. In the following Septem¬ 
ber he superseded Abercromby as commander- 
in-chief of the English forces in America and 
captured Crown Point and Ticonderoga the fol¬ 
lowing year. On 8 Sept. 1760 he captured Mon¬ 
treal and ended the French dominion in Canada, 
For this he was made governor-general of the 
British possessions in America, thanked by Par¬ 
liament, and made a Knight of the Bath. But 
in face of Pontiac’s conspiracy (1762) he failed, 


AMHERST —AMICI 


as other English commanders had so often be¬ 
fore, from insisting on conducting Indian like 
European warfare, and despising the Ameri¬ 
can militia and American experience. But a^ 
American trivialities like Pontiac’s war were un¬ 
known or unregarded in England, Amherst on 
his return in 1763 was received with immense 
enthusiasm as the conqueror of Canada; and as 
he was also a favorite of George III., and ac¬ 
tively supported the policy of coercing the colo¬ 
nies through the years before the Revolution, 
his honors did not cease. He was titular gov¬ 
ernor of Virginia 1763-8, without going there, 
governor of Guernsey from 1770 on, privy coun¬ 
cilor, 1772 on, 1772-82 and 1783-93 commander- 
in-chief of the British army, and was made a 
held marshal on resigning his command. In 
1776 he was raised to the peerage. In 1780 he 
took an active and most humane part in sup¬ 
pressing the London (( no popery® riots. 

Amherst, port of entry and capital of Cum¬ 
berland County, Nova Scotia, Canada, situated 
on an arm of Cumberland Bay, an extension of 
Chignecto Bay, the extreme northeastern arm 
of the Bay of Fundy; on the Intercolonial Rail¬ 
way, 138 miles north by west of Halifax, Nova 
Scotia, and about midway between that city and 
Saint John, New Brunswick. It was formerly 
called Fort Lawrence. Amherst is the centre of 
a rich agricultural and lumbering district; has 
factories, iron-foundries, tanneries, and ship¬ 
building establishments; and has an especially 
large trade in lumber and ship-building. Some 
of the richest coal mines in the Province are 
near here, and grindstones and gypsum are 
quarried in the vicinity. The county and rail¬ 
way buildings, the churches, and hotels are sub¬ 
stantial structures. Amherst has a bank, and 
daily, semi-weekly, and weekly newspapers. 
Pop. (1901) 4,964- 

Amherst, Mass., a town in Hampshire co., 
situated on the Boston & Maine and the Cen¬ 
tral Vermont R.R.’s, 23 miles northeast of 
Springfield. It has manufactories of paper, 
straw and palm-leaf hats, and leather, and is 
best known as the seat of Amherst College 
(q.v.), the State Agricultural College, and the 
State Experiment Station. Pop. (1900) 5,028. 

Amherst College, at Amherst, Mass., one 
of the best known and most influential of New 
England colleges, though it has kept to the older 
ideals of an all-round liberal education, neither 
workshop nor professional school, and has not 
attempted to broaden into a university with spe¬ 
cialized departments. As with all the earlier 
United States institutions of learning, the ob¬ 
jects and impelling causes of its foundation were 
religious. It was started by an association of 
Congregational ministers who first took action 
in 1815, and was based on Amherst Academy, 
opened December 1814, and for many years one 
of the foremost academies in Massachusetts. The 
trustees of the academy were long the trustees of 
the college also, and the original plan was merely 
to endow a professorship of languages there to 
train educated ministers. They then enlarged 
it to a charity fund for «the classical education 
of indigent young men of piety and talents® 
for the ministry. A convention of the churches 
in western Massachusetts on 29 Sept. 1818 lo¬ 
cated the new institution at Amherst; the corner¬ 
stone was laid 9 Aug. 1820, and the institution 


opened 18 Sept. 1821. For some years the in¬ 
tention was to incorporate Williams College 
with it; but on a petition to the legislature per¬ 
mission to remove Williams was refused. The 
first president was Rev. Zephaniah Swift Moore, 
who died 29 June 1823 largely as a result of 
overwork. He was succeeded by Rev. Heman 
Humphrey, who retired in 1845, when the in¬ 
stitution was threatened with bankruptcy, and 
its members and friends hardly expected to 
maintain it as anything more than an academy, 
and was succeeded by Rev. Edward Hitchcock, 
then professor of natural theology and geology 
there, and considered the foremost of American 
geologists. In his nine years’ tenure he greatly 
extended the reputation of the college and saw 
it much more prosperous, and by his firm but 
conciliatory spirit, his weight of character, and 
sagacity of policy, gave it more internal unity 
and outside friendship. He resigned the presi¬ 
dency in 1854, but retained his professorship 
and was succeeded by Rev. William Augustus 
Stearns, who died in 1876: an able and excellent 
business man and administrator, and sound con¬ 
servator of the college interests. His successor, 
Rev. Julius H. Seelye, who held office till 1890, 
placed it within its chosen boundaries alongside 
the best of other colleges: his reputation as 
scholar, publicist, educator, and humanitarian 
was more than national and drew the best class 
of pupils there. He resigned in 1890 from fail¬ 
ing health, and has been succeeded by Merrill 
Edwards Gates to 1899, and Rev. George Harris, 
the present president. The college in 1902 had 
36 professors and 410 students, and had gradu¬ 
ated over 4,200 in all, of whom considerably over 
half had become clergymen or teachers. It had 
a library of over 75,000 volumes and very re¬ 
markable scientific museums; President Hitch¬ 
cock’s private collection of fossil footmarks, or 
ichnological cabinet, the choicest in the world, 
and his admirable geological and mineralogical 
cabinet, greatly supplemented by Prof. Benjamin 
K. Emerson, <( a Mecca to geologists and sa¬ 
vants® ; the Adams conchological and the Shep¬ 
ard meteoric collections; also the collection of 
Indian relics presented by Edward Hitchcock, 
Jr. It has likewise the Pratt gymnasium and 
natatorium, athletic field, and college hospital, 
presented by the sons of Charles Pratt of Brook¬ 
lyn, N. Y. Its income is about $110,000, and its 
scholarship fund has swelled by degrees to 
$300,000, the income of which goes to indigent 
students. 

Alfred S. Goodale, 
Registrar. 

Amice, or Amict (Lat. amictus, girt 
around), a vestment worn by priests in the Ro¬ 
man Catholic Church during the celebration of 
mass. After the general adoption of the cravat 
had rendered the amice unnecessary as a neck¬ 
cloth, it was retained for the significance which 
it had acquired as an emblem of the cloth where¬ 
with the Saviour was blindfolded by the Jews 
the night before his crucifixion. 

Amici, Giovanni Batista, an Italian savant: 
b. in Modena, 1786; d. 1864. He studied nat¬ 
ural history at Bologna, and mathematics at 
Modena. He became professor of mathematics 
at the college of Panaro, and for some time 
general inspector of education in Modena, where 
in 1831 the Grand Duke of Tuscany appointed 


AMICIS; AMIDE 


him director of the Florence observatory, as 
successor of the celebrated comet-discoverer, 
Luigi Pons. This office he held until his death, 
publishing every year the result of his astro¬ 
nomical observations, at the same time con¬ 
tributing important papers on natural history to 
the Memorie della Societd Italiana. Science is 
especially indebted to him for his improvement 
of the telescope, of several microscopes, and of 
the camera lucida, invented by Hooke and Wol¬ 
laston. He seems to have from his earliest life 
devoted much attention to optical instruments, 
and before he was 20 he made a telescope of a 
mixture composed by himself. In 1827 he made 
dioptric microscopes, which are sold with his 
name attached, and, notwithstanding the im¬ 
proved microscopes of Oberhauser, are still in 
great favor. He was assisted in his labors by 
his son, Vincenzo Amici, who is professor of 
mathematics at the University of Pisa. 

Amicis, Edmondo de, Italy’s foremost 
19th-century descriptive writer: b. Oneglia, of 
Genoese parentage, 21 Oct. 1846. Educated at 
Coni and Turin, he attended the Modena mili¬ 
tary school; entered service 1863 as sub-lieu¬ 
tenant, acted against the Sicilian brigands, and 
served through the Austro-Prussian war of 1866, 
being at Custozza 24 June. He remained in the 
army till the occupation of Rome in 1870; but 
his literary vocation was plain. In 1867 he took 
charge of a Florentine paper, L’ltalia Militare. 
In 1868 his first volume, ( Military Sketches, 5 
short stories of the phases of a soldier’s life, 
had sweeping success and marked him as the 
coming Italian litterateur; and in 1871 he settled 
at Turin and devoted himself to authorship. 
His next work was < Recollections ) (of 1870-1), 
dedicated to the youth of Italy; a fresh collec¬ 
tion of stories followed. But a craving for trav¬ 
el turned him into the path which has given him 
his greatest fame: the foreign world at least 
knows him mainly by the brilliant, glowing vol¬ 
umes describing the countries of Europe and 
other continents he visited, their national charac¬ 
teristics and habits, and, most of all, the springs 
of their life and thought. They are enthusiastic, 
sympathetic, optimistic, full of sensuous delight 
in beauty, rich in color, and vivid in clearness 
of portrayal; but they exhibit too a marvelously 
keen analytic power as well as acute photo¬ 
graphic sensitiveness to impressions and mar¬ 
velous literary skill in translating them into 
language. The greatest of these perhaps is ( Hol- 
land > (1874), a singularly fine analysis of the 
essence of Dutch life and the sources of Dutch 
art in that life; others are ( Spain 5 (1873), Rec¬ 
ollections of London ) (1874), ( Morocco 5 

(1876), Recollections of Paris 5 (1878), Con¬ 
stantinople 5 (1878). He published also in these 
times Riterary Portraits 5 (1881), sympathetic 
studies of Daudet, Zola, Dumas Jr.. Augier, 
Coquelin, and Deroulede; ( The Friends, 5 on 
friendship in general (1882) ; historical novel¬ 
ettes, a collection in part old, entitled ( The 
Gate of Italy 5 (1884) ; ( On the Ocean 5 
(1889). Later, educational and social prob¬ 
lems deeply occupied his mind: his ( Cuore 5 
(Hearts; Englished as ( The Heart of a School¬ 
boy 5 ), a juvenile in which a pupil tells the 
events of a school year day by day, has sold 
nearly 200,000 copies in Italy; a novel for 
adults on similar lines is ( The Workmen’s Mis¬ 
tress 5 (189 1 ;) ; followed the same year by ( The 


Romance of a Master 5 (1895), which has a 
strong socialistic bent. He avows himself that 
he thinks socialism the only available spring of 
a vital Italian literature now. His latest works 
are ( Everybody’s Wagon 5 (1899), ( Memories 5 
(1899), ( Hope and Glory 5 (1900), and Rec¬ 
ords of Infancy and School 5 (1901). 

Amide (am'id; from ammonia , ide ), in 
chemistry, a general name for a class of bodies 
which may be regarded as derived from am¬ 
monia, NH 3 , by replacing one or more of the 
hydrogen atoms in that substance by an equal 
number of monovalent acid radicals. Thus 
formic acid, H.CO.OH, may be regarded as a hy¬ 
drate of the acid radical PICO; and the com¬ 
pound HCO.NH2, which is known as (< forma- 
mide, 55 and is obtained by the action of ethyl 
formate upon ammonia, may be regarded as de¬ 
rived from ammonia by the substitution of the 
radical HCO for one of the hydrogen atoms in 
NH 3 . Similarly, acetic acid, CHs.CO.OH, may 
be regarded as a hydrate of the radical (( acetyl )5 
(C2H3O) ; and acetamide, which has the for¬ 
mula C2H3O.NH2, and is produced by the ac¬ 
tion of ethyl acetate upon ammonia, may be re¬ 
garded as derived from ammonia by the 
substitution of the radical <( acetyl 55 for one of 
the hydrogen atoms in the ammonia. 

Taking the general formula of a normal fatty 
acid as X.CO.OH, where X represents an alco¬ 
hol radical (see Alcohol), an amide may be 
formed by substituting the monovalent acid radi¬ 
cal, XCO, for one of the hydrogen atoms in NH 3 . 
The resulting substance, XCO.NH 2 , is called the 
<( primary amide 55 of the acid radical XCO. By 
the further substitution of XCO for one of the 
atoms of hydrogen remaining in the primary 
amide, a ^secondary amide 55 of the same acid 
radical is obtained, having the formula (XCO) 2 . 
NH. It is evident that a <( tertiary amide, 55 hav¬ 
ing the formula (XCO) 3 .N, is also possible. 

For some purposes it is convenient to regard 
the primary amide, XCO.NH2, of the monobasic 
acid X.CO.OH, from the opposite point of view; 
namely, as derived from the acid by the substi¬ 
tution of the radical NH 2 for the hydroxyl group 
OH. Obviously the result is the same in either 
case; but this latter view makes the deportment 
of dibasic acid radicals easie r to describe. Thus 
in the dibasic acid Y(CO.OH) 2 (where Y is a 
divalent radical), the first result of the substitu¬ 
tion of NH 2 for OH is the formation of the 
body Y(CO.OPI). (CO.NH2), which is both an 
acid and an amide,— an amide because it is ob¬ 
tained by the substitution of NH 2 for OH, and 
an acid because it still contains one molecule of 
hydrogen that is replaceable by a monovalent 
metal or radical (namely, the molecule of H 
in the OH). Bodies of this type are called 
<( amic acids. 55 

If the molecule of OH remaining in an amic 
acid is replaced by a further substitution of NH 2 , 
the resulting substance, Y(CO.NH 2 ) 2 , is called 
a «di-amide,» and may be regarded as formed 
from two molecules of ammonia by the substi¬ 
tution of the divalent acid radical Y(CO) 2 for 
one third of the total hydrogen present in those 
molecules. 

The chemistry of the amides is very involved. 
They are mostly solid bodies, neutral to litmus, 
but capable of forming compounds with acids. 
The most familiar example of the class is the 
primary amide of acetyl, or <( acetamide. 55 This 


AMIDO ACIDS —AMIS ET AMILES 


substance, which is usually obtained by the dry 
distillation of acetate of ammonium at tempera¬ 
tures exceeding 375 0 F., has the formula 

C2II3O.NH2, as noted above, and forms hex¬ 
agonal crystals. It melts at about 180° F., boils 
at about 432 0 , and is quite soluble in water. 
Diacetamide, (C2H 3 0) 2 .NH, and triacetamide, 
(C2H 3 0) 3 .N, are also known. See Amine; 

I hide; Nitrile. 

Amido Acids, intermediary products in 
the metabolism of proteids. In the process of 
digestion notably, the proteids (albumens) un¬ 
dergo a gradual series of transformations where¬ 
by the complex proteid molecule is broken down 
into simpler and simpler compounds, until at 
the end of the process carbonic anhydride, water, 
urea, uric acid, ammonia, etc., are the results. 
While these end products of metabolism are well 
known, the intermediary products are the object 
of much inquiry. In the intestinal canal, under 
the prolonged action of the pancreatic juice fer¬ 
ments, simpler nitrogenous principles are found, 
leucine, tyrosine, aspartic acids — these belong to 
the general group of the amido-acids. Schutz- 
enberger has described amido-acids of the (1) 
leucine class, CnH 2 n+iN 0 2 —such as alanine, 
propalinine, butalanine; (2) of the acrylic se¬ 
ries CnH 2 n-iNO, (3) amido-acids of the 
gluco-protein class, sweet in taste, with the gen¬ 
eral formula CnH,nN 2 0 4 ; (4) amido-acids 
such as tyrosine, tyroleucine, and glutaminic 
acid. References: ( Text-book of Physiology, 5 
Schafer, Vol. I., p. 30. 

Amiel, Henri Frederic, a distinguished 
Swiss essayist, philosophical critic and poet: b. 
in Geneva, 27 Sept. 1821; d. there 11 March 
1881; was for five years a student in German 
universities, and on his return home became pro¬ 
fessor of philosophy in the Geneva Academy. 
He is author of several works on the history of 
literature, as ( The Literary Movement in Ro- 
manish Switzerland 5 (1849) ; ( Study on Mme. 
de StaeP (1878) ; and of several poems, among 
them ( Millet Grains 5 (1854). But his fame 
rests principally on the ( Journal, 5 which ap¬ 
peared after the author’s death. 

Amiens, a/myaN', an old French city, 
once the capital of Picardy, and now of the 
department of Somme, on the many-channeled 
navigable Somme, 81 miles north of Paris by 
rail. Its fortifications have been turned into 
charming boulevards, but it still retains its old 
citadel. The Cathedral of Notre Dame is a 
masterpiece of Gothic architecture. Begun in 
1220, or a little later than Salisbury Cathedral, 
it is 470 feet long, and has a spire (1529) 426 
feet high; but its special feature is the loftiness 
of the nave, 141 feet. In his little work called 
( The Bible of Amiens, 5 Ruskin says this church 
well deserves the name given it by Viollet-le- 
Duc, <( the Parthenon of Gothic architecture,® 
and affirms that its style is (( Gothic, pure, au¬ 
thoritative, and unaccusable.® Other noteworthy 
buildings are the Hotel de Ville (1600-1760), in 
which the Peace of Amiens was signed; the large 
museum (1864), in Renaissance style; and the 
public library, founded in 1791 and containing 
70,000 volumes. Amiens has considerable manu¬ 
factures of velvet, silk, woolen, and cotton goods, 
ribbons, and carpets. Peter the Hermit and Du- 
cange were natives, and there are statues to 
both of them. The <( Mise of Amiens,® was the 
award pronounced by Louis IX. of France, in 


1264, on the controversy between Henry III. of 
England and his people as to the (( Provisions of 
Oxford.® The Peace of Amiens (27 March 
1802) was a treaty intended to settle the dis¬ 
puted points between England, France, Spam, 
and Holland. By it England retained possession 
of Ceylon and Trinidad and an open port at the 
Cape of Good Hope; the republic of the Ionian 
Islands was recognized; Malta was restored to 
the Knights of St. John; Spain and Holland re¬ 
gained their colonies, with the exception of 
Trinidad and Ceylon; the French were to quit 
Rome and Naples; and Turkey was restored to 
its integrity. In the Franco-Prussian war, on 27 
Nov. 1870, General Manteuffel inflicted, near 
Amiens, a signal defeat on a French army 30,- 
000 strong, and three days later the citadel sur¬ 
rendered. Pop. (1903) about 92,000. For a re¬ 
cent account of the cathedral see T. Perkins’ 
( The Cathedral of Amiens 5 (1902). 

Amina, the sleep-walking heroine of 
Bellini’s opera ( La Sonnambula. 5 

Amine (am'in; from ammonia -\~ ine ), a 
general name for a compound formed by re¬ 
placing one or more of the hydrogen atoms of 
ammonia by an equivalent number of metallic 
atoms or basic organic radicals. (Compare 
Amide.) As in the case of the amides, a given 
monovalent radical can form three compounds 
of this sort according as it replaces one, two, 
or three of the hydrogen atoms of the original 
ammonia. For example, the monovalent basic 
radical <( ethyl,® C 2 H 5 , forms primary ethyl amine 
(or (< ethylamine®), C2H5.NH2, when it replaces 
one atom of H in NH 3 ; secondary ethyl amine 
(or (( diethylamine®), (C 2 H 5 )2.NH, when it re¬ 
places two atoms of H; and tertiary ethyl amine 
(or <( triethylamine®), (C 2 H.D 3 .N, when it re¬ 
places all three of the hydrogen atoms in the 
ammonia. The base by which the hydrogen in 
the ammonia is replaced need not be organic. 
Potassium, for example, may replace an atom 
of it, with the formation of potassium mona¬ 
mine (or <( potassamine®), K.NH 2 . A derivative 
of ammonia, in which one atom of the typical 
hydrogen is replaced by a monovalent acid rad¬ 
ical, and another by a monovalent basic radical 
or by a monad metal, may be considered to be 
either an amine or an amide. Thus CH 3 .C 2 H 3 0 . 
NH, in which one atom of the hydrogen has been 
replaced by the basic radical <( methyl® (CH 3 ), 
and another by the acid radical <( acetyl® 
(C 2 H 3 0 ), may be described as a modified 
methylamine, or as a modified acetamide. 

The simpler amines are strongly basic in 
character, and may be formed by the action of 
ammonia on the ethers of inorganic acids. They 
are mostly volatile or capable of distillation. 
When ammonia is added to a cold solution of a 
salt of an amine, the amine is expelled from its 
combination and precipitated. 

The most important amines, in the arts, are 
methylamine (q.v.) and aniline (q.v.). 

Amirante Islands, a group of small islands 
in the Indian Ocean, lying southwest of the Sey¬ 
chelles. They were taken possession of by Great 
Britain in 1814 and form a dependency of Mau¬ 
ritius. They produce cocoa-nuts, and turtle and 
fish are abundant. About six are inhabited. 

Amis et Amiles, a'me' za a'mel', a chan¬ 
son of the Middle Ages, dating from about the 
beginning of the 13th century. The work con- 


AMISTAD CASE 


sists of 3,500 lines, in which are narrated the 
adventures of two friends. 

Amistad Case, in United States history, 
one of the landmarks of the slavery question. 
The Spanish government, by decree of Decem¬ 
ber 1817, forbade the importation of slaves from 
Africa into its dominions after 30 Dec. 1820, on 
penalty of confiscation of the slave-ship and im¬ 
mediate freeing of the negroes. The trade 
nevertheless went on under transparent dis¬ 
guises. In the spring of 1839 the slave-hunters 
in Africa made a large capture of Sierra Leone 
natives, including their chief Cinque, and sent 
them to Havana; where two months after¬ 
ward two Cuban planters, Pedro Ruiz and Jose 
Montez, bought 38 youths and men, three girls, 
and a boy, and shipped them on 27 June for 
Guanaja, Puerto Principe, on the schooner 
L’Amistad, under passport from the governor 
of Cuba obtained by falsely alleging that they 
were domestic slaves. Cinque organized a plan 
for revolt, and when four days out they rose, 
killed the captain and one of the crew, wounded 
two others in the contest, and forced the re¬ 
maining whites to surrender; but they did them 
no violence, and set all on shore except the two 
planters, whom they managed to make under¬ 
stand that they must steer for Africa. These 
gradually changed course in the nights and fogs, 
and brought the vessel north off Culloden Point 
(near Montauk), at the east end of Long Island, 
where on 26 August she was noted as <( suspi- 
cious® by Lieut. Gedney of the coast survey, on 
the brig Washington. He sent a boat to her, 
and one of the planters declared himself the 
owner of the negroes and claimed United States 
protection. Some of them had gone on land in 
a boat; Gedney seized them as under New York 
State jurisdiction, and the vessel as a <( prize 
rescued from pirates,® and brought them to 
New London, Conn. The negroes were com¬ 
mitted for murder on the high seas, to be tried 
at the circuit court of 17 September at Hart¬ 
ford, and meantime lodged in New Haven jail. 
The planters claimed them as slaves, appealed to 
the Spanish minister Calderon, and he demanded 
their surrender of the United States district 
attorney for Connecticut. The latter wrote to 
the secretary of state (Forsyth of Georgia) ask¬ 
ing if the negroes under treaty with Spain might 
not be surrendered before the court sat; the sec¬ 
retary transmitted the question to the President 
(Van Buren), but warned the district attorney 
to take care that no court whatever put the ves¬ 
sel, cargo, or slaves (sic) beyond the control of 
the Federal executive. Meantime the anti¬ 
slavery interest had bestirred itself and secured 
funds, able counsel, and an interpreter of Afri¬ 
can; and the circuit court (Judge Thompson) 
decided on the 23d that the killing of the captain 
of the L’Amistad, being an incident of the slave 
trade, was not a crime against the law of nations. 
The negroes were remanded to jail till the 
district court in November should decide 
whether they were free or slave. The next day 
the United States attorney-general, Felix Grundy 
of Tennessee, was ordered to prepare an official 
opinion on the Spanish minister’s request and 
the claim of Gedney et al. for prize money. He 
replied in November that ship, cargo, and 
negroes should be surrendered according to Art. 
9 of the treaty of 27 Oct. 1795, as the United 
States under international law had no power to 
investigate the truth of facts stated in Spanish 


official papers,— in other words, whether the 
governor’s passport was obtained by fraud, and 
the negroes were free according to the Spanish 
law already cited; though hardly one could speak 
a word of European and none much more, and 
the planters were obviously perjured in swear¬ 
ing ignorance of their being recently imported. 
But this article any way related only to vessels 
and goods rescued on the high seas from pirates; 
and under this interpretation the negroes were 
at once the pirates and the cargo, and had com¬ 
mitted piracy in seizing themselves from their 
owners. The Spanish minister protested that 
no United States court had any jurisdiction. 
The administration, not daring to take the case 
out of its courts, went as far as it could by 
ordering the district attorney to act as legal 
adviser to the planters and file another indict¬ 
ment for them with new pleadings ; sent a vessel 
to lie off New Haven in order to carry the 
negroes back to Cuba as soon as the district 
court pronounced them slaves, as was taken for 
granted (this was the first trial for violating the 
slave-trade laws that had taken place except in 
slave States, where of course no convictions 
were ever found), and to do it instantly unless 
an appeal were interposed, which was <( not to be 
taken for granted®; ordered that Gedney and 
his associate Meade accompany it to give evi¬ 
dence in court; and that these directions be kept 
secret. But the anti-slavery counsel had no 
difficulty in showing that kidnapping foreigners 
was not only not protected by United States or 
even Spanish law, but was directly contrary to 
both (the anti-slavery doctrine outside the 
courts was that the kidnapped had a natural 
right to kill their captors if they could, and a 
legal right to hold ship and cargo as prize in 
such case, and the United States had no right to 
interfere) ; and the court pronounced them free, 
and ordered them delivered to the United States 
executive to be sent back to Africa. The plain¬ 
tiffs at once appealed to the supreme court, and 
the administration continued its partnership in 
a private suit. The case of the negroes was ar¬ 
gued in February and March 1841 by John 
Quincy Adams, who had previously introduced 
resolutions into the House directing the Presi¬ 
dent to report to Congress the authority by 
which Africans charged with no crime were 
held in custody; Roger Sherman Baldwin, 
the district attorney, admitted in open court that 
they were newly from Africa when bought: and 
on 9 March the court (Taney, C. J.) pronounced 
them illegally held as slaves and liable to no 
punishment for their acts. The case roused the 
fiercest excitement in both the free and slave 
sections of the country. In 1844 the astound¬ 
ing bill was reported by the chairman of the 
House committee on foreign affairs to pay Ruiz 
and Montez $70,000 compensation; but it was 
laid on the table and never reappeared. This 
ends the (< case,® but a word may be added on the 
negroes. They were removed to Farmington, 
Conn., well cared for, and instructed in the rudi¬ 
ments of education by a competent professor. 
Cinque kept them under stern discipline; they 
were excellently behaved and much liked; and 
some of them, being unusually quick of intelli¬ 
gence, were exhibited for proficiency in New 
England towns. About the end of November 
they were sent back to Africa with some mis¬ 
sionaries, and a mission was afterward estab¬ 
lished in the district. 


AMITOSIS 


AMMONIA 


Amifcosis. See Mitosis. 

Amlwch (pronounced Amlook), a seaport 
town in North Wales, on the north coast of the 
i hand of Anglesey, and 14 miles northeast from 
iolyhead. 1 he harbor is partly cut out of the 
solid rock. There are copper mines near the 
town, and mining is said to have been carried 
011 here by the Romans. Pop. (1901) 5,308. 

Ammanati, Bartolomeo, a sculptor and 
architect: b. Florence, 1511; d. 1592. His chief 
work was the Trinity bridge over the Arno at 
Florence. 

Ammen, Daniel, American naval officer: b. 
Brown County, Ohio, 15 May 1820; d. 11 July 
1898. He entered the United States navy 7 
July 1836 as midshipman. He was in the Wilkes 
exploring expedition 1838-42, in the East India 
squadron, and on the coast survey; on the ex¬ 
pedition to the Paraguay River 1853-4. He 
commanded the Seneca at the capture of Port 
Royal, 7 Nov. 1861; promoted to commander 21 
Feb. 1863; in charge of the Patapsco at the as¬ 
sault on Fort Macallister, 3 March 1863, and on 
Fort Sumter, 7 April; commanded the Mohican 
in the attacks on Fort Fisher, December 1864 
and January 1865. He was commissioned cap¬ 
tain 1866, was chief of the bureau of yards and 
docks 1869-71, and of the bureau of navigation 
till 11 Dec. 1877, when he was made rear-ad¬ 
miral on the retired list. He designed the 
Ammen life raft and the ram Katahdin. Fie 
wrote ( The American Inter-Oceanic Ship Canal 
Question ) (1880); ( The Atlantic Coast, } (1883); 
( Country Homes and their Improvement; 
( The Old Navy and the New* (1891). 

Ammergau, am'mer-gou, a district or gau 
on the river Ammer in Upper Bavaria. The 
inhabitants are occupied in making figures of 
saints, crucifixes, toys, etc., of wood, ivory, and 
glass, from which a considerable trade arises, 
having its centre in the villages of Ober and 
Unter Ammergau. The former village is famous 
on account of the Passion Play (q.v.). 

Am'meter. See Galvanometer. 

Ammon, an Egyptian deity, whose worship 
spread all over Egypt and other parts of north 
Africa, and many parts of Greece. The Egyp¬ 
tian hieroglyphic monuments call him Amun, 
the Greeks identified him with their supreme 
god Zeus, while the Romans regarded him as 
the representative of Jupiter. His worship cen¬ 
tred in the Egyptian Thebes, which the Greeks 
therefore called Diospolis or the City of Zeus. 
He is represented as a ram, as a human being 
with a ram’s head, or simply with the horns of 
a ram. His most celebrated temple was in the 
Oasis of Siwah in the Libyan desert. 

Ammonia (supposed to be so called because 
originally prepared from the dung of camels 
near the temple of Ammon, in Egypt), a gaseous 
compound of hydrogen and nitrogen, having the 
formula NH 3 . It may be formed in small quan¬ 
tities by the direct combination of its elements 
under the influence of the silent electric dis¬ 
charge ; but in the arts it is commonly prepared 
by the decomposition of nitrogenous matter. 
Formerly it was manufactured in large quan¬ 
tities by the destructive distillation of horns, 
hoofs, and hides, and from this fact it was 
known as <( spirits of hartshorn.® It is now 
chiefly obtained as a by-product in the manu¬ 
facture of coal-gas. Coal suitable for the man¬ 
ufacture of gas contains nitrogen, often to the 


extent of 2 per cent of its weight; and in the 
distillation of such coal the nitrogen combines 
with a portion of the hydrogen that is also 
present, and is driven off in the form of am¬ 
monia; or more often it combines with the 
sulphur present and is obtained in the form of 
a sulphate. Salts of ammonia also occur in 
nature, sometimes in considerable quantities. In 
Tuscany ammonia sulphate is obtained as a by¬ 
product in the manufacture of boric acid. See 
Boussingaultite ; Larderellite ; Mascagnite. 

Ammonia (NH 3 ) is a colorless gas at ordi¬ 
nary temperatures and pressures, but at 60° F. 
it condenses into a colorless and expansible 
liquid upon the application of a pressure of 
about seven atmospheres. At the freezing point 
of water a pressure of 4.4 atmospheres suffices 
to liquefy it; and at about 29 0 below zero, F., 
it condenses into a liquid at ordinary atmo¬ 
spheric pressure. Ammonia thus liquefied by 
pressure is much used, in the arts, for the pro¬ 
duction of low temperatures and the manufac¬ 
ture of artificial ice. (See Refrigeration, Arti¬ 
ficial.) It freezes at about 103° below zero, F., 
into a white crystalline solid. Liquid NH 3 dis¬ 
solves the alkali metals without chemical 
change, forming blue solutions. 

Ammonia gas is very soluble in water at or¬ 
dinary temperatures, the solution constituting 
the so-called <( ammonia® or (( aqua ammonia® 
that is familiar in every household. At 32 0 F. 
and at ordinary atmospheric pressure water will 
absorb 1,148 times its own volume of NH 3 ; 
and at 68° F. it will absorb 740 times its own 
volume. 

Both ammonia gas and its solution in water 
possess strongly alkaline properties, turning red 
litmus paper blue and combining with acids to 
produce definite salts. The solution of am¬ 
monia gas in water is attended by a considerable 
development of heat, and it is usual to consider 
that a definite compound of ammonia and water 
is formed. The formula of this compound may 
be written NH 3 .H 2 0 , but many considerations 
suggest that NH 4 .OH is a better and more logi¬ 
cal form. NH 4 is here considered to be a radical, 
analogous in its chemical deportment to the 
familiar alkali metals sodium and potassium. 
According to this view ordinary (< aqua am¬ 
monia® would be regarded as a solution of the 
hydrate of the radical NH 4 ; and for many years 
past chemists have admitted the existence of 
such a radical, which they have called <( am- 
monium.® Upon adding hydrochloric acid to a 
solution of ammonia gas, a compound known as 
<( sal ammoniac® is obtained, which is used 
largely in electric batteries that are intended for 
open circuit work. The reaction by which this 
substance is formed may be written NH 3 4 - 
HCl^NH^HCl; or if the existence of a definite 
hydrate in the (< aqua ammonia® is admitted, we 
may write the reaction NH 4 .OH + HC 1 = NH 4 . 
Cl + H 2 0 , in which case the reaction is in all 
respects analogous to that by which potassium 
chlorid (for example) is formed when hydro¬ 
chloric acid acts upon potassium hydrate: 
KOH + HC 1 = KC 1 + H 2 0 . All the other salts 
that are formed by the combination of ammonia 
with acids can be similarly expressed by admit¬ 
ting the existence of the radical NH 4 and treat¬ 
ing it, in the formulae, as though it were a metal 
of the alkali group. All the “ammonium® com¬ 
pounds are isomorphous with the corresponding 
potassium compounds. 


AMMONIACUM; AMMONITES 


Aqua ammonia, or (< caustic ammonia® (as it 
is sometimes called), is used for many purposes 
in the arts, notably in the production of soda 
by the ammonia process (see Sodium), and in 
dyeing and calico-printing. Large quantities of 
the sulphate are used in fertilizers and in the 
manufacture of ammonia alum (see Alum). 
1 he chloride of ammonium is used (as above 
noted) in certain common forms of electric 
batteries, and also in soldering, in dyeing, and 
in many minor ways. The carbonate is largely 
used in the manufacture of baking powders and 
for scouring wool. 

Ammonia is expelled from all of its com¬ 
pounds by quicklime, and the usual test for 
ammoniacal compounds consists in heating the 
substance to be examined, together with caustic 
lime or caustic soda or potash. If ammonia is 
present in any considerable amount it is liberat¬ 
ed by this treatment and may be recognized by 
smell or by its action on litmus paper. Nearly 
all of the compounds of ammonia are readily 
soluble in water, the acid tartrate and the 
double platinic chloride being the chief excep¬ 
tions. 

Ammonia forms the starting point for an ex¬ 
traordinarily long list of compounds, many of 
which are exceedingly complicated. See Amide ; 
Amine. 

Am'moni'acum is a gum resin derived 
from the stems of Dorema ammoniacurn, a 
forest plant of Persia. Other species of Dorema 
yield similar products. 

The plant has an abundant supply of milky 
juice which exudes spontaneously and hardens 
in various-shaped masses. Fine tears, varying 
in size from two to five mm. up to the size of 
a hazel-nut are obtained from insect-punctured 
wounds, while the so-called ammoniacurn 
amygdaloides is obtained from the root of the 
plant. 

Ammoniacurn consists of a mixture of vary¬ 
ing proportions of ethereal oils, i to 2 per cent, 
resins, gums, 65 to 70 per cent; and pectin-like 
bodies. Ash 20 per cent. A certain amount of 
water is always found in the commercial prod¬ 
uct. The ethereal oils are found in small 
quantities only, generally less than 10 per cent. 
It is soluble in carbon disulphide. The resin is 
to be distinguished from other resins in that its 
alcoholic solution gives a red reaction when 
added to a bromide of sodium solution, 30 gr. 
NaOH in Aq. Br. 20 gr. Aq. 1 liter. Umbellif- 
eron would seem to be absent. 

Ammonites, or ^children of Ammon.® In 
the cuneiform inscriptions their land is called 
Bit-Amman, as if Amman were a personal 
name; but Genesis says Ben-ammi, and Ammi 
was perhaps a local god. Their land was in the 
eastern part of the district now called Belka, on 
the northeast of the Dead Sea next the desert; 
its capital Rabbah or Rabbath-Ammon. Their 
real history begins with Saul, though Jephthah 
the freebooter is said to have delivered Israel 
from them, and one tradition represents Balaam 
as an Ammonite — but this is thought a later 
excuse for excluding them from the Jewish 
body. They were in a state of chronic border 
warfare with the Hebrews, their close kinsmen, 
and speaking a closely related dialect. Nahash, 
king of Ammon, besieges Jabesh-Gilead (1 Sam. 
.xi.), and offers terms for its capitulation on 
Vol. 1—29 


condition of putting out the chief men’s right 
eyes,— but Saul wins a crushing victory over 
the besiegers. David as Saul’s enemy is well 
treated by Nahash; but when he takes Saul’s 
place the old feelings are resumed. Hanun, 
the son and successor of Nahash, treats 
David’s messengers of congratulation with gross 
contumely (2 Sam. x.) ; David wins a victory 
over them and the Syrian allies they have called 
in, and exacts a frightful vengeance from them, 
putting his captives to the torture quite in the 
Assyrian fashion, and leaving us to infer that 
there was little to choose in savagery. They 
probably recovered their independence after 
Solomon’s death. Later they were subjugated 
by the Assyrians, as the inscriptions of several 
kings evince. Under Jeroboam II. they make 
incursions into' Gilead and are blamed for in¬ 
humanity. After the Israelitish deportation of 
734 they occupied the land of Gad; under 
Jehoiakim they are incorporated into Judah; 
under Zedekiah they are allied with him against 
Assyria, but seem to have drawn out in time 
for safety, and Israelitish fugitives find refuge 
with their king Baalis. Later they intermarried 
with the Jews, and there was a village of them 
in Benjamin; Judas Maccabaeus defeated them; 
but they were gradually absorbed by invading 
Arab tribes. Their great local god was Milcom. 

Ammonites, the general name for the fos¬ 
sil cephalopod mollusks of the order Ammon - 
oidea, given originally because of a fancied re¬ 
semblance of the coiled specimens first known 
to a ram’s horn, the symbol of Jupiter Ammon. 
Subsequently it served as a generic name for 
a group, but this has been abandoned in the 
light of later information. The Ammonoidea 
are one of the two orders of chambered tetra- 
branchiate cephalopods, the other being the 
Nautiloidea (see Nautilus). Their remains 
are found fossil in marine Palaeozoic rocks from 
the Devonian to the close of the Mesozoic Age. 
More than 5,000 species have been described, 
grouped into about 100 families, and these into 
nine sub-orders in two divisions, (1) Intrasiph- 
onata and (2) Extrasiphonata. The first group 
contains a single primitive (Devonian) sub¬ 
order having the siphuncle dorsally situated; 
the second contains all the remainder, which 
agree in having the siphuncle ventral. The 
classification is based upon the complexly lobed 
pattern of the sutures, or lines of union between 
the septa or partition walls of the chambers and 
the outer wall of the shell. (See Cephalopoda.) 
The shells of ammonites were typically coiled in 
a single plane and ran in size from an inch or 
two in diameter to two or more feet; but this 
varied greatly, even to partial or entire straight¬ 
ness. The surface of the shell, too, was in 
many cases smooth and polished or slightly 
ridged, while in others it was roughly ringed or 
covered with cross-lines, spikes, and tubercles, 
in handsome variety. Some shells were so com¬ 
pressed as to have the proportions of a watch; 
while others were almost globose. 

As Hyatt states, ammonoids experienced a 
progressive evolution from the early Devonian 
until the upper Juras, when the group reached 
its summit of importance and was represented in 
great numbers and variety in all parts of the 
world: that is, when it attained the summit 
of its evolution in complexity of structure, form, 
and ornament. Ammonoids exist in great abun- 


AMMONIUS SACCAS —AMMUNITION 


dance in the rocks of this period in the western 
United States, especially those of the irregular 
group called Ceratites, which succeeded the 
Palaeozoic Goniatites, and other primitive forms. 
The Jurassic ammonoids show a mixture of 
retrogression with some progressive features. 
<( Part of their losses are regained by the evolu¬ 
tion of the vast number of forms and modifica¬ 
tions during this period, but there are numerous 
localized signs of retrogression, due perhaps to 
unfavorable surroundings.® Indications of this 
kind occur sporadically throughout the Jurassic 
time and become general in the Cretaceous 
period. Many of the later forms were openly 
or grotesquely coiled, or coiled only when 
young, becoming nearly or quite straight when 
they grew older, as in Ptychoceras, Turriteles, 
Scaphites, etc. These degraded <( old-age® types 
were evidently due to the waning forces of life 
or to disease, because similar though much less 
marked uncoiling of shells, due to unfavorable 
condition of the water, have been observed in the 
fresh-water Planorbis of Steinheim, Germany, 
and elsewhere. (See Evolution; Senescence.) 
Hyatt thus infers that there was in the European 
seas, at least, a widespread unfavorable change 
in their physical surroundings, <( similar to but 
more extensive than that which affected Euro¬ 
pean forms during the Lower Oolite,® and to 
this influence he ascribes the uncoiling of the 
shells of Spiroceras and its allies. At the close 
of the Cretaceous period the ammonoids entirely 
disappeared. We thus see in the vast and more 
or less complete and continuous series of these 
beautiful shells, in which the imperfections of 
the geological record are less marked than in 
other groups, the process of rise, culmination, 
decline, and death of a type, presenting also 
beautiful illustrations of the biogenetic law 
(q.v.). The type begins with infantile and 
larval forms, then evolves youthful, mature, and 
finally old age forms, which present in their 
simple and closely coiled shells a return to the 
original simplicity of the infancy and childhood 
of the type. 

Concerning the animals which made the 
shells, nothing is known except by inference. 
The growth of the shell begins with the forma¬ 
tion of the primitive conically-shaped shell 
called <( protoconch,” and then the secondary 
shell begins to grow and becomes coiled up in 
one plane. Like the nautilus the mollusk lived 
in the outer chamber of its shell, from which 
it periodically advanced. The aperture of this 
outer chamber was closed when the animal 
withdrew into it, either by a single horny plate 
( anaptychns ) or by a pair of calcareous plates 
( aptychus ). The very earliest appear to have 
been swimmers, like the nautiloids; but the 
great bulk of the ammonites undoubtedly lived 
gregariously alongshore, where they crawled 
about, carrying or partly dragging their shells, 
and searching for the animal food upon which 
they subsisted. The learned Zittell points out 
that their shells were proportionately less bulky 
than those of the nautiloids, and correspondingly 
less buoyant; and the probability is that they 
swam little and were rarely active. There is 
reason to believe that in the case of some species 
the eggs were retained within the shelter of the 
living-chamber until they hatched, and that the 
young remained there until somewhat grown. 
See Goniatites. 


Bibliography .— Cook, Cambridge Natural 
History. Mollusks ) (1895) ; Zittell-Eastman, 
( Text-book of Palaeontology,* Vol. I. (1900) ; 
Hyatt, ( Genesis of the Arietidae ) (Memoirs 
Mus. Comp. Zool., Vol. XVII., 1889) ; ( Phylo- 
geny of an Acquired Characteristic (Proc. 
Amer. Philos. Society, Vol. XXXII., No. 143, 
1894) ; Wurtenberger, ( Studien iiber die Stam- 
mesgeschichte der Ammoniten > (Leipsic 1880), 
and numerous other papers; also articles by 
D’Orbigny, Neumayr, Pumpelly, Quenstedt, 
Sandberger, Suess, Waagen, White, Whiteaves, 
Wright and Zittel. 

Ammo'nius Sac'cas, a Greek philosopher 
who lived about 175-250 a.d. Originally a porter 
in Alexandria, he derived his epithet from the 
carrying of sacks of corn. The son of Chris¬ 
tian parents, he abandoned their faith for the 
polytheistic philosophy of Greece. His teaching 
was historically a transition stage between 
Platonism and Neo-Platonism. Among his dis¬ 
ciples were Plotinus, Longinus, Origen, etc. 

Ammonoosuc, the name of two small 
rivers in New Hampshire which rise in Coos 
County and flow in a southwest direction, emp¬ 
tying into the. Connecticut River. The lower 
Ammonoosuc is about 100 miles long and the 
upper 75 miles long. 

Ammophila, a grass common on sandy 
beaches, a coarse perennial, with running root¬ 
stocks. It is of value as a binder of loose sand 
and is employed for that purpose throughout the 
world, its destruction being forbidden in Eng¬ 
land under severe penalties. 

Ammunition, the articles which are re¬ 
quired in firearms and ordnance to render the 
mechanism effective. From the earliest period 
of settlement shot and bullets have been made 
by Americans. Lead was brought with them 
from England and Holland, and cast in molds, 
many of which are still preserved in old houses 
in New England, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. 
They differed only in size, so whether each pro¬ 
jectile weighed an ounce or the twentieth of an 
ounce, the same plan was adopted. Shot-towers 
were invented at an early date. The metal, a 
compound of lead and arsenic, the latter form¬ 
ing one hundredth part, is melted at the top of a 
high tower and poured into a colander. The 
lead passes through in drops instead of streams, 
each assuming a perfectly spherical form, and 
falls into a basin of cold water, there being in¬ 
stantly chilled in the globular form. After this 
the shot are rolled down an inclined plane, those 
which are not truly spherical falling off at the 
sides, while the perfect ones continue in a direct 
course. The holes through which the liquid 
metal passes are from one thirtieth to one three 
hundred and sixtieth of an inch in diameter. 
Shot is much used for killing small game, which 
would be torn in pieces by a heavy bullet; and a 
shot-gun also requires less accurate marksman¬ 
ship than a rifle. Bullets are still cast in molds, 
but in the factories this operation is performed 
with great celerity. The ridge caused by the 
meeting of the two parts is automatically re¬ 
moved by a knife. Swaging of bullets is also 
practised. The total quantity of shot made in 
New York annually is valued at $400,000, there 
being three shot-towers. Early in the 19th cen¬ 
tury no method was commonly known of getting 



AMMONITES. 

’Ammonites cordatus. s , 4 Ammonites Coupei. 6 , 6 Ammonites opulentus. 7 Ammonites mammiiiiris 
8 Ammonites cavernosus. 9 Ammonites rotuia. 10 Ammonites Ilumphryi. 

















































AMNESIA —AMOR 


accurate results from a gun, but it was noticed 
that a bullet was nearly always flattened or 
smashed at the end nearest the powder. If the 
ball was large for the bore of the gun it reached 
its mark more certainly than if the bore was 
large. It was therefore the common practice 
for hunters to put a patch or wad around their 
bullet, which prevented the powder from falling 
out, and also kept the bullet straight till it had 
left the muzzle; and it was also discovered that 
if there were grooves inside the barrel which 
twisted more or less, a rotary motion was im¬ 
parted to the bullet, which added much to its 
range and its powers of reaching its aim. This 
constituted the rifle, and after its method of 
construction became generally known no other 
weapon was used for hunting large game. They 
were used to some degree in armies even fifty 
years ago. Gradually the smooth-bore musket 
was driven out and soldiers were supplied alone 
with rifles. But another article was necessary 
before this could be completely accomplished. 
Until the second quarter of the century the fire 
which was required to be communicated to the 
powder came from a blow of the hammer of 
the gun upon a piece of flint. Frequently there 
was a miss. Percussion-caps were introduced 
about this time. They depended for their value 
upon the quality of igniting with a blow, their 
shape, like that of a cup, being only requisite in 
order to keep them on the nipple of the gun. 
They were much more certain in action than the 
flint had been, and soon drove it out everywhere. 
A later improvement in ammunition was by the 
introduction of cartridges, the powder and bul¬ 
let being together. The metallic cartridge is an 
invention made in France about 1831 and intro¬ 
duced here shortly after. A great improvement 
was also made in France in 1845 in the shape 
of the bullet, which did not become known here 
till the time of the Crimean War. It was the 
Minie bullet, having for its peculiarity an elonga¬ 
tion of the projectile. Hitherto all others had 
been round. The part which was foremost ta¬ 
pered to a point, but the rear was flat, as if the 
bullet had been cut from a round rod of lead. 
A heavier bullet was thus attained, a more 
thorough rotation was imparted, and little re¬ 
sistance was experienced from the air. The new 
projectile would carry twice the distance of the 
one it superseded, and would even at that point 
be more destructive. The total production of 
ammunition in the United States in 1900 was 
valued at $6,538,482; business was carried on in 
35 establishments, which had 2,267 workmen, 
paid $1,110,482 in wages, and used materials 
valued at $4,645,850. See Armament of the 
World; Fire-Arms; Ordnance. 

Amnesia. See Aphasia. 

Amnesty, an act of oblivion passed after 
an exciting political period. Express amnesty 
is one granted in direct terms. Implied amnesty 
is one which results when a treaty of peace is 
made between contending parties. Amnesty and 
pardon are very different. Amnesty is an act 
of the sovereign power, the object of which is 
to efface and to cause to be forgotten a crime 
or misdemeanor. A pardon is an act of the 
same authority which exempts the individual on 
whom it is bestowed from the punishment 
which the law inflicts for the crime he has 
committed. 7 Pet. (U. S.) 160. Amnesty is the 
abolition and forgetfulness of the offense; par¬ 


don is forgiveness. A pardon is given to one 
who is certainly guilty or has been convicted; 
amnesty, to those who may have been so. 

Amnesty Proclamation. An act passed 
25 Dec. 1868, granting amnesty to all who were 
guilty of treason against the United States or 
adhered to their enemies during the Civil War. 
This included domiciled aliens. But the procla¬ 
mation did not entitle one whose property had 
been sold under the Confiscation Act of 1862 to 
reclaim the proceeds after they had been paid 
into the treasury of the United States. 

Amnion. See Fcetus. 

Amoeba, or Proteus Animalcule, a pro¬ 
tozoan classified as one of the rhizopods, which 
is present almost everywhere in fresh water, 
and sometimes in moist earth, and is commonly 
taken as the type of the unicellular animals. 
It is a mere drop of animated jelly (protoplasm, 
q.v.), hardly visible to the unaided eye, which 
under the microscope is seen to be divisible into 
an inner granular mass (endosarc) and an outer 
clearer part or envelope (ectosarc) ; but there 
is no essential difference in substance between 
them. Imbedded in the interior granules is a 
large spherical globule, the nucleus, consisting 
of a clear chromatic substance containing mi¬ 
nute granules of chromatin. A contractile 
vacuole lies in the ectosarc, and manifests more 
or less regular and rythmical expansions and 
contractions; this seems to serve the purpose 
of an excretory organ. The amoeba continually 
throws out irregular threads and extensions 
(pseudopods), so that its shape is more often 
like that of a drop of any thick liquid which 
has fallen and spattered, than of a globule; this 
shape is changing incessantly as the creature 
slowly creeps about. Whenever it touches any 
edible particle of organic material it slowly 
enfolds it, and the particle sinks into the body, 
where it is gradually dissolved, its nutritive 
material is digested and assimilated, furnishing 
food and fuel to the protoplasm, and the innutri- 
tious parts are finally gathered into the vacuole, 
whence they are squeezed out and discarded. 

Amoeba reproduces itself by a simple process 
of division. A constriction takes place at a 
point where the nucleus will be divided, and 
goes on until the animal becomes dumbbell¬ 
shaped. Finally the two parts separate, and 
each becomes a distinct and perfect whole, each 
with its half of the original nucleus, which at 
once becomes, in each case, a whole nucleus. 
After a time these individuals in turn undergo 
a similar division, and so on. It may there¬ 
fore be said that amoeba never ceases to exist 
— never dies; but simply multiplies indefinitely 
by repeated divisions. 

Certain forms of Amoeba, notably A. coli, 
are the cause of a distinct kind of dysentery 
now termed amoebic dysentery. This is a dis¬ 
ease mostly of the tropics, but is also found 
endemic in the United States. Occasionally the 
parasite may infect the liver, causing an abscess 
in that organ. The disease is difficult to treat. 

Amor, the god of love among the Romans, 
equivalent to the Greek Eros. He had no place 
in the national religion of the Romans, who 
derived all their knowledge of him from the 
Greeks. According to the later mythology 
Amor is the son of Venus and Mars, the most 
beautiful of all the gods; a winged boy with 


AMORGO —AMOS 


bow and arrows, sometimes represented blind¬ 
folded. His arrows inflict the wounds of love, 
and his power is formidable to gods and men. 
He is not always a playful child in the arms 
of his mother, but appears sometimes in the 
bloom of youth, for example, as the lover of 
Psyche. He is brother of Hymen, the god of 
marriage, whom he troubles much by his 
thoughtlessness. According to the earlier my¬ 
thology he is the oldest of all the gods, and ex¬ 
isted before any created being. In English the 
god of love is less frequently called Amor than 
Cupid; yet with the ancients cupido denoted, 
properly, only the animal desire. 

Amor'go (ancient Amorgos) , an island in 
the Grecian Archipelago, one of the eastern Cy¬ 
clades, 22 miles long, five miles broad; area, 
106 square miles; has a town of the same name, 
with a castle and a large harbor. Pop. 5,000. 

Amorites. Though made a separate tribe 
in the varied and rhetorical lists of the peoples 
in Canaan ousted by the Israelites, the name 
is used by Amos in the 8th century as a general 
term for the primitive inhabitants of Canaan, 
with attribution of gigantic size and power, as 
most old nations do with their special aboriginal 
predecessors. Some critics think, however, 
that (( Canaanite 55 is used for the peaceful set¬ 
tlers of the plains, and <( Amorite 55 for the war¬ 
like tribes on the hills to the north. At any 
rate, the latter term is always used when hostile 
tribes are meant. Moses’ foes include Sihon 
and Og the Amorite kings, and Joshua deals 
with 12 kings of the Amorites west of the 
Jordan. The Amarna letters show that the coast 
as far north at least as Sidon was called Kinahi 
(Canaan), and perhaps the Amorites were the 
people of the interior; but the usages may be 
due to the writers coming from different sec¬ 
tions. 

Amory, Blanche, a shallow, selfish, world¬ 
ly girl in Thackeray’s novel ( Pendennis. 5 

Amory, Robert, physician: b. Boston 3 
May 1842. He graduated at Harvard 1863, M.D. 
1866, and studied in Paris and Dublin. He was 
lecturer at Harvard on the physiological action 
of drugs 1869; then professor of physiology at 
Bowdoin Medical College till 1874. Author of 
( Bromides of Potassium and Ammonium 5 
(1872); ( Action of Nitrous Oxide 5 (1870); 
and important papers on ( Chloral Hydrates, 5 
( Pathological Action of Prussic Acid, 5 and 
( Photography of the Spectrum 5 ; the volume on 
( Poisons 5 in Wharton & Stifle’s ( Medical 
Jurisprudence 5 ; and ( Electrolysis and Its Ap¬ 
plications to Treatment of Disease 5 (1886). 

Amory, Thomas Coffin, lawyer and au¬ 
thor : b. Boston 1812; d. there 1889. He gradu¬ 
ated at Harvard 1830; and for many years was 
connected with the municipal government of 
Boston. Author of ( Life of James Sullivan 5 (2 
vols. 1859) ; ( Military Services of Maj-Gen. 
John Sullivan 5 (1868) ; ( Life of Sir Isaac 
Coffin 5 (1886); ( The Siege of Newport: a 
Poem 5 (1888); ( Charles River: a Poem 5 

(1888). 

Amos, the prophet: the earliest identifia¬ 
ble Hebrew writer, and the first extant prophet 
who wrote his prophecies, therefore of great 
historical importance not only for Hebrew con¬ 
ditions in his age, but for the evolution of their 
religious thought. He lived under Jeroboam 


II. of Israel (790-749 b.c.) and Uzziah of Ju¬ 
dah at least during part of his career; was in Is¬ 
rael perhaps between, 765 and 750, though there 
are strong reasons for putting him after 745. He 
was probably a man of position, a fig-planter 
and cattle-owner (though he calls himself a 
fig-picker and herdsman) from Tekoa in Judah 
(see 2 Sam. xiv. 2 for the estimate of its peo¬ 
ple’s astuteness in David’s time), near Arabia 
and the Dedanites; his opportunities for meet¬ 
ing varied human elements had been good, his 
intellect was vigorous and his nature lofty, and 
his writings show a singular cultivation and re¬ 
finement which reminds one how often the 
Eastern herdsman thus surprises the traveler. 
He felt that he had a burning moral message 
to deliver to the Hebrews, and the place to 
deliver it was in the far more important north¬ 
ern kingdom, then in the flower of its prosperity 
first and last. Assyria had been greatly weak¬ 
ened by the growth of the kingdom of Urartu 
(Armenia) to the north, and by internal re¬ 
volts under Ashur-dan (772-755) ; meantime it 
had trampled Damascus into a temporary im¬ 
potence for aggression. Jeroboam in his long 
reign was therefore able to win back all that 
Hazael had taken away, and extend his king¬ 
dom from Hamath in Syria down to the Dead 
Sea: he captured two places in Gilead, and his 
people thought their military prowess irresisti¬ 
ble ; they suffered from no raids or tribute, 
wealth and luxury were increasing rapidly, and 
self-indulgence with it. As always, laxer for¬ 
eign religions had come in also: Yahwe was 
relied on as the national champion, but other 
gods were worshipped also, and even with him 
the connection was becoming non-moral, a costly 
ritual usurping the place of ethical religion. 
Into this comfortable and boastful population, 
expecting no attack from Assyria, and with 
their unhampering religion, came the great 
moral teacher from the other kingdom, preach¬ 
ing everything most alien and distasteful to 
them: that their military successes are nothing, 
and Yahwe will raise up a nation to carry them 
off beyond Damascus (transplantation, as a 
means of breaking up rebellious elements and 
unifying the empire, was introduced by Tiglath- 
pileser II. of Assyria, 745-727, which suggests 
the later date for Amos) ; that Yahwe hates 
their burnt-offerings and wants nothing but 
righteousness; that precisely because he is closer 
to them will he judge them more severely; and 
that while he will eventually not let the race 
of Jacob die, he will not restore it till the pres¬ 
ent kingdom has been obliterated from the earth. 
This was taking the heart out of the people; and 
when he came to Bethel, the northern Jerusa¬ 
lem, and reiterated his warnings that Jeroboam 
would die by the sword and the people be de¬ 
ported, Amaziah the high priest reported him to 
the king as a public nuisance and conspirator, 
and contemptuously told him to go back to Ju¬ 
dah and prophesy to such as would pay him, 
but not to do it in Bethel, for it was the king’s. 
This brought out the invaluable autobiographic 
fragment (vii. 14-15), wherein he tells us of 
his position, and that he is none of the guild of 
professional prophets and does not need to take 
fees for his utterances, but a private individ¬ 
ual with a call from God to go out and tell 
the truth. For him, indeed, it is correct to 
say God and not Yahwe: he is an ethical 


AMPHIBIA 



1. A Spanish Salamander (Pleurodires waltli). 

2. European Crested Newt (Triton cristatus). 

3. Menobranch (Necturus maculatus). 

4-5. East African Toad (Breviceps mossambicus) 


6. A Mexican Toad (Rhinophrynus dorsalis). 

7. An Amphisbaena (Siphonops annulatus). _ 

8. Horned Frog (Ceratobatrachus Guentheri). 
q. Flying Frog (Rhacophorus pardalis). 

































BATRACH1ANS AND OTHER AMPHIBIA 



v r- 


jj j 






fimk 


WiUr' c* 

msa 


Fie. 1 Ringed Siphonops. 2 Tree Frog. 3 Common Frog. 


4 Skeleton of Frog. 6 Egg-carrying Frog. 6 Fire-bellied Frog. 
13 Newt. 14 Giant Salamander. 15 Axolotl—larval stage. 


Goad. 8 Horned Frog. 
i« Axolotl—perfect animal. 


9 Pipa or Surinam Toad. 1° Spotted Salamander. 
17 Amphiuma. 18 Proteus. 13 Siren. 


r 

11 Spectacled Salamander. 12 Waltel’s Salamander. 
























































































- 



























. 




. •> 







. 
































































AMPHIBIA 


monotheist. His writings as they stand show 
signs of change and interpolation from subse¬ 
quent hands; but the undoubtedly authentic 
part exhibits fine literary as well as intellec¬ 
tual and spiritual qualities, and the imagery is 
graphic and certifies to his pastoral and agri¬ 
cultural employment. (A special work on Amos 
is by H. G. Mitchell, Boston, 1889.) 

Amphib'ia, a class of back-boned creeping 
animals comprising the newts, frogs, and toads, 
together with several extinct groups, which is 
classified between the fishes and the reptiles. 
1 he most prominent characteristic is indicated 
by. the name, which refers to the fact that these 
animals are provided with a respiratory appa¬ 
ratus which enables them to breathe both water 
and air.. It is not meant, however, that the 
Amphibia are able to breathe in either air or 
water at the same time, but that the young are 
provided with gills and live in water up to a 
certain age, or in rare cases permanently, after 
which they acquire lungs and thereafter breathe 
atmospheric air. As these young as a rule are 
different from their parents and must undergo 
metamorphosis from the larval into the adult 
condition, amphibians as a class are usually 
said to undergo metamorphosis, but this is 
equally true of some fishes and it is not true of 
all amphibians. The evidence not only of mod¬ 
ern similarity of structure, but that obtained 
from a study of the fossil forms, makes it 
plain that the Amphibia are the result of the 
evolution of a branch from an ancient fish- 
stock, probably by way of the lung-fishes or 
Dipnoi (q.v.). On the other hand they are 
related in a not very different degree to the 
reptiles. The connection link according to 
Gadow, is formed by the Stegocephali; all the 
recent orders are far too specialized. The line 
leading from Stegocephali to fossil reptiles is 
extremely gradual, and the same consideration 
applies to the line which leads downward to the 
fishes; but the great gulf within the Vertebrata 
lies between fishes and amphibians, that is, be¬ 
tween absolutely aquatic creatures with internal 
gills and fins, and terrestrial four-footed crea¬ 
tures with lungs and fingers and toes. No great 
phylogenetic importance attaches to the pos¬ 
session of external gills, as it is not unlikely 
that in the Amphibia these organs owe their 
origin to entirely larval requirements. 

Although in the Palaeozoic age the great 
stegocephalous amphibians (more usually called 
labyrinthodonts, q.v.), flourished as the only 
terrestrial vertebrates of importance, the class 
never attained a dominant position. Inter¬ 
mediate between the aquatic fishes and the grad¬ 
ually rising terrestrial reptiles, the amphibians 
were pushed aside in a double way by the 
struggle of evolution, until now most of them 
have become extinct. The remainder persist 
only because they have found shelter in the 
nooks and corners of the world to which they 
have become adapted by small size and aquatic 
habits; and only one group, the frogs and toads, 
fortunate in their plasticity, have spread over 
the whole globe and exhibit some richness in 
forms. 

The class Amphibia is divided into two sub¬ 
classes: (1) Stegocephali (q.v.), which is 
wholly extinct; (2) Lissamphibia, which in¬ 
cludes all of the modern forms, contained in 
three orders: (1) Apoda, composed of the 


family Coccilliidce (see Ccecillians) ; (2) 

Urodela, including the long-tailed, smooth¬ 
skinned, aquatic salamanders, newts, mud-pup- 
pies, and the like; (3) Anura, comprising the 
tailless forms, or frogs and toads, of which 
there are two divisions,— the few Aglossa, 
which have no tongue, and the tongue-bearing 
Fhaneroglossa , which includes the great ma¬ 
jority of forms. 

Fossil Amphibia. The modern frogs and 
salamanders are a small and scanty remnant of 
the A)nphibia of Palaezoic time. During the 
Carboniferous and Permian periods they were 
the dominant form of life and of great variety in 
form, including some of very large size, 12 feet 
or more in length. All these ancient Amphibia 
belong to an extinct group, the Labyrinthodonta 
(sometimes called Stegocephalia) , or (( armored 
amphibians,® distinguished by having the wide 
flat head completely roofed over with bone, and 
the body more or less armored with bony plates 
and scales. The skull has two openings for the 
eyes, two at the front margin for the' nostrils, 
and a single one in the middle for the pineal 
eye. Like modern amphibians, they breathed 
by gills when young, but by lungs when adult. 
All had long tails and most of them short stout 
legs. Some were elongated and snake-like, 
others tadpole-like with large heads shaped like 
a broad arrow ( Diplocaulns ) and no limbs; 
others, and these the largest, heavy-bodied, with 
flat conical or semi-circular heads, short legs, 
and five-toed feet {Labyrinthodon, Eryops). 

These ancient amphibians illustrate various 
stages in the evolution of the backbone of mod¬ 
ern Vertebrata from the notochord or segmented 
rod of cartilage from which it was derived. In 
the smaller and more primitive types the seg¬ 
ments of cartilage are but slightly ossified in a 
number of separate plates or incomplete rings of 
bone. In others each vertebra is composed of two 
or four pieces, which remain separate during life 
instead of consolidating into a single bone, as in 
modern vertebrates. In others, again, the verte¬ 
bra is completely united. The oldest known 
labyrinthodonts are from the Carboniferous 
rocks, and are related to some of the older 
Palaeozoic dipnoan fishes, from which they may 
have been descended. In the Permian they at¬ 
tained large size and great abundance, and con¬ 
tinued into the Triassic period, by the end of 
which they had become extinct. Their foot- 
tracks, often preserved in muddy sandstones of 
these periods, are sometimes curiously like the 
impressions of a human hand, whence they re¬ 
ceived the name of Cheirotherium, or <( beast- 
with-a-hand,® before their nature was recog¬ 
nized. The frogs and salamanders are probably 
descended from primitive labyrinthodonts, but 
are very little known as fossils. One fossil spe¬ 
cies, allied to the giant salamander of Japan, was 
found in the Miocene strata of Oeningen many 
years ago (1726) and was supposed by an early 
naturalist to be the fossil skeleton of a man, 
and described as C( homo diluvii testis et theo- 
scopos ®—the man who was witness to the Del¬ 
uge and saw God — a quaint reminder of the 
geological speculations of two centuries ago. 

Consult Gadow, ( Amphibia and Reptiles ) 
(London, 1901) ; Boulenger, Catalogue of 
Batrachia ) in British Museum (London, 1882) ; 
and many papers in English scientific periodi¬ 
cals; Cope, ( Batrachia of North America. J 


AMPHIBOLE — AMPHIOXUS 


Amphibole, am'fi-bol (from the Greek 
amphibolos, ^doubtful,® in allusion to the diffi¬ 
culty of distinguishing it from pyroxene). In 
mineralogy, (ij a common mineral, crystalliz¬ 
ing in the monoclinic system, and varying 
greatly in chemical composition. The name was 
first given by Haiiy in 1801 as distinguishing a 
species of which he regarded hornblende and 
actinolite as varieties. In 1809 he included 
tremolite also. In general, the species may be 
described as a normal metasilicate of calcium 
and magnesium, associated with iron, manga¬ 
nese, sodium, potassium, and hydrogen. 

(2) Amphibole group .— An important group 
of minerals, including the species described 
above, and taking its name therefrom. Its con¬ 
stituent species are widely different in chemical 
composition, and are closely allied to the mem¬ 
bers of the < pyroxene group. All the species 
of the amphibole group have a prismatic cleav¬ 
age of from 54 0 to 50, and they also exhibit 
close relationships in the optical properties. All 
the species of the pyroxene group have a funda¬ 
mental prism with an angle of 93 0 and 87°, the 
corresponding angle in amphibole being 56° and 
124 0 . The specific gravity of the pyroxenes is 
usually higher than that of the species of the 
amphiboles with which they are likely to be con¬ 
fused. Alkalis are met with more commonly in 
the amphiboles, and magnesium is also more 
prominent in that group. The amphibole group 
is divided into three main sections according to 
the crystalline forms of its species. Dana’s 
classification is as follows: 

A. Orthorhombic Section. 

Anthophyllite. 

(Gedrite.) 

B. Monoclinic Section. 

Amphibole: 

Non-aluminous varieties : 

Tremolite. 

Actinolite. 

Cummingtonite. 

Dannemorite. 

Griinerite. 

Richterite. 

Aluminous varieties: 

Edenite. 

Pargasite. 

Hornblende. 

Glaucophane. 

Riebeckite. 

Crocidolite. 

Arfvedsonite. 

(Barkevikite.) 

C. Triclinic Section. 

iEnigmatite. 

Amphiborogy, an equivocal phrase or 
sentence, not from the double sense of any of 
the words, but from its admitting a double con¬ 
struction, as <( The duke yet lives that Henry 
shall depose.® The word that may be ambigu¬ 
ous, and consequently the sentence is an exam¬ 
ple of equivocation, not amphibology. 

Amphic'tyon'ic League or Council, in an¬ 
cient Greece, an assembly composed of deputies 
from \2 Greek tribes, each of which sent two 
deputies, who assembled with great solemnity; 
composed the public dissensions, and the quar¬ 
rels of individual cities, by force or persuasion; 
punished civil and criminal offenses, and partic¬ 
ularly transgressions of the law of nations and 
violations of the temple of Delphi. After the 
decision was published a fine was inflicted on 
the guilty state, which if not paid in due time 
was doubled. If the state did not then submit, 


the whole confederacy took arms to reduce it 
to obedience. The assembly had also the right 
of excluding it from the confederation. An 
instance of the exercise of this right gave rise 
to the Phocian war, which continued 10 years 
(B.C. 355-346). 

Amphic'yon, a genus of extinct mammals, 
found fossil in Miocene rocks, which is usually 
placed among the extinct Canidce (dogs), but 
has many bear-like features, such as plantigrade, 
five-toed feet, and the structure of the ulna and 
radius. The largest species was about the size 
of a bear, but with a very dog-like head. It 
belonged to the Old World, but a closely al¬ 
lied American Miocene form is Daphcenus. 

Am'phineu'ra. See Mollusics. 

Amphi'on, in Greek mythology, son of 
Zeus and Antiope, his twin brother being Ze- 
thus. He is represented as being the oldest of 
the Grecian musicians. In Lydia, where he 
inaried Niobe, the daughter of King Tantalus, 
he learned music, and brought it thence into 
Greece. He reigned in Thebes, which he partly 
built, and it is said that at the sound of his 
lyre the stones voluntarily formed themselves 
into walls; also that wild beasts, and even trees, 
rocks, and streams followed the musician. With 
the aid of his brother Zethus he is said to have 
avenged Antiope, who had been imprisoned and 
ill-used by his father, and to have bound Dirce, 
his stepmother, to the horns of a wild bull. This 
incident is supposed to be represented by the 
famous piece of sculpture, the Farnese bull, in 
the Farnese Palace at Rome. 

Am'phiox'us, the lancelet, a small animal 
of the marine class Leptocardii. Its earliest 
scientific name is Branchio stoma. From its 
somewhat worm-like form it was for a long time 
regarded as a worm by some authors, and ori¬ 
ginally as a mollusk ( Limax ) by Pallas. It 
is now named Amphioxus lanceolatus; lives 
buried in the sand just below low-water mark, 
the head or <( oral hood® projecting above into 
the water. It also swims in a vertical or upright 
position, also frequently lying on one side on 
the sand; and burrows head foremost rapidly 
downward in the sand. It extends along our 
coast from the mouth of Chesapeake Bay to Flor¬ 
ida ; also on the eastern coast of South America 
and in the north European seas, the Mediter¬ 
ranean, the East Indies and Australasia, the spe¬ 
cies being truly cosmopolitan. Another very 
closely allied genus, Asymmetron, includes two 
species, one of which occurs at 'the Bahamas, 
and the other in the Louisade Archipelago, 
southeast of New Guinea. 

The body of Amphioxus is about two inches 
in length, slender, compressed, pointed at each 
end, hence the generic name ( Amphioxus, an(pi 
both, o£i>s, sharp), the head-end being thin and 
compressed. The muscular segments are dis¬ 
tinct to the naked eye. From the mouth 
to the vent is a deep ventral furrow, and a slight 
dorsal fin extends along the back and beneath 
as far front as the vent, forming the ventral 
fin, while the wider portion at the tail is the 
caudal fin. The oral hood has a large me¬ 
dian external opening, which is oral, surrounded 
with a circle of ciliated tentacles supported by 
semi-cartilaginous processes arising from a cir- 
cumoral ring. At the bottom of this opening is 
the mouth which leads directly into a large 


AMPHIPODA — AMPHISB^NA 


broad pharynx or <( bronchial sac,^ protected at 
the entrance by a number of minute ciliated 
lobes. The walls of this sac are perforated by 
long ciliated slits, of which there are more than 
a hundred pairs, comparable with those of the 
bronchial sacs of ascidians and of Balanoglos- 
sus. The water which enters the mouth passes 
out through these slits, where it oxygenates the 
blood and enters the peribranchial cavity, 
thence passing out of the body through the ab¬ 
dominal pore (atriopore). The pharynx leads 
to the stomach with which is 'onnected the 
liver or coecum. There is a system of blood¬ 
vessels, but no heart. A contractile median 
vessel, the ventral aorta, beginning at the free 
end of the liver, and extending along the under¬ 
side of the pharynx, sends branches to the sac 
and two anterior branches to the dorsal aorta. 
On the dorsal side of the pharynx the blood is 
poured by the two anterior trunks, and by the 
branchial veins which carry away the aerated 
blood from the branchial bars, into a great lon¬ 
gitudinal trunk or median dorsal aorta, by 
which it is distributed throughout the body. 
There are also vessels distributed to the liver, 
and returning vessels, representing the portal 
and hepatic veins. The blood-corpuscles are 
white and nucleated. 

The vertebral column of the true vertebrates 
is represented in the lancelet by a notochord, 
a long, flexible, cylindrical rod pointed at both 
ends, which extends to the end of the head far 
in front of the nervous cord; and also by a 
series of semi-cartilaginous bodies above the 
nervous system, and which are thought to rep¬ 
resent either neural spines or fin-rays. The 
nervous cord is a rod-like structure which lies 
over the notochord. It is not divided into a 
true brain and spinal cord, though the cord is 
slightly enlarged at the anterior end, where 
a rudimentary ventricle is said to exist. The 
nerve-cord sends off a few nerves to the peri¬ 
phery, with a nerve to the single minute me¬ 
dian eye. An olfactory pit opens externally on 
the left side of the snout. The principal excre¬ 
tory organs are about nimcy pairs of peculiarly 
modified nephridia, situated above the pharynx, 
and in relation with the main coelomic cavities. 
The reproductive glands are square masses or 
pouches, of which there are about 26 pairs at¬ 
tached in a row on each of the walls of the 
body-cavity. The individuals may be male or 
female, the only sexual differences being in the 
reproductive glands. 

The eggs may pass out of the mouth or 
through the pore. Kowalevsky found them 
issuing in May from the mouth of the female, 
and fertilized by spermatic particles, likewise 
issuing from the mouth of the male. The eggs 
are very small, 0.105 millimetres in diameter. 
The eggs undergo total segmentation, leaving a 
segmenta 'on cavity. The body-cavity is next 
formed by invagination. The blastoderm now 
invaginates and the embyro swims about as a 
ciliated gastrula. The body is oval, and the 
germ does not differ much in appearance from 
a worm, starfish, or ascidian in the same stage 
of growth. No vertebrate features are devel¬ 
oped. Soon the lively, ciliated gastrula 
elongates, the alimentary tube arises from the 
primitive gastrula cavity, while the edges of the 
flattened side of the body grow up as ridges, 
which afterward, as in all vertebrate embryos, 


grow over and enclose the spinal cord. When 
the germ is 24 hours old it assumes the form of 
a ciliated flattened cylinder, and now resembles 
an ascidian embryo, there being a nerve cavity 
with an external opening, which afterward 
closes. The notochord appears at this time. 
In the next stage observed the adult characters 
have appeared, the mouth is formed, the first pair 
of gill-openings are seen, 11 additional pairs 
appearing. It thus appears that while the lance¬ 
let at one time in its life presents ascidian fea¬ 
tures, yet, as Balfour states, (( all the modes of 
development found in the higher vertebrates 
are to be looked upon as modifications of that 
of Amphioxus.® A. S. Packard, 

Late Prof. Zoology, Brown University. 

Amphip'oda, an order of Crustacea, in 
which the body is compressed and usually arched. 
There is no carapace or distinct cephalothorax, 
but a small head, bearing two pairs of antennae, 
a pair of jaws (mandibles), and three pairs of 
maxillae. The thoracic segments are separate 
and like those of the abdomen, not being fused 
and united with the head segments. Respira¬ 
tion is performed by lamellate or leaf-like gills 
arising from the middle pair of legs. The am- 
phipods are represented by the common beach- 
flea or beach- or sand-hopper ( Orchestici agilis ) ; 
by Gammarus, or ^scud,® species of which live 
both in the sea and in fresh-water. Extreme 
forms are the ghost-like or skeleton-like atten¬ 
uated Caprella, abounding in eel-grass below 
low tide; and which in walking loop the body 
somewhat like a geometricid caterpillar. Another 
form is Chclura terebrans, which burrows in 
wood, in company with the gribble. It is very 
active and frequently destructive to submerged 
piles. Other forms are eyeless and live in 
caves or dark wells. 

Amphipolis, an important city of Thrace 
or Macedonia; at the mouth of the Strymon 
River, 33 miles from the ^Egean. It was 
founded by an Athenian colony about 436 b.c. ; 
was captured by Sparta in 424 b.c. ; and near it 
the Spartans defeated the Athenians in 422 b.c. 
Subsequently it became a Macedonian posses¬ 
sion; was called Popolia in the Middle Aees; 
and its site is now occupied by the Turkish 
town of Yenikeui. 

Am'phisbae'na, one of the degraded worm¬ 
shaped lizards of the family Amphisbcenidce, 
which lead an entirely subterranean life, bur¬ 
rowing like earth-worms. They have a soft 
skin forming numerous rings and containing 
only vestiges of scales except upon the head. 
External limbs are absent (except in one genus), 
but only vestiges remain of any limb-bones. 
Their tails are so short and blunt that they are 
popularly said in some countries to have two 
heads, whence the scientific name of the group. 
This notion is strengthened by their ability to 
move either forward or backward with equal 
ease. About a dozen genera and more than 
60 species are known, most of which inhabit the 
warmer parts of America and Africa; some also 
live in Asia Minor and in Spain. They are fre¬ 
quently found in ants’ nests, _ and have been 
called <( mothers of ants * in consequence. 
Their eyes and ears are concealed beneath the 
skin. A common species in South America and 
the West Indies (Amphisbcena fuliginosa) is 
checkered black and white, and is from one to 
two feet in length. Like the others it feeds 


AMPHITHEATRE — AMRITSIR 


upon worms and small insects found under the 
surface of the ground. They are quite harm¬ 
less. 

Am'phithe'atre, with the Romans, a build¬ 
ing without a roof, of a round or oval form, 
destined for the combats of gladiators or of 
wild beasts. In the middle was the arena, a 
large place covered with sand, on which the 
fights were exhibited. Round about were the 
vaults or caves in which the animals were 
kept; above these was the gallery, from which 
ascended successive rows of seats, each of 
greater height and circumference than the pre¬ 
ceding. The first 14 were for the senators 
and judges, the others for the common peo¬ 
ple. Julius Caesar erected the first large am¬ 
phitheatre at Rome for his gladiatorial exhi¬ 
bitions. It was of wood. Statilius Taurus, 
20 years later, built the first stone one. The 
Coliseum at Rome is the largest of all the 
ancient amphitheatres. (See Coliseum.) In 
Verona there is one the interior of which still 
shows the whole ancient architecture and is 
carefully preserved. 

Am'phitri'te, in Greek mythology, a 
daughter of Oceanus and Tethys, or of Nereus 
and Doris. Poseidon wished to make her his 
wife, and as she hid herself from him he sent a 
dolphin to find her, which brought her to him, 
and received as a reward a place among the 
stars. As a goddess and queen of the sea she 
is represented as drawn in a chariot of shells 
by tritons, or riding on a dolphin, before which 
a cupid swims, with the trident of Poseidon in 
her hand. 

Amphit'ryon, in Greek mythology, king 
of Thebes, son of Alcaeus, and husband of Alc- 
mena. Plautus, and after him Moliere, have 
made the trick played upon him by Zeus (in as¬ 
suming his form in order to enjoy the embraces 
of his wife) the subject of amusing comedies, 
in which the return of the true Amphitryon, 
and his meeting with the false one, occasion 
several humorous scenes. 

Am'phiu'ma, a genus of Amphibians that 
lose their tadpole gills, but retain a gill slit. 
See Kongo Snake. 

Am'phora, a vessel used by the Greeks 
and Romans for holding various liquids, par¬ 
ticularly wine. They were of various forms, 
but most commonly tall and narrow, with a 
pointed end which fitted into a hole or socket 
to enable them to stand upright. Properly an 
amphora was a two-handled vessel, from Greek 
amphi, both, and phero, to carry. 

Amphoteric, a chemical property of many 
organic substances, urine, milk, blood, etc., to 
show acid to blue litmus and alkaline to red 
litmus, thus paradoxically being both acid and 
alkaline. 

Am'plitude, in astronomy, the distance of 
any celestial body or other object (when re¬ 
ferred by a secondary circle to the horizon) 
from the east or west points; the complement to 
the amplitude, or the distance from the north 
or south point, is called the azimuth. 

Ampudia, Pedro de, Mexican soldier. He 
first appears in the wars against Texas, Santa 
Anna (q.v.) making him a general in 1840. He 
engaged in forays and fights here for some 


years, coming into conflict with Summerville’s 
Texas troops and commanding the land forces 
in the siege of Campeachy; compelled to re¬ 
treat 26 June 1843, he went to Tabasco, and in 
1844 captured and summarily executed Sent- 
manat who had assaulted it. The act was loud¬ 
ly condemned, and he was dismissed. He re¬ 
appeared in the United States-Mexican war 
under Arista; was in the fight at Matamoras, 
11 April 1846; was given command of Monte¬ 
rey, but surrendered to Taylor 24 September 
and vanishes from history. 

Ampul'la (Lat.), in antiquity, a vessel 
bellying out like a jug, that contained unguents 
for the bath; also a vessel for drinking at table. 
The ampulla has also been employed for cere¬ 
monial purposes, such as holding the oil or 
chrism used in various church rites and for 
anointing monarchs at their coronation. 

Ampullaria. See Apple-Shell. 

Am'puta'tion. See Surgery. 

Amraphel, king of Shinar (= Sumer, the 
Sumerian or South Babylonian plain), a mon¬ 
arch mentioned in Gen. xiv. as an ally of Che- 
dorlaomer, king of Elam, in subduing his re¬ 
volted Palestinian vassals. Two other allied 
kings are named: Arioch of Ellasar (Larsa, 
South Babylonia) and Tidal of Goiim (translat¬ 
ed “nations® in Authorized Version; identified 
by some with Gutium in Media, by others with 
“the tribes® = the wandering Kurds). Neither 
of the names nor any mention of the raid is 
found on the inscriptions; and the expedition, 
with its capture of Lot and the successful re¬ 
capture by Abraham, has no critical standing. 
Nevertheless it is most interesting historically; 
for the non-Jewish names are apparently gen¬ 
uine, and the conditions are precisely those of 
the times which the names would imply. Arioch 
would correspond to the Babylonian Eriaku, 
supposed to be found in a fragmentary epic on 
the invasion of Babylonia; Tid‘al to a Tudhkula 
or Tudhghula also said to be recognizable there; 
and Chedorlaomer to Kudur-Laghamar, the 
first half of which is found in other Elamite 
royal names, as Kudur-Mabuk, etc., and the 
last is probable. As to Amraphel, he is very 
plausibly Hammurabi (q.v.), the great revivor 
of the Babylonian monarchy about 2250, after 
its conquest by the Elamites; or rather Ham- 
murabi-ilu (the divine name el or ilu added, as 
common in Babylonian and Egyptian: cf. Jo- 
seph-el and Jacob-el against the Hebrew Joseph 
and Jacob), or perhaps Hammu-rapaltu, a 
probably dialectic variant of Kimta-rapashtu 
actually found written. Chedorlaomer’s expe¬ 
dition is like other known ones of Babylonian 
kings against the lands west to the Mediterra¬ 
nean, which they claimed as tributary. But 
there is a closer verisimilitude, which makes it 
practically certain that the substance of the 
story was taken from a Babylonian tablet de¬ 
scribing an actual occurrence: Amraphel in the 
story is a subordinate ally of Chedorlaomer, and 
the historical Hammurabi was apparently a de¬ 
pendent sub-king of Babylon under the Elamites 
before he threw off their yoke. The added 
Abraham story may represent a tradition 
welded with the other in later times. 

Amritsir, um-rit'sar, or Umritsir (that is, 
“the pool of immortality®), a town of Hindu¬ 
stan, capital of a district of the same name, in 


AMRU — AMSTERDAM 


the Panjab, the principal place of the religious 
worship of the Sikhs. It is, on account of its 
favorable situation between Cabul and Delhi, 
Cashmere, and the Deccan, a place of great 
trade, and has considerable manufactures of 
shawls and silks; but its chief attraction to the 
natives is the sacred pond constructed by Ram 
Das (one of the earlier pontiffs of the Sikh 
faith), in which the Sikhs immerse themselves 
that they may be purified from all sin. This 
holy basin is 150 paces square, built of brick, 
having in its centre the chief temple of the 
Sikh religion. Under a silken canopy in this 
temple is deposited the book of Sikh religion 
and laws, called the Granth. The voluntary 
contributions of pilgrims and devotees support 
this place, to which 600 priests are attached. 
Pop. (1901) 164,000 (including cantonments). 

The district of Amritsir lies between the 
rivers Ravi and Bias. It is intersected by nu¬ 
merous canals. Its area is 1,601 miles. Pop. 
(1902) 2,500,000. 

Am'ru, originally an opponent, and subse¬ 
quently a zealous supporter of Mohammed, and 
one of the ablest of the Mohammedan warriors. 
He brought Egypt under the power of the 
Caliph Omar in 638, and governed it wisely till 
his death in 663. The burning of the famous 
Alexandrian Library has been generally attrib¬ 
uted to him, though only on the authority of a 
writer who lived six centuries later. 

Amsdorf, Nicolaus, a Protestant reformer 
of the 16th century: b. in Gross-Zschopa, near 
Wurzen, on the Mulde, 3 Dec. 1483; d. 14 May 
1565. He was educated at Leipsic, and then at 
Wittenberg, where he was one of the first who 
matriculated (1502) in the recently-founded uni¬ 
versity. He obtained various academical honors, 
and became professor of theology in 1511. He 
joined Luther at the very beginning of his 
struggle (1517) ; continued all along one of his 
most determined supporters; was with him at 
the Leipsic Conference and the Diet of Worms; 
and was in the secret of his Wartburg seclu¬ 
sion. He assisted the first efforts of the Ref¬ 
ormation at Magdeburg, at Goslar, and at Ein- 
beck; took an active part in the debates at 
Schmalkald, where he defended the use of the 
sacrament by the unbelieving; and spoke out 
strongly against the bigamy of the Elector of 
Hesse. He urged the separation of the High 
Lutheran party from Melancthon, got the Saxon 
dukes to oppose the Frankfurt Recess (1558), 
and continued to fight for the purity of Lutheran 
doctrine until his death. 

Amsler, Samuel, one of the most distin¬ 
guished of engravers: b. in Schinznach, in the 
canton of Aargau, 1791 ; d. 18 May 1849. Ams- 
ler’s principal engravings are ( The Triumphal 
March of Alexander the Great ) and a full- 
length ( Christ,> after the sculptures of Thor- 
waldsen and Dannecker; the ( Burial of Christ,* 
and two ( Madonnas,* after the pictures of 
Raphael; and the ( Triumph of Religion in the 
Arts,* after Overbeck, his last work, on which 
he spent six years. 

Amsterdam, formerly called Amstelredam, 

the capital of the Netherlands, is situated in the 
province of North Holland, at the influx of the 
Amstel to the Ij or Y (pronounced eye), an 
arm of the Zuyder Zee. The city is built in the 
shape of a semi-circle, and within this semi¬ 
circle four canals — the Prinsen Gracht, Keizer’s 


Gracht, Heeren Gracht, and 'the Singel — ex¬ 
tend in the form of polygonal crescents, nearly 
parallel to each other, while numerous smaller 
canals intersect the city in every direction, di¬ 
viding it into about 90 islands, with about 300 
bridges. The site of Amsterdam was originally 
a peat bog, and all its buildings rest upon piles 
that are driven some 40 or 50 feet through a 
mass of loose sand and mud until they reach 
a solid stratum of firm clay. This foundation 
is perfectly secure as long as the piles remain 
under water. At the beginning of the 13th 
century it was merely a fishing village, with a 
small castle, the residence of the lords of 
Amstel. In 1296, on account of its share in 
the murder of Count Floris of Holland, the 
rising town was demolished; but in 1311, with 
Amstelland (the district on the banks of the 
Amstel), it was taken under the protection of 
the Counts of Holland, and from them received 
several privileges which contributed to its sub¬ 
sequent prosperity. In 1482 it was walled and 
fortified. After the revolt of the seven prov¬ 
inces (1566) it speedily rose to be their first 
commercial city and a great asylum for the Flem¬ 
ish Protestants; and in 1585 it was considerably 
enlarged by the building of the new town on 
the west. The establishment of the Dutch East 
India Company (1602) did much to forward the 
well-being of Amsterdam, which, 20 years later, 
had 100,000 inhabitants. In the middle of that 
century the war with England so far reduced 
the commerce of the port that, in 1653, 4,000 
houses stood uninhabited. Amsterdam had to 
surrender to the Prussians in 1787, to the French 
in 1795; and the union of Holland with France 
in 1810 entirely destroyed its foreign trade, 
while the excise and other new regulations im¬ 
poverished its inland resources. The old firms, 
however, lived through the time of difficulty, 
and in 1815 commerce again began to expand — 
an expansion greatly promoted by the opening 
in 1876 of a new and more direct waterway be¬ 
tween the North Sea and the city. 

The city has a fine appearance when seen 
from the harbor or from the high bridge over 
the Amstel. Church towers and spires, and a 
perfect forest of masts, relieve the flatness of 
the prospect. The old ramparts have been 
leveled, planted with trees, and formed ; nto 
promenades. Between 1866 and 1876 many spa¬ 
cious streets and an extensive public park were 
added to the city. Tramways have been suc¬ 
cessfully introduced, and the harbor greatly 
improved. There is railway communication 
with all parts of the country and of Europe. 
Rich grassy meadows surround the city. On 
the west side are a great number of windmills 
for grinding corn and sawing wood. On each 
side of the three chief canals, with a row of 
trees and a carriage-way intervening, are hand¬ 
some residences. The building material is 
brick; and the houses have their gables toward 
the streets, which gives them a picturesque ap¬ 
pearance. The defenses of Amsterdam now 
consist in a row of detached forts, and in the 
sluices, several miles distant from the city, 
which can flood in a few hours the surrounding 
land. A hard frost, however, like that of 
I 794 ~ 5 > when Pichegru invaded the country, 
would render this means of defense useless. 

The population, which from 217,024 in 1794, 
sank to 180,179 in 1815, rose steadily to 503,285 
in 1897, of whom the majority belong to the 


AMSTERDAM — AMUR 


Dutch Reformed Church. Of the remainder, 
about 80,000 were Catholics, 30,000 German 
Jews, and 3,200 Portuguese Jews. The chief 
industrial establishments are sugar refineries, 
engineering works, mills for polishing diamonds 
and other precious stones, dockyards, manufac¬ 
tories of sails, ropes, tobacco, silks, gold and 
silver plate and jewelry, colors, and chemicals, 
breweries, distilleries, with export houses for 
corn and colonial produce; cotton-spinning, 
book-printing, and type-founding are also car¬ 
ried on. The present Bank of the Netherlands 
dates from 1824, Amsterdam’s famous bank of 
1609 having been dissolved in 1796. 

The former Stadhuis (^townhouse®), con¬ 
verted in 1808 into a palace for King Louis 
Bonaparte, and still retained by the reigning 
family, is a noble structure. Built by Van Kam- 
pen in 1648-55, and raised upon 13,659 piles, it 
extends 282 feet in length by 235 feet in breadth, 
and is surmounted by a round tower rising 182 
feet from the base. It has a hall 120 feet long, 
57 wide, and 90 high, lined with white Italian 
marble — an apartment of great splendor. The 
cruciform Nieuwe Kerk (New Church), a 
Gothic edifice of 1408-14, is the finest eccle¬ 
siastical structure in the city, with a splendidly 
carved pulpit, and the tombs of Admiral de 
Ruyter, the great Dutch poet Vondel, and va¬ 
rious other worthies. The Old Church (Oude 
Kerk), built in the 14th century, is rich in 
painted glass, has a grand organ, and contains 
several monuments of naval heroes. Literature 
and science are represented by a university sup¬ 
ported by the municipality (till 1876 known as 
the Athenceum Illustre), by academies of arts 
and sciences, by museums and picture galleries, 
a palace of national industry, a botanical gar¬ 
den, several theatres, etc. The new Ryksmu- 
seum contains a truly national collection of 
paintings, its choicest treasure being Rem¬ 
brandt’s <Night-guard- :> Rembrandt (q.v.) 
made Amsterdam his home; and his statue 
(1852) now fronts the house he occupied. 
Spinoza was a native. The hospital for aged 
people, the poorhouse, house of correction, the 
orphan asylums, a navigation school, and many 
benevolent societies, are well supported and 
managed on good principles. A water supply 
was introduced in 1853. The North Holland 
Canal, to which Amsterdam is so largely in¬ 
debted for the rapid increase of its commerce, is 
noticed under Zuider Zee. Pop, (1891) 417,539. 

Amsterdam, N. Y., a city of Montgom¬ 
ery County, 33 miles northwest of Albany. It 
is located on the Mohawk River, the Erie 
Canal, and the West Shore railway, and is a 
busy manufacturing centre. 

Industries, etc .— Amsterdam has about half 
a hundred factories, among the numerous prod¬ 
ucts being such diversified objects as carpets, 
knit-goods, rugs, wagon-springs, paper, silk, 
paper-boxes, and brooms. There are also foun¬ 
dries and machine-shops; three daily newspapers 
are published. 

Public Institutions, Buildings, etc .— Here 
are located an academy, a hospital, a board of 
trade, numerous churches, and a Roman Cath¬ 
olic institute. There are well-paved streets, a 
fine system of drainage, an excellent water sup¬ 
ply, and an electric lighting system. 

History .— Amsterdam was first settled about 
1778, and until 1804 it was known as Veeders- 


burg. It was incorporated as a village in 1830, 
and as a city in 1885. Pop. (1890) 17,336; 
(1900) 20,929; (1905) 23,943. 

Amu, Amoo, Amoo Darya (Arab. 
Gihon ), a river of Central Asia, the ancient 
Oxus. It takes its rise in the eastern Pamir, 
near the boundary of eastern Turkestan, flows 
at first generally west (to Ion. 66° E.), thence 
generally northwest, and empties by a delta into 
the southern part of the Aral Sea. It receives 
several affluents from the mountains of Turke¬ 
stan and the Hindoo Koosh. About 1,600 miles 
in length, it is navigable by light draught ves¬ 
sels for about 800. As a means of irrigation, 
it is of considerable importance. 

Amulet, a piece of stone, metal, or other 
substance, marked with certain figures or char¬ 
acters, which people wear about them as a pro¬ 
tection against diseases and enchantments. The 
name, as well as the thing itself, is derived 
from the East. The word comes from the Ara¬ 
bic hamalah (anything hung round the neck). 
Among the Turks, and many people of central 
Asia, every individual thinks an amulet neces¬ 
sary to secure him from harm. They were 
introduced into Christian Europe by the Jews. 
With the ancients, for example, the Egyptians, 
Greeks, Romans, they were frequently found. 
From the pagans they were introduced among 
the Basilidians. Their amulets were stones with 
the word Abraxas engraved on them. The 
Jews had many superstitious notions about 
amulets. Many Christians of the 1st century 
wore amulets which were marked with a fish 
as a symbol of the Redeemer. To the Christian 
divines the use of amulets was interdicted by 
the Council of Laodicea under penalty of dis¬ 
missal from office. With the spread of Arabian 
science and astrology the astrological amulets 
of the Arabians, the talismans, came into use in 
the West. The Turks, the Chinese, the people 
of Thibet, and many other nations, have yet 
great confidence in them. See Superstition ; 
Talisman. 

Amur, am-or', a river formed by the 
junction (about lat. 53 0 N. and Ion. 121 0 E.) 
of the Shilka and the Argun, which both come 
from the southwest. From the junction the 
river flows first southeast and then northeast, 
and, after a total course of 3,060 miles, falls 
into the Sea of Okhotsk opposite the island of 
Sakhalin. It is very valuable for navigation, 
and carries a considerable fleet of steamers, 
but on account of the bar at its mouth goods 
are generally disembarked and carried overland 
to Alexandrovsk. 

In 1636 Russian adventurers made excur¬ 
sions to the lower Amur, and in 1666 built sta¬ 
tions and a fort at Albazin. In 1685 both 
stations and the fort were taken by the Chinese, 
but were promptly retaken by the Russians, who 
in 1689 abandoned the whole territory of the 
Amur to the Chinese. 

In 1854-6 two military expeditions were con¬ 
ducted by Count Muravieff, who established 
the stations of Alexandrovsk and Nikolaevsk. 
In 1858 China agreed to the Treaty of Tien¬ 
tsin, by which the boundaries of Russia and 
China were defined. The left bank of the Amur 
and all the territory north of it became Rus¬ 
sian; and below the confluence of the Ussuri 
both banks. In i860, after the occupation of 


AMURATH — AMYL 


Pekin by the British and French, General Igna- 
tieff secured the signature of Prince Kung to 
a treaty by which Russia acquired the broad 
and wide territory comprised between the river 
Amur and the mouth of the Tumen, extending 
io° of latitude nearer the temperate regions, 
and running from the shore of the north Pacific 
eastward to the banks of the river Ussuri, a 
principal affluent of the Amur. In September 
1900 Russia took formal possession of the 
right bank of the river. 

This vast territory falls into two Russian 
provinces — the Maritime Province between the 
Ussuri and the sea, and the government of 
Amur north of the river. The latter has an 
area of 175,000 square miles. The country is 
richly timbered, and is admirably adapted for 
pasturage and agriculture, though the climate 
is severe. Fur-bearing animals are still plenti¬ 
ful. and the river abounds in fish. The capital 
is Khabarovka. Nikolaevsk, once the only im¬ 
portant place in these regions, is on the Amur, 
26 miles from its mouth, where the river is 
i*4 miles wide, and in places 15 feet deep; but 
the political centre tends southward to the 
more temperate Maritime Province (area, 730,- 
000 square miles), near the southern end of 
which is situated the important harbor of Vla¬ 
divostok ( <( Rule of the East®), or Port May, 
which in 1872 was placed in telegraphic com¬ 
munication with Europe by the China submarine 
cable, and is now the capital of the Amur 
provinces. The island of Sakhalin (Saghalien), 
north of the Japan group, along a portion of the 
coast of Asiatic Russia, and formerly possessed 
partly by Russia and partly by Japan, is also a 
part of the Amur region in the wider sense. 

Amurath I., a/moo-rat, a sultan of the 
Turks; succeeded his father Orchan in 1360. 
He founded the corps of Janissaries, conquered 
Phrygia, and on the plains of Cassova defeated 
the Christians. In this battle he was wounded, 
and died the next day, 1389. 

Amurath II., one of the more illustrious 
of the Ottoman emperors, succeeded his father, 
Mohammed I., in 1421, at the age of 17. In 1423 
he took Thessalonica from the Venetians; in 
1435 subdued the despot of Servia, besieged 
Belgrade, which was successfully defended by 
John Hunniades; defeated the Hungarians at 
Varna in 1444, and slew their king, Ladislaus. 
He died in 1451. 

Amurath III., succeeded his father, Selim 
II., in 1574. His first act was the murder of 
his five brothers. He added several of the best 
provinces of Persia to the Turkish empire. He 
was noted for his avarice, and his sensual ex 
cesses made him prematurely old. He died in 

1595 - . _ 

Amurath IV., succeeded his uncle, Mus- 
tapha X., 1623. After two unsuccessful at¬ 
tempts he took Bagdad from the Persians in 
1638, and ordered the massacre of 30,000 prison¬ 
ers who had surrendered at discretion. The 
excessive cruelty and debauchery of Amurath 
IV. have earned for him the character of being 
one of the worst sovereigns that ever reigned 
over the Ottomans. He died in 1640. 

Amurath V., Sultan of Turkey: b. 21 Sept. 
1840, and succeeded to the throne in 1876 as 
the result of a revolution that caused the over¬ 
throw of his uncle Abdul Aziz. His reign was 


for a few months only, as he developed strong 
symptoms of insanity and was deposed in Au¬ 
gust 1876. 

Amyclae. (1) An ancient town of Laco¬ 
nia, on the eastern bank of the Eurotas, 2^2 
miles southeast of Sparta. It was the home of 
Castor and Pollux, the <( Amyclaean brothers.® 
It was conquered by the Spartans only before 
the first Messenian war. (2) An ancient town 
of Latium, which claimed to have been built by 
a colony from the Greek Amyclae. 

Amygdalin, a-mig'da-lin (from the Latin 
amygdala, (( almond )) ), a crystalline substance 
occurring in bitter almonds, in the kernels of 
apples, pears, and peaches, in the leaves of the 
laurel (Cerasus lauro-cerasus ), and in the leaves 
and bark of various species of the genus 
Primus. It has the formula C20H27NO11+ 
3H2O, and is of special interest to the chemist 
because it was the first known of the numerous 
class of substances termed (( glucosides® (q.v.). 
It is obtained by extraction, with boiling alco¬ 
hol, of the pulp left after the expression of the 
oil from bitter almonds. The alcoholic solu¬ 
tion is concentrated by evaporation, and the 
amygdalin precipitated by the addition of ether, 
in which it is insoluble. Like the other gluco- 
sides, amygdalin does not form salts with acids, 
but is decomposed by them with the formation 
of glucose. 

Amyg'daloid, in geology, an igneous rock 
containing numerous almond-shaped or spherical 
enclosures of material distinctly different, either 
chemically or physically, from that which con¬ 
stitutes the rock itself. The enclosures were 
originally cavities due to the inclusion of steam 
or gases. Lava frequently exhibits a structure 
of this kind, its enclosures being commonly 
calcite or quartz. 

Am'yl (from the Latin amylum, (( starch,® 
its first-known compounds being obtained by 
the distillation of fermented starchy matter), 
an important organic radical having the form¬ 
ula CsHn, and belonging in the fatty series. 
It is also called (( pentyl,® because, in the long 
list of analogous radicals having the general 
formula CnHgn+j amyl is the particular radical in 
which n = 5. Amyl cannot exist in the free 
state, but two of its molecules can combine to 
form the paraffin (< decane,® C10H22, which is a 
liquid boiling at about 320° F. The radical amyl 
can have no less than eight different isomeric 
forms, and the chemistry of its compounds is 
correspondingly complicated. Of the many com¬ 
pounds that are known, however, only three 
are especially important in the arts. These are: 
(1) amyl alcohol, (2) amyl acetate, and (3) 
amyl nitrite. 

(1) Eight isomeric amyl alcohols are the¬ 
oretically possible, one for each of the theoret¬ 
ically possible isomeric forms of the radical it¬ 
self ; and seven of these are actually known. 
Five of the seven are of no particular impor¬ 
tance in practical chemistry, but the remaining 
two, known respectively as the <( active® and 
<( inactive® amyl alcohols, constitute the greater 
part of the fusel-oil (q.v.) that is obtained 
abundantly in the manufacture of potato brandy, 
and less abundantly in the preparation of many 
other kinds of distilled liquors. <( Active® amyl 
alcohol has the formula CH3.CH.C2H5.CH2.OH, 
boils at about 262° F., and takes its name from 


AMYLENE HYDRATE — AMYRAUT 


the fact that it rotates the plane of polarized 
light to the left. “Inactive® amyl alcohol has 
the formula (CH3)2.CH.CH 2 .CH 2 .OH, boils at 
about 269° F., solidifies at — 4° F., and has no 
effect upon polarized light. These two kinds 
of amyl alcohol may be obtained, mixed, by 
washing fusel-oil with water, and subsequent 
rectification. They may then be separated by; 
fractional distillation, or by other more exact 
methods, for which see special treatises. 

(2) Amyl acetate (more exactly, (( iso-amyl 
acetate,® since six acetates are known), is pre¬ 
pared by distilling a mixture of the foregoing- 
amyl alcohols with sodium acetate and sulphuric 
acid. It is a liquid, boiling at about 282° F., and 
possessing a strong fruit-like smell. It is used 
for flavoring cheap confectionery. 

(3) Amyl nitrite, C 5 Hn.N 0 2 , may be formed 
by distilling a mixture of the foregoing amyl 
alcohols with potassium nitrite and dilute sul¬ 
phuric acid. It is a yellow liquid, with an ethe¬ 
real, fruity odor. When its vapor is inhaled, 
it paralyzes the vaso-motor nervous system and 
lowers the blood pressure. Amyl nitrite is often 
administered in this way for the cure of obsti¬ 
nate hiccoughing. Its effects are powerful and 
almost instantaneous, and it should never be 
tried except under the guidance of a physician. 

Amylene Hydrate, an alcohol used as a 
hypnotic. It is technically a tertiary iso-amyl 
alcohol [(CH 3 ) 2 C(OH)CH 2 CH 3 ], and is a 
limpid, colorless, neutral fluid with a peculiar 
odor and a burning taste. It is miscible with 
eight parts of water and freely miscible with 
alcohol, chloroform, and fixed oils. It has an 
action on the human body similar to that of 
other alcohols, and is a useful hypnotic, occupy¬ 
ing a position between chloral, which is twice 
as strong, and paraldehyde, which has about 
half the strength of amylene hydrate. In large 
doses it is a heart depressant. 

Amylop'sin, a chemical (or unorganized) 
ferment, occurring in the pancreatic fluid, to¬ 
gether with steapsin and trypsin. The chief 
function of amylopsin, in intestinal digestion, is 
to effect the conversion of starches and similar 
substances (amyloses) into sugars (dextrins, 
maltoses, isomaltoses, and glucose). The con¬ 
version takes place in the small intestine. Amy¬ 
lopsin is often called the “pancreatic diastase.® 
See Pancreas. 

Am'ylose, any carbohydrate (q.v.) which 
can be classified as starch, dextrin, cellulose, or 
natural gum. The remaining members of the 
carbohydrate group are classed as glucoses or 
saccharoses. The general formula of an amy- 
lose is (C 6 Hio 0 5 )n. See Carbohydrate; Cel¬ 
lulose ; Dextrin ; Starch ; Gum. 

Amyntas, the name of various characters 
in ancient Greek or Macedonian history, espe¬ 
cially kings of Macedonia. (1) A son of Alce- 
tas, reigned about 540 to 500 b.c., and he was 
succeeded by his son, Alexander I. (2) King 
of Macedonia, son of Philip, and brother of 
Perdiccas II.; reigned 393 to 369 b.c., having 
gained the crown by the murder of Pausanias. 
He was engaged in war with the Olynthians and 
assisted by the Spartans. He was father of 
Alexander, Perdiccas, and the famous Philip. 
(3) Philip excluded the grandson of Amyntas 
II from his succession and he was put to death 
in the first year of the reign of Alexander the 


Great because of a plot against the life of Alex¬ 
ander. The 4th was a Macedonian officer in 
Alexander’s army. 

Amyntor, Gerhard von, pseudonym of 
Dagobert von Gerbardt, a German novelist and 
poet: b. Liegnitz, Silesia, 12 July 1831. He 
entered the army in 1849, took part in the cam¬ 
paigns of 1864 and 1870-1 as a major, was se¬ 
verely wounded in the former and resigned in 
1872; settled in Potsdam in 1874. His principal 
works are ( Peter Quidam’s Rhine-journey 5 
(1877), an epic; ( Songs of a German Night 
Watchman 5 (1878) ; ( The New Romancero ) 
(1880), poems; ( The Priest 5 (1881), an epic; 
novels, ( It Is You 1 * (1882) ; ( A Problem 5 
(1884) ; ( Praise of Woman ) (1885) ; and ( Ger- 
ke Suteminne ) (1887), a historical romance. 

Amyot, Jacques, a-me-o', a French author: 
b. 30 Oct. 1513; d. 6 Feb. 1593. He is famous 
for his translations from the Greek, which, 
owing to their elegant style, are considered 
classical literature. They are the ( Theagenes 
and Chariclea 5 of Heliodorus; ( Seven Books of 
Diodorus Siculus, 5 the ( Daphnis and Chloe ) of 
Longus; and ( Plutarch’s Lives, 5 which was 
used by Corneille as a source for his antique 
tragedies, and by Shakespeare (in its English ver¬ 
sion by Sir Thomas North) for some of his plays. 

Amyraut, Moi'se, a French Calvinist the¬ 
ologian : b. in Bourgueil, in the province of 
Anjou, 1596; d. 1664. He was educated at Sau- 
mur, where he was himself afterward a profes¬ 
sor of divinity. By his talents and moderation 
he soon acquired reputation and influence. In 
1631 he attended the Synod of Clarendon, and 
was commissioned' to present to the king the 
remonstrances of his brethren against the in¬ 
fraction of the edicts of pacification. In his 
mission he acted with such judgment and dig¬ 
nity that he succeeded in relieving the Protes¬ 
tant deputies from the disgraceful obligation of 
addressing the king on their knees. Although 
he was a Protestant, his amiable temper and 
courteous manners commanded the regard of 
the Catholics, and he was held in particular 
esteem by Cardinal Richelieu. He endeavored 
to bring about a complete union between the 
various Protestant Churches; this object he 
had in view in nearly all his writings, especially 
in a Latin tract, c Dc secessions ab ecclesia Ro- 
mana, deque pace inter Evangelicos in negotio 
religionis instituenda? Moreover, acting in 
concert with Richelieu, he aimed at a reconcilia¬ 
tion between the Protestants and the Roman 
Catholic Church. The favor and respect with 
which he was treated by the heads of the 
French government, Richelieu, and Mazarin, 
are to be ascribed to his opinions concerning 
the power of the princes. He publicly main¬ 
tained on several occasions the doctrine of im¬ 
plicit obedience to the sovereign authority, 
which, indeed, had also been held by the great 
founders of the Reformation. Amyraut was a 
finished scholar, and wrote Latin and French 
with equal ease. His numerous writings, which 
were received with marked favor in his time, 
are now nearly forgotten and not easy to be 
procured. Among the number we may men¬ 
tion ( A Treatise on Religions, Against Those 
Who Esteem Them to Be Indifferent 5 ; Chris¬ 
tian Morals 5 ; ( A Treatise on Dreams 5 ; 
( Against the Millenarists 5 ; Considerations on 
the Laws of Nature Regulating Marriage. 5 


AMYRIDACEZE — ANABAPTISTS 


Amyridaceae, a natural order of tropical 
plants, consisting of trees or shrubs with op¬ 
posite or alternate compound leaves, frequently 
stipulate and dotted; the flowers are usually 
bisexual, but are sometimes unisexual by abor¬ 
tion. They yield resinous and balsamic juices, 
which are sometimes used medicinally, and re¬ 
ceive such names as bdellium, elemi, frankin¬ 
cense, myrrh, olibanum, tacamahac. (See these 
articles.) Among the chief genera of the order 
are Amyris, Balsamodendron, Boswellia, Cana- 
rium, and Idea. They are sometimes classed as 
a suborder of Anacardiacecu. 

An, or On, the Egyptian name of the city 
of Heliopolis. 

Ana, a comparatively modern designation 
applied to collections of the sayings and ob¬ 
servations of eminent persons, as well as to 
gossip or criticism pertaining to them. 

Anabaptists (Greek, avd, again. fiairTtpeiv, 
to baptize), those who baptize again persons 
admitted to their communion, when such con¬ 
verts have been baptized in their infancy or 
have been merely sprinkled and not immersed 
in baptism or have been baptized in any way 
without being capable of declaring the doctrines 
which they believe ”and giving a reason for the 
hope that is in them. Baptists (q.v.) of the 
present day are not properly to be styled Ana¬ 
baptists, as they lay no capital emphasis upon the 
necessity for rebaptism, although they have very 
definite canons on the subject of immersion. 

Anabaptists of the early Church. — In the 3d 
century of the Christian era, the century which 
witnessed. such violent and bitter controversies, 
the question of baptism came also under dis¬ 
cussion. In the Eastern Church, including 
Asia Minor, Egypt, North Eastern Africa and 
Constantinople, it was definitely maintained that 
baptism was invalid unless it was administered 
by one of the clergy with proper matter and 
form. In the Western Church, including Italy, 
Gaul, Spain, and North Western Africa, it was 
held that the virtue of baptism lay in the invo¬ 
cation of the Trinity, and the ceremonial sprink¬ 
ling with, or immersion in the water. Any bap¬ 
tism thus administered by a person of either 
sex, by a clergyman or a layman, was equally 
walid. When two children in their play mim¬ 
icked the act of a priest whom they had seen 
baptizing an infant, Saint Augustine of Hippo 
declared that the boy who had been thus bap¬ 
tized by his companion was a real and actual 
partaker of the benefits and bound by all the 
vows pertaining to this sacrament. The contro¬ 
versy between the East and the West continued, 
however, to rage with such fury that two coun¬ 
cils were called to settle the question. The one 
was held in Iconium, Asia Minor, in 235, the 
-other at Synnada in 256. At these theological 
synods the decision arrived at was, that rebap¬ 
tism was unnecessary for those who had been 
baptized by heretics. The storm of controversy 
swept westward to Northern Africa as far as 
Carthage, where Tertullian supported the posi¬ 
tion of the Eastern Church in contrariety to that 
of Saint Augustine and other Western doctors. 
Agrippinus, bishop of Carthage, maintained 
against the bishop of Rome that baptism under 
•certain circumstances ought to be repeated.. His 
followers were called Agrippinians and his de¬ 
fiance of the bishop of Rome took the form of 


a concilier decree which was issued by a synod 
which he convened and which endorsed the sen¬ 
tence of Iconium. In the year 253 Stephen, 
bishop of Rome, fulminated a bull of excommu¬ 
nication against all the bishops o' Asia Minor, 
including Cappadocia, Galatia and Phrygia, 
whom he ctyled Rebaptizers and Anabaptists in 
an opprobrious sense. 

Munster Anabaptists. —In the 16th century 
there arose in Europe a religious sect known as 
Anabaptists, whose main tenets carried the prin¬ 
ciples of the Reformation to the extreme limit of 
that revolutionary movement. Their principles 
were, those of revolt against mediaeval feudal¬ 
ism just as much as against ecclesiastical author¬ 
ity. T hey were socialists as well as reformers, 
mystics and fanatics. Their existence was one 
of the results of the Renaissance as interpreted 
to the common mind. Their views were demo¬ 
cratic and individualistic. They rejected all 
authority, all tradition, all dogma, everything in 
short that militated against the absolute inde¬ 
pendence of the individual mind and spirit. 
This tendency acquired at length the character 
not only of liberty but of license, and the term 
Anabaptist has thus become associated with 
every extreme, not only of license but of licen¬ 
tiousness, of rebellion and political outlawry. It 
is quite absurd to associate the term Anabaptist 
as employed historically with any phase of 
Christian thought, practice or opinion. It really 
is a term applied to those who at a turning point 
in the history of European thought, social, polit¬ 
ical and religious, became intoxicated with the 
idea of individual liberty, and the result was 
violence and excess of the worst character. 

The history of the movement is as follows: 
The doctrine of adult baptism was first put forth 
by Thomas Miinzer, the Lutheran pastor of 
Zwickau in Saxony, in the year 1520. Miinzer 
soon obtained many followers who joined him 
in his uprising against all civil and religious 
authority.. Although openly belonging to the 
Reformation movement they very soon became 
completely repudiated by the followers of 
Luther and his adherents. But the spirit of 
insurrection against feudal tyranny prevailed 
amongst all the common people on the Rhine, 
in Westphalia, Holstein, Switzerland, Flanders 
and throughout the whole Netherlands, and the 
increase of Miinzer’s followers became so dan¬ 
gerous that the magistrates and civil authorities 
found it difficult to restrain them. Miinzer 
was compelled to leave Zwickau; he visited Bo¬ 
hemia, resided for two years at Alstadt and 
Thuringia and in 1524 was found propagating 
his doctrines in Switzerland. He was the prin¬ 
cipal inciter of the Peasants’ War, which was 
entered upon with a view of establishing an 
ideal Christian commonwealth with communistic 
institutions. This war reached its culmination 
in 1525, when Miinzer led his forces against the 
representations of established order and was 
defeated at the battle of Frankenhausen 15 May 
1525, Miinzer was taken prisoner and with sev¬ 
eral of his associate leaders was tried, con¬ 
demned and executed. But all this was looked 
upon by the Anabaptists as merely a form of 
welcome persecution. New associations were 
formed; new prophets and teachers arose; the 
propaganda was extended amongst the peasants 
and serfs of Germany, Austria and Hungary in 
every direction. It may be necessary to state 
that the tenets of the Anahaotists are to be 


ANABASIS — ANACHARSIS 


summarized in their own words as follows: 
Hmpiety prevails everywhere. It is therefore 
necessary that a new family of holy persons 
should be founded, enjoying, without distinction 
of sex, the gift of prophecy, and skilled to inter¬ 
pret- Divine Revelations. Hence, no need for 
learning; for the internal word is more than the 
outward expression. No Christian is to be al¬ 
lowed to go to law, to hold an office in the civil 
government, to take an oath in a court of jus¬ 
tice or to possess any personal property; every¬ 
thing amongst Christians must be in common.® 
John Bochhold, or Bockel, a tailor, of Ley¬ 
den, aged 26, and John Matthias, or Matthiesen, 
a baker of Harlem, came, in 1553, to Munster in 
Westphalia, a town whose inhabitants followed 
the doctrines of the Reformation. Here they 
soon won the adherence of the excited populace, 
and among the rest, of Rothmann, a Protestant 
clergyman, and the Councillor Knipperdolling. 
The magistrates in vain excluded them from the 
churches. They took violent possession of the 
council-house, and toward the end of the year a 
treaty was signed securing the religious liberty 
of both parties. Being strengthened by the ac¬ 
cession of the restless spirits of neighboring 
cities, they soon made themselves masters of 
the town by force, and drove out their adver¬ 
saries. Matthiesen came forward as their 
prophet, and persuaded the people to devote 
gold, and silver, and movable property to the 
common use, and to burn all books but the 
Bible; but in a sally against the bishop of Mun¬ 
ster, who had laid siege to the city, he lost his 
life. He was succeeded in the prophetic office 
by Bochhold and Knipperdolling. The churches 
were destroyed, and twelve judges were set over 
the tribes, as in Israel; but even this form of 
government was soon abolished, and Bochhold, 
under the name of John of Leyden, raised him¬ 
self to the dignity of king of New Zion, as the 
Anabaptists of Munster called their kingdom, 
and as such was ceremoniously crowned. From 
this period (1534) Munster was the scene of all 
excesses of fanaticism, lust and cruelty. The 
introduction of polygamy, and the neglect of 
civil order, concealed from the infatuated people 
the avarice and madness of their tyrant and the 
increase of danger from abroad. Bochhold lived 
in luxury and magnificence; he sent out sedi¬ 
tious proclamations against the pope and Luther, 
as well as the neighboring authorities ; he threat¬ 
ened to destroy with his mob all who differed 
in opinion from him; made himself an object of 
terror to his subjects by frequent executions, 
and while famine and pestilence raged in the 
city, persuaded the wretched, deluded inhabitants 
to a stubborn resistance of their besiegers. The 
city was at last taken, 24 June 1535, by treachery, 
though not without a brave defence, in which 
Rothmann and others were killed, and the king¬ 
dom of the Anabaptists destroyed by the execu¬ 
tion of the chief men. Bochhold, and two of 
his most active companions, Knipperdolling and 
Krechting, were tortured to death with red-hot 
pincers, and then hung up in iron cages on Saint 
Lambert’s steeple, at Munster, as a terror to all 
rebels. In the meantime, some of the twenty-six 
apostles, who were sent out by Bochhold to ex¬ 
tend the limits of his kingdom, had been suc¬ 
cessful in various places; and many other teach¬ 
ers, who preached the same doctrines, continued 
active in the work of founding a new empire of 
pure Christians, and propagating their visions 


and revelations in the countries above men¬ 
tioned. It is true that they rejected the prac¬ 
tice of polygamy, community of goods, and in¬ 
tolerance toward those of different opinions, 
which had prevailed in Munster; but they en¬ 
joined upon their adherents the other doctrines 
of the early Anabaptists and certain heretical 
opinions in regard to the humanity of Christ, 
which seemed to result from the controversies 
of that day about the sacrament. The most 
celebrated of these Anabaptist prophets were 
Melchior Hoffmann and David Joris. The for¬ 
mer, a furrier from Suabia, first appeared as a 
teacher in Kiel in 1527; afterward, in 1529, in 
Emden; and finally in Strasburg, where, in 
1540, he died in prison. He formed, chiefly by 
his bold promises of a future elevation of him¬ 
self and his disciples, a peculiar sect, whose 
scattered members retained the name of Hoff- 
mannists in Germany till their remains were 
lost among the Anabaptists. They have never 
owned that Hoffmann recanted before his death. 
David Joris, or George, a glass-painter of Delft, 
born in 1501, and rebaptized in 1534, showed 
more depth of mind and warmth of imagination 
in his various works. In his endeavors 
to unite the discordant parties of the Anabap¬ 
tists, he collected a party of quiet adherents in 
the country, who studied his works (as the Gich- 
telians did those of Bohme), especially his book 
of miracles, which appeared at Deventer in 
1542, and revered him as a kind of new Mes¬ 
siah. Unsettled in his opinions, he traveled a 
long time from place to place, till at last, to 
avoid persecution, in 1554, he became a citizen of 
Basil, under the name of John of Bruges. In 
1556, after an honorable life, he died there 
among the Calvinists. In 1559 he was accused, 
though without much reason, of profligate doc¬ 
trine and conduct, and the Council of Basil or¬ 
dered his body to be burnt. 

Undoubtedly by no means all the Anabaptists 
of Germany indulged in social and political ex¬ 
cesses. The fanaticism which characterized 
some of the early Anabaptists is sufficiently ex¬ 
plained by the tendency of human nature to 
rush into extremes. The iron hold of the ec¬ 
clesiastical hierarchy, which had cramped the 
church for ages, being suddenly relaxed, men 
had yet to learn what were the genuine condi¬ 
tions whether of civil or religious liberty. But 
these considerations were overlooked, and the 
reformed churches, with one consent, regarded 
the Anabaptists with horror and disdain. The 
correspondence of the Reformers is full of allu¬ 
sions to the subject. Anabaptists are spoken of 
with reprobation, and a distinction is not suf¬ 
ficiently made between the sober Christians and 
the worst fanatics of the party. It is probable, 
at least, that their faults have been exaggerated 
even by the best writers. 

Anabasis. See Xenophon. 

Anabolism, the building-up process of 
organic life. The term metabolism (q.v.) is 
used to express the interchange of the life pro¬ 
cess constantly going on in living plants and 
animals. 

Anacharsis, the name of a Scythian phi¬ 
losopher who flourished about 600 b.c. and was 
a friend of Solon, by whose influence he was 
received into Athenian society. Returning to 
Scythia, he was put to death because of his per¬ 
formance of certain Greek religious ceremonies. 



ANACONDA (Ennectes murinus). 






















































































































































































ANACHRONISM — ANAESTHETICS 


Modern readers have been familiarized with the 
name through J. J. Barthelmy’s famous ( Voyage 
du Jeune Anacharsis en Grece ) (1788). 

Anachronism, an inversion of chronologi¬ 
cal relation, unintended or otherwise. In com¬ 
mon parlance it is confined to the antedating 
of customs or events, particularly in imagina¬ 
tive works with a basis of history. 

Anaconda, Mont., city, the county-seat of 
Deer Lodge County; 27 miles northwest of Butte 
on the Northern Pacific, Great Northern, and 
Butte, Anaconda & Pacific Railways. It was 
founded in 1884, following the erection of its 
great copper-smelting works, which are the 
largest in the world. They treat daily between 
5,000 and 10,000 tons of ore mined in the vicin¬ 
ity. Deposits of graphite and sapphires are 
found near the city. Anaconda also has large 
railway shops, brick works, machine shops, and 
other manufactories, banks, telephone and tele¬ 
graph service, and daily and weekly newspapers. 
The Hearst Free Library contains about 6,000 
volumes. Anaconda has grown rapidly with 
the development of its great copper industry. 
I11 1880 it was a small mining camp; ten 
years later its population was 3,975. Pop. 
(1900) 9,453. 

Anaconda (origin unknown; possibly na¬ 
tive name), the largest snake in America 
(Eunectes murinus), sometimes reaching a 
length of 30 feet. It is found in or near shal¬ 
low lakes and streams in Brazil, Guiana, and 
other parts of tropical America, where it spends 
much of its time in the water. It feeds on 
small animals, is closely related to the boa con¬ 
strictor, and is not venomous. Ornamental 
leather is prepared from its skin, which is 
bright brown, marked along the back with 
blotches, and along the sides with rings of 
darker color. Compare Boa. 

Anacreon, a famous Greek lyrist: b. Teos, 
about 560 b.c. ; d. 476 b.c. Long resident at the 
court of Polycrates of Samos, he went to Athens 
in 522 and was distinguished by the favor of 
Hipparchus. His principal themes were love 
and wine, but he was a satirist as well. He 
was greatly esteemed throughout Greece, great 
honors being paid to his memory. Only two 
complete poems and some fragments of his 
works are extant, the well-known ( Anacreon- 
tea* being poems after his manner, but dating 
from a very much later period. 

Anadir, or Anadyr Bay, a large inlet of 
Bering Sea, much frequented by whaling- 
vessels. It is about 250 miles wide, a peninsula 
of half that breadth lying between it and the 
Arctic Ocean. 

• Anadir, or Anadyr, the most easterly of 
the larger rivers of Siberia. It rises in the 
Stanovoi Mountains, and falls into the Gulf of 
Anadyr after a course of some 400 miles. 

Anadyomene, a surname of Venus, and 
referring to her as rising from the sea. It was 
applied by the ancients to a picture by Apelles, 
which represented the goddess emerging from 
the waters. 

Anaemia, literally without blood, popularly 
poorness of blood. In medicine, however, it 
may apply to two very different classes of 
disease in which there may be a reduction of 
the amount of the blood, in its entirety, in its 


corpuscles, red or white, or in one particular^ 
or important ingredient, as the red coloring 
matter of the blood, the hemoglobin. These 
two are secondary and primary anaemias. 
Secondary anaemia may follow a hemorrhage, 
long-continued wasting disease as Brights 
disease, suppuration, tuberculosis, cancer, gas¬ 
tric ulcer; may result from inanition; may be 
due to the presence of intestinal parasites, nota¬ 
bly the hook-worm disease, Uncinaria (the poor 
whites of the South, earth-eaters, etc., seem to 
have this disease) ; or may result from acute 
or chronic poisoning as from animal parasites, 
malaria; or plant parasites, the bacteria, in the 
acute infectious diseases; or the poison may be 
inorganic, such as lead, mercury, copper, or ar¬ 
senic. Primary anaemia includes two diseases: 
Chlorosis (q.v.), the green-sickness of young 
girls; and pernicious anaemia (q.v.), a peculiar 
disease of the blood-making organs. See Blogit 
Diseases. 

Anaesthesia, the loss or impairment of 
sensibility, a term usually applied to the diminu¬ 
tion or loss of the senses of touch or pam 
{analgesia, or temperature sensations), but may 
apply to the diminution of the sense of smell 
(anosmia), or olfactory anaesthesia; that of 
sight (retinal anaesthesia) taste ( agustia ), of 
the muscle sense, of the sense of hearing, or 
any of the special senses. Anaesthesia of any 
of these different varieties may result from in¬ 
jury to any part of the sensory nervous chain 
or neuron (q.v.). If the injury involves the 
external portions of the sense organs, which 
are different for all types of sensations, as in 
a cut of the wrist including a sensory nerve, the 
anaesthesia is termed peripheral anaesthesia; if 
the sensory nerve centres are affected, as in 
some apoplexies, it is termed a central anaesthe¬ 
sia. Anaesthesias may be general or local; 
complete or incomplete; permanent or transi¬ 
tory; unilateral, on one side of the body 
(hemianaesthesia), due to injury of the spinal 
cord or brain on the opposite side; or bilateral, 
usually due to some symmetrical lesion of the 
spinal cord, as in myelitis, broken back, tumor 
pressing on the cord, syringomyelia, locomotor- 
ataxia, hysteria, etc. The tracing of the nerve 
fibres to and from an area that is anaesthetic 
makes one of the most fascinating studies in 
medicine. Certain drugs, such as cocaine, 
aconitum, chloroform, ether, etc., also occasion 
anaesthesia. See Anaesthetics ; Sensation. 
(References: dictionary of Philosophy and 
Psychology, } Baldwin (1903) ; Flechsig & Bech- 
terew, die Leitungsbahnen im Gehirn und 
Riickenmark ) ; E. Long, des Voies Centrales de 
la Sensibilite Generale,> 1899.) 

Anaesthetics, agents used to produce 
anaesthesia, a word first employed by Dr. Oliver 
Wendell Holmes. In early times it was known 
that pressure on the carotid arteries on each 
side of the neck could bring about temporary 
unconsciousness and resultant anaesthesia. The 
gentle art of garrotting grew out of this gen¬ 
eralized knowledge. Ancient peoples used 
opium, cannabis indica, and alcohol to produce 
anaesthesia, particularly analgesia, or relief from 
pain, but it was not until the early part of the 
19th century that the discovery of the general 
anaesthetics, nitrous oxid, ether, and chloroform 
was made, and still later the wonderful develop- 


ANAGNI — ANAKIM 


ments made in the art of local anaesthesia by 
the use of cocaine and its congeners. 

For remedial measures anaesthesia may be 
local or general. Cold from ice, or from freez¬ 
ing mixtures, ethyl chloride, etc., is a very effi¬ 
cient local anaesthetic for the performance of 
small operations, such as opening boils, felons, 
etc. A large number of drugs have the power 
of numbing the sensory nerves of the skin and 
are extensively employed to relieve itching and 
soreness. These are mostly of the phenol or 
carbolic acid group, thymol, menthol, etc. 
Even more efficient in its action on the. sensory 
nerve filaments is the alkaloid cocaine, obtained 
from the South American coca plant. Applied 
in appropriate watery solution (2 to 4 per cent) 
to the mucous membrane of the ear, eye, nose, 
throat, urethra, vagina, or rectum, it quickly 
brings about loss of all pain sensations, or, inject¬ 
ed into the skin, causes complete anaesthesia over 
a circumscribed area, permitting of cutting ope¬ 
rations. When injected into the spinal canal 
it brings about complete loss of pain sense in all 
portions of the body below the site of the in¬ 
jection, sometimes even more extensively. This 
method of inducing anaesthesia without loss of 
consciousness has' some very advantageous fea¬ 
tures in surgical procedures and was first prac¬ 
tised by a New York physician, Dr. J. 
Leonard Corning. Other related alkaloids, 
eucaine, holocain, have similar properties to 
cocaine. Still other compounds made by the 
synthetic chemist have been widely employed, 
principally as analgesics (q.v.). 

General anaesthesia is usually brought about 
by the inhalation of some vapor. Nitrous oxid 
gas, chloroform, ether, ethyl chloride, etc., are 
those most frequently employed, especially the 
three former. Nitrous oxid (q.v.) was the first 
of this series to be suggested. It was made by 
Sir Humphry Davy in 1800, but was not used in 
practice until about 1844, when Dr. H. Wells, 
an American dentist, employed it in the ex¬ 
traction of teeth. 

The anaesthetic properties of ether were 
known for some years before put to practical 
use. As to its first use there is much contro¬ 
versy. It seems certain that one Dr. Crawford 
W. Long of Georgia first used ether as a general 
anaesthetic, but to W. T. G. Morton, a dentist 
of Boston, should be given the credit for 
demonstrating its value and use to the medical 
profession. Long did his first operation under 
ether 30 March 1842, for the removal of a 
cystic tumor of the jaw. He reported his ex¬ 
periments to the Georgia State Medical Society 
in 1842. Morton’s work was begun in 1846, 
on 30 September, when he extracted a tooth 
while the patient was under the influence of 
ether. He subsequently demonstrated his meth¬ 
od at the Massachusetts General Hospital, and 
then patented his product under the name 
Letheon. 

The following year Sir J. W. Simpson of 
Edinburgh announced the discovery of the 
anaesthetic properties of chloroform and demon¬ 
strated its value in obstetrics. At the present 
time all three of these anaesthetics are exten¬ 
sively employed. In Europe chloroform is pre¬ 
ferred ; in this country ether is used more often. 
The statistics of deaths following these two 
shows ether to be the less dangerous, although 
it has more disagreeable after-effects than 


chloroform. Chronic bronchial and kidney 
disease contra-indicate the use of ether, while 
in respect to people with weak hearts chloro¬ 
form is to be avoided. See Chloroform ; 
Ether; Nitrous Oxide. 

References: Probyn Williams, ( Guide to 
Administration of Anaesthetics ) (New York, 
1901); F. R. Packard, ^he. Discovery of Ether 
in the History of Medicine in the United 
States ) (Philadelphia, 1901) ; E. Overton, 
( Studien fiber die Narkose ) (Jena, 1901). 

Anagni, a town of Italy, 40 miles east- 
southeast of Rome. It was the birthplace of 
four Popes — Innocent III., Gregory IX., Alex¬ 
ander IV., and Boniface VIII., and as the chief 
city of the Hernici was a place of importance 
during the whole period of Roman history. 
Virgil mentions it as <( wealthy Anagnia.® Pop. 
(1901) 10,059. 

Anagram, a word or sentence resulting 
from the transposition of the letters of a given 
word or form of words. The most exact ana¬ 
gram, sometimes termed palindrome, is that 
formed by reading the letters backward — evil, 
for example, thus read, constituting live. The 
making of anagrams was a favorite mediaeval 
amusement and is still an occasional pastime. 

Anaheim, Cal., city in Orange County, 
situated in a fertile valley, 28 miles south of Los 
Angeles, on the Southern P. and Santa Fe 
R.R.’s. It is the centre of the wine trade for 
southern California, producing over 1,000,000 
gallons annually. Anaheim has a public library, 
high schools, Saint Catherine’s Academy, and 
11 churches. It was settled in 1859. Pop. 
(1900) 1,456. 

Anahuac, a name applied to the great 
central plateau of Mexico, elevated from 6,000 
to 9,000 feet above the sea and including more 
than the area of the republic. It contains sev¬ 
eral lakes, and Popocatepetl is the loftiest of the 
volcanoes which rise from it. 

Ana’itis, the Persian water goddess of an¬ 
tiquity, extensively worshipped in the East. 

Anakim ( (( long-necked ones® = giants), 
a general term, like Amorites or Rephaim, used 
by the Hebrews for the pre-Jewish inhabitants 
of Palestine; but with special reference to the 
colossal stature accredited to them, as by others 
to the wild fierce tribes they encountered on 
first entering their adopted land. Like the Greek 
giants, they were mountain-dwellers (Josh. xi. 
21-2), all through Judah and Israel as later di¬ 
vided, and apparently with palisaded strong¬ 
holds at Hebron and other places. This passage 
says Joshua drove them thence, but that rem¬ 
nants survived at Gaza, Gath, and Ashdod, 
then or later Philistine cities. An older pas¬ 
sage, however, says in the Authorized Version 
that it was Caleb who expelled (< the three sons 
of Anak,® whose names are given, from <( the 
city of Arba [Kirjath-Arba] (the father of 
Anak), which is Hebron.® But this is a lu¬ 
dicrous misapprehension of the scribe. <( Sons 
of the Anakim® means in Oriental phraseology 
clans of that people, here turned into a person 
with personal sons. The other part is still more 
grotesque. <( Kirjath-Arba® means <( city of four® 
(probably from the incidents of its settlement; ; 
but the scribe has taken <( Arba® for a person. 
If the oldest text spoke of the city of the Mather 
of the Anakim® (that is, their ancestral home), 


ANALCITE —ANALOGY OF RELIGION 


the metaphor is intelligible enough; but as such 
metaphors in the East are usually feminine, it is 
most likely the original said (< mother of Ana- 
kim,® and the copyist corrected a supposed error. 

Analcite, a-nal'slt (from the Greek word 
meaning (( weak,® in allusion to the feeble elec¬ 
tric properties it manifests when heated or 
rubbed), a mineral usually classed as a zeolite, 
or hydrated double silicate of sodium and 
aluminum, with the formula NaAlSi 2 0 G + H 2 0; 
although Doelter maintains that the water can¬ 
not be water of crystallization, and writes the 
formula thus: NaAlSiChT 2 H 2 Si 0 3 . Analcite is 
commonly colorless or white, with a vitreous 
lustre. Its hardness is from 5 to 5.5, and its 
specific gravity about 2.26. It occurs in a va¬ 
riety of forms, but usually in trapezohedrons. 
There has been much controversy over its crys¬ 
talline . structure, owing to certain optical 
anomalies that it exhibits; but it is now usually 
referred to the isometric system, the weak dou¬ 
ble refraction that it often exhibits being prob¬ 
ably due in part to anomalous internal stresses, 
and in part to a loss of water, and a consequent 
modification in molecular structure. Beautiful 
crystals of analcite are found near Mount yEtna 
and in Nova Scotia. In the United States the 
mineral occurs in thf trap rocks of northern 
New Jersey, Colorado, California, and the Lake 
Superior region. See Leucite. 

Analemma, a geometrical term implying 
the projection of a sphere upon the plane of a 
meridian with the point of sight an infinitely dis¬ 
tant point of the radius perpendicular to that 
plane. This projection is sometimes styled 
orthographic. The sun-dial has been called an 
analemma, and the term has also been used to 
indicate a scale showing the declination of the 
sun and the equation of time of various periods 
of the year. 

Analgesics, remedies used to control pain. 
These have come largely into use during the 
past 10 to 15 years. Before that time the pro¬ 
fession had to rely chiefly on a few drugs, 
notably opium, cannabis indica, and their allies, 
for the relief of pain of nerve and muscle: 
neuralgia, acute rheumatism, sick headache, and 
other transitory or persistent affections of the 
sensory nerves. Synthetic chemistry has intro¬ 
duced a large number of new drugs that have 
been found very useful in allaying the pain and 
discomfort of many conditions heretofore borne 
with heroic stoicism. The commonest of these 
new remedies are antipyrine, acetanilide or anti- 
febrin, and phenacetin. These are but a few of 
a large list of similar drugs. The numerous 
drug-store mixtures sold as headache powders, 
etc., are usually mixtures of the cheapest of 
these, acetanilide or antifebrin, with other prod¬ 
ucts. See Anaesthetics; Antifebrin; Anti¬ 
pyretics; Phenacetin. 

Analogue, a term in comparative anatomy 
employed to denote resemblances, as an organ 
of an animal or plant performing the same func¬ 
tion as another part in a second animal or plant 
differently organized. It is much used by geolo¬ 
gists in comparing fossil remains with living 
specimens. 

Analogy, a correspondence of relations 
between one thing and another. 

In logic it implies the resemblance of rela¬ 
tions, a meaning ^iven to the word first by the 
Vol. 1—30 


mathematicians. To call a country which has 
sent out various colonies the mother country 
implies an analogy between the relation in which 
it stands to its colonies and that which a mother 
holds to her children. 

As more commonly used it is a resemblance 
on which an argument falling short of induction 
may be established. Under this meaning the 
element of relation is not especially distinguished 
from others. (( Analogical reasoning, in this sec¬ 
ond sense, may be reduced to the following for¬ 
mula : Two things resemble each other in one 
or more respects; a certain proposition is true 
of the one, therefore it is true of the other.® 
If an invariable conjunction is made out be¬ 
tween a property in the one case and a property 
in the other, the argument rises above analogy, 
becoming an induction on a limited basis; but if 
no such conjunction has been made out, then 
the argument is one of analogy merely. Ac¬ 
cording to the number of qualities in one body 
which agree with those in another, may it be 
reasoned with confidence that the as yet unex¬ 
amined qualities of the two bodies will also be 
found to correspond. Metaphor and allegory 
address the imagination, while analogy appeals 
to the reason. The former are founded on simi¬ 
larity of appearances, of effects, or of incidental 
circumstances; the latter is built up on more es¬ 
sential resemblances which afford a proper basis 
for reasoning. 

In zoology analogy is applied to the resem¬ 
blance between the entire bodies, or between 
special structures of organs, in animals of un¬ 
related types. Thus a whale is analogous in 
form to a fish, its paddles analogous to the fins 
of a fish. The wings of an insect are analogous 
to those of a bird. Analogy implies a dissimi¬ 
larity of structure of two organs, with identity 
in use or function, as the legs of a bird or quad¬ 
ruped and those of an insect. These analogies 
are the result of the adaptation of the animal to 
similar habits, modes of life, or like environ¬ 
ment, and result in convergence (q.v.), paral¬ 
lelism, and sometimes mimicry (q.v.). (See 
also Homology.) Osborn defines analogy m 
evolution as embracing similar changes due to 
similar adaptation in function both in homolo¬ 
gous and in non-homologous organs, both in 
related and in unrelated animals. The different 
grades of analogy are shown by Osborn in the 
following table: 

ANALOGY IN EVOLUTION. 

Analogous Variation (Darwin): Similar congenital 
variations in more or less distantly related animats and 
plants. 

Parallelism: Independent similar development of re¬ 
lated animals, plants, and organs. 

Convergence: Independent similar development of 
unrelated animals, bringing them apparently closer to¬ 
gether. 

Homoplasy (Lankester) (? Homomorphy, Fiirbrin- 
ger) : Independent similar development of homologous 
organs or regions giving rise to similar new parts. 

Analogy of Religion, The, a famo-us work 
by Bishop Joseph Butler, published in 1736. 
The full title is ( The Analogy of Religion, Nat¬ 
ural and Revealed, to the Constitution and 
Course of Nature.* The author lays down 
three premises,— the existence of God; the 
known course of nature; and the necessary lim¬ 
itations of our knowledge. These enable him 
to take common ground with those whom he 
seeks to convince — the exponents of a <( loose 
kind of deism.® In no sense a philosophy of 


ANALYSIS—ANALYSIS SITUS 


religion, but an attempt to remove common ob¬ 
jections thereto, the work is necessarily narrow 
in scope; but within its self-imposed limitations 
the discussion is exhaustive, dealing with such 
problems as a future life; God’s moral govern¬ 
ment; man’s probation; the doctrine of neces¬ 
sity; and most largely the question of revelation. 

Analysis, in common speech, the act of 
analyzing; the state of being anlayzed; the result 
of such investigation. The separation of any¬ 
thing physical, mental, or a mere conception 
into its constituent elements. It is also ap¬ 
plied to a syllabus, conspectus, or exhibition of 
the heads of a discourse; a synopsis, a brief ab¬ 
stract of a subject to enable a reader more read¬ 
ily to comprehend it when it is treated at length. 

In mathematics the term analysis signifies 
an unloosing, as contradistinguished from syn¬ 
thesis, a putting together. The analytical meth¬ 
od of inquiry has been defined as the method 
of ascertaining the truth of a proposition by first 
supposing the thing done, and then reasoning 
back step by step till one arrives at some ad¬ 
mitted truth. Analysis in mathematics may be 
exercised on finite or infinite magnitudes or 
numbers. The analysis of finite quantities is 
the same as specious arithmetic or algebra. 
That of infinites, called also the new analysis, is 
especially employed in fluxions or the differential 
calculus. But analysis could be employed also in 
geometry; it is therefore a departure from cor¬ 
rect language to use the word analysis, as many 
do, as the antithesis of geometry; it is opposed, as 
already mentioned, to synthesis, and to that only. 

As to analysis in chemistry, see Chemical 
Analysis. 

Analytica, The, a treatise by Aristotle, is 
the third in that philosopher’s ( Organon^ or 
( Instrument, > and includes in general all that 
concerns the art of reasoning. Aristotle does 
not call his system logic, or claim to have in¬ 
vented it; but his theory is so perfect that no 
philosopher has been able to add to it any ele¬ 
ment of importance since it was first advanced. 
The ( Analytica ) is divided into two parts: the 
first dealing with the form of every demonstra¬ 
tion; the second, with the demonstration itself. 
In the first dissertation he treats of the terms 
composing a proposition, defines a syllogism, 
and shows how it is constructed. In the second 
treatise Aristotle discusses the logic of science. 

Analysis Situs. Let a geometrical figure—say 
a closed surface in common space—be subjected 
to any change of form (bending, stretching, etc.) 
that does not involve any (< tearing® or 
(( joining.® An extensible rubber model will 
suggest the possibilities of such deformation. 
Whatever properties of our figure are unalter¬ 
able by this process form the subject-matter of 
analysis situs, which may therefore be defined 
as the theory of invariants of the group (or groups, 
see this term) of continuous deformations. Its 
scope, however, is not confined to common 
space, but embraces, in general, w-dimensional 
figures in n-dimensional space (more briefly: 
R n or n-space, also m-surfaces for w-dimensional 
surfaces, etc.). 

The effect of tearing a surface or making an 
incision on it along a line, is to double the latter. 
As the incision proceeds it substitutes for each 
point P of the line two points, Pi, P r , henceforth 
not to be considered as consecutive, and whose 


successions separately constitute the left and 
right edges of the incision. Joining is the 
opposite process, each point of the juncture con¬ 
sisting of twin points merged into one. Corre¬ 
sponding definitions apply to incision and junc¬ 
ture along surfaces of two or more dimensions, 
or when the elements considered are straights, 
planes, etc., instead of points. 

It will here be noticed that figures which are 
not continuously deformable into one another, 
or equivalent, in n-space, may become so by 
virtue of the additional freedom of deformation 
that n + i-space affords. The figure of two con¬ 
centric circles in a plane is not equivalent to 
two circles excluding one another, but becomes 
so in 3-space. Hence a distinction arises be¬ 
tween absolute analysis situs, which places its 
figures in space of any suitable number of dimen¬ 
sions, and analysis situs in a given space or 
surface within which all deformation must take 
place. 

C. Jordan has shown that in the case of 2- 
dimensional surfaces the following four inva¬ 
riants form a complete system. This means that 
any two surfaces agreeing in these data are 
equivalent: (1) the number of detached portions 
of which they consist, and, with regard to each of 
these: (2) the number of curves bounding it; (3) 
its connectivity; (4) its laterality (unilateral or 
bilateral type). Evidently the first and second 
of these could be changed by incision or junc¬ 
ture only. 

Connectivity. —A surface is connected if it per¬ 
mits of continuous passage on it between any 
two of its points. The standard of connectivity 
is the area of a plane triangle, circle, or equiva¬ 
lent figure, which is called simply-connected or 
elementary. On it any two curves C lt C 2 (not in¬ 
tersecting themselves or each other) between two 
points, A, B, are equivalent, for taken together 
they form a closed curve which divides the plane 
into two separate portions. This latter property 
received analytical demonstration from Jordan 
(hence (< Jordan curves®) and has lately been 
based on the theory of assemblages by Veblen. 
Using Poincare’s notation we write 

or C 1 —C 2 = o, 

where the negative sign means that the cui ve 
is to be taken in the opposite direction (from 
B to A), and equivalence to zero means unlimited 
contractibility. A spherical or ellipsoidal sur¬ 
face is also simply connected, with this difference, 
that closed curves, if one obstacle (a small 
circle or (< puncture® of the-surface) be placed 
in the way of their contraction, may still be 
reduced to zero by deformation in the oppo¬ 
site direction. Consider, for instance, the in¬ 
tersection of such a surface with a movable 
plane as the latter moves parallel to itself in 
either of two directions. 

Extending our definition of equivalence to 
zero, to sums of curves on any surface, it be¬ 
comes necessary to stipulate (1) that the order 
of terms of a sum must be preserved (non- 
commutative addition) and (2) that any portions 
of curves, if deformed so as to coincide and form 
negatives of one another, shall cancel. Thus 
on the surface of the double ring (Fig. 1) we 
have 

C X +C 2 = C 3 or C t -\-C 2 — C 3 = o. 

Curves form an independent set on a surface 
if none and no sums of them are equivalent to 



ANALYSIS SITUS 


zero. Curves containing portions equivalent 
inter se (as when coiling several times about a 



cylinder) shall here be excluded. Multiply-con¬ 
nected surfaces are then said to have connectivity 
c if they permit of c independent paths between 
any two points A, B. The connectivity of a 
closed surface, i.e., one without boundary and 
yet having all its points at finite distances, is 
not changed by puncturing it. For instance, 
the intersection of the double ring of Fig. i with 
a plane remains equivalent with itself (and to 
zero) no matter how the plane moves. 

Taking B at an infinitesimal distance from A, 
all paths between them but those equivalent 
to the shortest one, approach closed curves 
(Fig. 2). Hence there are c—i independent 



Fig. 2. 


sets of incisions thus furnish e+q'+t=e'+q + * 
parts, which proves the proposition. We alsi 
see that the characteristic of a system of sur¬ 
faces is the sum of their individual characteris¬ 
tics. 

Any surface can be rendered simply connected 
by means of i — K cross-sections, for let the q 
cross-sections which divide it into e elementary 
areas be traced, and let them meet in v vertices. 
Consider this division as a map of e districts, 
the traces, counted from vertex to vertex, being 
its frontiers. Between any adjacent districts 
obliterate one frontier (thereby also removing 
two vertices). Repeat this operation on the 
new map, etc., until but one district remains. 
By what we have proven, the totality of re¬ 
maining frontiers then constitute i—K cross- 
sections. 

On the other hand the c — i nearly closed 
curves connecting .4 with I? (see above) can readily 
be turned into cross-sections if we first draw 
a re-entrant section in a circle of diameter AB. 
thereby (< puncturing* the surface. Hence, on 
closed surfaces, c — i=i—K, or c = 2—K, and 
if we retain this formula, the connectivity of a 
system of m surfaces will prove to be the sum 
of the individual connectivities, diminished by 
the number (in — i) of junctures necessary to 
make one surface of the system: 

c = Ic{ — (m — i) = i -f I(c{ — i). 


closed curves on a surface of connectivity c. 
Conversely, an independent set of c-i closed 
curves does not divide the surface (for this 
would give rise to an equivalence between those 
bounding any portion of it) and can readily be 
so connected with two points A, B , as to form 
(after slight changes) c — i paths from A to B, 
in addition to which there is the direct line join¬ 
ing these points. 

Connectivity is often investigated by the 
method of sections. The latter are incisions of 
three types: (i) cross-sections between two 
points on the boundary. They may be bound- 
severing, if drawn between points of the same 
bounding-curve, or bound-joining, if between 
different ones. The former increase, the latter 
diminish, the number of boundaries by unity. 
(2) re-entrant sections, along closed curves, each 
furnishing two new rims; (3) 0- (sigma-) sections, 
starting at a boundary point and ending at a 
point of their own right or left edge. These 
contain a re-entrant section and a bound-joining 
section, and increase the number of bounding- 
curves by unity. 

Limiting our investigations to surfaces any 
sufficiently small area of which may be con¬ 
sidered simply connected, we may divide any 
one, or system of several, of them by a sufficient 
number ( q) of cross-sections into (say, e) ele¬ 
mentary areas. Since cross-sections start at a 
boundary, we must give a boundary to closed 
surfaces by puncturing them, i.e., taking out an 
infinitesimal area somewhere. The difference 
e—q then proves characteristic of our system of 
surfaces, and in fact is known as its characteris¬ 
tic: K=e — q. 

To prove this, let a second division, by q' 
cross-sections, yield e' elementary areas. Super¬ 
pose the tracings of both divisions and let there 
be t crossings of the proposed incisions. i hen 
the e areas left whole by the first division will 
be cut q' +t times by the second, or the e' areas 
of the second q+t times by the first. Both 


Kronecker’s researches have led to an analyt¬ 
ical expression for the characteristic of a closed 
analytical surface f(x, y, z) — o. Let f(x, y, z) 
be negative in the interior of this surface, and 
consider the family of surfaces f(x, y, z) = A. 
As A increases from — 00 to o, the surface has no 
real part at first, then, through the stage of 
isolated points or curves, real surfaces will 
develop. An isolated point develops into an 
ellipsoidal surface, increasing K by 2, while a 
closed curve (without multiple points) becomes 
an anchor-ring, leaving K unchanged. This, 
or the opposite, may occur several times as the 
parameter increases. Also, double points of the 
surface may arise, in the neighborhood of which 
the surfaces resemble one- or two-sheet hyper¬ 
boloids, changing from the one shape to the other 
as the double-point stage is passed. In each of 
these cases the increase of K is found to be 


/11 /12 / 


13 


, sgn (signum) meaning ± 1 ac- 


2 sgn f 2l f 22 f 23 

f 31 f 32 f 33 

cording as the determinant is positive or nega¬ 
tive, and 


f J1 f J1 f J1 

1 bx’ 2 by' ' 3 dz 


In dx 2 


A 

dx’ 



11LJA 

bxby by ’ 


etc., 


being partial derivatives. 

Examples. —(1) The surfaces formed by rota' 
tion of the lemniscates 

[(x-a) 2 +y 2 ][(x+a) 2 +y 2 ]-a* = A (Fig. 3) 

about the rr-axis. For positive A they present 
single sheets of ellipsoid connectivity (K = 2), 
for negative A, pairs of sheets of the same kind 
(K = 4). Within an infinitesimal sphere about 
the origin the transition is from the one-sheet 
to the two-sheet hyperboloid, as A decreases 
through zero. At A == — o 4 the two sheets be- 







ANALYSIS SITUS 


come isolated points and vanish (K =o). (2) the sheets, therefore each counting for n cross 
The surfaces formed by rotation of the same sections. Hence 


r 



Fig. 3.— Lemniscates. 

lemniscates about the y-axis. At A = — a 4 they 
reduce to an isolated curve and vanish without 
changing the characteristic (K =0). 

/ll /12 /l3 

Thus K becomes 


2 1 sgn 


the sum 


/21 /22 f 23 
/3I /32 /33 

to be taken over all points of intersection of the 
three surfaces: f t = o, / 2 = o, f 3 = o. Moreover, 
this expression lends itself to transformation 
into the integral by means of which Gauss 
represents the (( total curvature )} of the surface 
f(x, y, z) =0, so that we finally get: 


K =— total curvature. 

27T 


m 


K = 2n + 2 '[n — 

* = i 



1)] — nm = 2 n— — 1). 
H 


c K 

One half of the connectivity, viz., p —— = 1-, 

2 2 

is known as the deficiency of the surface. This 
is also found to be the difference between the 
maximal number of double points a curve of 
the nth. order may have, and the actual num¬ 
ber of them (d) on the curve f(x, y, z) — o: 

(n — i)(n — 2) , _. . . . . . 

p—~ -—- -—d. Besides, p is the number 


of integrals linearly independent on the surface. 

Laterality .—Granting that within a sufficiently 
small neighborhood of every point P, any of 
the surfaces we consider has two sides (right 
and left) distinguished by the two perpendicu¬ 
lars to be drawn from P, it may happen that 
some continuous path on the surface starting 
at P on the right side, arrives at P on the left 
side. The surface is then called unilateral ; in 
the absence of such a possibility, bilateral. We 
have hitherto tacitly assumed the bilateral 
type for our surfaces. 

Moebius called attention to the fact that a 
rectangular strip of paper aba'bf if its sides 
ba. a'b' be joined after a twist of 180°, as Fig. 4 


Connectivity of Riemann Surfaces .—If w be an 
n-valued algebraic function of the complex 
variable z (see Complex Variable), let all 
values of z be represented on a spherical surface. 
Superpose radially n copies or sheets of this 
surface and imagine that for one value z 0 for 
which the n w -values are distinct, one value of 
w belongs to each z 0 , i.e., to each of the n sheets. 
The values w 1 . . . w n will vary continuously with 
z, constituting n branches of the function w. 
For some values of z, however, say for z = b lt 
b 2 , . . . , b m , some among the quantities w 1 . . . w n 
will turn out equal. In these points we assume 
connection between the corresponding sheets, 
and denote them as branch-points. Such con¬ 
nection may not be feasible where other sheets 
intervene. In 4-space this difficulty would not 
arise. Limited as we are to 3-space, we may still 
suppose passage possible in these points between 
the sheets in question. Further, we find that 
whenever, starting at z 0 , we take z in a loop 
(in all sheets simultaneously) about a branch¬ 
point, on returning to z 0 the values w 1 . . . w n 
will have undergone a permutation typical of 
that branch-point. We prevent such loops, and 
render the branches single-valued, by means of 
incisions through all the sheets concerned, from 
z 0 to each branch-point. We further join every 
left edge of these incisions with the right one 
that exhibits the same w-values. This process 
(which, strictly speaking, again calls for a fourth 
dimension) completes our Riemann surface. 

If we use a circular punch to cut out neigh¬ 
borhoods of the m branch-points (through all 
the sheets), the portion punched out at b{, 
where first then fti 2 . . . sheets are connected, 
will show n — iftij — 1) — (/?i 2 —1) — ... distinct 
simply connected parts. Thus all branch-points 
furnish Iffn — i)J elementary areas. The 

neighborhood of s 0 , similarly punched out, 
yields n separate circles. The remainder falls 
into n elementary surfaces by means of m in¬ 
cisions from z 0 to the branch-points, through all 



Fig. 4.—Moebius’ sheet. 

directs, becomes unilateral. Moebius ’ sheet may 
conveniently be represented by folding the 
rectangular strip into triangular shape as in 
Fig. 5. The folds may be distinguished as posi- 


+ 



Fig. 5. 

m 

tive or negative according as, on our way from 
ab to a'b', we pass from the lower to the upper 
sheet or the reverse. Each corresponds to a 
torsion of ± 7r. Positive folds will cancel against 
negative ones. Evidently a strip folded into the 
shape of a polygon of an even number of sides 
will thus represent a bilateral surface; if the 
number of sides be odd, a unilateral one. Ruled 


























ANALYSIS SITUS 


surfaces of the third order contain the Moebius 
sheet (Masckke). Closed surfaces without double 
points are bilateral. 

Indicatrix .—The two normals at a point P, 
not being in the surface, are more conveniently 
replaced by a small circle about the point, taken 
in a definite (say counter-clockwise) rotation 
about P. On the other side (of this point’s 
neighborhood) the same rotation will be a clock¬ 
wise one about P. Similarly, within the surface 
two infinitesimal perpendicular straight lines 
may be drawn, which if produced would form a 
right-handed Cartesian coordinate system (see 
Analytic Geometry) on one side (which we 
may define as the right one) and a left-handed 
one on the other. Such alternating contrivances 
are called indicatrices (Klein). They may be 
distinguished as right and left, or as positive and 
negative. If constructed continuously ( i.e ., 
without sudden transition to the opposite one) 
©n continuous paths for all points that can 
thus be reached, one indicatrix will result for 
each point on a bilateral surface, while on a 
unilateral one a point will have both of them. 
Hence the term double surfaces for the latter type. 

Unilateral Surfaces .—It will be noticed that 
Moebius’ sheet has one continuous edge. Also, 



Fig. 6 . 

if we pursue any closed path, our direction of 
progress and a direction on the surface per¬ 
pendicular to the former and pointing to the 
left may be taken as an indicatrix. Along some 



Fig. 7.—Effect of a bilateralizing re-entrant section on 
Fig. 6. One side is shaded. 

closed paths the latter will be reversed. A line 
closely following such a path on its left will not 
close, as its beginning and end will be on oppo¬ 
site sides of the path. An incision along the 
latter evidently leaves our surface connected. 
Thus, on a unilateral surface, at least one non¬ 
dividing re-entrant section can be made. "W e 
shall call it a bilateralizing one. In fact, the 
number of bilateralizing re-entrant sections will 


be that of independent paths along which the 
indicatrix is reversed. This type of the re¬ 
entrant section, however, yields only one new 
bounding-curve. For only after completing a 
double circuit about the above closed path will 
the line following it on the left close in its turn, 
showing that the two edges of the incision blend 
into one. There also becomes possible a new 
kind of cross-section that leaves unchanged the 
number of boundaries ( bilateralizing cross-sec¬ 
tion), as we see by merely tracing a bilateraliz¬ 
ing re-entrant section and then making a cross- 
section that crosses the trace once between two 
points of one boundary. 

Let our surface possess B bounding curves; 
let it become simply connected by virtue of b 
bilateralizing, 5 bound-severing, and j bound¬ 
joining cross-sections. Then j =c — 1 — b — s, and 
B + s — (c — 1 —b—s) = 1 or B + 2s + b = c. Since b 
is not zero, the number of boundaries of a uni¬ 
lateral surface will always be less than its con¬ 
nectivity: B <c. 

Two Types of Unilateral Surfaces. —Draw a 
line connecting two points on different bilateral- 



Fig. 8 . 

izing re-entrant sections. Make the bound¬ 
joining cross-sections ab and ab immediately to 
the right and left of it, and rejoin the re-entrant 

sections along the small portions ad bb. The 



result will be a common re-entrant section. 
For follow by a line immediately to the left the 

re-entrant section from a to b, the cross-section 
from b to a, the other re-entrant section to d 

and, finally, the cross-section to b. It will be 
seen that this line is closed, and so is the corre¬ 
sponding edge of the whole incision. 

After this process of uniting bilateralizing re¬ 
entrant sections has been repeated as often as 
possible, if b is even, no bilateralizing re-entrant 
sections remain; if b is odd, there will remain 




































ANALYSIS SITUS 


one. Accordingly, there are two types of uni¬ 
lateral surfaces: 

— c, b even: K = 2 —c, when 

the surface is unbounded (R = o), becomes 2, o, 
-2, -4 • • • 

(2) R + 2 ^s H- ~2~~) +1 = c, b odd: K = 2—c 

- 1, -1, -3 . . . , of R =0. 

The above surface (Fig. 9) is of the first type, 
even if extended so as to lose its boundary; 
K = 0. Steiner’s surface, which is equivalent to 
the projective plane, is of the second type; K = 1. 



E 



Fig. 10. —Evolution of Steiner’s surface. 

Steiner's Surface.— Project the points of the 
projective plane from a center C. On each pro¬ 
jecting ray, whose length CP we call r, lay off 

x y 

the segment ——^ from C. The line at infinity 

will thus furnish a circle of radius unity, whose 
diametrically opposite points represent the same 
point (at 00) of our plane. Now let the entire 
new surface, consisting of the ends of the seg¬ 
ments laid off from C, be deformed into the 
plane area of this circle (Fig. 6). Cut the latter 
from C to E, roll it into a cone, putting CE on 
CE' (the edges of the incision on different sides). 
Join the edges of CE (creating a double line) 
and also, by adjacent points, the two basal 
circles of the cone. This second juncture, by 
deformation of the surface, may be made to 
show continuous curvature, and the apex of the 
cone may be made to coincide with the center 
of the circle of juncture. This is Steiner’s sur¬ 
face (Fig. 11). By punching out its center and 
cutting by a plane perpendicular to the double 
line we get three elementary surfaces. Hence 
K = 1, also c — 1, 6 = 1, B= o. 

Boy has devised similar surfaces and inves¬ 
tigated the connection between the characteristic 
and Gauss ootal curvature in such cases. 

Two connected surfaces possessing the same 
number ( B) of bounding-curves, the same con¬ 
nectivity and, in case they are unilateral, the same 
number of bilateralizing re-entrant sections, can 
now be made simply connected by means of the 
same number of independent re-entrant sections. 
After a correspondence has been decided upon 
between the bounding curves, we draw c — 1 


bound-joining cross-sections between pairs of 
corresponding ones and further establish a one- 
to-one correspondence between the points of the 
original bounding curves, also of these -~ross- 
sections. The resulting simply connected sur¬ 
faces will have their boundaries corresponding 
point for point. Schoenflies has demonstrated 




Fig. ii. —Steiner’s surface and its connectivity. 

that under these conditions between the points ki 
the interior of the simply connected areas, too, a 
continuous one-to-one correspondence may be es¬ 
tablished. This proves our surfaces equivalent, 
verifying the alleged theorem of Jordan. 

Space of n Dimensions. —The conceptions in¬ 
troduced in the analysis situs of two-dimensional 
surfaces in three-dimensional space permit of 
generalization. The indicatrix of an w-dimen- 
sional surface will consist of m directions in ( i.e ., 
tangent to) the surface perpendicular to each 
other. There will be only two indicatrices 
(right and left), since we may bring about coin¬ 
cidence between a first pair of axes of different 
indicatrices, then between a second pair, etc. 
To do this, in the case of the kth. pair, we have 
m—k- space at our disposal. This becomes a 
common plane for the w-first pair. For the last 
pair there remains a line only, so that coinci¬ 
dence, if not existing, cannot be forced. As a 
consequence, unilateral and bilateral w-sur- 
faces must be distinguished. 

Examples. —-The indicatrix of a line is the line- 
element (or the tangent) taken in one of two 
possible directions. A closed curve with a 
cusp might be considered one-sided, as the 
direction here changes abruptly as we make 
the circuit. A four-sided prism abcda'b'c'd' in 
R 4 can be twisted like Moebius’ sheet and its 
face abed joined to c'd'a'b'. The resulting sur¬ 
face is bounded by'one bilateral 2-surface (from 
ab to cd «= a'b' and back to c’d' = ab ) and two 






ANALYSIS SITUS 


unilateral ones. We may further join these two 
latter 2-surfaces, their juncture only forming 



: a 1 

• 

1 

1 

d:.... 


■ jQ 

1 

1 

1 

% 

% 



d' 



a' 


/nteriors of Different Orders and Degrees. —In a 
plane a closed curve may have overlapping 
portions so as to contain a certain area twice 
or r times. In 3-space it may, without having 
any double points, coil r times about certain 
straight lines of its interior, which thereby be¬ 
come an interior of the rtli order. But if, as we 
follow the curve in a given direction, it coils p 
times in an assumed positive rotation about this 
interior of rth order, and r — p times negatively, we 
may then call p — (r — p ) =2p — r the degree of the 
interior. The curve C (Fig. 13) has an interior of 



a unilateral surface such as we may imagine 
inside any solid. There will remain only one 
bounding bilateral 2-surface of spherical con¬ 
nectivity, just as Moebius’ sheet has one edge. 
This further shows that an incision is possible 
along a surface of spherical connectivity, which 
does not divide our 3-surface, but renders it 
bilateral (bilateralizing closed section). 

We shall now consider bilateral w-surfaces. 
They may be given by making the coordinates 
Xj . . . x n of a point in n-space, functions of w 
parameters t i . . . t m : X i=xi(t 1 . . . t m ). w- 

planes wall theh.be linear functions. Lines, com¬ 
mon planes, etc., are w-planes for w = 1,2... 

In n-space, we call surfaces complementary if 
their dimensions add up to n, dual if they add up 
to n — 1. In R 3 , lines and 2-surfaces are comple¬ 
mentary, while lines are dual to lines (self-dual). 

Closed w-surfaces are boundless and contain 
no points with infinite coordinates. They sepa¬ 
rate the dual planes of n-space into interior and 
exterior ones. Taking any complementary plane 
(n—w-plane) that does not intersect the closed 
w-surface, we can move into it any exterior dual 
plane (n — 1 — w-plane) without allowing it to inter¬ 
sect the surface on the way, can reverse it there 
by turning it through 180°, and bring it back to 
its original position along the path on which it 
was brought. An interior n — i— w-plane, if 
we attempted to do the same, would describe 
an n — w-surface which must intersect the given 
w-surface. Besides distinguishing between the 
interior and exterior of our closed w-surface this 
also shows that the interior is bilateral, the 
exterior unilateral, with regard to the dual 
planes. 

Examples. —(1) The limiting case of a closed 
figure without dimension is a couple of points. 
In 1-space (straight line) it bounds a segment. 
It separates the straights of 2-space (common 
plane) into those passing between it (interior) 
and the exterior ones, and does the same for the 

2- planes of 3-space. (2) The interior of a cir¬ 
cular circumference is an area in 2-space; in 

3- space it consists of the straight lines passing 
through it. Take a plane not intersecting it: 
an exterior straight line may be moved into the 
same without coming in contact with the circle, 
may there be turned through 180° and brought 
back.—Although points cannot be reversed, it 
is as natural in an anaylsis situs as in projective 
geometry to assume unilaterality for the infinite 
plane. This is merely to extend to a limiting 
case what is true generally. 


Fig. 13.—Interior of order 2 and degree o. 

order 2 and degree o, to which line L belongs. 
These considerations are applicable to n-space, 
where n — 1-surfaces, however, cannot possess 
interiors of higher orders without self-intersection 
(double points, etc.). Interiors of higher orders 
than the first can be removed by deformation, 
unless the curve is knotted (see below). 

Locking of Dual Closed Curves. —In n-space a 
closed w-surface may be locked with a closed 
n — 1 — w-surface, as are the links of a chain. 
Through neither of them can a surface one 
dimension higher than it be laid that does not 
intersect the other. Examples: A point-couple 
and a circle enclosing one of its points in a plane. 
Two linked curves in R 3 . For the latter, accord¬ 
ing to Gauss, the double integral 

(x r —x) ( dydz ' — dzdy ') 

+ (3/ —y)(dz dx' — dx dz r ) 

-(- (s' — z) {dx dy — dy dx f ) 


[(*' -x) 2 + (/ -y) 2 + (s'-s) 2 ]« 

x, y, z being a point of one curve, x r , y', s' one 
of the other, has the value 1. In the case of 
one curve coiling repeatedly about the other, 
the order and degree of their interlocking may 
again be distinguished in accordance with the 
reflections of the preceding paragraph. Gauss’ 
integral then gives the degree, which may happen 
to be o if the order be even. Two spherical 
surfaces transplanted into R 5 may interlock. 

Knots. —Closed w-surfaces, in 2W-fi-space 
may lock with themselves. They are then said 
to form knots. The various shapes of knotted 
curves in common space have been extensively 



Fig. 14. —Trefoil-knot. 

investigated (Listing, Tait, Simony). These re¬ 
searches have been referred to as topology, a 
word also used synonymously with analysis 
situs. The simplest knot is the so-called trefoil- 
knot. It is formed by a curve of the sixth 
order whose equation in tetrahedral coordinates 



















ANALYZER-ANAM 


is given by Brill. It was thought that these 
knots might be forms of vortex-rings accounting 
for the differences of chemical elements. There 
are no knots in 4-space, surface-knots first be¬ 
coming possible in 5-space, and, in their turn, 
dissolving in 6-space. 

Generalized Connectivity. —w-surfaces will be 
called connected with regard to tangent lines, 
2-planes, etc., if any two of these can be moved 
into one another without ceasing to be tangent 
to the surface. Two spheres in R 3 , e.g., are dis¬ 
connected as to points, connected as to tangents 
and tangent planes. The opposite is true for the 
faces of a polyhedron. But we shall assume that 
the surfaces considered possess all these connec¬ 
tivities. With regard to any of them they may be 
multiply-connected. Connectivity as to points 
(c,) is the special case treated above. It has been 
referred to as cyclosis or periphraxy (Maxwell) 
in the case of portions of 3-space. The interior 
of an anchor-ring, e.g., has c 1 = 2. 

The c — 1 closed curves by means of which we 
determined the connectivity of a closed surface 
in 3-space will lock with other closed curves 
either in the space enclosed by the surface or in the 
exterior. We are thus led to consider the con¬ 
nectivity of the portion ( R 3 — S 2 ) left after sub¬ 
tracting from R 3 the points of our surface S 2 . 

Betti's Numbers of a Closed m-surface S m .— 
Imagine S m , if necessary after continuous defor¬ 
mation, placed in w + i-space. Find the con¬ 
nectivities c lt c 2 . . . c-m—i of the remainder 
(R m+l —S m ) with regard to points, lines, 2- 
olanes, . . . m — i-planes. These are Betti's num¬ 
bers P,, P 2 . . . P m - X of the surface S m , ( ck=Pk ). 
This means that in (R m +i— S m ) there are P k — i 
independent closed /^-surfaces with which cer¬ 
tain m— ^-surfaces within S m may lock. Ob¬ 
viously, the m — ^-surfaces may be deformed out 
of S m into the remainder (P m+1 — S m ), while at 
the same time, and never ceasing to lock with 
them, the ^-surfaces are deformed so as to be 
on S m . This shows that P m -k is at least equal 
to Pk, and vice versa, so that finally P m ~k=Pk 
on any closed bilateral m-surface without double 
points. Betti’s number P x for a 2-surface is 
at the same time its connectivity c. 

Euler's Polyhedron Formula. —The theorem 
holds for any division of a spherical surface into 
simply connected districts by frontiers bounded 
by the vertices in which they concur, that 
v— f+d = 2, v being the number of vertices, / 
of frontiers, and d of districts. Such a map 
is regular if each district has the same number 
fd of frontiers, and if an equal number f v of these 

concur in each vertex. We have v = t~, d — y~, 

fv fd 

and f( 2 fd—fdfv + 2 f v ) =2 f v fd, where 2 fd —fdfv + 2 f v 
must evidently be positive. This gives rise to only 
five regular maps corresponding to the regular 
polyhedral surfaces of the tetrahedron (self¬ 
reciprocal), cube and octahedron (reciprocal to 
each other), dodecahedron and icosahedron (recip¬ 
rocal). The regular 4-dimensional polyhedra are 
found to be six, viz., two self-reciprocal ones 
bounded by 5 tetrahedra and 24 octahedra re¬ 
spectively, one bounded by 8 cubes reciprocal to 
one bounded by 16 tetrahedra, and one bounded 
by 120 dodecahedra reciprocal to one bounded 
by 600 tetrahedra. 

Euler’s formula, extended to maps on closed 
2-surfaces of connectivity c : v—f + d= T,—c leads 
to a superior limit for the number of districts 
that may be adjacent each to each on such a 


surface. Heffter has investigated under wha 
conditions this limit is actually attained, whil 
II. S. White shows what regular maps (called 
by him reticulations ) are possible for any given c. 
Generalizing still further, Euler’s formula for a 
map on any m-surface, i.e., a division of it into 
simply connected parts, the dividing m — 1- 
surfaces again being divided into simply con¬ 
nected partitions, etc., becomes: 


tn — 1 


I ( - i)^n q = 1 + 2 '( — i) < ?(P m _ <7 — 1), 


<7 = 0 

n q being the number of ^-dimensional parts or 
partitions on the map. Since for closed m-sur¬ 
faces we have Pk= Pm-k, if m is even this be¬ 
comes — i) q n q = 3 ~jPj +P 2 . .—P m - X ; if m is 
odd, — 1 ) q n q = o (Poincare). 

Literature. —Since no treatise on analysis situs 
has been published, a few of the main papers 
on the subject will here be mentioned. W. 
Dyck (Math. Annalen, vol. 32, p. 457) gives the 
literature preceding his article (to 1888). The 
pertinent publications of the savants named 
above are as follows: Listing, ( Der Census raum- 
licher Complexe* (Gottinger Abhandlungen, 
1861), and ( Vorstudien zur Topologie ) (Gottinger 
Studien, 1847); C. Jordan, ( Sur la deformation 
des Surfaces ) (Liouville Journal, ser. 2, 11, 1866); 

Klein, <Uber den Zusammenhang der Flachen* 
(Math. Annalen 7, 1874); Moebius, ( Werke, } 

Band 2: ( Uber die Bestimmung des Inhalts 

eines Polyeders ) and ( Zur Theorie der Polyeder 
und der Elementarverwandtschaft ); Gauss, 
< Werke, ) V, p. 134; Kroneclcer, ( Berliner Monats- 
berichte) (1869, p. 159, p. 688, 1873, p. 117, 
1878, p. 95); Betti, ( Sopra gli spazi di un 
numero qua lunque di dimension^ (Annali di 
matematica, 1870); Tait, ( 0 n Knots ) (Trans. 
Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, 1879, 1884, 1886; also 

Proceedings of the same Society, 1876 to 1879); 
Simony (Math. Annalen 19 and 24); Brill 
(Math. Ann. 18); Heffter (Math. Ann. 38); 
Boy (Math. Ann. 57); Maxwell, ( Theory of 
Electricity and Magnetism) (vol. 1, p. 18); 
Veblen (Trans. Am. Math. Soc., 1905, p. 83). 
The subject of analysis situs of higher dimen¬ 
sions, especially of 4-space, has been greatly 
advanced by the following six recent papers 
by H. Poincare: ( Analysis Situs) (Journal de 
l’Ecole Polytechnique, 1895); Complement a 
l’A. S.) (Proc. London Math. Soc., 1900); 

( Second complement a l’A. S.) (Rendiconti del 
Circolo matematico di Palermo, 1899); Cur 
certaines surfaces algebriques - ) (Bull. Soc. math, 
de France, 1902); Cur les cycles des surfaces 
algebriques) (Journal de Math., 1902); ( Cin- 
quieme complement a l’A. S.) (Rendic. Circ. 
mat. di Palermo, 1904). 

Paul Wernicke, 

Professor State College of Kentucky. 

Analytical Metrics, or Non-Euclidian 
Geometry Interpreted Analytically. For a 

historico-critical account of the notion and de¬ 
velopments of Non-Euclidian geometry from 
the standpoint of pure geometry — from the 
point of view of Lobatschewsky and Bolyai — 
the reader is referred to the article, ( Non- 
Euclidian Geometry,) in this work. The aim of 
the following paragraphs is to present a readih 
intelligible account of the epoch-making concept 
by means of ideas familiar in analytical pro¬ 
jective geometry, the point of departure and 


4 > « 


ANALYTICAL METRICS 


method being those of Cayley as modified and 
improved by Klein. 

General Considerations Concerning Geomet¬ 
ric Measurement. — Every problem of geometric 
measurement is reducible to one or the other 
or both of two fundamental problems: (i) to 
find the distance between two points; (2) to 
find the angle between two (intersecting) lines. 
Any two points belong to a range; any two 
(intersecting lines belong to a pencil; a range 
and a pencil are one-dimensional spaces; so it 
is seen that the fundamental problems consti¬ 
tute the problem of measurement in one¬ 
dimensional spaces. In the projective geometry 
of the plane (see Geometry, Projective, and 
Geometry, Modern Analytical) we learn that 
the range and the pencil are related by the 
principle of duality, or reciprocity. A range 
and a pencil if rendered projective, i. e., if a 
one-one correspondence be set up between the 
points of the one and the lines of the other, 
are so related that the anharmonic ratio of any 
four points (or lines) is equal to that of the 
corresponding four lines (or points). Count¬ 
less examples are met of the fact that in gen¬ 
eral to any point (or line) proposition there 
corresponds a line (or point) proposition; such 
pairs of propositions being so related that 
either proposition of a pair of reciprocals being 
given, the other can be found by merely ex¬ 
changing the notions of point and line. This 
reciprocity does not, however, at first appear 
to be universal an d all-pervasive. For exam ple, 
the distance, +V (at — at) 2 + (yi— y*) 2 , be¬ 
tween two points (at, yi), (at, jt), or at.~ 4 * 

VirjM 1 — o, at y-ri + 1 =0, is an algebraic 
function of the coordinates; while the angle, 
tan 1 \ (S 9 7 }— >y 2 ) :(£, £ 2 +r li rj 2 ) j- of the lines 

(Si,7i), (^ 3 ’? 2 ), or si x + 7 ll .y+ i=o,* 9 x + 
I2 .y+i = o, is a transcendental function of the 
coordinates. Sign being disregarded, a segment 
of a range is uniquely determined, while an 
angle of a pencil may have any one of an infinite 
series of values differing from each other by 
multiples of a period or 180°. Again a given 
segment is divisible by ruler and compasses into 
any chosen number of equal parts, while, by the 
same means, such division is possible in case 
of an arbitrarily given angle only if the division 
is to be bisection, quadrisection, etc., but not if 
it is to be trisection, for example. 

It is such discrepancies in the general 
scheme of reciprocity that furnish the mo the 
for seeking to generalize the ordinary concep¬ 
tion of distance and angle measurement in such 
a way that the discrepancies shall disappear and 
that the principle of duality shall apply without 
exception. Such being the motive, on the one 
hand, the possibility, on the other, of making 
the needed generalization lies in the fact that, 
despite the differences indicated, the ordinary 
notion of distance and the ordinary notion of 
angular measurement have tivo fundamental 
properties in common. These are: (1) that the 
distances between points of a range or the 
angles between lines of a pencil are added in 
such a way that, if 1, 2, 3 denote three such 
points or three such lines, we have in the first 
case seg. 12 + seg. 23 = seg. 13, and, in the sec¬ 
ond case, Z 12+ Z 23 — Z 1.3. In particular, 
seg. 11 = 0, L 11=0, whence it follows that 
seg. 12 = —seg. 21, and Z 12 = — Z21. The (2) 


second of the common properties is that dis¬ 
tance and angle are not altered in magnitude 
by displacement, where displacement of the pen¬ 
cil consists in rotating it as a rigid figure about 
its center or vertex, and displacement of the 
range consists in moving it as a rigid figure 
along its base. These properties come clearly 
to light if we scrutinize the way in which dis¬ 
tance and angle are not altered in magnitude 
this purpose we use a scale, which in case of 
the range consists of a segment divided into 
equal intervals by points, and in case of the 
pencil consists of an angle divided into equal 
intervals by lines. Each interval is a unit of 
distance or angle. Then to measure the dis¬ 
tance (say) between two given points, we place 
one (any) division of the scale on one of the 
points, and then count the number of intervals 
to the other given point. Analogously for 
angles. The first property above mentioned is 
used in determining the distance by counting 
the intervals. The displacement property is 
employed in that we are indifferent as to which 
division of the scale we start with; that is, the 
distance or angle is found to have the same size 
if we measure, then displace the scale, and 
measure again. 

Generation of Ordinary Scale by Linear 
Transformation .— It is important to note that 
the displacement property enables us to con¬ 
struct the ordinary scale by means of a special 
linear transformation. Thus if x denote dis¬ 
tance from a point assumed as origin in the 
range, then the transformation x x — x + c will 
serve to generate the distance-measuring scale 
in which the unit, or interval, is c. If x be the 
distance from the origin to the point 1 chosen 
for initial point of the scale, then x 1 will denote 
the second division point 2. A second applica¬ 
tion of the transformation will convert point 1 
into point 2, and point 2 into a third point 3 
of the scale; and so on. The transformation 
for generating the angle-measuring scale is 

x 1= = (x + tanY ) : (1 —x tanY),Y being the unit 
of angle and x being tangent of the angle of 
any line of the pencil with a line assumed as 
origin. 

Generalization by Means of Transformation 
Z—(ciZ J rb):(cz+d ).— The ordinary scales 

being generable by special linear transforma¬ 
tions, the possibility is suggested of generating 
by more general transformations more general 
scales that shall involve and disclose more gen¬ 
eral concepts of distance and angle. We will 
first suppose the fixed elements of the trans¬ 
formation to be distinct (real or imaginary). 
Taking these as elements of reference 0 1 and 
O2 for homogeneous coordinates at and at in 
range or pencil, the transformation will assume 
the form z x —Xz, where 2= at: at, and where 
X is the characteristic constant of the trans¬ 
formation. The constant X will be subject to 
the condition that real elements (points or 
lines) z shall be converted into real elements 

z x and that, in case the reference elements z—o 
and 2 = 00 are real, X shall be positive. 

If now we apply the transformation suc¬ 
cessively to an arbitrarily chosen element z = 
we shall obtain a series of elements z\ Xz x , 
r 3 z u A ! z,, AT,,_ This series of elements con- 



ANALYTICAL METRICS 


stitutes our scale. Obviously this scale is con¬ 
verted into itself by the transformation z'= X 

by which it was generated just as the old scales 
are converted respectively into themselves by 
the transformations generating them. Just as 
the interval between two successive divisions 
of the old scale is called unit of distance or 
angle because one application of the generating 
transformation carries us over that interval, so 
for the same reason we name unit of distance 
or angle the magnitude extending from any 
division to the next in the new scale. Accord¬ 
ingly the distances or angles from the points 
or lines Zi,Xz l} A X 3 z ly . ... to point or line Si 

are o, I. 2, 3, . . . respectively. By means of 
the new scale, we can measure distances and 
angles whose magnitudes reckoned from z 
are expressible as whole numbers. In order 
to render the scale available for measuring dis¬ 
tances and angles whose magnitudes are any 
rational numbers, we have merely to subdivide 
the scale intervals already obtained into n equal 
parts. This is done by applying n-i times to 
the elements at the beginning of each interval, 

. a transformation which repeated n times repro¬ 
duces the transformation z 1 = X.z. The trans¬ 
formation required is therefore z l = X 1/n z where 

that one of the n roots of A must be used that 

secures that the element A 1/n z shall fall be¬ 
tween z and Xz- We can then measure all 
distances or angles from Zi to z where z is of 

the form z = X a d t a and ft being integers. 

The distance or angle from point or line 

A Zi to Zi is precisely 

If now we suppose the subdivision extended 
indefinitely and if we admit the notion of irra¬ 
tional number, then obviously we must regard 

the distance or angle from the point or line 

to the point or line z = X a z i as being expressed 

by a where a may be any positive real number 
whatever, whole or fractional, rational or 
irrational. 

From the last equation we have a= log"/sil 

log I. Hence: The distance or angle of a point 
or line z to the point or line z is the logarithm 
of the ratio z'.z divided by the constant log X 
The point or line z i was arbitrarily taken as 
initial element of our scale and our formula 
gives the distance or angle from z to any other 

point or line. The general linear transforma¬ 
tion z 1 — (az b) : (cz-V d) involves three 
parameters, two of which are determined by 
requiring the elements 0 1 and 0 2 to remain 
fixed. By means of the third parameter, the 
element z i may be brought to any desired posi ¬ 
tion z 1 of range or pencil. Accordingly: The 
distance or angle from point or line z lo any 

other point or line z 1 is log z / z'; log A, or c log 
z / z j ivhere c— 1: log A. 

It is readily seen that, as ought to be the 
case, the addition property of the old magnitude 
concept is preserved in the new concept just 


defined. That is to say, Distance (angle) 
ZZ + distance (angle) Z1Z 1 = Distance (angle) 

zz 1 ; for c log z — c log z x +c log z x — c log z 
— c log z — c logz 1 identically. Also c log z /z — 0, 

whence c log ~ /z 1 = — c log " /z, conformably to 

the like property of the ordinary notion of meas¬ 
ure. The displacement property, too, is pre¬ 
served; for the scale-generating transformation 
z'=Xz converts distance (angle) z r Z p into 

distance (angle). These magnitudes are 
plainly equal, for the former is c\ogz r — c lo gz p 

while the latter is c log A+ c \og z r — clog A — 


c log z p • 

Geometric Meaning of the Nezv Concept of 
Distance {Angle). — Let z~Zi and Z~Z 2 be 

any two points (lines) of the range (pencil). 
The anharmonic ratio CO z^Z^) of the pair 

(zi, z 2 ,) to the pair (o, 00 ) of fixed elements is 

(»-«,) (»—«,): (*,—«) («,—«)=*, 
Hence the distance (angle) of two points 
(lines) is an arbitrary constant c times the 
logarithm of the anharmonic ratio of the two 
points (lines) to the two fixed — absolute — 
points (lines) of the range (pencil). 

Introduction of Complex (Imaginary) Ele¬ 
ments. — Hitherto only real elements have been 
admitted. We now extend the generalized con¬ 
cept of measurement to complex elements, 
points or lines, for which the coordinates z 
and r 1 will be of the form z=a + ffi, Z I =a t -Gft'i, 

where a, a /?, ft are real and 1 = V — 1. Now 

id 1 1 i O' . 

z - r e and Z 1 — re , whence 


i(0 — 01 ) i<h. 
(r : r’) e K ’ = pe * 


Hence 


distance 


(angle) zz’ — c log 2/ Z' = c log *^ > ) 
=, io g (, ±2K,r) )=do g (^+)+ c log 


1^2 rr 2 , / 

e ‘ =clog / 2'+2fcn^ J where n is an integer 

It so appears tiiat in the generic concept 
of measurement in hand distance (angle) 
is not a one-valued function but is an infinitely 
many-valued function, viz., a periodic function of 
period 2C~i. The periodicity of-the angle in the 

ordinary system of measurement is a special 
case of the preceding. Let d> t> e the angle be¬ 
tween the lines y — mx + b and y = m 1 x + b 1 ; 
then tan <f> —(m-m 1 ) :(i +mw 1 ). As tan d> — 
tan (d) ± Utt), we have tan (<f> ± « 7 r)—(«» — m 1 ) : 
(1 + mm 1 ), whence d> ± «7r = tan 1 \ (in — w 1 ) : 
(1 + mm 1 )] ; hence d> — tan - ^ 1 [(m — m 1 ) :(i + 
mm 1 )] ± iijr. 

Infinite Distances and Angles in the General¬ 
ized System of Measurement .—We will premise 
a brief account of the infinite elements in the 
ordinary system of measurement. For this 
system the scale-generating transformation for 
the range is z' — z + c—(z + c) :(oz + 1) ; for 

the pencil it is A—(z + tan?'): (1 —z tan Y). In 
the former case the fixed elements, given by 
oz~ H ozHc — 0, are z — ^ and z~<n;i. e., 
the range’s infinite (Desarguesian) point counted 
twice. (The symbol z is here taken to repre- 



ANALYTICAL METRICS 


sent distance from a finite origin). In ordinary 
distance measurement, the range, or right line, 
contains two (coincident) points from which 
all other points are equally and infinitely 
(algebraically) distant — a fact of which the 
average carpenter is not aware. In this case 
the two points happen to coincide but what is 
here important to note is the fact that there 
are two such points. How stands the matter 
in case of ordinary angle measurement? The 
fixed elements (lines) are given by making 
z' — z, i. e. by the equation tan Y 2 '~^~ tan y — 
o. or z’ — —i, as tan y ^ o. Hence the fixed 

(absolute) lines of the pencil make with the 
origin (initial or referee line) angles whose 
tangents are + i and — i. Such lines are of 
course imaginary. Are the angles °o ? And 
does every other line (real) of the pencil make 
the same °o angle with these fixed lines? To 
answer, take any finite point for vertex of the 
pencil and choose this vertex for origin of 
Cartesian axes. Then the angle </> of any real 
line y — mx of the pencil with the line y = ix 
is given by tan ( j>=(m — i) : (i + tw)=i : i = 
— i. H ence d> is independent of m, and hence 
all real lines are equi-inclined to the line y — ix. 
The same is true for line y — — ix. Hence as 
y — mx rotates about the vertex of the pencil, 
it keeps a constant angle with each of two 
imaginary lines of the pencil. This fact sug¬ 
gests that tan* 1 ! and tan-*(— i) are each in¬ 
finite. That they are °° is readily established as 

1 ** 

follows. From Euler’s equations e ~ = cos z + 
i sin z. c — = cos z — i sin z, we have 

t an2 =—i (c 2zi — i) : (e 2si + i). 

In the present case tan z = i, whence 

e T* i = — e 2Zl + i; hence e 221 = o, and z 
is infinite. In like manner for — i. 

The question arises: Has a range two points 
equidistant and infinitely distant from all its 
other points, and has a pencil two lines equi- 
inclined to and making an °° angle with all 
other lines of the pencil, in case of the general¬ 
ized system of measurement? The answer is 
affirmative. In this case, the fixed elements of 
the scale-making transformation have been 
taken for origins Oi and 0 2 . Their equations 
are z — o and z—^. Now let z be any point or 
line. The distance (angle) from z =z' to z — o 
is c log (o:z') = oo . In like manner, the dis¬ 
tance (angle) from z = z to z — <*> , being 
c log ( oo :z'), is oo. Hence the distance 
(angle) between either of the absolute points 
(lines) of a range (pencil) and any other point 
(line) of the range (pencil) is infinite (loga¬ 
rithmically). 

A Restriction Removed. — We will now 
abandon the supposition that the origins Oi and 
0 2 coincide with the absolute elements. The 
absolute elements will, of course, be given by 
writing z' — z in the transformation z'— (az + 
b) : (cz + d) ; i. e. they are given by the equa¬ 
tion cz‘+(d — a)z — b — o, or, as we may write 
it, az 2 + 2bz + c = o; or, as z — x i :x 2) = 

axd~h 2bx\X-i + cxz — o. Now let (x\, x f 2 ) and 
(x’\ f x”s) beany two points (lines) of a range 
(pencil), then the quantities (x\ + / x'\, x\Ar 

A x"-) for varying are the coordinates of a 
variable point (line) of the range (pencil). 


T his variable element will coincide with an 
absolute element for such and only such values 
of A as satisfy the equation 

a(x\+ X x\y+2b (x\ +A x’\) (x’*+Xx'\) + c 
(x , 2~ s rXx"z) i —o, 

or ^ JQ x"x"+ 2 A fi *v ; +n x’x' =0 - 
These values are 



t t r in 

XX XX 


o 


rr H 

X X 


—conjugate of Xy 

The anharmonic ratio of the element pair 
(x\, x' 2 ) and (x'\,x'\) to the pair of absolutes 
is X • X . Hence, if we denote x\ :x\ bv z' and 

(x'\:x f 2 ) by z'm, we have the proposition 

Distance (angle) z z" — 



Such is Klein’s expression for the metric num¬ 
ber of distance (angle) measured in accordance 
with the generalized system or scale. From it 
Cayley’s expression is obtainable as follo ws. If 
n be_any number, then log n — 2i cos - ‘(n + I: 
2 V n), a fact verifiable thus: 


12 cos 


H 


-'n+i 
2 \'n — 


— COS \ 2 COS 


-‘n+i 4. : 

ic -— /ll 


sin 


2 \ n, 



fa+Q 2 _ j i -1_ 

4 n 4 n ' 


w-t-i I 
2 in 


j _(n+i) 2 
4 n 


n. 


Applying that fact to the Kleinian expression, 
we readily obtain 


c log K = 2ic cos 


X X 


JP * \ Q t > ^ ft 

r \ xx xx, 


whence, on letting c - i’2, we obtain 


cos 


— i 


„ 

X X 


V 


t t U W 

xx xx 


which is Cayley’s expression for distance 
(angle) of the elements z — x\ :x\ and z" — 

ff n 

x i : x 2. 

Application to Real Elements. Absolute 
Elements Distinct. — Two cases arise according 
as the absolute elements are real or are imagin¬ 
ary. Consider first the case where they are real. 
For the sake of convenience we will first con¬ 
sider the range. Denote the absolute points by 
F\ and F«. Two points z and z' may be situated 
(i) both of them between, (2) neither of them 
between, or (3) only one of them between, Ft 


























ANALYTICAL METRICS 


and F 2 . In situations (i) and (2) the an- 
harmonic ratio of the pairs (z, z) and {Ft, F 2 ) 
is positive; in the remaining situation, negative. 
Accordingly in the former case the logarithm 
of the anharmonic ratio is imaginary, while in 
the latter case, the logarithm is real except for 
the imaginary period before indicated. Hence 
in order that the distance between two points 
not separated by Fi or F 2 shall be real, we must 
assign to c of our distance function a real value. 
This being done, we have the theorem: The 
absolute points being real and distinct, the dis¬ 
tance between two points z and z is real or 
imaginary according as the points are not or 
are separated by one of the absolute points. If, 
with Cayley, we assigned to c a pure imaginary 
value, viz.— i: 2, then in the foregoing theorem 
we should have to interchange the words < real ) 
and ( imaginary ) or else the phrases ( not sepa¬ 
rated* and Separated.* The Cayleyan choice is 
logically allowable. It is rejected as being in¬ 
expedient. It gives a generalized scale need¬ 
lessly unlike the ordinary scale. For example, 
if 1, 2, 3 denote successive divisions of the 
Cayleyan scale such that the successive divi¬ 
sions shall be a unit apart, then, if division 1 
falls between Fi and F 2 , division 2 must fall 
without, division 3 within, etc. Hence distance 
13 regarded as the sum of 12 and 23 is 2 and 
is real but segment 13 measured directly is 
imaginary. 

Accordingly in order that all distances be¬ 
tween real points shall be real, it is necessary 
to confine ourselves to one of the two segments 
into which the line is separated by the absolute 
or infinite points, F t and F 2 . Each of these 
segments is infinite in length, i. e., the distance 
from any point in either segment to either F 
is infinite, as before shown. 

Let z be a point of either segment. Sup¬ 
pose the point to move in accordance with a 
transformation that leaves Fi and F 2 unchanged. 
We may name velocity of displacement the ratio 
of the distance traversed to the time consumed. 
The distance is, of course, to be reckoned in 
the new way. If now we suppose the point to 
move with a constant velocity towards Fi or F 2 , 
it will approach nearer and nearer to F 1 or Ft 
but will never reach either F 1 or F 2 since it 
would have to travel an 0° distance. If the 
point be supposed to be endowed with intelli¬ 
gence, it could never by any motion possible to 
it or by any experience assure itself of the 
existence of Ft or F 2 . If the point refused to 
assume the existence of Fi and F 2> its geometry 
would so far forth be Euclidean in character. 
It could assume the existence of F x and F 2 . It 
could still choose between the supposition that 
the F’s were coincident and the supposition 
that they were distinct. The former supposi¬ 
tion would bring its geometry into the category 
of Parabolic geometries, like our own projective 
geometry, while the second supposition would 
lead to a so-called Hyperbolic theory, such as 
the Geometry of Lobatschevosky, and Bolyai. 

Imaginary Absolute Elements. — If the abso¬ 
lute elements are imaginary, they will be of the 
form a+/ 3 i and a — fii . The anharmonic ratio 

of these to a pair (z,z') of real elements is 

•<p 

imaginary, of the form c' 1 . Hence we have 
c log (z, a-\-fti, s', x — fii)— 12 n c in, which 

is pure imaginary or real according as c is taken 


to be real or pure imaginary. Hence in order 
that the distance between two real points may 
be real when the absolute points are conjugate 
imaginaries, it is necessary and sufficient to 
assign to c a pure imaginary value, say i c\ 
The absolute points being imaginary, the range 
contains no real infinite points, or points at 00. 
Hence the range or straight line returns upon 
itself like a finite closed curve. The distance 
between any two of its points is periodic, of 
period 2nic =2niic' = - 2nc. Hence in this sys¬ 
tem of measurement the length of the straight 
line is 2 ^ c. It is this metric theory that 
characterizes the so-called Elliptic Geometry of 
Riemann and Helmholz. The measurement of 
segments of the straight line of this theory is 
analogous to the ordinary measurement of arcs 
of a circle of radius c*. 

Extension to the Pencil .— The foregoing 
conclusions respecting the range are readily ex¬ 
tensible to the pencil. If the two absolute lines 
Fi and F 2 be real and distinct, the angle made 
with either of them by any other real line of 
the pencil is infinite and real. If any line rotate 
in accordance with any transformation leaving 
Fi and F 2 unchanged, the line will move for¬ 
ever without reaching either F1 or F 2 — a fact 
that profoundly distinguishes this metric sys¬ 
tem from the ordinary one, for in the latter if 
a line rotate with any constant finite velocity, 
no matter how small, it will in course of a finite 
time return to its initial position. This possi¬ 
bility of thus returning is owing to the fact, 
already pointed out, that in ordinary angle 
measurement the pencil has no real lines at 00 
but, on the contrary, these lines are conjugate 
imaginaries, viz., the so-called familiar isotropic 
lines of the pencil. If the absolute lines be 
conjugate imaginaries other than the isotropic 
lines of ordinary geometry, the resulting theory 
of angular measurement is that which belongs 
to the Eliptic Geometry. In this case, as in 
that of the range, we must take c to be pure 
imaginary in order that the angle between two 
real lines shall be real. If we set c — ci, the 
angle between two lines is periodic, of period 
2 7 T c’, and the whole angle about the vertex will 
be 2 7r c*. In ordinary geometry the whole angle 
is 7r ; hence to pass from the elliptic theory of 

angle measurement to the ordinary system, we 
must let c ,= l / 2, or c — + i:2. This done, the 
general expression for the angle between two 
lines (x\, x 2 ) and (x"i, x" 2 ) becomes 



where, as the absolute lines are to be the usual 

isotropic lines, we are to take xx — Xi + x 2 , 
and thence R v > x > — x\~ + x f 2 , O x”x” ~ x "* 

+ x" 2l and R v ' r " — x\x\ + x' 2 x " 2 ; whence 
the expression for angle becomes 

t // I ' 99 

_ <| X 1 X 1 “T X 2 X 2 

cos 1 -. - - - ■ - 

J(x\ 2 + x7) (*V + x" 2 ) 

and this, as should be the case, is the familiar 
expression for the angle between two lines 
x\ x + x 2 y — 0, x"i x + x" 2 y = 0. We have 
thus the theorem: in the ordinary projective 
geometry, the angle between tivo lines is lAi 







ANALYTICAL METRICS 


trines the logarithm of the anharmonic ratio of 
the given pair of lines to the pair of isotropic 
lines through their common point. This defini¬ 
tion is due to Laguerre. (See ( Nouvelles 
Annales de Mathematiques,* 1859.) If the lines 
are perpendicular, i. e. have slopes m and —1 : m 
respectively, then the anharmonic ratio in ques¬ 
tion is 



* + 1 /m \ (i -f m ) — — 1; 


hence we have in ordinary projective geometry 
the following definition of perpendicularity: 
Two lines are perpendicular when and only 
when they are harmonic to the isotropic lines 
through their common point. 

.Absolute Elements Coincident. — We turn 
now to the case where the absolute elements 
are coincident. The anharmonic ratio of the 
pair (zt, z 3 ) to the pair (z 2 , z t ), being 
(zi — Si) (z 3 — £4): (z 2 — £3) (z< — z 1), is equal 
to 1, if the elements of a pair, as (zi, z 3 ), 
coincide. Hence if z x = z 3 be the absolute ele¬ 
ments, the distance (angle) z 2 Zx = c log 1 = o, 
if c be Unite. The same fact appears from the 
distance (angle) expression 


2 i c cos' 


o 


9 

X 


X 


n 



9 

X 



where P- xx = a xd + 2 b x x x 2 + c x 2 ; for, if the 
absolute elements are coincident, then (and 
only then) A = b‘ — a c — 0, and Cl x x = (pix 1+ 

piXiY\ whence the distance (angle) expression 
becomes 

( px x'x + pi x'i ) (px x"x 4 - pi x"i) 

2 1 e cos t _ ~ 

V (px x'x + Pi x'i)\ (Px x"x + Px x’\y 
— 2 i c cos~"l — o, of c be finite. 

In order to study the metric determination 
in case of coincident absolute elements, we must 
view the case as a limiting one, i. e., we must 
suppose the absolute elements to differ by an 
infinitesimal and then examine the law accord¬ 
ing to which the distance (angle) expression 
approaches zero as the absolute elements ap¬ 
proach coincidence. To this end observe that 

3 y y Cl x » x"— (x\ x " 2 — x'\Y A. 


Now 


2 l c cos 


Cl t tr 
X X 


—1 


99 9 P 

X X 


V Cl r t Cl 

X X 


2 i c sin 


I Cl f f Cl rr ft 

yj x x x x 


a new expression for distance (angle), admit¬ 
ting immediate application of the relation lint 
(sin a '- a ) — 1 as a approaches zero. As the 
absolute elements approach coincidence, A ap¬ 
proaches zero, and hence the sine (in the above 
expression) approaches zero; so that we may 


replace sine by sin \ We thus get for distance 
(angle) 


*99 t 

_ X 1 X 2 — X 1 

2 i c vat— 

v ( ) ( 


) 


x\ x"i — x'l x"i 

~k -—- 

(px x'x + pi x'l) (px x"x + pi x"i) 

where we choose c so that k 4 o as A ap¬ 
proaches zero. The last expression gives us the 
distance (angle) of two elements (x'x, x' 2 ), 
(x"x, x"i) when the absolute elements (px Xx + 
pi x 2 ) 2 == 0 coincide. Consider the expression 
E = (qx x\ + q 2 x'i) : (px x\ + pi x' 2 ) — (^1 x'\ 
4 <7 2 .r" 2 ) : (px x'\ 4 - pi x"z). It is readily seen 
that E — k (x'x x'\ — x'i x"i) : (px x'i 4 - pi x\) 
(pix'\ + pi x”i), provided we make such obvi¬ 
ously possible choice of the q’s that qipi-- 
q 3 px — k. The form E shows that the addition 
property of distance (angle) is valid also when 
the absolute elements are coincident. For let 
three elements be (x'i, x'i), (x"i,x"i), 

(x'"x, x"'i). Substituting in E, it readily ap¬ 
pears that distance (angle) between elements 
one and two 4 - distance (angle) between two 
and three = distance (angle) between one and 
three. Also distance (angle) between (xx, x 3 ) 
and itself is (qx Xx 4 -<72 „r 2 ) : (piXx 4 - pi x 2 ) — 
qx Xx 4 - q 2 -2*2) : (px Xx + pi x 2 ) — 0. As to the 
displacement property, it readily appears that E 
is the difference of two anharmonic ratios , for 
the form (qx Xx 4 “ q 2 x 2 ) : (pi xi 4 - pi Xi) is the 
anharmonic ratio of the elements qx Xx 4 * 
q 2 Xi — 0 (or Zx = — q 2 :qx), P1X1 + p 2 x 2 = o 
(or z 3 — — pi'.px), (px — qx)xx+(pi — q 2 ) 
X1 — 0 | or 02 = —(pi — q 2 ) : (pi — <?i) ( , and 

Zi = xi:x 2 . Now as linear transformation 
leaves anharmonic ratios invariant, the quantity 
E will remain unchanged, i. e., the displacement 
property is preserved also when the absolute 
elements fall together. 

General Metric Determination in the Plane. 
— We have hitherto attached the generalized 
concept of measurement to one-dimensional 
spaces: the range and the pencil. It is easy to 
carry the concept into spaces of two dimensions, 
namely, the plane regarded as an ensemble of 
points (pencils) and of lines (ranges). The 
pair of absolute elements (of range, pencil) has 
for analogues in the plane the conic viewed on 
the one hand as locus and on the other as 
envelope. Accordingly the Absolute — config¬ 
uration of reference for metric determination — 
in case of the plane will be some chosen conic 
C. Any line L will cut C in two points, real 
and distinct, or imaginary, or coincident. These 
two points will serve for absolute points in 
case of the range having L as base. Recipro¬ 
cally, any pencil V of the plane has two lines 
tangent to C. These tangents, which of course 
may be real and distinct, or imaginary, or co¬ 
incident will be the absolute lines for metric 
determination in the pencil V. 

We may represent C in homogeneous co¬ 
ordinates by S x x = axx + bxi + c.r 3 2 4 ~ 

2dXxXi 4 - 4 - 2fx 3 Xi — 0. Let s x'x' 

denote the result of replacing in S X x x r f° r x 
and let Sxx' = axix'i + bx 2 x' 2 4 - cx 3 x' 3 4 " 
d (xi x'i + x 1 x'x) 4 - e (xx x's + x 3 x'T) 4 * 













ANALYTICAL METRICS 


f (.1*2 x\ + xs x \). Any two points x • and x<. 

(t—1,2, 3) and determines a range. This cuts 
C in two points. The anharmonic ratio of this 
pair and the given pair is 



hence the distance between the points is clog/?, 

or 2 i c cos— 1 | S X x’ : VS X x S x ' x ' \ where c is 

a fixed arbitrary constant, the same for all 
ranges of the plane. 

Reciprocally, if — o be the line equation 

of the Absolute, the angle between two lines 
c. and £' .(*=1,2,3) is 


c log 



2 


S ^ 



or 


21 c cos ' ^ i.. a / 2 c e. 2 j, (t ' 

( s%- \ c? ? 

where, again, c is an arbitrarily chosen con¬ 
stant, the same for all pencils of the plane. 

The significance of the generalized concept 
in hand may be exemplified by a problem. Let 
it be required to find the locus of a point x- 

that so moves as to be always a given distance 
from a fixed point x The distance depends 

only on the cosine; we may, therefore, obtain 
the required equation bv setting it equal to a 
constant k. On clearing of fractions and the 
radical, the equation is S 2 , xx — k 2 Sxx S x ’ x ' 
which, being of second degree in the x^ s repre¬ 
sents a conic section. This conic contains the 
four points common to the double line S 2 xx f —o 
and the absolute S xx — o. Now the line S xx ' 
— o is the polar of the point x ^ as to the abso¬ 
lute. Hence the conic S 2 XX '— k*S x ' x ' S xx is 

tangent to the absolute at the points where it 
is cut by the line S xx ' — o. We have thus the 

theorem: The locus of all points equidistant 

from a fixed point x\ is a conic tangent to the 

absolute at the points where the absolute is cut 
by the polar of the fixed point. 

Pouring new wine into old bottles, we may 
call the locus in question a (generalized) circle. 
Its center is the point xP and its radius is 

2 i c cos -1 k. Regarding k as a parameter, the 
equation S 2 xx x —k 2 S x ' x ' Sxx represents the 

family of concentric circles about x'i as center. 

:They are all tangent to the absolute at the same 
contact points. The circle corresponding to 
k~o is degenerate, being the polar (counted 
twice) of the center x' ■. Its radius=2 c i cos— 1 

= t T ci. If k — i, the radius is 2 «’ c cos -1 i — o, 
and the circle, S 2 XX '— S xx f S'xx = °> is the 
pair of tangents from the circle center to 
the absolute. (Compare the isotropic lines of 


ordinary projective geometry). The distance 
between any two points on either of these lines 
is zero, for the point of contact is the double 
fixed element (the absolute points) for metric 
determination in the range in question. To 
render such distance non-zero, we should have 
to take c = °o , and then the distance of any 
two points not on a tangent to the absolute 
would be oo. Finally suppose k — oo ; the radius 
= 2 i c cos - 1 00 = 00 , and the circle is S xx —o, 

the absolute itself. Hence: The absolute is the 
locus of all points infinitely and equally distant 
from any point whatever not on the absolute. 
(Just as the infinite line of the ordinary pro¬ 
jective plane is the locus of points infinitely and 
equally distant from all finite points of the 
plane). The reader may readily solve and dis¬ 
cuss the solution of the reciprocal of the fore¬ 
going problem. The reciprocal problem is: To 
find the envelope of a line £. that moves so as 

to make always the same angle with a given 
line c. 

Displacements of the Plane .— There being 
oo collineations of the plane, and a conic de¬ 
pending on five essential constants, it is seen 
that a conic can be transformed into itself by 
oo s collineations of the plane. By such a trans¬ 
formation any point P of the conic is converted 
into a point P' of the conic. P and P' are in 
general different points; but any transformation 
converting a conic into itself converts two and 
but two of its points each into itself. Suppose 
a transformation t converts the absolute into 
itself and that P and P' are the two points of 
C that are unchanged in position. Then / con¬ 
verts into themselves the tangent at P, the 
tangent at P' and the point Q common to the 
two tangents. That is, t not only leaves C un¬ 
changed but alsq the triangle, P, P', Q. Query : 
how many of the °° 3 collineations leaving C 
unchanged leave also unchanged the particular 
triangle in question? Taking this triangle for 
triangle of reference, the equation of C is 
Xi x 2 — x 3 ~ — o. The most general collineation 
that leaves fixed the sides of the triangle is 
that defined by the equations: x x — ax x\,x 2 — 
ai x\, x 3 — a 3 x\. This transformation converts 
C into a x a 2 x\x \— a 3 2 x' 2 — o. This is identi¬ 
cal with C when and only when a x a 2 — a 2 —o, 
i. c. when the ratios, ail at, a*: as, are subject 

to one condition. Hence the answer to the 
query is a simple infinity of collineations. All 
these transformations convert into itself the 
quantity x x x 2 : x 3 2 . Hence they convert into it¬ 
self each conic of the pencil x x x* — kx 3 —o 
of conics. This pencil consists of all the conics 
tangent to C at the points where it is cut by 
x s — o, polar line of the point common to x x = o 
and x s = o. 

The collineations in qu estio n fall int o two 
classes according as a = + V«,a ora =— Va a 

° S. 1 2 3 2 

The first class constitute a group, or closed 
system; i. e. combination of two of them is 
always one of the class. Thus the transforma¬ 
tion Xi = a x x Xs —o. n x's, Xz — + Va « 3 x\ fol¬ 
lowed by the transformation x\ — fti x'\, x\— 

/ 9 2 Jtr" 2 , x\ = + V/ 5 j x"s is equivalent to the 
transformation „ri =ai ( 3 i x’\, x 2 = a s 3s x" 2 , 
Xs — V p^ x " Zf of the same class ; while 
if the negative sign be used in the com- 

















ANALYTICAL METRICS 


ponent t ransfor mations, the resultant contains 
^*3 — ~b V ; hence the second class is not 
closed, is not a group. Geometrically the two 
classes are distinguished by the fact that 
the transformations of the first class convert 
into itself each of the segments of C into 
which C is separated by the contact points 
of Xi—o and x 2 — o, while the transformations 
of the second class exchange these segments. 
To the collineations of the first class Klein has 
given the name displacements of the plane for 
the reason that they correspond to the collinea¬ 
tions— called displacements — that in the ordin¬ 
ary projective plane leave the line at °o un¬ 
changed. The second class correspond to col¬ 
lineations in the ordinary theory that convert 
figures into inversely congruent figures. 

We have, therefore, the proposition: The 
group of displacements leave fixed not only the 
absolute C but also all the conics (circles in 
this theory) tangent to C at the two fixed 
points. The equation of these circles is Xi x 3 — 
k x-i — o. Through any point x\ there passes 

in general one and but one of these circles, viz. 
that whose equation is x\ 2 Xi x 2 — x\ x\ x 3 2 — o. 
A displacement of the plane causes each point 
to move on that circle on which it chances to 
lie. Accordingly each displacement is a rotation 
of the plane about a fixed point, all other points 
describing concentric circles (generalized) about 
this point. Those displacements in which the 
center of rotation is at °o are specially note¬ 
worthy. To be at « , the center must be on C. 
Hence the circles of motion have 4-point con¬ 
tact with C at their common center. In the 
ordinary, or parabolic, geometry the center 
would be on the line at °° and the circles would 
have their center at °° , i. e. they would be a 
system of parallel lines. Motion along these is 
translation. Hence translation in ordinary 
(parabolic) geometry corresponds to those dis¬ 
placements (in the generalized doctrine) where 
the center of rotation is on the absolute conic C. 

Distances (Angles) Invariant under Displace¬ 
ments. — Let xi and x\ be any two points and 

let their range cut C in M^and u\. The an- 

harmonic ratio of these points is unchanged by 
collineation. Now a displacement converts u. 

and ttLinto and V' t * points of C, and x i and 
x\ pass into y^ and y i collinear with and 
V'j. Hence distance between x i and x\= dis¬ 
tance between y. and Similar argument 

i v 

shows that angles are unchanged by displace¬ 
ments. Neither are distances and angles 
changed in size by the non-group class of 
collineations not changing C. 

Generalized Measurement for Sheaf of Lines 
or Planes. —-The line geometry of the sheaf is 
analogous to the point geometry of the plane, 
and the plane geometry of the sheaf is quite 
parallel to the line geometry of the plane. The 
four theories may be studied simultaneously by 
means of the same algebraic machinery. In 
order to transfer the generalized metric of the 
plane to the sheaf, we take for absolute in the 
latter a cone of second order (class) having the 
carrier point P of the sheaf for vertex. The 
angle of two lines L and L' of the sheaf will be 
an arbitrary constant c times the logarithm of 
the anharmonic ratio of these lines and the 
pair of lines common to the absolute and the 


plane (pencil) of L and L'. Reciprocally, the 
angle of two planes ^ and 7/ is an arbitrary 
constant c times the logarithm of the anhar¬ 
monic ratio of these planes and the two planes 
tangent to the absolute cone and containing the 
common line of 77- and 7/. Developments in 
case of the sheaf quite similar to those found 
for the plane are obviously obtainable in similar 
manner, and need not be here further pursued. 

The Elliptic and Hyperbolic Theories of the 
Plane .— Returning to the plane, it is obvious 
that two theories will arise according as the 
absolute C is real or is imaginary. If C be 
imaginary, the two absolute points of every real 
range (line) will be conjugate imaginaries. 
These being the infinite points of the range, 
this will have no infinite real points. The line 
will be finite in length, the length depending on 
the value assigned to c. No pencil will have 
real tangents to C. No two real lines will in¬ 
tersect on C, i. e. at °° , hence no two real lines 
can be parallel. The resulting theory is the so- 
called Elliptic geometry of the plane. If our 
plane really is elliptic instead of being, as we 
commonly assume, Euclidian (or parabolic) then 
the infinite region of it is an imaginary conic 
section. 

If C be supposed to be real, the resulting 
theory accords with that of Lobatschewskv and 
Bolyai. It is that called Hyperbolic by Klein. 
The real points now fall into two classes; the 
class E of points such that from each two real 
tangents can be drawn to the absolute: and the 
class / such that no real tangents proceed from 
its points to the absolute. These classes may 
be respectively described as exterior and in¬ 
terior. Similarly real lines compose two 
classes: those that cut C in two real points, 
and those that cut it in imaginary points. Sup¬ 
pose, as we must make a choice, we confine 
ourselves to the class I and to the lines that go 
through the points of I. No pencil has real 
lines at °° , i. e. no real tangents to the absolute. 
The absolute lines of any pencil are imaginary 
(like the isotropic lines of ordinary projective 
geometry). Hence, as before indicated, we take 
c — i c\, pure imaginary. The sum of the 
angles of any pencil is, therefore, 2 c\ -n. On 
the other hand, every real straight line has two 
points at °° , namely the points where it cuts 
the absolute. Accordingly we regard c as a 
real quantity. Owing to our choice of c and c* 
the angle of any two lines intersecting within 
the absolute is real, and real also is the distance 
between any two points of /. But two lines 
having points in I but not intersecting within 
the absolute make an imaginary angle with each 
other; and the distance between two points, one 
in I and the other in E, is imaginary. The dis¬ 
tance from any point to the absolute is infinite. 
The angle of two lines intersecting on the ab¬ 
solute is zero. Such lines are parallel. 

Suppose we are situated at some point P of 
/. Suppose further that we are capable of only 
such motions as are furnished by displacements, 
transformations, that is, that leave the absolute 
unchanged. Just as in ordinary geometry, so 
here, since the total angle about P is finite, a 
finite time would suffice to make a complete ro¬ 
tation about P by turning at any finite rate, 
however small. Again, just as in ordinary 
geometry, so here we could travel on any 
straight line in either direction (sense) at any 



ANALYTICAL METRICS 


finite velocity however great, without, in any 
finite time however great, reaching, much less 
passing, the absolute conic C. The dwellers 
within C could not escape from the region / 
by any combination of displacements. For those 
inhabitants their plane, the region I, is strictly 
limited by the absolute. By no experience pos¬ 
sible to them could they assure themselves that 
C existed, or, C being granted, that there is a 
region on beyond, outside of C. If we set 
c i = }A>, then the geometry within I becomes 
a detailed picture of the Lobsatschewskian, or 
hyperbolic, geometry so far as concerns the 
plane. For example, one of the L propositions 
is that through any point of the plane two lines 
can be drawn parallel to a given line. This 
proposition is matched or pictured by the fact 
that through any point of / two and but two 
lines can be drawn meeting any line within C 
where the line cuts C. These two lines are 
parallel to the third line, meeting it at its infi¬ 
nite points. Another L proposition is that as 
a point recedes from a line, the angle of the 
two parallels through the point to the line in¬ 
creases and approaches the value 7 T as the dis¬ 
tance becomes infinite. The like holds within 
C, for when the point common to the parallels 
is a point of C, the parallels to the given line 
becomes parallel to each other, one of their 
angles being zero and the other 77-. Again, the 
sum of the angle of a triangle within C is less 
than 7r and decreases as the triangle increases, 
becoming zero when the vertices are infinitely 
apart, i. e. are on C: a fact agreeing with the 
L. geometry. Once more, in the L. geometry, 
two lines perpendicular to a third do not 
intersect. Now two lines within C, to be 
perpendicular to a third line within C, must 
belong to the pencil vertexed at the pole of 
the third line. But this pole is outside of C. 
Hence the perpendicular, as regarded by geom¬ 
eters within C, do not intersect, for, as we 
have seen, the region E does not exist for 
such geometers. They might indeed posit such 
a region but then it would have only ideal as 
distinguished from intuitional or experiential 
existence. Still again, in the L. geometry we 
have the proposition that a circle of infinite 
radius is not a straight line. Now, in theory 
of the region I, any circle of infinite radius and 
finite center is, as before shown, the absolute 
itself and so not a straight line. If the radius 
be kept <*> and the center be taken on C, then 
the circle is again not a straight line but a 
conic having 4-point contact with C. Is it, then, 
impossible to conceive a straight line of the 
region I as a circle? It is, unless the line be 
regarded as a circle having its center in E, at 
the ideal pole of the given line. In such case 
the radius would be imaginary. 

Special Metric in the Plane. — To obtain this 
we take for absolute C a degenerate conic which 
regarded as a locus is a pair of coincident 
straight lines _ and which regarded as an en¬ 
velope is a pair of points (pencils) of the line. 
It is easy to see how a proper conic can degen¬ 
erate into a conic of the sort described. Thus 
let b 2 x 2 + ary 2 — a 2 b* be an ellipse. Call its 
vertices A ( a, 0 ) and A' (— a, 0 ). For all 
values of m the line y = mx ± V m 2 a 2 + b 2 
is tangent to the ellipse. Now let b approach 
zero. The ellipse degenerates (as a locus) into 
the double line y 2 ~o, and (as an envelope) 


into the points A and A' enveloped by y—m 
(x a) as m ranges through the ensemble of 

real numbers. Such a degraded conic being 
taken for absolute C, every pencil of the plane 
will contain two distinct absolute lines, or 
lines at 00, viz. those that pass through A and 
A'. These absolute lines will be real or 
imaginary according as A and A' are real or 
imaginary. Accordingly the special metric so 
far as angles are concerned is analogous to 
the general metric. Not so, however in case 
of distances. For the absolute points of any 
range are coincident, namely the two points 
common to the range and the double line AA'. 
To render the distance between two points 
non-zero, it is necessary to take c infinite, and 
then, in agreement with ordinary (parabolic) 
geometry, the distance becomes an algebraic 
instead of a transcendental function of the 
coordinates. The distance between two points 
of a range containing A or A' is zero, for such 
a range is tangent to the absolute. Similarly 
the angle of any two lines intersecting on A A' 
is zero: such lines are parallel. Every conic 
through A and A' is to be called a circle, and 
two circles tangent to each other at A and A' 
are to be regarded as concentric circles. In 
every system of concentric circles there is one 
of infinite radius, namely the double line AA', 
which is, accordingly, the locus of points at 
Here, as in ordinary geometry, the principle of 
duality fails. For example, the envelope of a 
line making a constant angle with a given line 
does not envelope a proper conic but a point. 

The special (parabolic) geometry here indi¬ 
cated passes over into ordinary projective geom¬ 
etry, when the double line AA' becomes the 
locus (counted twice) of the Desarguesian 
points of the plane and the points A and A' be¬ 
come the imaginary points at . 

Generalized Metric in Space. — The absolute 
will naturally be a surface S of second order 
(and class). The distance between two points 
is an arbitrary constant c times tbe logarithm 
of the given pair of points and the pair of 
(absolute) points cut from S by the line join¬ 
ing the given points. Reciprocally, the angle of 
two planes is an arbitrarily chosen constant c 
times the. anharmonic ratio of the two planes 
to the pair of (absolute) planes, i. c., the two 
planes containing the line common to the given 
planes and tangent to S. 

There are 000 collineations of space that con¬ 
vert 5 into itself. These fall into two classes 
according as they do not or do exchange the 
tw r o systems of generatrices of 5 . The colline¬ 
ations of the first class — called displacements 
—■ constitute a closed system, or group. The 
second class, is not a group. 

The locus of a point at a given distance from 
a fixed point is a second order surface — gener¬ 
alized sphere — tangent to 5 along the conic 
cut from 5 by the polar plane of the given 
point, the sphere center. S itself is a sphere, 
viz. the locus of all points at co, of all points, 
that is, that, in the metric system in hand, are 
infinitely distant from any point not on S. 

If S is imaginary, all lines are of finite 
length. The sum of the angles of an axal pen¬ 
cil of planes is finite. This general theory 
passes into the Elliptic geometry if we set 
c — i: 2, the sum of the angles of an axal pen¬ 
cil being then 7 r . 



ANALYZER — ANAPTOMORPHUS 


If S is real (and not ruled), the geometry 
of the interior of S includes the Hyperbolic 
geometry as a special case, namely, when 
c ~ i: 2. 

The special metric that arises on taking S 
to be a degenerate surface which regarded as a 
locus is a double plane and which regarded as 
an envelope is two points (sheaves of planes) 
in the double plane, passes over into ordinary 
projective geometry when the degenerate S is 
(as loc'us) the locus (counted twice) of the 
Desarguesian points of space and (as envelope) 
is the imaginary circle at infinity. 

Bibliography. —Laguerre, ( Nouvelles Annales 
do Mathcmatique ' (1859) ; Lobatschewsky, 

( Geometrical Researches on the Theory of 
Parallels' ; John Bolyai, ( The Science Absolute 
of Space' ; Riemann, hypotheses that Lie at 
the Base of Geometry' ; Helmholz, ( Ueber die 
1 hatsachen die der Geometric zum Grunde 
Liegen' ; Cayley, ( Sixth Memoir on Quantics' ; 
Klein, ( Zur Nicht-Euklidische Geometry' 
(Mathematische Annalen, vols. 4, 6, 7, 37) and 
lithographed ( Vorlesungen ueber Nicht-Eukli¬ 
dische Geometry' ; Halsted, ( Bibliography' 
(Ain. Journ. Math. v. 1) ; Poincare, ( La science 
et l’hypothese' ; the same in English by Hal¬ 
sted; Woods, ( The Boston Colloquium'; W. B. 
Smith, ( Introductory Modern Geometry of the 
Point, Ray and Circle' ; C. A. Scott, ( An Intro¬ 
ductory Account of Certain Modern Ideas and 
Methods in Plane Analytical Geometry' ; also 
a pedagogic article bv the same author in vol. 3 
of The Bulletin of the American Mathematical 
Society; Ernst Mach, ( Space and Geometry in 
the Light of Physiological, Psychological and 
Physical Inquiry' (1906). This last represents 
what may be called the biological as distin¬ 
guished from the logical movement in modern 
mathematical thought, and has for its aim to 
trace pure geometry back and down by a legiti¬ 
mate genealogy to a physical and physiological 
parentage, thus re-attaching mathematics to 
experience and reality from which the logical 
movement has more and more detached it. 

Cassius J. Keyser, 

A drain Professor of Mathematics, Columbia 
University. 

Analyzer, the portion of a polariscope 
(q.v.) employed in the examination of polar¬ 
ized light. Nicol prisms, tourmaline plates, 
double-refracting crystals, and movable mirrors 
are each used for this purpose. 

Anam, or Annam, an Asiatic country on 
the east side of the Indo-Chinese Peninsula, 
along the China Sea, about 850 miles long, with 
a breadth varying from over 400 miles in the 
north to 100 in the middle. It is composed of 
Tonquin or Tongking in the north and Cochin- 
China and Chiampa in the south. The area is 170,- 
000 square miles, and the population 15,000,000. 

Its coast is much indented, affording many 
fine harbors, and a mountain range extends its 
entire length. The Mehong, the principal river, 
is the boundary between Anam and Siam and is 
navigated by steamboats. The capital and 
largest city is Hue. Rice, cinnamon, sugar¬ 
cane, coffee, tea, tobacco, and cotton are the chief 
productions, though silk is manufactured to 
some extent and fine woods are exported. The 
government is a monarchy, the king being nom¬ 
inally assisted by a council of six, but French in¬ 
fluence predominates. 

Vol. 1—31 


The. inhabitants are from two races, the 
Mountain Mois, and the Anamese proper, and 
generally under the middle size and less ro¬ 
bust than the surrounding peoples. Their lan¬ 
guage is monosyllabic and is connected with 
the Chinese. The religion of the majority is 
Buddhism, but the educated classes hold the 
doctrines of Confucius; besides which there are 
420,000 Roman Catholics. 

Anam was conquered by the Chinese in 214 
b.c., but in 1428 a.d. completely won its inde¬ 
pendence. The French began to interfere ac¬ 
tively in its affairs in 1847 on the plea of pro¬ 
tecting the native Christains. By the treaties 
of 1862 and 1867 they obtained the southern and 
most productive part of Cochin-China, subse¬ 
quently known as French Cochin-China; and in 
1874 they obtained large powers over Tonquin. 
By the treaty of 1884, ratified at Hue, 1886, 
Anam was declared a French protectorate. 

Anamorphosis, a term applied to a draw¬ 
ing so executed as to present a distorted image 
of the object represented, but which, if viewed 
from a certain point, or reflected by a curved 
mirror or through a polyhedron, shows the ob¬ 
ject in true proportion. 

Anamosa, la., a city and county-seat of 
Jones County, situated on the Wapsipinicon and 
Buffalo rivers and on the Chicago & N. W. 
and Chicago, M. & St. P. R.R.’s. It has a 
State penitentiary and many excellent quarries 
of building-stone, and manufactures of flour, 
carriages, and wagons. Pop. (1900) 2,891. 

Ananias, a member of the Church at Jeru¬ 
salem, struck dead with his wife Sapphira be¬ 
cause of an attempt to misrepresent the amount 
of their gifts to the Apostle Peter. The name 
was also borne by a Damascus disciple named 
in connection with Saul’s adventure there, and 
by a high-priest in Jerusalem belonging to the 
Sanhedrim. 

Anapa, a seaport town of Russia, situated 
on the Black Sea. It has been variously the 
possession of Turks and Russians, but has be¬ 
longed to Russia from 1829. Pop. about 7,000. 

Anapaest, in prosody, a foot consisting of 
two short syllables and one long one. In the 
comedies of Aristophanes it was the dominant 
measure, and Greek choruses employed it in 
their exits and entrances. From this latter cir¬ 
cumstance it was frequently styled the marching 
rhythm. 

Anaphrodisiacs, an-af'ro-diz'T-aks, are rem¬ 
edies that diminish sexual power or desire. 
They may act directly on the genital centres in 
the spinal cord, indirectly through the circula¬ 
tion on the brain, or locally on the sense organs. 
Inasmuch as local irritation is a frequent cause 
of stimulation of the sexual sense, attention to 
cleanliness is imperative and the removal of all 
sources of irritation indicated. Local analgesic 
apnlications, such as weak solutions of carbolic 
acid—1 to 2 per cent — or oxid of zinc oint¬ 
ment with carbolic acid, are useful. Of the gen¬ 
eral anaphrodisiacs the bromides are the best. 
Bromide of sodium or potassium are most fre¬ 
quently employed. Special medical advice is 
needed in the treatment of persistent sexual ex¬ 
citement. 

Anaptomorphus, a fossil lemur from the 
Eocene of Wyoming, allied to the modern tar- 


ANARCHISM 


sier. Some authorities have considered this ani¬ 
mal as related to the ancestral line of man. 

Anarchism, a theory of social organiza¬ 
tion, numbering, it is said, about one million ad¬ 
herents. Its doctrines represent the extreme of 
individualism. It looks upon all law and gov¬ 
ernment as invasive, the twin sources whence 
flow nearly all the evils existent in society. It 
therefore advocates the abolition of all govern¬ 
ment as we to-day understand the term, save 
that originating in voluntary co-operation. 
Anarchists do not conceive of a society without 
order, but of an order arising out of the law of 
association, preferably through self-governing 
groups, for it may be said that, with here and 
there an exception, anarchists regard mankind 
as gregarious. <( Our object is to live without 
government and without law,® says Elisee Re- 
clus, the eminent geographer, and to-day the 
leading anarchist of France. Anarchists do not 
ignore the enormous economies resulting from 
the law of association, but insist that the law 
will be better served in a state of freedom and 
in the absence of all compulsion. They believe 
that everything now done by the state can be 
better done by voluntary or associative effort, 
and that no restraint upon conduct is necessary, 
because of the natural tendency of mankind in 
a state of freedom to respect the rights of the 
individual. The repression of crime, where 
crime might arise, could safely be left to spon¬ 
taneously created organizations, such as the 
Vigilance Committees in early California, 
where no State government existed. In the 
view of Prince Kropotkin, the leading Russian 
anarchist, no cause for litigation would arise 
after we had abolished <( the present system of 
class privilege and unjust distribution of the 
wealth produced by labor, that creates and fos¬ 
ters crime.® 

To quote further from Kropotkin: (( We 
are nurtured from our birth to believe that we 
rr\ust have government. Yet the history of man 
proves the contrary. When small bodies or 
parts of humanity broke down the powers of 
their rulers and resumed some part of their 
foreordained freedom, these were always epochs 
of the greatest progress, economically and intel¬ 
lectually. In the direct ratio to the freedom of 
the individual he advances.® 

It is not easy to sum up in a few paragraphs 
the leading doctrines of any economic sect and 
at the same time retain absolute accuracy of 
statement. It should therefore be said that 
anarchists, while agreeing that the doctrine of 
laissez fairc should be extended to all depart¬ 
ments of human activity, are by no means in 
agreement on all points. There are evolutionary 
and revolutionary anarchists, and communist- 
and individualist-anarchists. The point on 
which all are agreed is in their opposition to 
compulsory forms of government, and in re¬ 
garding the necessary despotism of majorities 
in a democracy as only a little less hateful than 
the despotism of a monarchy. ^Governments 
are the scourge of God,® says Proudhon, with 
whom the philosophy of modern anarchism may 
be said to have begun. 

Pierre Joseph Proudhon was born in Be- 
sangon, France, in 1809, and died in 1865. 
Germs of the doctrine of which he is the found¬ 
er may be traced to much earlier, even ancient 
periods. Among his modern precursors is Wil¬ 
liam Godwin (b. in Wisbech, England, 1756; d. 


in London, 1834), w r ho is better known as the 
author of the novel, ( Caleb Williams,-* but who 
in his ( Inquiry Concerning Political Justice,* 
which appeared in 1793, advocated the abolition 
of every form of government, and formulated 
the theory of anarchistic communism. But 
modern anarchism as a force in sociologic 
thought began with the publication of Proud¬ 
hon’s famous essay, WVhat is Property* (1840). 
In it he rejects all law and authority, but in a 
work which appeared in 1852 entitled, ( The Fed¬ 
erative Principle,* he seems to have modified in 
a measure his former theory of government 
and favors the formation of self-governing com¬ 
munities. In the former work occurs the phrase 
which is destined to be forever associated with 
the name of Proudhon, but which was uttered by 
the Girondist Brissot a half century earlier, 
(< Property is robbery.® 

It was upon the notion that he had furnished 
a demonstration of this thesis that Proudhon 
especially prided himself. But this phrase as 
used by the father of anarchism must be held 
to apply rather to modern methods of acquisition 
than to property itself, for Proudhon was an in¬ 
dividualist, not a communist-anarchist, and 
strove, however unsuccessful he was in making 
himself understood, rather to refine than to de¬ 
stroy the idea of property. In all his reason¬ 
ing on this point there is much dialectic subtlety, 
of which, with perverted ingenuity, Proudhon 
was overfond; but it may be said that what he 
really sought was the overthrow of all prevail¬ 
ing theories of property with a view to render¬ 
ing it unassailable from the standpoint of exact 
equality and social justice. A few years later 
the doctrines of anarchism in the hands of Mi¬ 
chael Bakunin underwent a change from the 
advocacy of a purely peaceful revolution to one 
of force. Bakunin was born 1814, died 1876. 
He was prominent in the Paris Revolution of 
1848, was surrendered to Russia and sent to Si¬ 
beria, but succeeded in making his escape. His 
principal work, in addition to innumerable pam¬ 
phlets and addresses, is ( Dieu et Ffitat.* 

(( The propaganda by action,® as it is termed, 
by which it was hoped to inspire such dread and 
horror as to compel the adoption of measures of 
social amelioration, or perhaps the overthrow of 
the state itself, has borne abundant fruit in the 
attempted assassination of Emperor William in 
1878, in the attempt upon the life of the German 
princes in 1883, in the assassination of President 
Carnot, of France, in 1894, of the Empress Eliz¬ 
abeth, of Austria, in 1898, of King Humbert, of 
Italy, in 1900, and of President McKinley, by 
Czolgosz, in the autumn of 1901. Other anarch¬ 
ist crimes were the throwing of a bomb in the 
French Chamber of Deputies, in 1893, by Var¬ 
iant, and the bomb explosion in Paris, caused by 
Emile Henry, in 1894. 

The Haymarket tragedy of 1886, in Chicago, 
by which a number lost their lives in an exn 
plosion from a bomb thrown by some unknown/ 
hand, and which resulted in the trial and con¬ 
viction of seven professed teachers of anarchism 
in that city, four to the gallows, two to life im¬ 
prisonment, and one to a term of 15 years, 
aroused the attention of the whole civilized 
world. It is now seen, after the lapse of 17 
years, that these men, even if dangerous to the 
community, were convicted more largely by the 
existing state of public terror than by any actual 
evidence connecting them with the throwing of 


ANASTASIA —ANASTATIC PRINTING 


the bomb. The fact that the pardon of the three 
who escaped the gallows was petitioned for, 
after the terror of the time had died away, by 
some of the most prominent citizens of Chicago, 
is proof of the change the public mind under¬ 
went regarding the accused. The controversy 
over the justice of their conviction is still un¬ 
settled. With these acts of murder and ven¬ 
geance the purely economic doctrines of 
anarchism have of course no relation. (( The prop¬ 
aganda of action® is repudiated by those who are 
sometimes termed <( philosophical anarchists,® to 
distinguish them from the revolutionary wing. 
These are represented in this country by Benja¬ 
min R. Tucker, in France by Elisee Reclus, and 
in England by Auberon Herbert. ( (( It is a mis¬ 
take to believe that the anarchist idea can be 
advanced by acts of barbarity.®—Elisee Re¬ 
clus.) This school regards force as fundamen¬ 
tally at war with their ideals. It does not be¬ 
lieve that the social revolution can be accom¬ 
plished by the methods of Bakunin and his 
school. Proudhon never preached force. 

With the policy of “propaganda by action® in 
this country is linked the name of Johann Most, 
a former member of the German Reichstag; in 
France, that of Charles Malato ( (( I love and 
admire Vaillant just as some English Republi¬ 
cans love and admire Cromwell, who was also a 
regicide® — Charles Malato); and in Italy, 
that of Enrico Malatesta, an anarchist, like 
Kropotkin, of noble family. (“It seems to me 
that in the natural order of evolution violence 
has as much a place as the eruption of a volca¬ 
no. All great progress has been paid for by 
streams of blood. I cannot see how the present 
conditions based upon force can be changed in 
any other way than by force, and so long as 
they use force against us we must in self-defense 
employ violent methods.®—Enrico Malatesta.) 

As Proudhon was the father of anarchistic 
individualism, Kropotkin is as indisputably the 
father of anarchistic communism. Theoretic 
anarchism for some time subsequent to the ad¬ 
vent of its French founder was rigidly indi¬ 
vidualistic. Max Stirner, a follower of Proud¬ 
hon in Germany, whose philosophy was more of 
a blank negation than that of his master, pushed 
the ego to a point where it more resembles a 
caricature than a dogma, and Bakunin hated the 
idea of communism. But in Kropotkin it must 
be said that the idea of property has reached its 
disappearing point, and the ideal of anarchism 
is at the last purely communistic. Kropotkine’s 
life and his romantic career, united with the 
vast store of knowledge he possesses, give to his 
professions of anarchism a fascination and a 
weight. And amiable as is his personality, he 
is not unsuspected of a sympathy with the Ba¬ 
kunin school of action. 

Among the works on anarchism not pre¬ 
viously mentioned are Kropotkin’s ( Paroles d' 
un Revoke 5 and ( La Conquete du Pain, 5 with 
a preface by Elisee Reclus, and the latter’s Evo¬ 
lution et Revolution ; ( The Individual and His 
Property ) by Max Stirner; ( Societe Mourante 5 
and <Societe au Lendemain de la Revolution*; 
<Declarations 5 (Paris), by G. Elievant, a work 
highly regarded by anarchists;. ( Apres la lem- 
pete, 5 by Herzen; magazine articles by Auberon 
Herbert; and ‘Instead of a Book, 5 by Benjamin 
R. Tucker. ( Anarchism, Its History and The¬ 
ory, 5 by E. V. Zenker, is a work valuable for its 
thoroughness and its judicial impartiality; ( Die 


Theorie des Anarchisimus, 5 by Rudolph Stam- 
ler, may be consulted with profit for an exam¬ 
ination and refutation of the theories and argu¬ 
ments of anarchism. Among the works closely 
allied to anarchistic thought should be included 
the sociologic romance, ‘Freeland, 5 by Theodor 
Hertzka, of Austria. 

Joseph Dana Miller. 

Anastasia, Saint, the name of three Chris¬ 
tian martyrs, (i) A virgin said to have been 
a pupil of SS. Peter and Paul, and slain under 
Nero (54-68 a.d.). She is commemorated 15 
April. (2) <( The Younger,® martyred under 
Diocletian, 303; wife of one Publius, a pagan, 
who himself laid an information against her. 
Two alleged letters of hers in prison have been 
preserved. The Greeks commemorate her the 
22d of December, the Latins the 25th. (3) A 

Greek maiden of Constantinople, whom Jus¬ 
tinian (about 597) sought as a mistress. To es¬ 
cape him she fled to Alexandria and lived there 
disguised as a monk for 28 years. She is com¬ 
memorated 10 March. 

Anastasius, the name of four Popes, the 
first and most eminent of whom held that of¬ 
fice 398-401. He enforced celibacy on the higher 
clergy and was a strong opponent of the Mani- 
chaeans and Origen. Anastasius II. succeeded 
Gelagius I. in 496; d. 498. Anastasius III. filled 
the papal chair 911-913. Anastasius IV. was 
Pope 1153-1154. 

Anastasius I., an emperor of the East wno 
succeeded Zeno, a.d. 491, at the age of about 
55: b. about 438; d. 518. He distinguished him¬ 
self by suppressing the combats between men 
and wild beasts in the arena, abolishing the sale 
of offices and building the fortifications of Con¬ 
stantinople. His support of the heretical Eu- 
tychians led to a dangerous rebellion and his 
anathematization by the Pope. 

Anastasius II., an emperor of the East 
who was raised to the throne in 713. Attempt¬ 
ing various reforms, he was deposed in 716 and 
became a monk at Thessalonica. 

Anastasius, a romance by Thomas Hope, 
(1819). The author was known to have writ¬ 
ten some learned books on furnishing and cos¬ 
tume; but ( Anastasius 5 gave him rank as an 
accomplished painter of scenery and delineator 
of manners. Anastasius, the hero, a young 
Greek ruined by injudicious indulgence, is haled 
before a Turkish magistrate. Discharged, he 
fights on the side of the Crescent and goes to 
Constantinople, where he resorts to all sorts 
of shifts for a livelihood,— jugglery, peddling, 
nostrum-making; becomes a Mussulman, visits 
Egypt, Arabia, Sicily, and Italy, and finally dies 
young, a worn-out and worthless adventurer. 
The book has passages of great power, often of 
brilliancy and wit; but belongs to the fashion 
of a more leisurely day and is now seldom read. 

Anastatic Printing, a process by which a 
facsimile of a page of type or an engraving, 
old or new, is reproduced in the manner of a 
lithograph or page of letterpress. The print or 
page to be transferred is dipped in diluted ni¬ 
tric acid, and, while retaining a portion of the 
moisture, laid face downward on a polished 
zinc plate and passed through a roller-press. 
The zinc is immediately corroded by the acid 
contained in the paper, excepting on those parts 
occupied by the ink of the type or engraving. 


ANASTOMOSIS — ANATOMY 


The ink, while rejecting the acid, is loosened by 
it and deposits a thin film on the zinc, thus 
protecting it from the action of the acid. The 
result is that those parts are left slightly raised 
in relief, and the plate being then washed with 
a weak solution of gum, and otherwise treated 
like a lithograph, the raised parts, being greasy, 
readily receive ink from the roller and give 
off a facsimile impression of the original. 

Anastomosis, in anatomy the joining of 
the branches of a vessel with other vessels of 
the same or a different branch. Anastomoses 
are found in the arteries, veins, and lymphatics. 
Anastomoses of nerve and muscle fibres are 
also spoken of. 

An'atase, a mineral more correctly known 
as OcTAHEDRITE (q.V.). 

Anathema, a word used in a form of ex- 
communication from the Church. It is properly 
a Greek word, and was originally applied to an 
object set apart and devoted to a deity, such as a 
gift hung up in a temple (being derived from 
the Greek anatithemi, I lay up) ; but it gradu¬ 
ally came to mean separation from God and men, 
something accursed; and latterly to pronounce 
an anathema, to anathematize, became much the 
same as to curse. Anathema occurs repeatedly 
in New Testament Greek, in the English ver¬ 
sion being generally rendered ^accursed,® but 
once the original word is retained (i Cor. xvi. 
22) along with maranatlia, the latter serving ap¬ 
parently to intensify the curse, though it is 
properly a Syriac expression signifying (< the 
Lord will come.® The Greek and Roman Cath¬ 
olic Churches both make use of the anathema. 
In the latter it can be pronounced only by a 
Pope, council, or some of the superior clergy. 
The subject of the anathema is thus declared 
an outcast from the Church. When councils 
declare any belief heretical the declaration is 
couched in the following form: Si quis dixerit, 
etc., anathema sit, <( If anyone says (so and so) 
let him be anathema. }) The anathema was thus 
pronounced by the Vatican Council against op¬ 
ponents of the doctrine of papal infallibility. In 
the Middle Ages the anathema was freely used. 
See Excommunication. 

Anathoth, a town in Palestine, assigned to 
the Levites, the birthplace of the prophet Jere¬ 
miah and the home of Abiathar the high priest. 
It was about three miles northeast of Jerusalem, 
and the small village of Anata occupies its site. 

Anat'idae, a family of swimming-birds, in¬ 
cluding ducks, swans, geese, etc. See Anseres. 

Anato'lia, the modern name of Asia 
Minor. See Asia Minor. 

Anatomy, literally a cutting up; but anat¬ 
omy usually signifies the special study of the 
structure of organic bodies, morphology (q.v.) 
and applies to both animals and plants. Animal 
morphology is the study of human or other 
animal forms, the study of the relationship be¬ 
tween the forms constituting Comparative 
Anatomy (q.v.). The study of the minute or mi¬ 
croscopical anatomy is termed Histology (q.v.). 
Developmental Anatomy is the study of the grad¬ 
ual growth of the animal, Embryology (q.v.). 
In the plant world there are also the correlated 
branches of Plant Morphology, Comparative 
Anatomy, Histology, and Embryology. The 
study of the microscopical structure of the sin¬ 


gle cell is termed Cytology; of collections of re¬ 
lated cells and tissues constituting organs, Or¬ 
ganology; thus the study of the bony system is 
termed Osteology, of the structures of circula¬ 
tion Angiology, of nerve structures Neurology, 
of the muscles Myology, of the viscera Splanch¬ 
nology, etc. Each in its turn has its special 
departments of investigation. 

The study of anatomy may be approached 
from the purely descriptive side, Descriptive 
Anatomy, or may deal with the anatomy of re¬ 
lated organs in related animals, as Systematic 
Anatomy. Applied or Practical Anatomy, or 
that branch dealing with its study as an aid in 
the diagnosis and treatment of disease, may be 
designated as Medical or Surgical Anatomy. 
Regional and Topographical Anatomy deals 
with the study of special parts or the special re¬ 
lations to surrounding parts. The larger study 
of anatomy in its general philosophical relations 
to the general questions of structure is termed 
Philosophical or Transcendental Anatomy. 

History .— The beginnings of human know¬ 
ledge of the structure of organic bodies are 
preserved from the earliest times in fragments 
only, but there are very good reasons for 
believing that much more was known many 
thousands of years before the Christian era 
than there is written evidence to substantiate. 
The history of anatomical study is correlative 
with the history of medicine, and even in very 
early times inquiries were made concerning the 
structure of the human and animal body. 

It is usual to ascribe to the Greeks the first 
foundations of anatomical knowledge, but it 
seems that Chinese culture, which was highly 
developed when the peoples of Europe were in 
a very primeval condition, had a well system¬ 
atized medical lore that included much exact 
pharmacological knowledge, with some few ana¬ 
tomical facts, although the anatomy of the early 
Chinese was largely speculative. Section of the 
human as well as lower animal bodies was for¬ 
bidden by at least two of the religious sects of 
early Chinese culture, the Alman and Buddha 
worships. It is interesting to note that as early 
as 2838-2699 b.c., Shinnong was a half-mythical 
medicine man in China, and it is said that 
Chinese works on medicine were written as 
early as 2698-2599 b.c. (Hwang Ai). 

In India the sacred work of the Ayur Veda, 
supposed to date from between the 14th to the 9th 
centuries b.c., at least 100 years before the cult 
of H^sculapius had begun, contains descriptions 
of the human body obtained from dissections, 
and it may be that Charaka and Susrutu, the 
earliest of Indian physicians, should be consid¬ 
ered the earliest anatomists. Egypt contributed 
somewhat to the knowledge of anatomy, and the 
Papyrus'Ebers, 1553? b.c., is a monument of old 
Egyptian medicine. It is of interest to note that 
some of the Hippocratic nomenclature of anat¬ 
omy is of Egyptian origin. The influence of re¬ 
ligion, however, was very strong in the shaping 
of Egyptian medicine. Evisceration was largely 
practised and undoubtedly led to the collection 
of many anatomical facts the importance of 
which has become lost to students. It is certain, 
however, that the school of medicine situated in 
Greece, on the island of Cos, laid the firm foun¬ 
dations of our knowledge of anatomy. It was 
in Greece also that the physician’s profession 
was amply recognized. This early Hippocratic 


ANATOMY 


a S e gave rise to a professional conscience, and 
the (( Physician’s Oath,® or the (( Hippocratic 
Oath,® (( is a monument of the highest rank in 
the history of civilization.® (Gomperz: ( Greek 
Thinkers. J ) 

There were at least seven physicians with 
the name of Hippocrates who taught in the 
early times. Hippocrates II. (430 b.c.), how¬ 
ever, was the great Hippocrates, but the know¬ 
ledge of anatomy then possessed must be con¬ 
sidered as the accumulation of the school rather 
than the work of any one man, for, as has al¬ 
ready been pointed out, some of the Hippocratic 
nomenclature is Egyptian in origin, (v. Oefele.) 
Inasmuch as the Hippocratic writings are partly 
preserved, a better idea of the anatomical know¬ 
ledge of the times may be gathered from them 
than from the mythical, traditional, and frag¬ 
mentary remnants left by other peoples. The 
school of Cos had a fairly accurate and exten¬ 
sive knowledge of the human skeleton, and they 
knew the general shapes and varieties of most 
of the internal organs. Their physiological hy¬ 
potheses, however, were crude but suggestive. 

From the time of the great Hippocrates the 
school of Cos seemed to deteriorate, although 
Polybus, the son-in-law of Hippocrates II., 
Syennesis, Diogenes, and Praxagoras, the last 
named being noted for his anatomical know¬ 
ledge, kept alive many of the traditions of the 
school. With Aristotle (384-323 b.c.) there 
came a period of more exact science and the 
dissection of the lower animals was practised, 
hence Aristotle may be termed the father of 
Comparative Anatomy. His researches in anat¬ 
omy were wide and deep and his work on 
animals contains much that is still taught. 

The Alexandrian period, 300 b.c., during 
which the culture of Rome and of Greece was 
encouraged in Egypt under the Ptolemies, 
shows as a bright spot in the history of anatom¬ 
ical science. With the foundation of the Alex¬ 
andrian Museum, the analogue of a modern 
university, the practice of human dissection be¬ 
came authorized. This period was a brilliant 
one in the history of medicine. Herophilus and 
Erasistratus were among the early leaders, the 
former making some noteworthy contributions 
to the knowledge of the anatomy of the brain. 
He maintained that it was the organ of thought 
and the origin of motion. He also described 
the lacteals and the lymphatics, and was an 
indefatigable searcher for the seat of the soul, 
which he placed in the floor of the fourth ven¬ 
tricle of the brain, the place now known to be 
the site of the cranial nerves, that are indispen¬ 
sable for the function of breathing. Herophilus 
also is credited with the destruction of the old 
doctrine that the arteries held air, hitherto the 
veins only having been thought to contain blood. 

Erasistratus first described the valves in the 
veins, made the general subdivision of sensory 
and motor nerves, and drew the generalization 
of the relation of the complexity of the brain 
convolutions and mental development. He also 
first suggested the thought of anastomoses be¬ 
tween the arteries and veins. Many others fol¬ 
lowed, but the rise of the Empirical school 
(q.v.) was the forerunner of the gradual decay 
of the Alexandrian school. It was to the newly 
arisen empire of Rome that the stream had 
turned, and until the time of Cato Greek physi¬ 
cians flourished in Rome. Asclepiades (126-56 


b.c.) was one of the founders of the Atomic 
school at Rome, and Rufus (97 b.c.) of Ephesus, 
with A. Cornelius Celsus (25 B.C.-40 a.d.) were 
among those who have left definite anatomical 
landmarks. Celsus is known as a brilliant man, 
a compiler of the work of his predecessors. 
His anatomical work was insignificant, but he 
contributed largely to therapeutics. The last 
dying ember of this Alexandrian transplanted 
school showed in Claudius Galen, a Greek from 
Pergamos, a town already noted for its ^Escu- 
lapian temple. Galen was a man of great bril¬ 
liancy, an independent thinker, and it was to 
his literary efforts that much of the history and 
treatment of the Hippocratic school has been 
preserved to us. His works on anatomy alone 
were at least fifteen in number, nine of which 
are preserved. Galen systematized much of the 
anatomical knowledge of the time, and although 
much of his data was drawn from the study 
of apes it was to pass muster in the service of 
human anatomy. He was perhaps the first to 
make any experimental physiological studies. 
His descriptions of the relations of the brain 
to the spinal cord and his knowledge of the 
cranial nerves were in advance of his predeces¬ 
sors. Galen’s work stands out as the last sys¬ 
tematic work of the Greek period, and following 
his death began the dark era of the barbaric 
inroads of the northern races and the dispersal 
of the culture of the East. 

For a period of many centuries history is 
comparatively silent on the subject of medicine. 
No great schools arose, yet the doctrines of the 
ancient Greeks were kept alive in many places 
by obscure scholars and by many peoples, al¬ 
though it is known that the Saracens were 
largely instrumental in keeping intact that which 
Galen had handed down, without adding much, 
however, to his teachings. A flourishing intel¬ 
lectual development took place in the Byzantine 
countries, and many universities were founded 
by the Arabs, where the Roman-Hellenic cul¬ 
ture was mingled with the Christian-Oriental 
ideas to found a new culture. Among the most 
famous of the Oriental physicians was Sergios 
von Resaina (536). He translated both Galen 
and Hippocrates into Syrian. Oreibasios was 
also a commentator of the Greeks; Avicenna 
(980-1036) was the Galen of the Orientals. 
This period of medical history has been called 
the Arabic period, and not until the influence of 
the crusades commenced to make itself felt 
did the period of the Renaissance begin. 

The history of medicine (anatomy) now be¬ 
comes more and more multiplex; new schools 
begin to be founded. Salerno, Naples, Mont¬ 
pellier, Venice, Bologna, Prague, Vienna, and 
Oxford successively built universities and at¬ 
tracted the ablest minds in medicine. Scholars 
traveled from university to university to learn 
from a professor here and a professor there, 
and the fortunes of the universities rose and 
fell like the tides of the sea. In 1224 it is said 
that the University of Bologna alone had 10,- 
000 students. Among the early names of this 
period of transition may be mentioned Lisfranc 
(1295) ; Mondino (1275-1327), who wrote the 
first anatomy since the time of Galen, and 
which reached 25 editions,— he also suffered 
persecutions for his zeal in dissecting; Linacre, 
(1461-1524) of England, was one of the earliest 
scholars to bring the results of the new awaken- 


ANATOMY 


ing to Oxford and to Cambridge; and Sylvius, 
or Jacques Dubois, a Frenchman, was another of 
these great early anatomists of the reconstruc¬ 
tion period. Sylvius first arranged all of the 
muscles of the human body and gave them the 
names which, for the most part, they now carry. 

Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564), a Belgian, 
first studied at Louvain, and later became a pu¬ 
pil of Sylvius at Paris. At the age of 22 he 
became professor of anatomy at Padua, and at 
29 issued a monumental work on anatomy, the 
best that had been given up to that time. He 
corrected many of Galen’s errors and had a 
checkered career. General gross anatomy under 
Vesalius, who was a son, grandson, and great- 
grandson of a physician, began to assume more 
definite shape. In his student days at Paris 
under Sylvius, anatomy was taught upon the 
animal cadaver. Sylvius, however, was an un¬ 
compromising Galenist, and, although he made 
dissections, he followed Galen’s treatises in 
very servile fashion. He was practically the last 
of his school, and his doctrines were swept away 
by the light thrown by this indefatigable seeker 
after truth as drawn from nature rather than 
from books. <( My study of anatomy,® said he, 
^would never have succeeded had I, when work¬ 
ing at medicine at Paris, been willing that the 
viscera should be merely shown to me and to 
my fellow students at one or another public 
dissection by wholly unskilled barbers, and that 
in the most superficial way. I had to put my 
own hand to the business.® Human dissection 
was rapidly and superficially practised, but Ve¬ 
salius is known to have haunted cemeteries and 
gibbets to obtain human material. The results 
of his studies were published in 1543 in his 
masterpiece, ( De Humani Corporis Fabrica. 
Libri VII., 5 the first of a long series of more 
distinct modern treatises on physiology as well 
as anatomy. Vesalius may truly be said to 
have been the founder of modern biological 
science. <( He brought into anatomy the new 
spirit of the time, the young men of the time 
who listened to the new voice.® 

Of the contemporaries of Vesalius many 
were almost as famous as he. Eustachius at 
Rome, and Fallopius at Paris, Ferrara, and 
Padua corrected many of Vesalius’s details, and 
Eustachius may be said to have been the first 
to call attention to the study of embryology as 
an aid in the interpretation of gross anatomy. 
Both Eustachius and Fallopius made note¬ 
worthy additions to the knowledge of the ear. 
These were the days of enthusiasm in the dis¬ 
covery of new facts, and so great was the 
striving for the new culture that it is said that 
criminals were utilized for purposes of experi¬ 
ment and dissection, probably after smothering. 
A large coterie of brilliant men lived at this 
time. Servetus (1509-1553), a Spaniard, first 
made out many of the true facts of the pulmo¬ 
nary circulation. Csesalpinus (1517-1603), a 
highly cultured scholar and a great botanist, was 
among the first to speak of the circulation of 
the blood. Varolius (1543-1575), furthered 
the knowledge of the anatomy of the nervous 
system. Spigelius (1578-1625) made note¬ 
worthy studies of the liver. Realdo Colombo 
(1494-1559), who succeeded Vesalius at Padua, 
and was subsequently professor of anatomy at 
Pisa, filled out the outline of Servetus. Some 
authorities claim that he stole the ideas and 


correctly described the pulmonary circulation, 
although he did not appreciate the corollaries 
of his discovery. He imitated Vesalius and 
his work in a bold reproduction of his friend’s 
studies; and Fabricius (1537-1619), who suc¬ 
ceeded Fallopius at Padua, built a special ana¬ 
tomical amphitheatre where he taught anatomy 
to England’s great anatomist Harvey. 

The time had now come for a mind who 
could take this accumulating mass of anatomi¬ 
cal facts, which after all were extensions in 
detail only of the old Hippocratic anatomy, and 
to discover new physiological principles, for it 
was noteworthy that although newer and better 
ideas of structure had been given, yet many 
of the old notions of function were still taught. 

This was done by William Harvey of Eng¬ 
land. He was born in 1578, studied at many 
universities, mainly at Cambridge and Padua, 
and in 1615 first clearly demonstrated the cor¬ 
rect action of the heart and interpreted the his¬ 
tory of the circulation of the blood. Harvey’s 
old anatomical preparations of this age are still 
in existence. From this time onward newer 
interpretations were possible, and the study of 
anatomy and physiology, now correctly linked, 
made rapid strides. These newer vantage 
grounds of interpretation were further extended 
by the discovery of the microscope, and by this 
instrument the field of microscopical anatomy, 
or Histology (q.v.), was opened up, leading to 
far-reaching and important results to the wel¬ 
fare of mankind. The period of detailed and 
special advance may be said to have been fore¬ 
told in the newly revived study of physics by 
Borelli and his school, and the newer chemistry 
of Van Helmont won from the mysticisms of 
alchemy. These united to interpret the results 
of anatomical research, and the general history 
of the subject of anatomy widens out, fan-like, 
into its several specialties. The subject of anat¬ 
omy now becomes lost in the history of in¬ 
terpretations and applications, and the further 
developments of these are considered in these 
volumes under their special heads where the 
developments of the various branches of anatom¬ 
ical research are considered. Consult Anatomy, 
Comparative; Anthropology; Biology; Chemi¬ 
cal Physiology; Cytology; Embryology; His¬ 
tology; Pathology; Physiology; Surgical 
Anatomy. 

Bibliography .— The most extensive of mod¬ 
ern works on the history of anatomy is found 
with complete bibliography in - Neuburger and 
Pagel’s ( Handbuch der Geschichte der Medi¬ 
cine (2 vols. 1903). See also Buck’s Refer¬ 
ence Handbook of the Medical Sciences 5 (nth 
ed. N. Y.1902); Roswell Park’s ( An Epitome 
of the History of Medicine 5 (1897). Of de¬ 
scriptive anatomies there are many: Testut and 
Poirier in French; Bardelben and Spalteholz in 
German, the latter translated by Barker into 
English in 1903 ; Morris, Quain, Gray in English; 
Leidy, Gerrish, and Huntington in America. The 
bibliography of the special subjects will be dis¬ 
cussed in their sections. See Medicine, History 
of. _ Smith Ely Jeliffe, M. D., 

Editor c Journal of Nervous Diseases P 

Anatomy, Comparative, is that subdivision 
of the science of zoology which deals with adult 
forms and structures of animals with a view 
to determining their relationships. Comparative 
Anatomy and Embryology, the latter dealing 


ANATOMY—I. THE HUMAN SKELETON. 



4 Coronal 6 utur« 
- Par^tai bone 


1 frontal bore 
• -3 Tempo-3! bone 
6 Orbits 

Side of ocr p tat bnne 
*Malar or cheek-bone 

Condylcd process of lo •N « 
7 Superior ma*.iiary — Uppe 


Napa' hones t> 


Angle of lower jaw 


fiymphyS'S of lower jaw 12 


•ir lower eery.cal vertebrae ' 7 m *ll) 
0 tirst bone o r sternum 
>3 Ctavicies -CoHar-bonrs 
; 2-V Coracoid process of srapu 

„_•_ 25 At'ormon of scapula 


•wo upper aod two tower dorsal Vertebrae (12 mail) 1 + 


me-us — Arm - bone 


f 'id 1 

'Anterior 
SO.-f.3Ce i 

scapula 


humerus 


*\ Cartilages^ 
.vf KS af i-ibs 


21 Second bone 
o f st 


M Condy'es of humerus 

- .30 Heed of radius- 

0. »r bone of forearm 


Ulna—lnne' < bone of forearm 
Lumbar vertebrae ( b in number) 


31 0ody of radius 


35 Anter.or Superior process of ilium 

3<i Anterior inferior process o r 'hum. 

' "39 Brim of peiv.s 

4J. Head of femur or thigh-bone 

3 43 Trochanter major of femur 


42 Neck of femur. 


3S Tuberosity" 
of ischium 
ymphySiS pubis 


: Coccyx 
40 

Foramen ovale 


44 Body of femur 


ienulunar bone 


■3 Cuneiform bone 
*4 Pisiform bone 
'8 Unoform bone 


Scaphoid bone 1- 
Trapeziunv S- 

Trapezotd Q- 

magnum J-" J 


Os calcis - 
Heel-bone 


9 Metacarpal bones 
of thumb and fingers 


row of phalanges 12 
mb and fingers 

„46 Patella — 
Knee-pan 


Superior articulated surface 
— I of astraga'us 


XO P-st now of 
phalanges of thumb 
and fingers 


Commencement of groove 
of interosseous 

ligament 4-■ 


Condy'es of femur 45 


♦1L Second row of 
phalanges of fingers 


Anterior oorticn 

of astragalus 


47 , 7 

Head of t'b'a —** ‘' 

Thick bone on nner side of k 


t> T uOeroS'tv of 
scaphoid bor.e 

r i Scapncid bone 


r “'- J . 


External 9- 

Cune-tbrm bone 


C* Middle 
cu ne.fo'-m 


ocne 

Internal 

cuneiform bor.e 


Metatarsal 

bores 


0 f.bula—Th'n*bone on external s 


Second row J 3 
of pfialunues 


♦ 12 First row 0 r 
l ph»'ange& of 


4 14 Th.rd.row of pHa'anges 







vfos * ' 



II 

WtoM 

fsiVii 

RttSW 40 fcsSLii 

r^§L 10 pSBHSik 














































ANATOMY 


with the immature forms and structures of ani¬ 
mals, constitute the science of Morphology, which 
treats of the structure, development, classifica¬ 
tion, and relationships of animals as contrasted 
with Physiology, which deals with their func¬ 
tions. In contradistinction to special anatomy, 
which has for its aim the description of all the 
structures and parts of any one animal,— for 
example, man,— the method of comparative anat¬ 
omy is to compare corresponding parts in 
many different species, noting their modifications 
and transformations with the ultimate purpose 
of determining the affinities or relationships of 
these species to one another. In the earlier his¬ 
tory of this science the expressions <( relation- 
ship® or ^affinity® were used in a metaphorical 
sense, signifying merely relative positions in a 
system of classification. With the growth of 
the evolution idea, however, they have acquired 
a new and literal meaning, since the aim of 
modern morphology is to determine the genetic 
or blood relationships of animals to one another 
and thereby to trace the evolution not only of 
the species but also of the various organs and 
parts. The great value of the comparative 
method in science is nowhere better illustrated 
than in the study of anatomy. There are prob¬ 
ably not fewer than 1,000,000 known species 
of animals belonging to at least 10 or 12 
distinct types. These animals exhibit the va¬ 
rious organs of animal life under a great variety 
of forms, and bv means of comparison it is 
possible to determine in each case what is 
universal and essential and what is merely local 
and accidental, and also to indicate the steps 
by which complexity of organization has been 
attained. Furthermore the comparative method 
throws a flood of light upon the significance of 
problematical and rudimentary structures such 
as the thyroid, the thymus, and pineal glands 
of man, the purpose of which so puzzled the 
earlier anatomists. In fact it may fairly be 
said that it is impossible to properly comprehend 
any structure of the human body without con¬ 
sidering it in relation to similar structures in 
other animals. 

I. Principles of Comparative Anatomy. — It 
is obvious that in the study of animals various 
standards of comparison might be employed; for 
example, they might be compared as to color, 
size, or length of life, but it is at once apparent 
that such comparisons would bring together ani¬ 
mals of the most diverse characteristics in other 
respects. As contrasted with such a purely 
artificial classification it was long the aim of 
naturalists to find a natural system expressing 
the <( affinity® between organisms which could 
frequently be better felt than described. It was 
the great merit of Cuvier, often called the found¬ 
er of comparative anatomy, that he insisted upon 
the importance of comparing the totality of the 
internal structures as well as the external char¬ 
acteristics of animals. By means of such compar¬ 
isons he reached the conclusion that there were 
four great independent branches or types of ani¬ 
mal organization, namely, Vertebrata, Mollus- 
ca, Articulata, Radiata, each consisting of forms 
fundamentally like one another but unlike those 
of other types. The principal criterion used by 
Cuvier for determining this fundamental like¬ 
ness or unlikeness was the relative positions of 
corresponding parts, particularly of the nervous 
system. «The type is the relative position of 


parts® (Von Baer). Richard Owen, a pupil 
of Cuvier, introduced the term homology to de¬ 
scribe this fundamental likeness, defining it as 
(( morphological correspondence in the relative 
position and connection of parts.® He contrasted 
with this physiological correspondence of parts, 
which he named analogy. In closely allied ani¬ 
mals, organs which are homologous are usually 
also analogous, but in less closely related ones 
this may or may not be the case. Organs having 
the same function may be structurally very un¬ 
like, for example, the wing of a bird and that of 
an insect; on the other hand, organs structurally 
similar may have very different functions, for 
example, the fore leg of a quadruped and the 
wing of a bird. This conception of homology 
lies at the very foundation of all morphological 
studies; it is the one criterion for determining 
likeness or unlikeness between organisms. Owen 
further distinguished between special and general 
homology, the former signifying fundamental 
likeness between corresponding parts of different 
animals, as in the case of the arm of man and the 
fore limb of a quadruped ; while the latter refers 
to similar parts of the same individual, as in the 
case of the fore and hind limbs of a quadruped 
or the right and left sides of the body. Since 
the term general homology as used by Owen is 
liable to misinterpretation it would be well to 
replace it by the expression meristic homology 
(Bateson), signifying by this term morphological 
correspondence between parts of the same indi¬ 
vidual which may be repeated in any relation 
whatever. Meristic homology would thus in¬ 
clude correspondence between parts which are 
repeated in a series, for example, the vertebrae 
of the spinal column (serial homology, homody- 
namy), between parts repeated on the right and 
left sides of the body, for example, right and 
left limbs (lateral homology, homotypy) and 
between parts repeated in any other relations, 
for example, the fingers of one hand, upper and 
lower teeth, etc., (vertical homology, homo- 
nomy). 

Significance of Homology .—To Cuvier and 
his followers homology meant (< conformity to 
type,® to the (( archetypal plan® established by 
the Creator. In the light of evolution, however, 
homologies are believed to be family or hered¬ 
itary likenesses due to inheritance from some 
common ancestor. For this reason special ho¬ 
mology might better be called homogeny (Lan- 
kester) or homophyly. Contrasted with this are 
such morphological resemblances as are not due 
to inheritance, but to similarity of environment 
acting upon forms of dissimilar descent; such 
false homology is called homoplasy (Lankester), 
homomorphy (Gegenbaur) or convergence. It 
is the task of comparative anatomy to apply to 
animal structures these criteria of likeness or 
unlikeness and to distinguish between these va¬ 
rious kinds of homology. These various forms 
of homology are summarized in the following 
table: 


Special Homology 
(Homogeny, H o m o- 
phyly) 


Homology < 


General 

(Meristic 


Homology 

Homology) 


False Homology 
(Homoplasy, Homo¬ 
morphy, Conver¬ 
gence) 


Homodynamy (Se¬ 
rial) 

- Homotypy (Lateral) 
Homonomy (Verti* 
. cal, etc.) 




ANATOMY 


II. General Structures and Functions of 
Animals. —Although the differences between the 
highest and the lowest animals are enormous 
there are nevertheless certain structures and 
functions which are practically the same in all 
animals whatsoever. All animals and plants 
without exception are composed of cells, while 
all the functions of living things are the result¬ 
ants of the aggregate functions of the cells of 
which they are composed. The cell is thus the 
universal unit of organic structure and function 
(Cell Theory of Schleiden and Schwann), and 
has been defined as a mass of protoplasm enclos¬ 
ing a nucleus (M. Schultze). Protoplasm or 
living matter is a substance, usually semi-solid, 
of unknown but undoubtedly very complex 
chemical composition. It is probably composed 
of several complex compounds of C, H, O, and 
N, which do not form a mere mixture but are 
united in a definite and orderly way. Both the 
cell body and the nucleus are composed of pro¬ 
toplasm, though of very different quality in the 
two cases; that which forms the chief mass of 
the cell, the cell body, is called cytoplasm, while 
that constituting the nucleus is known as karyo- 
plasm. At least these two kinds of protoplasm 
are found in every cell and are necessary to the 
continuance of vital activities. The cytoplasm 
and karyoplasm are each composed of two or 
more different substances of visibly different 
structure, and all these parts are put together in 
an orderly manner so that they bear definite 
relations to one another. The cell, therefore, no 
less certainly than a complex animal, shows or¬ 
ganization,, that is, differentiation of unlike parts 
and integration of these parts into a single and 
complete whole. 

As all organisms are composed of cells, so all 
living things have certain activities or functions 
in common. The most important of these are 
the following: (i) Metabolism, or the trans¬ 
formations of matter and energy within the 
living thing; this may be subdivided into anabo¬ 
lism, or the change of the matter and energy of 
food into the matter and energy of protoplasm; 
and katabolism, or the destructive changes in 
protoplasm by which the living matter is trans¬ 
formed into less complex substances (secretions, 
waste products, etc.), while its energy appears 
in various forms (heat, motion, etc.). Metabo¬ 
lism therefore includes nutrition, growth, waste 
and repair, movement, secretion, and excretion. 
(2) Irritability, or the capacity of receiving, 
transmitting, and responding to stimuli. (3) Re¬ 
production, or the formation of new individuals 
from the substance of an old one. These general 
functions are characteristic of every living thing, 
plant or animal, simple or complex. From them 
all the functions of the most complex animal are 
built up, and as they are manifested in some de¬ 
gree by every cell it will be seen that the cell 
is the unit not only of organic structure but also 
of organic function. 

All animals begin their individual existence 
as a single cell, but while some remain in this 
condition throughout life, others by repeated 
divisions of this initial cell become multicellular; 
the former constituting the group Protozoa, the 
latter the Metazoa. Protozoa are animals in 
which the entire body consists of a single cell, 
which usually leads an independent existence, 
though in some cases several may be united into 
a colony. In some forms the substance of this 


cell consists of protoplasm showing very little 
differentiation; in others it is differentiated into 
many unlike parts, each with its own specific 
function. The most general differentiation, apart 
from that of nucleus and cell body, is into a 
superficial dense layer, the ectoplasm, and a 
more fluid, granular interior, the endoplasm. 
Further specializations are shown by the more 
complex forms in the formation from the ecto¬ 
plasm of contractile vacuoles, serving as organs 
of excretion; of thread-like processes, serving as 
organs of locomotion (cilia, flagella) ; of con¬ 
tractile fibres (myophan striations) which act 
like muscle fibres; of stinging threads ( tricho - 
cysts) which serve as organs of defense; of a 
mouth and gullet through which food is taken 
into the interior of the cell, and of a calcareous 
or silicious skeleton, frequently of great com¬ 
plexity and beauty. All of these structures are 
differentiations of a single cell; they show how 
complex such a cell may become, and they indi¬ 
cate that the Protozoa are, in the words of one 
of the old zoologists, (< perfect animals.® 

In all Metazoa the body is composed of many 
cells differing among themselves in certain re¬ 
spects. These cells have all arisen from a single 
one, the egg, which by repeated divisions (cleav¬ 
ages) gives rise to a group of connected cells. 
In typical cases these become arranged in a 
single layer, forming a hollow sphere, the blastu- 
la, which then, by the migration of certain sur¬ 
face cells into the interior, becomes a two¬ 
layered sphere; the gastrula, containing a central 
cavity; the archenteron, or primitive digestive 
sack, which opens at one place to the exterior 
by a pore, the blastopore or primitive mouth. 
The outer layer of the gastrula is called the 
ectoderm, the inner one the endoderm, while be¬ 
tween them a third layer, the mesoderm, usually 
appears, being derived from one or both of the 
primary layers. These three layers are known as 
the germ layers and from them all the organs 
of the adult metazoan are derived. The ecto¬ 
derm gives rise to the outer covering of the 
body, the nervous system, and sense organs; the 
endoderm to the alimentary canal and its out¬ 
growths, while from the mesoderm arise mus¬ 
cles, skeleton, circulatory, excretory, and repro¬ 
ductive systems. 

In all Metazoa the ectoderm and endoderm 
and frequently also the mesoderm consist of cells, 
flattened, cuboid, or columnar in shape, pressed 
together side by side into a layer. This simplest 
and earliest grouping of cells in the metazoan 
body is called epithelium. From one or more of 
these epithelial layers cells may escape into the 
space between the ectoderm and endoderm and 
there become branched and irregular in shape, 
forming a loose grouping of cells known as 
mesenchyme. Epithelium and mesenchyme are 
the primary tissues of the metazoan body. They 
are the first formed in the development, and from 
them all other tissues are derived. The cells of 
one or both of these primary tissues may under¬ 
go further differentiation into contractile or 
muscle cells and into irritable or nerve cells, 
while the mesenchyme cells may give rise to 
non-living cell products such as fibres, spicules, 
cartilage, bone, and fat. When cells of any 
one of these groups are united they constitute 
a tissue, so that in the body of a metazoan we 
recognize, in addition to epithelial and mesen- 


ANATOMY—II. THE MUSCLES OF THE HUMAN BODY. 





Insertion of ligament l 
of knee pan into tibia 


HoTimon extensor of toes. 14 


StvO't peroneal - See 30 of I In 


Abdu_ct'cr of qr<»at fee U* 



























































ANATOMY 


chymatous tissue, muscular, nervous, and sus- 
tentacular or connective tissue. Further consid¬ 
eration of these tissues belongs to Histology 
rather than to Comparative Anatomy. In all 
Metazoa two or more of these tissues may be 
united to form organs, which are structures of 
definite shape and individuality having for their 
purpose the carrying on of specific functions. 
Finally two or more organs may co-operate in a 
common function and are then known as an 
organ system. The principal systems of organs 
in the metazoan body are the following: (i) 
Integumentary; (2) Nervous; (3) Motor; (4) 
Skeletal; (5) Alimentary; (6) Respiratory; (7) 
Circulatory; (8) Excretory; (9) Reproductive. 

III. Fundamental Form of the Metazoan 
Body. — Although the forms of multicellular ani¬ 
mals are extremely varied they may all be re¬ 
ferred to a single ground form, the gastrula. 
From the egg stage to the gastrula all Metazoa 
travel essentially the same road in their develop¬ 
ment ; beyond the gastrula stage they diverge in 
many directions. The gastrula is therefore the lat¬ 
est developmental stage common to all Metazoa 
and must be taken as the ground form from which 
they all have been derived. It is typically a 
double-walled sac surrounding the archenteron 
or primitive digestive cavity, which opens at one 
pole to the exterior by the blastopore or prim¬ 
itive mouth. It is radially symmetrical around 
an axis connecting the oral and aboral poles; this 
is the primary or gastrular axis. In a few types — 
for example, sponges, hydroids, jellyfishes — this 
axis becomes the chief axis of the adult body; 
such animals constitute the group Protaxonia. 
In others (all bilateral animals) the chief axis 
of the adult lies almost at right angles to the 
gastrular axis, and it is derived in large part 
from one of the secondary axes of the gastrula; 
these forms are known as Heteraxonia or Bilat- 
eralia. Among the Protaxonia the adult form 
is radially symmetrical and differs but little 
from the gastrula; this is especially true of the 



Fig. 1 


Fig. 1.— Types of Protaxonia (= Ccelenterata) (from 
Hatschek). The chief axis of the gastrula coin¬ 
cides with that of the adult, the apical pole of 
the gastrula being indicated by the head of the 
arrow.— A, ground form of the Spongiaria. B, 
ground form of the Cnidaria. C, ground form of 
the Ctenophora. 

hydroids, some of which are practically gastrulas 
throughout life which are attached by the aboral 
pole and with a row of tentacles around the 
mouth. Among the Heteraxonia, on the other 
hand, the adult shows but little if any resem¬ 
blance to the gastrula from which it is derived; 


this is the result not only of the change of axis 
just mentioned but also of the complication of 
the gastrular layers and the formation from 
them of complex organs and parts. In the 
change of axis it usually happens that the pri¬ 
mary axis becomes so bent that the oral and 



Fig. 2.— Types of Heteraxonia (— Bilaterata). The 
gastrula axis becomes only in part the chief axis 
of the adult; the apical pole of the gastrula is 
shifted forward to the anterior end of the adult, 
while the oral pole of the former lies on the 
ventral side of the latter or near its anterior end, 
so that a more or less extensive bending of the 
gastrular axis occurs; in all cases the brain and 
eye arise at or near the original apical pole.— A, 
gastrula. B, C, larva and adult of flatworm. D, 
larva of annelid (trochophore). E, larva of gas¬ 
tropod (veliger). 

aboral poles approach each other while at the 
same time one of the secondary axes elongates, 
becoming the principal axis of the adult, and the 
body becomes bilaterally symmetrical with ref¬ 
erence to a plane passed through this axis and 
the original primary axis. The apical pole of 
the gastrula becomes the anterior pole of the 
adult; since brain and sense organs usually 
develop at this pole it might also be called the 
sense pole. The position of the oral pole of the 
gastrula with reference to the adult axis shows 
considerable variation in different groups, but 
among invertebrates it generally lies on the ven¬ 
tral side, while in the case of the vertebrates it 
is dorsal. The chief axis of the adult connects 
the anterior and posterior poles and is therefore 
known as the antero-posterior axis. The side of 
the body generally directed downward, and at the 
anterior end of which the mouth usually lies, is 
ventral, while the opposite side is dorsal and the 
line connecting these two is the dorso-ventral 
axis. 

There are a few apparent exceptions to the 
rule that Heteraxonia are bilateral forms; some 
Heteraxonia are apparently radially symmetrical 
(starfish, sea-urchin), while others are asym¬ 
metrical (snails, amphioxus, flounders, etc.). 
The starfishes and sea-urchins are five-rayed ani¬ 
mals which were classed by Cuvier among the 
Radiata, but a careful study of the larval as well 
as the adult form shows that they are really 
bilateral and that their radial structure has 
developed from a bilateral form, probably 
through the influence of peculiar life conditions, 
such as persistent attachment or fixation to 
foreign objects. Snails are generally spirally 
coiled and asymmetrical, but here also the study 
of their development shows that at an early stage 
they are bilateral, and even in the adult condi- 

























ANATOMY 


tion the head and ventral parts of the body are 
usually bilateral; the asymmetry of the dorsal 
part being due, perhaps, to its elongation and the 
shell formation covering it. In the case of other 
asymmetrical forms, like amphioxus, flounders, 
etc., it is certain that we are dealing with modi¬ 
fications of bilaterality due to peculiar conditions 
of life. 

Another modification of the original meta¬ 
zoan ground form, the gastrula, which almost 
all Metazoa show, is due to the formation and 
development of a middle layer in a space, the 
blastoccele or primary body cavity, between the 
ectoderm and the endoderm, namely, the meso¬ 
derm. In the lowest Metazoa this consists of 
branched cells (mesenchyme) which are loosely 
packed together and contain no considerable 
spaces, or if present these spaces are only parts of 
the primary body cavity. Among the higher Met¬ 
azoa the middle layer is usually divided into an 
inner portion lying next to the endoderm and an 
outer one next to the ectoderm. Between these 
two layers of mesoderm there remains a space 
which is the secondary body cavity or coelom. 
This is lined by flattened mesoderm cells, the 
peritoneum, and is usually divided into right and 
left halves by two longitudinal partitions, the 
dorsal and ventral mesenteries, one of which lies 
dorsal to the alimentary canal and the other 
ventral to it; in some animals one or both of 
these may be destroyed. In segmented animals 
the coelom may be further divided into a series 
of chambers by transverse partitions, the dissepi¬ 
ments. The excretory and sexual organs are 
developed in large part from the walls of the 
coelom and project into its cavity. The portion 
of the coelom surrounding the heart is usually 
separated from the remainder of this cavity and 
is called the pericardium; while in the highest 
vertebrates (mammals) the anterior portion of 
the coelom which contains the lungs is separated 
by the diaphragm from the posterior part con¬ 
taining the abdominal viscera. 

A further complication of the metazoan body 
is introduced by the repetition of the principal 
organs of the body in a series, one behind the 
other; such repetition is known as metameric 
segmentation, and each segment of the body is 
called a metamere or somite. Many of the high¬ 
er Metazoa (annelids, arthropods, vertebrates) 
show this form of segmentation. In the simplest 
cases each of these somites has its own section 
of the coelom and its own sensory, nervous, 
muscular, alimentary, respiratory, excretory, and 
sexual organs, and each may bear a pair of limbs 
or locomotor organs. Each somite, in short, con¬ 
tains all of the important organs and may prop¬ 
erly be called a little body (somite). In more 
highly organized segmented animals the various 
segments are no longer alike (homonomous), 
but show physiological divisions of labor, some 
being differentiated for one function and some 
for another (heteronomous). In this way some 
of the organs named above disappear in certain 
segments while others become greatly enlarged 
or modified. Finally this specialization of the 
somites is carried one step farther in higher 
arthropods and in vertebrates in which we have 
an intimate fusion of metameres and coalescence 
of organs in certain regions such as to complete¬ 
ly mask the fundamental segmentation. This is 
especially true of the vertebrates, the lower 
forms of which group show segmentation of the 


axial skeleton (vertebrse and ribs) and attached 
muscles, of the nerves, of the gills and their 
blood vessels, and of the excretory and sexual 
organs; while in the higher vertebrates (reptiles, 
birds, and mammals) segmentation is limited in 
the adult to the axial skeleton, muscles, and 
nerves. The fusion of somites is most pro¬ 
nounced at the anterior end of the body; the 
head of insects contains three or four somites, 
while the vertebrate head is composed of not 
fewer than nine. Among arthropods the section 
of the body immediately behind the head and 
known as the thorax is composed of a number 
of fused somites, while in the posterior section of 
the body, the abdomen, the somites do not 
usually coalesce. Primitively the limbs are all 
alike and a pair is borne on each somite; how¬ 
ever in higher annelids and arthropods they 
disappear entirely from certain somites and in 
others undergo great modifications of structure 
to fit them for particular functions. In the case 
of vertebrates they are limited to but two pairs, 
and it is probable that these are derived from a 
continuous lateral fin by the suppression of in¬ 
tervening portions. The great modifications and 
complications which have here been briefly 
sketched lead far from the simple form of the 
gastrula, and yet comparative anatomy and em¬ 
bryology show that the gastrula is the. ground 
form of all Metazoa and they indicate in many 
cases the steps by which these most complex 
parts have arisen. 

IV. Classification. —Although there is much 
diversity of opinion as to the number of types 



Fig. 3 

Fig. 3.— Development of Amphioxus (from Claus after 
Hatschek), showing the derivation of the chordate 
from the gastrula.— A, blastula. B, C, D, gas* 
trulae. E, embryo. F, larva.— n, nerve-tube; 
Oe, its opening to the exterior; Us, mesoblastic 
somites; mf, mesoblastic fold; Ch, notochord; 
o, mouth; k, first gill-cleft; d, gut; Bl, ventral 
blood-vessel. 




























































ANATOMY 


or phyla in the animal kingdom it is certain 
that there are more than the four recognized 
by Cuvier, the number being probably not less 
than ten or twelve. The present tendency 




Fig. 4 

Fig. 4.— Diagrams of body layers and cavities in A, 
coelenterates; B, flatworms; C, annelids; D, verte¬ 
brates.— g, gastric cavity; g, cavity of gonad; a, 
primary body cavity (blastocoele) filled with 
branched cells (mesenchyme); c, secondary body 
cavity (coelom); d, dorsal mesentery; m, mesen¬ 
chyme filling space of original primary body cav¬ 
ity; n, nerve-tube. 

among zoologists is to increase this number 
rather than to reduce it; but the absolute sepa¬ 
rateness and independence of these types is not 
now generally maintained. Many of them have 
important characters in common, and while suf¬ 
ficiently distinct to mark the primary subdivi¬ 
sions of the animal kingdom are yet evidently 
related to one another. The primary divisions 
or phyla which are now most generally recog- 



Fig. 5 

Fig. 5.— Diagrammatic sections of an ideal vertebrate 
(after Parker and Haswell).— A, sagittal section 
showing the brain and spinal cord on the dorsal 
side of the notochord, and the alimentary canal 
and viscera on the ventral side of it. B, trans¬ 
verse section of the head, showing a gill-arch 
and filaments on the left and a gill-cleft on the 
right. C, transverse section of the trunk, showing 
the gut, the genital glands, and the excretory or¬ 
gans in the body cavity. D, transverse section of 
the tail. 

nized are the following: (1) Protozoa, (2) 
Spongiaria, (3) Cnidaria, (4) Ctenophora, (5) 
Platyheltninthes, (6) Nemathelminthes, (7) 


Rotifera, (8) Chcetognatha, (9) Annelida, (10) 
Arthropoda, (11) Molluscoida, (12) Mollusca , 
(13) Echinodermata, (14) Chordata. Some 
forms cannot with certainty be assigned to 
any of these groups, and new phyla may need to 
be established for them; on the other hand fu¬ 
ture work may show that two or more of the 
groups named may be combined under a single 
phylum. The value of these phyla so far as 
the number and variety of animals included in 
them is concerned is very unequal, some of 
them including but a single order and but a few 
genera, while others include many classes, or¬ 
ders, and genera; in fact, about one half as many 
species are known in a single order of the class 
Insecta as in all the remainder of the animal 
kingdom put together. A tabular classification 
of each of these phyla and of the classes into 
which it is subdivided is given on the three fol¬ 
lowing pages: 

V. Organ Systems. —When two or more or¬ 
gans are associated in carrying on a common 
function they constitute an organ system. Those 
systems most widely represented among ani¬ 
mals, and therefore the most important, are 
those concerned with the general functions of 
all animals, namely, metabolism, reproduction, 
and irritability. The first of these consists of 
several distinct though related functions, each 
with its own system of organs; accordingly we 
recognize the following systems: (1) digestive, 

(2) respiratory, (3) circulatory, (4) excretory, 
(5) motor, (6) reproductive, (7) nervous, (8) 
sensory; to these may be added those less im¬ 
portant systems which serve for protection and 
support, namely, (9) integumentary, (10) skele¬ 
tal. These organ systems will now be com-' 
pared in broad outlines, with a view to show¬ 
ing their relationships in the leading phyla of 
the Metazoa. For the sake of convenience the 
integumentary, skeletal, and motor systems 
will here be considered before any of the 
others. 

1. Integumentary System. — In all animals 
the outer covering of the body consists of a lay¬ 
er of epithelial cells, the ectoderm. Beneath this 
layer a basement membrane is present, which in 
some animals is thick and serves for protection 
and support ( Cnidaria, Plato da). This epi¬ 
thelium is frequently ciliated and it always con¬ 
tains gland and sensory cells and in addition 
may contain nerve and muscle cells as well as 
stinging cells {Cnidaria). In some animals the 
epithelium, which in these cases is called hypo- 
dermis, secretes on its outer surface a cuticular 
covering which may be a thin and flexible mem¬ 
brane or cuticle (hydroids, trematodes, cestodes, 
annelids, rotifers), or it may be thick and flexible 
(nemathelminths) or dense and inflexible ex¬ 
cept at the joints (arthropods). In other cases 
the epithelium secretes skeletal structures in 
certain regions only, thus giving rise to calcare¬ 
ous shells (corals, mollusks, brachiopods). In 
arthropods this epidermal secretion is particu¬ 
larly dense and tough and is known as chitin; it 
may become calcified in certain portions. In 
mollusks the superficial epithelium remains 
naked except in a certain region, the embryonic 
shell-gland, where it first secretes a cuticular 
covering and then forms beneath this a dense 
calcareous layer, the shell; at the margins of 
the shell-gland (mantle edges) the secretion of 
these layers continues throughout life. 













ANATOMY 


CHIEF SUBDIVISIONS OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. 

A. PROTOZOA: One-celled animals without gastric cavity, germ layers, or tissues. 

Class i. Rhizopoda: With streaming protoplasmic processes 
(pseudopodia). Example, Amoeba. 

Class 2. Flagcllata: With one or two vibratile protoplasmic 
processes (flagellae). Example, Monad. 

Class 3. Ciliata: With many vibratile protoplasmic threads 
(cilia) Example, Infusoria. 

Class 4. Sporozoa: Parasites without mouth or organs of lo¬ 
comotion. Example, Gregarina. 

B. METAZOA: Many-celled animals with gastric cavity, germ layers, and tissues. 

A. PROTAXONIA (= Ccelenterata) : Metazoa with gastrula-like body, persistent 
gastrular axis, and radial symmetry. 

I. SPONGIARIA: Fixed aquatic animals with numerous pores in body wall 

through which water is drawn into the gastric 
cavity and thence expelled through a large open¬ 
ing, the osculum. Complicated colonies are 
formed by incomplete budding. 

Order (1). Calcarea: With skeleton formed of calcare¬ 
ous spicules. Example, calcareous sponge. 

Order (2). Non-calcareous: With silicious, fibrous, or 
gelatinous skeleton. Example, commercial 
sponge. 

II. CNIDARIA: Aquatic animals either attached (polyps) or free-swimming 

(Medusce ) with stinging cells (cnidae). By incomplete 
budding the polyps may give rise to plant-like colonies 
(hydroids), or by complete budding to jellyfishes 
{Medusce ). 

Class 1. Hydrozoa: Gastric cavity without septa and without 
ectodermal oesophagus. 

Order (1). Hydromedusae: Usually with alternation of 
hydroid (asexual) and medusoid (sexual) 
generations. Examples, hydroids, small 
jellyfishes. 

Order (2). Siphonophora: Floating colonies of many 
polymorphic zooids. Example, Portuguese 
man-of-war. 

Class 2. Scyphozoa: With radial septa in gastric cavity and 
with ectodermal oesophagus. 

Order (1). Scyphomedusae: The solitary polyp divides 
into a series of jellyfishes with notched 
margins. Example, large jellyfishes. 

Order (2). Anthozoa: The polyps divide but do not 
form jellyfishes. Examples, sea-anemones, corals. 

III. CTENOPHORA: Two-rayed radiates with sense organ at apical pole of gas- 

trula, with mouth and ectodermal oesophagus at opposite pole and with 
eight meridional rows of vibratile plates which serve as locomotor organs; 
without stinging cells. Example, the Venus girdle. 

B. HETERAXONIA (— Bilaterata) : Animals in which the chief axis of the adult 
body is not that of the gastrula; symmetry bilateral. 

IV. PLATYHELMINTHES: Flatworms with mouth usually on ventral surface 

and with apical (sensory) pole of gastrula near anterior end of 
body; primary body cavity filled with mesenchyme, no true coelom. 

i. Platoda : Gastric cavity, when present, with but one opening to the ex¬ 

terior, the mouth. 

Class 1. Turbellaria: Free living forms; body covered by 
cilia. Example, planarians. 

Class 2. Trematoda: Parasites without coat of cilia but with 
external cuticle; with suckers for attachment to 
host. Example, flukes. 

Class 3. Cestoda: Parasites without mouth or alimentary ca¬ 
nal ; with external cuticle, but without cilia; 
usually incompletely divided into segments (pro¬ 
glottides). Example, tapeworms. 

ii. Nemertinea : Free living worms with external covering of cilia; with 

mouth, alimentary canal, and anus; with protrusible proboscis at 
anterior end of body. Example, Cerebratulus. 

V. NEMATHELMINTHES: Round worms, mostly parasitic, with long, unseg¬ 

mented bodies covered by a dense cuticle; with primary body cavity; 
without cilia. 

i. Nematoda : Thread worms without mesenteries or peritoneum; with 
nerve ring around oesophagus and dorsal and ventral nerve trunks. 
Examples, pinworms, vinegar-eels. 


ANATOMY 


ii. Gordiacea : Hair worms parasitic during part of life; with mesenteries 

and peritoneum; with nerve ring and ventral nerve trunk. Example, 
horsehair worms. 

iii. Acanthocephala : Internal parasites without alimentary canal; with 

proboscis and hooks for attachment to host. Example, Echino- 
rhynchus. 

VI. ROTIFERA: Wheel animalcules with body divisible into head (trochal disk), 
trunk, and tail (foot); with wheel or crown of cilia around head; with 
primary body cavity, and with grinding stomach (mastax). Example, 
wheel animalcules. 

VII. CH^TOGNATHA: Small marine worms with three body segments, namely, 

head, trunk, and tail; with horizontal fins around tail and on sides of 
trunk; with bristles (chaetse) on sides of mouth; with true coelom (sec^ 
ondary body cavity). Example, arrow-worms. 

VIII. ANNELIDA: Ringed worms with segmented bodies and true coelom; the 

segments (somites) are typically similar (ho- 
monomous) and each encloses a section of the 
coelom and of the vascular, excretory, and ner¬ 
vous systems. 

Class i. Chcctopoda: Worms with bristle-like appendages 
(chsetae), which usually serve as organs of loco¬ 
motion, on every somite. Example, earthworm. 

Class 2. Gephyrea: Marine worms with few traces of seg¬ 
mentation ; with crown of tentacle around mouth 
and with U-shaped alimentary canal, the anus 
opening near the mouth. 

Class 3. Hirudinea: Worms with flattened bodies and rudi¬ 
mentary coelom, without chaetse, but with anterior 
and posterior suckers. Example, leeches. 

IX. ARTHROPODA: Animals with jointed bodies and legs; without cilia, but 
with the entire surface of the body covered by a coat of dense sub¬ 
stance, chitin. 

i. Branchiata : Aquatic animals with gills. 

Class 1. Crustacea: With two pairs of antennae (feelers) and 
usually with gills borne on the legs. Examples, 
lobster, crab. 

ii. Tracheata : Land animals with internal respiratory cavities (tracheae, 

lung books). 

Class 1. Onychophora: Worm-like animals with numerous 
short legs. Example, Peripatus. 

Class 2. Myriopoda: Animals with head and many-jointed 
body, every segment bearing one or two pairs of 
legs. Example, centipedes. 

Class 3. Insecta: Animals with body divisible into head, tho¬ 
rax, and abdomen; with four pairs of appendages 
on head, three pairs of walking legs on thorax, 
but without appendages on abdomen. 

Class 4. Arachnida: Body divisible into cepnalo-thorax and ab¬ 
domen ; with six pairs of appendages on former, 
but none on latter. Examples, scorpions, spiders. 

X. MOLLUSCOIDA: Unseginented animals, usually stalked and attached, living 

singly or in colonies; with a crown of ciliated 
tentacles around the mouth; generally with U- 
shaped alimentary canal and with anus opening 
near mouth. 

Class 1. Plioronida: Single, stalked animals with body cavity 
partially divided into three portions. Example, 
Phoronis. 

Class 2. Brachiopoda: Single animals with calcareous shell 
consisting of dorsal and ventral valves. Ex¬ 
ample, brachiopods. 

Class 3. Polyzoa: Stalked animals which usually give rise to 
colonies by incomplete budding. 

XT. MOLLUSCA: Unsegmented animals with reduced coelom; differing greatly 

in form, but usually having a head, with tentacles 
and eyes; with a rasping organ (the lingual rib¬ 
bon or radula) in the mouth; with dorsal vis¬ 
ceral sac containing most of the viscera; with a 
free fold of the body wall, the mantle, which 
usually secretes a shell, and with a ventral mus¬ 
cular foot. 

Class 1. Pelecypoda: Bivalve mollusks without head or lin¬ 
gual ribbon; with filiform or plate-like gills. Ex¬ 
amples, clams, oysters. 


ANATOMY 


Class 2. Amphineura: Bilateral animals with paired nerve 
trunks. Example, chitons. 

Class 3. Gasteropoda: Unsymmetrical mollusks, with uni¬ 
valve shell, usually spirally coiled. Example, 
snails. 

Class 4. Scaphopoda: Small mollusks with tubular, uncoiled 
shells. Example, Dentalium. 

Class 5. Cephalopoda: Active, predaceous mollusks with un¬ 
paired mantle and shell and with eight or ten 
arms which bear suckers. Example, squid octo¬ 
pus. 

XII. ECHINODERMATA: Five-rayed marine animals, with dermal skeleton of 

spines or plate; with ambulacral system of tubes 
which are filled with sea-water. 

Class 1. Holothuroidea: Soft, worm-like animals with re¬ 
duced skeleton; the mouth surrounded by retract¬ 
ile tentacles. Example, sea-cucumbers. 

Class 2. Echinoidea: Spherical or oval forms with complete 
armor of dermal plates. Example, sea-urchins. 

Class 3. Asteroidea: With five arms radiating from a central 
disk; with open ambulacral grooves on the oral 
side of arms. Example, starfishes. 

Class 4. Ophinroidea: With arms and central disk, but with 
closed ambulacral grooves. Example, brittle 
stars. 

Class 5. Crinoidea: The cup-shaped body bearing many 
branching arms is usually attached by a stem. 
Example, stone-lilies. 

XIII. CHORDATA: Bilateral, segmented animals with an axial skeleton, the noto¬ 
chord, on the dorsal side of which is the tubular nervous system 
and on the ventral side the alimentary canal; with gill slits opening 
laterally through the walls of the pharynx. 

i. Hemichorda : Worm-like animals which burrow in the sand. Example, 

Balanoglossus. 

ii. Urochorda: Sac-like animals enclosed in thick tunic ( Tunicata ) in 

which are inhalent and exhalent openings. Example, sea- 

squirts. 

iii. Cephalochorda : Fish-like animals, pointed at both ends, which burrow 

in the sand; without skull or brain ( Acrania ). Example, 

Amphioxus. 

iv. Vertebrata : Chordates with skull and brain; with relatively few gill 

slits; the notochord serves as a foundation for the vertebral 

column; usually with two pairs of locomotor appendages. 

(a) . Anamnia: Aquatic vertebrates with functional gills; without 

embryonic membranes. 

Class 1. Cyclostomata: Eel-like fishes without jaws, but with 
circular sucking mouths; with single olfactory 
organ; without paired fins. Example, lamprey. 

Class 2. Pisces: Cartilaginous and bony fishes with movable 
jaws, persistent gill clefts, paired and median 
fins, and dermal exoskeleton of scales. Examples, 
sharks, fishes. 

Class 3. Amphibia: Vertebrates with pentadactyl limbs with 
gills and gill clefts in larval life which may be 
lost in the adult. Examples, frogs, newts. 

(b) . Amniota: Air-breathing vertebrates in which the gills are 

never functional; the embryo is always sur¬ 
rounded by embryonic membranes (amnion and 
allantois). 

Class.4. Reptilia: Body covered by horny scales or plates; 

heart usually three-chambered; one occipital con¬ 
dyle. Examples, snakes, alligators. 

Class 5. Aves: Birds with body covered with feathers and 
usually fitted for flight; with four-chambered 
heart and single occipital condyle. Examples, 
sparrow, pigeon. 

Class 6. Mammalia: Animals with the body covered with 
hair; with mammary glands for suckling the 
young; with four-chambered heart and with two 
occipital condyles.' Examples, dog, horse, man. 


ANATOMY 


In reptiles, birds, and mammals the superficial 
epithelium (epidermis) becomes many layers 
thick, and the outer layers of cells die and are 
transformed into horny or cuticular substance; 
an adaptation to life out of water. In these 
three classes of vertebrates there are also a num¬ 
ber of characteristic epidermal outgrowths: in 
reptiles these take the form of horny scales or 
plates; in birds they appear as feathers, which 
are only modified scales; and in mammals as 
hair, while, nails or claws are formed from the 
epidermis in all of these classes. In the mam¬ 
mals there are also epidermal ingrowths which 
give rise to various types of glands, such as 
sweat, oil, wax, and milk glands, all of which 
are epidermal in origin. 

Beneath the surface epithelium, which is al¬ 
ways ectodermal in origin, there is in many ani¬ 
mals a fibrous or connective tissue layer known 
as the dermis or corium. This layer is es¬ 
pecially well developed among echinoderms and 
vertebrates, in both of which it may give rise 
to skeletal spicules or plates, thus forming a 
dermal exoskeleton. Among the vertebrates 
this is especially well developed in the fishes, the 
scales which cover the body being of dermal ori¬ 
gin ; in some cases these dermal scales are cov¬ 
ered by enamel which is derived from the epi¬ 
dermis. The same is also true of the teeth of 
vertebrates; the inner portion or dentine is of 
dermal origin, while the enamel comes from the 
epidermis; teeth are in fact only modified scales. 

2. Skeleton .— An internal skeleton, not the 
product of the integument, is present in rela¬ 
tively few invertebrates, but is found in all ver¬ 
tebrates. Such a skeleton is found in sponges in 
the form of calcareous, silicious, or horny 
spicules; in cnidarians and ctenophores as sup¬ 
porting jelly; in many invertebrates as a system 
of connective tissue cells and fibres; in cephalo- 
pods and certain arthropods as cartilages sur¬ 
rounding the central nervous system. On the 
other hand the possession of a primitive axial 
skeleton, the notochord, is one of the chief 
characteristics of the Chordata; in addition to 
this there are generally present in this phylum 
many other skeletal elements which are usually 
cartilaginous or bony. In all true vertebrates 
the notochord becomes surrounded by cartilage, 
and the whole is then constricted into a series of 
segments, the centra of the vertebrae; from 
these centra cartilaginous arches grow dorsally 
around the spinal cord, while other skeletal 
arches, the ribs, surround the trunk and become 
connected with the vertebral column; finally the 
ribs may be united ventrally, thus forming the 
sternum: these parts constitute the axial skele¬ 
ton. In addition there is the skeleton of the 
head (the skull) and that of the limbs (the ap¬ 
pendicular skeleton). In the lower vertebrates 
and in the embryos of all higher forms the skull 
consists of a cartilaginous cranium partially sur¬ 
rounding the brain, and of paired cartilaginous 
rods forming the skeleton of the jaws and gill- 
arches. In higher vertebrates these cartilagi¬ 
nous elements undergo ossification, and in addi¬ 
tion dermal bones are formed which partially 
overlie this cartilaginous basis. The appendicu¬ 
lar skeleton consists of the two limb-girdles 
partially enclosing the trunk on the ventral side, 
the pectoral and pelvic arches, and of the skele¬ 
ton of the limbs themselves. In the fishes the 
arches and limbs are peculiar and it is difficult 


to homologize their skeletal parts with those of 
higher forms; in all vertebrates above the fishes* 
however, the relations of these parts are similar 
and their homologies not difficult to determine. 

3 - Motor System .— All animals at some time 
in their lives have the power of locomotion, 
though in some cases this is lost before adult 
life is reached and the animal becomes fixed 
like a plant (hydroids, sponges, crinoids, mol- 
luscoids, and many parasites). However, in all 
these cases certain parts of the body preserve 
the power of movement, though the animal as 
a whole is incapable of locomotion. Animal 
movement is of three fundamental types: amoe¬ 
boid, ciliary, and muscular. See Muscles. 

(1) Amoeboid movement is manifested espe¬ 
cially by free cells and exhibits a streaming of 
semi-fluid protoplasm: it is typically illustrated 
by the proteus animalcule Amoeba. In this pro¬ 
tozoan small lobes or pseudopodia may appear 
anywhere on the body, and into one or more of 
these the endoplasm, with all that it contains, may 
be seen to stream, at the same time being with¬ 
drawn from other lobes. This flowing may con¬ 
tinue for some time in a given direction, the 
outflow of protoplasm at one end of the body 
being compensated for by the inflow at the other 
end, thus producing an actively progressive 
movement. The mechanism of this movement 
is obscure, but in some cases it seems to be asso¬ 
ciated with temporary inequalities in the tension 
of the surface of the cell; at points where the 
surface tension is reduced an outflow of proto¬ 
plasm occurs, forming a lobe or pseudopod, into 
which protoplasm from the main body continues 
to flow so long as the surface tension is least 
in this direction. Usually several points of re¬ 
duced tension exist at the same time on the sur¬ 
face of an amoeboid cell, so that several lobes or 
pseudopodia are found radiating from a common 
centre. In other cases it is, perhaps, due to the 
general contractility of protoplasm, local contrac¬ 
tion in one part of a cell causing an outflow in 
another part. 

(2) Ciliary movement consists in the rhyth¬ 
mical beating of innumerable small protoplasmic 
threads (cilia) which project from the free sur¬ 
faces of certain cells and which act somewhat 
like oars. Among one-celled organisms the en¬ 
tire cell may be covered by these cilia; in all 
multicellular animals they are limited to the 
free borders of certain epithelial cells. The 
beating of a cilium includes two movements, 
— the stroke, which is rapid and by which the 
cilium is sharply bent in one direction, and the 
recovery of the original position, which is rela¬ 
tively slow and weak. It is probable that the 
cause of this beating is the unequal contraction 
of the protoplasm on different sides of a cilium, 
by which it is bent first in one direction and 
then in the other. All the cilia covering a free 
surface beat in unison, the stroke being in one 
direction, and the movement is so timed that be¬ 
ginning at one end of a ciliated tract it seems 
to pass in a wave-like movement to the other 
end. 

(3) Muscular movement, the principal type 
of motion in higher animals, is caused by the 
contraction in one direction of a muscle fibre con¬ 
sisting of a kind of protoplasm especially differ¬ 
entiated for this purpose. During the contrac¬ 
tion or expansion of a muscle there is no change 
in its volume, the shortening of a fibre in one 


ANATOMY 


axis being compensated for by its expansion at 
right angles to that axis. Such a change in the 
shape of a fibre could be produced only by a 
change in the shape of the particles of which it 
is composed or by a change in their relative 
positions. The latter is probably the real cause 
of muscular contractility. 

All of these types of movement are found in 
certain Protozoa and in many Metazoa. Amoe¬ 
boid movements are, however, usually restricted 
to free cells without membranes or dense cor¬ 
tical layers of protoplasm, such as certain egg 
cells, embryonic cells, endoderm cells, excretory, 
pigment, and lymph cells of various Metazoa; 
in no case is this type effective in the movement 
of large bodies. In the larvae of all phyla, ex¬ 
cept the nemathelminthes and arthropods, loco¬ 
motion is brought about, at least in part, by cilia, 
and even among the adult forms of many lower 
metazoans this is the principal type of locomo¬ 
tion (ctenophores, turbellarians, nemertines, 
rotifers). Among the nemathelminths and ar¬ 
thropods cilia are entirely lacking throughout the 
whole life cycle. Among large animals locomo¬ 
tion is effected entirely by muscular contractility, 
while cilia are limited to certain regions where 
by their beating they produce currents. Muscle 
fibres are found in all Metazoa with the possible 
exception of sponges; they are of two kinds, 
striped and non-striped or smooth; the latter 
are of very wide distribution throughout the 
Metazoa, the former are limited to a few phyla 
(mollusks, arthropods, chordates). Smooth 
muscle is contractile to a much greater extent 
than striped muscle, but is much slower in ac¬ 
tion. The muscular system may consist of iso¬ 
lated fibres such as are found in many cnidarians, 
platodes, and rotifers, or these fibres may be 
united into bundles or sheets as is the case in 
most higher animals; these groups of muscles 
show many differences and can be compared only 
in a general way. In general the arrangement 
of the body muscles depends upon the presence 
or absence of a skeleton. Animals which have 
no skeleton usually have the body musculature 
arranged in the form of two coats: an outer 
layer of circular fibres and an inner of longi¬ 
tudinal ones, while the intestinal musculature is 
also arranged in two coats, the outer (next the 
coelom) longitudinal and the inner circular. If 
an exoskeleton is present, as in arthropods, these 
muscular layers of the body wall are broken up 
into bundles which become attached to the skele¬ 
ton ; if an endoskeleton is present, as in verte¬ 
brates, the muscles become attached to the bones, 
which serve as levers, and thus the muscles 
Come to lie at a deep level. The locomotor ap¬ 
paratus of echinoderms is unique, consisting of 
a great number of tube feet, which are hollow 
muscular tubes, closed at the end by a sucking 
disk. The cavity of each tube is connected with 
the water vascular (ambulacral) system within 
the body, from which water can be forced in¬ 
to the tube feet. In this way they are protruded 
until the sucking disk touches and becomes at¬ 
tached to some object; then by contraction of 
the muscles of the foot the water is forced 
back into the water system, and by simultaneous 
action of many of these feet the body is slowly 
warped along. 

4. Digestive System. — With the exception of 
a few internal parasites which absorb their food 
in a digested condition from the bodies of their 


hosts, some form of digestive system is present 
in all animals. 

Digestion is the process of rendering insolu¬ 
ble foods soluble. One of the distinguishing 
characteristics of animals is that they, unlike 
plants, take in solid food (much of which is 
in an insoluble condition) through a mouth 
opening (ingestion), and that by the process of 
digestion some of this insoluble food is rendered 
soluble and hence capable of diffusing to all 
parts of the organism, where by a mysterious 
process known as assimilation some of it is built 
up into the substance of the protoplasm itself. 
After the substances rendered soluble by diges¬ 
tion have been removed from the food the indi¬ 
gestible remnants are cast out of the body in 
solid form (egestion). Among the Protozoa di¬ 
gestion occurs within the body of a single cell, 
that is, it is intracellular. The same is true of 
the sponges, in which the food, consisting of 
microscopic animals or plants, is taken in by 
certain epithelial cells lining the cavities of the 
the sponge and by them passed over to other 
cells and tissues by which the food particles are 
ingested, digested, and assimilated. In all ani¬ 
mals above the sponges intracellular digestion is 
limited to the endoderm cells and to certain free 
cells, such as white blood corpuscles (leucocytes) 
and it is of decreasing importance as one as¬ 
cends the scale. In all animals except the low¬ 
est, digestion occurs principally in a digestive 
cavity surrounded by cells which pour their se¬ 
cretions into the cavity. By the action of these 
secretions certain insoluble food substances are 
transformed into soluble ones. This digestive 
cavity is in all cases derived from the archen- 
teron or primitive digestive cavity of the gas- 
trula and in the simplest cases is little more than 
a sac whose walls may be folded into ridges or 
septa, thus enlarging the digestive surface ( An - 
ihozoa ), or they may be extended to form tubu¬ 
lar canals, by means of which the digested food 
is distributed to all parts of the animal 
(Scyphozoa, Ctenophora, Turbellaria). In all 
Cnidaria except the lowest class, and in all ani¬ 
mals above the Cnidaria, the ectoderm surround¬ 
ing the mouth is folded in at the mouth opening, 
thus forming an ectodermal tube, or oesophagus, 
which opens at the inner end into the gastric 
cavity. Among chordates this ectodermal in¬ 
vagination forms only the mouth cavity, the 
oesophagus being derived from the endoderm. 
In all Cnidaria, Ctenophora, and Platoda there 
is but one opening into the gastric cavity, the 
mouth, and through this single opening food is 
taken in and undigested remnants cast out. In 
the Nemertinea, and with a few exceptions in 
all higher animals, there is a second opening into 
the gastric cavity, namely, the anus, through 
which the ejecta pass. The anus is formed by 
an infolding of the ectoderm which meets and 
fuses with a portion of the gastric wall; this 
terminal ectodermal portion of the digestive 
tract is the hind gut. With the formation of 
an anus the digestive tract becomes tubular, 
with mouth at one end and anus at the other, 
and the entire canal is divisible into three por¬ 
tions, an ectodermal oesophagus or fore gut, an 
endodermal mid gut and an ectodermal hind 
gut. The relative development of these three 
portions differs much in different phyla; for ex¬ 
ample, among chordates the fore gut is limited 
to the mouth cavity and the hind gut to an in- 


ANATOMY 


significant terminal portion of the intestine, 
while the mid gut gives rise to all the inter¬ 
vening portions of the digestive tract. .Among 
arthropods, on the other hand, the mid gut is 
limited to an extremely small portion of the 
digestive tube between the stomach and intes¬ 
tine, while all the remaining portions are de¬ 
rived from the fore and hind guts. In the 
higher animals the fore and mid guts may be 
subdivided into mouth cavity, pharynx, oesopha¬ 
gus, stomach, and intestine and in some cases 
these portions may be further subdivided, as, 
for example, in birds, where the oesophagus gives 
rise to an enlargement, the crop, the stomach is 
divisible into a glandular stomach and a grinding 
stomach or gizzard, and the intestine consists 
of two portions, the small and the large intestine. 
Finally into a portion of the hind gut the ex¬ 
cretory and sexual ducts as well as the intes¬ 
tine may open, in which case this common 
chamber is called the cloaca. Various portions 
of the fore gut may be armed with teeth, usu¬ 
ally of a horny character among invertebrates, 
and the pharynx may be protrusible. The di¬ 
gestive and absorptive surfaces of the mid gut 
may be increased in three different ways, either 
(i) by an increase in length, in which case it 
becomes folded or coiled, or (2) by folds which 
project into the canal, or (3) by diverticula, 
that is, blind sacs or tubes, which open out from 
the canal; in many higher forms all of these 
methods coexist in the same individual. The 
extent of the digestive surface depends pri¬ 
marily upon the character of the food; if the 
latter is highly nutritious the digestive surfaces 
are much smaller than where it is poor in nu¬ 
trition. In carnivorous mammals, for example, 
the alimentary tract is from four to five times 
the length of the body, whereas in certain 
herbivora it may be from 20 to 30 times the 
length of the body. In the simplest Metazoa 
it is probable that all the cells lining the diges¬ 
tive cavity are alike and that they all secrete 
the same digestive fluids; in more complex ani¬ 
mals the cells differ in structure and function 
in different portions of the tract. By a speciali¬ 
zation of the diverticula or blind tubes opening 
out from the canal, large digestive glands are 
formed which pour particular digestive secretion 
into the alimentary canal. The most generally 
distributed of all these are the salivary glands, 
opening into the fore gut, and the liver and 
pancreas (or where both are united, as often 
happens among the invertebrates, the hepato- 
pancreas), which open into the mid gut. In all 
of the lower invertebrates except the round- 
worms the food is moved about in the alimen¬ 
tary tract by means of cilia or by general con¬ 
tractions of the body. In all higher forms the 
contraction of muscle fibres surrounding the 
canal play an important part in this move¬ 
ment, though cilia may also be present. In the 
chordates both longitudinal and circular mus¬ 
cles surround the canal and by their rhythmical 
contractions produce a wave-like contraction of 
the canal (peristalsis) , which passes along the 
canal from mouth to anus. 

5. Respiratory System. — Respiration consists 
in the exchange of gases between the body and 
the medium which surrounds it. The gas given 
off from the body is principally carbon dioxid, 
one of the products of combustion within the 
body, while that which must be supplied to it 
Vol. x —%2 


is oxygen. Since oxidation is the one essen¬ 
tial feature of destructive metabolism which oc¬ 
curs in all living matter, it follows that respira¬ 
tion is a universal function among organisms. 
Among small and simple animals this exchange 
of gases takes place directly between the living 
cells and the surrounding medium and occurs 
all over the surface of the body. In more 
complex forms with body fluids the exchange 
takes place between the tissues and the fluid 
(internal respiration) and then between the 
fluid and the surrounding medium (external res¬ 
piration). This exchange may take place 
through the general integument of the body 
without the aid of any specific organs, as is the 
case in all small animals and in many larger 
ones,— for example, flatworms, roundworms, 
rotifers, small annelids, and even some verte¬ 
brates, such as the lungless salamanders. How¬ 
ever, in most animals of any considerable size, 
special organs exist to facilitate this exchange. 
In such as dwell in water vascular processes 
are present which serve to bring the blood into 
close relation with the water. These processes, 
which are called branchiae or gills, are cov¬ 
ered by a thin epithelium through which an 
interchange of the gases contained in the blood 
and in the water can readily take place. To 
facilitate this interchange the gills are usually 
much folded or branched so as to afford a large 



Fig. 8 


Fig. 6. — Section through the gill-arch and plates of 
a bony fish (from Claus).— b, gill-plates with 
capillaries; c, afferent vessel with venous blood; 
d, efferent vessel with arterial blood; a, skeleton 
of arch. 

Fig. 7.— Part of a tracheal stem and branches of an 
insect (from Claus).— Z, cellular outer wall. Sp, 
cuticular inner wall with spiral fibre. 

Fig. 8. — Tracheal system of a fly larva (from Claus). 
— Tr, longitudinal stem of right side. St', St", 
anterior and posterior stigmata. Mh, mouth parts. 

Fig. 9.— Lateral view of grasshopper ( Acridium ).—• 
St, stigmata. T, tympanal organ (from Claus). 


surface, and they are frequently covered by cilia 
which serve to keep the water in motion, while 
at the same time the blood is circulated through 
them. The most primitive type of gill is that 
of a simple ciliated tentacle, which may also 
serve other functions, such as is found among 
the Molluscoida and some Mollusca; such gills 
may become branched or plume-like or may fuse 
together into plates (Lamellibranchia). Gills 
are situated on those parts of the body where 









ANATOMY 


they will be most exposed to fresh water, and 
occur in the most extraordinarily different posi¬ 
tions in different phyla; thus they may be found 
on the limbs ( Crustacea , some annelids), on or 
around the head (sedentary annelids, mollus- 
coids), along the sides of the body (primitive 
mollusks), on the lateral walls of the pharynx 
(chordates), or as outgrowths of the hind gut 
(holothurians). Homology being (( correspond- 
ence in the relative position and connection of 
parts,® there can of course be no homology be¬ 
tween structures occurring in such diverse posi¬ 
tions, and yet within a given phylum they may 
be homologous and of high morphological value 
(for example, chordates). Among the chord¬ 
ates a series of gill-clefts opens right and left 
through the walls of the pharynx, and in the 
lower classes of the phylum the gills are found 
as highly vascular plates or tufts on the outer 
sides of the arches separating these clefts; water 
is taken in through the mouth and then forced 
out through the gill-clefts and thus over the 
gills. In the higher classes of the phylum (rep¬ 
tiles, birds, and mammals), the gill-clefts are 
present during embryonic life, though at no 
time in their entire life-history do these ani¬ 
mals have gills and respire water. The con¬ 
stancy of gill-clefts among vertebrates gives this 
character a high value in determining the 
affinities of such doubtful forms as Balanoglos- 
sus, Cephalodiscus, and Tunicata. 

In animals which do not dwell in water and 
in some few which do (insect larvae, lung fishes, 
etc.), certain infolded portions of the body oc¬ 
cur into which air is drawn and from which it 
is again expelled. Among invertebrates these 
infolded portions are generally derived from the 
skin; among vertebrates from a portion of the 
alimentary canal, the pharynx. In the case of 
insects and allied forms ( Tracheata ) these in¬ 
folded portions have the form of much-branched 
tubes, the tracheae, which reach to all parts of 
the body, the terminal twigs of the tracheal sys¬ 
tem of tubes being found in connection with 
almost every bit of tissue in the body. These 
tracheae open to the exterior through closeable 
pores, the stigmata, situated o.n the sides of the 
body; air is taken in through these pores and 
by means of the tracheal tubes penetrates to all 
parts of the body, the exchange of gases taking 
place directly between the tissues and the 
tracheae. Among the vertebrates the lungs are 
an evaginated portion of the pharynx, which in 
most fishes is a hydrostatic apparatus, the swim- 
bladder, but which in the lung fishes ( Dipnoi ) 
becomes highly vascular and may serve as a 
lung.. In all higher vertebrates this sac is paired, 
and its walls, which in the lower classes are 
relatively simple, become much infolded and very 
richly supplied with blood vessels. The ex¬ 
change of gases here takes place between the 
blood and the air within the lung, and in most 
vertebrates the oxygen-carrying capacity of the 
blood is increased by the presence of haemoglo¬ 
bin (the coloring matter of red blood corpus¬ 
cles) which enters into a loose chemical combina¬ 
tion with the oxygen. 

6 . Circulatory System. — The physiological 
significance of the circulation of fluids within 
the body is the distribution of nutriment and in 
some cases oxygen to all the parts. In the sim¬ 
plest Metazoa ( Cnidaria , Ctenophora ) there is 
no need of a special circulatory apparatus other 


than that which is furnished by the gastric cav¬ 
ity itself; this may branch and extend to various 
parts of the body or hydroid colony, thus form¬ 
ing a gastro-vascular system, through which the 
distribution of nutriment takes place; the 
branched gastric cavity of certain turbellarians 
serves also a similar function. Circulation of 
body fluids also occurs in many lower animals 
without the aid of any special circulatory appa¬ 
ratus ; in such cases lymph, containing the prod¬ 
ucts of digestion, is distributed through all the 
intercellular spaces in the primary body cavity, 
and by the contractions of the general muscula¬ 
ture of the body it is kept in irregular move¬ 
ment. With the single exception of the nemer- 
teans a blood vascular system is found only 
among animals with a secondary body cavity or 
true coelom and is lacking even in some of these, 
particularly such as are quite small or are evi¬ 
dently degenerate forms. With a few excep¬ 
tions it is present in mollusks, echinoderms, an¬ 
nelids, arthropods, and all chordates. In its 
simplest form it consists of branching and anas¬ 
tomosing tubes which contain blood. The walls 
of the tubes are composed of flattened epithelial 
cells (endothelium) which may be surrounded 
on the outside by muscle or connective tissue 
fibres. The blood which fills these vessels con¬ 
sists of a fluid or plasma within which floating 
cells or corpuscles are almost invariably present. 
With increasing complexity of this system the 
walls of the vessels become thicker by increase 
of the muscular or connective tissue coats, and 
in certain parts of the system the vessels be¬ 
come larger. The muscular walls may be pulsa¬ 
tile throughout the entire length of a vessel, or 
this function may be limited to a small por¬ 
tion of a large vessel, which is then known as 
a heart; even in the highest animals the heart 
is only a differentiation of a simple pulsatile 
blood vessel. The vessels leading away from 
the heart are the arteries, those through which 
the blood flows back to the heart the veins, while 
the small thin-walled vessels connecting the two, 
and through the walls of which plasma escapes 



t 


Fig. io Fig. ii 

Fig. io.— Circulatory and nervous systems of a snail 
( Paludina ) (from Claus after Leydig).— F, ten¬ 
tacles; Oe, oesophagus; Cg, cerebral ganglion; 
Pg, pedal ganglion and otocyst; Vg, visceral gang¬ 
lion; Phg, pharyngeal ganglion; A, auricle of 
heart; Ve, ventricle; Aa, abdominal aorta; Ac, 
cephalic aorta; V, veins; Vc, branchial veins; Br 
gills. 

Fig. ii. — Anterior part of the circulatory system of an 
annelid ( Scenuris ).—The arrows indicate the di¬ 
rection of the flow. H, heart-like enlargement of 
a commissural vessel. 













ANATOMY 


into the tissues, are the capillaries. Among the 
annelids there is a large dorsal vessel and a 
ventral one, which are connected in each somite 
by commissural vessels. The dorsal vessel is 
pulsatile along its whole length, and peristaltic 
contraction waves can be seen in a living worm 



Fig. 12. — Circulatory and respiratory systems of the 
crayfish (from Claus).— C, heart with three pairs 
of ostia; Ps, pericardium; Ac, cephalic aorta; 
A. ab, abdominal aorta; As, sternal artery. The 
arrows indicate the direction of the flow. 

to pass from the posterior to the anterior end; 
correspondingly the blood flows forward in the 
dorsal vessel, down through the commissural 
vessels into the ventral one, and then back¬ 
ward through the latter to the posterior portion 
of the body, where the blood ascends through 
commissural vessels to the dorsal vessel, after 
which the same circuit is repeated. Through¬ 
out this whole course the blood flows through 
vessels with definite walls, and the circulation 
is said to be closed. Among the mollusks and 
arthropods a heart is present which is more 
concentrated and complete than among the 
annelids. In the arthropods this consists of a 
thick-walled, pulsatile tube lying on the dorsal 
side of the body and extending through several 
somites; in each somite are a pair of openings, 
the ostia, which open into the heart from the peri¬ 
cardium, and through which returning blood en¬ 
ters the heart. Among the mollusks the heart is 
also of a compact type and is divided into 
auricular and ventricular portions. Primitively 
two auricles are present, though in some gas- 
teropods this number is reduced to one; in all 
mollusks there is but one ventricle. In primitive 
arthropods and mollusks the blood flows out of 
the ventricle at both the anterior and posterior 
ends; in more highly differentiated members of 
these phyla, out of the anterior end only. 
Among the arthropods the vascular system 
is very incomplete, the arteries soon end 
in lacunar spaces in the tissues, and from 
these spaces the blood is gathered into 
large sinuses and thence flows back to 
the heart. These lacunar spaces and sinuses are 
not true vessels, since they do not have definite 
walls, but are derived from the primary and 
secondary body cavities; the circulation is there¬ 
fore an open one. Among mollusks the vascu¬ 
lar system is more extensive than among ar¬ 
thropods, but here also the circulation is open, 
the arteries being connected with the veins by a 
system of lacunar spaces instead of capillaries. 
Finally among the echinoderms and chordates 
the circulation is closed as among the annelids; 
that is, the blood throughout its entire circuit is 
contained within definite vessels. 

The manner in which blood is supplied to 
the respiratory organs is of great importance in 
explaining the structure of the circulatory or¬ 


gans in air-breathing vertebrates. Among an¬ 
nelids, arthropods, and mollusks the blood flows 
directly from the heart to all parts of the body, 
whence it is gathered into trunks which carry 
it to the gills; from these organs it is then re¬ 
turned purified to the heart. In the fishes the 
blood passes from the heart directly to the 
gills, whence it is gathered into the dorsal 
aorta and distributed to all parts of the body; it 
is then returned laden with waste product from 
the tissues to the heart. In these animals the 
heart consists of a single auricle and ventricle, 
essentially a simple tube more or less bent upon 
itself. In air-breathing amphibia a part of the 
blood passes directly from the heart to the 
lungs, whence it returns to the heart oxygenated, 
while a part of it goes at once to the body; the 
former is known as the pulmonary, the latter as 
the systemic circulation. In these animals the 
heart is incompletely divided by a partition which 
separates the auricular chamber into two auri¬ 
cles, but which leaves the ventricle undivided. 
The blood returning from the body is carried 
into the right auricle, while that from the lungs 
goes into the left; in the ventricle both kinds of 
blood mingle to a certain extent, though by a 
peculiar arrangement of folds and valves the 
larger part of the oxygenated blood which en¬ 
ters the left auricle is pumped to the anterior 
part of the body, while the blood from the right 
auricle goes to the lungs and to the posterior 



Fig. 13 Fig. 14 Fig. 15 


Fig. 13.—Heart and great blood-vessels of the turtle 
(from Claus).— Ad, right auricle; As, left auricle; 
Ao. d, right arch of the aorta; Ao. s, left arch 
of the aorta; Ao, dorsal aorta; C, carotids; Ap, 
pulmonary arteries. 

Fig. 14. — Aortic. arches of a mammal, and their rela¬ 
tions to the five embryonic arches (from Claus).— 
c, c r , carotids; A, aorta; Ap, pulmonary artery; 
Aa, great arch of aorta. 

Fig. 15.— Diagram of a heart completely divided into 
right and left halves, and of a double (systematic 
and pulmonary) circulation (from Claus).— Ad, 
right auricle; Vcs, anterior vena cava; Vci, pos¬ 
terior vena cava; Vd, right ventricle; Ap, pul¬ 
monary artery; P, lung; Vp, pulmonary vein; As, 
left auricle; Vs, left ventricle; Ao, aorta; D, gut; 
L, liver; Vp, portal vein; Lv, hepatic vein. 

parts of the body. Finally in all birds and mam¬ 
mals and in the highest reptiles (Crocodilia) t he 
heart is completely divided by a partition into 
two auricles and two ventricles, and a double 
circulation, systemic and pulmonary, is estab¬ 
lished. The blood from the left ventricle goes 














ANATOMY 


at once to all parts of the body, whence it re¬ 
turns to the right auricle; it then falls into the 
right ventricle and is pumped from that to the 
lungs; here it is oxygenated and returns to 
the left auricle, and then from the left ventricle 
is again sent out to all parts of the body. 

7. Excretory System .— Excretion is the 
process of removing non-gaseous waste prod¬ 
ucts, particularly urea and allied compounds, 
from the body. These nitrogenous waste sub¬ 
stances are formed as the result of proteid 
combustion within the body, and as this form 
of metabolism is universal among animals nitro¬ 
genous waste substances are everywhere formed. 
With few exceptions all animals possess some 
form of excretory organ; in fact this is one 
of the distinguishing characteristics of animals 
as contrasted with plants. Among the Protozoa 
the excretory organ is a pulsatile vacuole which 
gradually fills with fluid containing these waste 
products and then suddenly contracts, forcing 
this fluid out of the body. Among coelenterates 
excretion is probably performed by isolated 
gland cells, so that no single organ exists for 
this function; even among higher animals 
excretion is performed to a limited extent 
by individual cells or small glands; for exam¬ 
ple, the chlorogogue cells of annelids, the dermal 
glands of Crustacea, and the sweat-glands of 
mammals. In all higher animals a special ex¬ 
cretory organ exists; this usually consists of 
minute tubules formed of cells which take up 
the waste substances and pass them into the 
tubule, whence they are carried to the exterior; 
such an excretory tubule is known by the gen¬ 
eral name of nephridium. The forms of nephri- 
dia differ considerably in different phyla, but 
two principal types may be recognized; these 
are the protonephridium, or water vascular sys¬ 
tem, and the metanephridium (Hatschek). The 
protonephridium is found in the flat worms and 
rotifers; that is, among worm-like animals with- 


A. 



Fig. 16 

Fig. 16. — Structure of the protonephridium (excretory 
organ) of a flatworm (from Hatschek).— A, part 
of the excretory apparatus of a tapeworm; r, 
edge of body; c, collecting tubules.— B. Terminal 
cells with flame of cilia.— C. Diagram of term¬ 
inal cell, excretory capillary, and canal. 

out a secondary body cavity; it is also found as 
the larval excretory organ (head kidney) in 
annelids. It consists of a pair of more or less 
branched tubules opening at one or more places 
to the exterior, while the internal terminations 
of the tubules each end in a single large cell 
which closes the end of the tubule and bears 


a tuft of long cilia projecting into its lumen. 
This tuft beats with' undulatory movement and 
looks somewhat like the flickering flame of a 
candle, whence it is called a (( flame ,) and the 
large cell which bears it a <( flame cell.® The 
tubule itself is usually composed of a single 
series of long glandular cells so perforated 



Fig. 17 Fig. 18 


Figs. 17, 18. — Diagrams of the excretory system in an 
annelid and in a shark (from Claus after Semper). 
— Ds, dissepiments; Wtr, ciliated funnels; Ug, 
segmental duct. 

that the lumen is intracellular. In larger 
branches of the protonephridium the walls of 
the tubule may be formed of many cells which 
are ciliated on the side next the lumen. These 
cilia as well as the flame drive fluids within 
the lumen to the exterior. It is probable that 
these fluids are transuded body fluids and that 
the excretion of the waste substances is brought 
about by the activity of the cells which form 
the walls of the lumen. 

The metanephridium is found among anne¬ 
lids, mollusks, molluscoids, prototracheates, and 
chordates, while a modified form of it exists in 
crustaceans. Typically it consists of a tubule 
opening to the exterior at one end and into the 
body cavity or some portion of it (pericardium 
or blood sinus) at the other. Where it opens 
into the body cavity the tubule is widened and 
covered with long cilia and is - known as the 
ciliated funnel or nephrostome. Following this 
is the glandular portion of the tubule, consisting 
of a single series of perforated cells, or in other 
cases of an epithelium, composed of many cells, 
which forms the walls of the lumen. In either 
case these cells are glandular in character and 
are the real excretory cells, taking urea from 
the blood and passing it into the lumen of the 
tubule. The latter is ciliated throughout, and 
by the action of these cilia, together with those 
of the ciliated funnel, ccelomic fluid is drawn 
into the tubule through the funnel and driven 
to the exterior, thus flushing the tubule and 
carrying away the excreted substances. Finally 
the terminal portion of the tubule, which is de¬ 
rived as an invagination from the ectoderm, 
serves as a collecting tube or reservoir. Gen¬ 
erally a single pair of these tubules is found in 
unsegmented animals, such as Mollusca and 
Molluscoidea; this number may be reduced. 




























ANATOMY 


however, as in the Polyzoa, where they are en¬ 
tirely lacking, or in certain Gasteropoda, where 
one of them is suppressed, or it may be increased 
as in the case of certain Cephalopoda {Tetra- 
branchia), where two pairs are present. In 
segmented animals, such as annelids, proto- 
tracheates, and chordates, it is probable that 
originally one pair existed in every somite, and 
this is still approximately the case in some of 
the simplest members of these phyla, while in 
higher forms they are limited to certain seg¬ 
ments and have disappeared from others. The 
segmental character of these organs is so char¬ 
acteristic in the phyla named that they are called 
<( segmental organs.® 

Among the Chordata these organs undergo 
modifications which deserve especial mention. 
They lie at the dorsal side of the body cavity 
and on each side of the notochord. Only in 
Ampliioxus do they open individually to the ex¬ 
terior ; in other chordates the peripheral ends 
of the tubules unite on each side into a duct 
which grows backward and opens into the 
cloaca near the anus; this is the segmental duct. 
This earliest system of segmental tubules in 
chordates is known as the pronephros, and it 
extends throughout the entire trunk region of 
the lowest vertebrates (cyclostomes), though 
in all higher forms it is limited to a few an¬ 
terior somites and is usually a purely embryonic 
organ. Among these higher forms longer and 
more complicated tubules are formed in the 
somites behind the pronephros, which also open 
into the segmental duct at one end and into the 
body cavity at the other; near the ciliated fun¬ 
nel a knot of blood vessels forms on the side 
of the tubule and projects into its lumen; this 
is the glomerulus or malpighian corpuscle. 
Many of the tubules in this region then lose 
their ciliated funnels and no longer open into 
the body cavity, the tubule being flushed out by 
transuded plasma from the glomerulus; at the 
same time the single pair of tubules originally 
present in each somite may give rise to others 
by budding, so that several may be found in 
each somite. This second form of the nephri- 
dial system of vertebrates is known as the meso¬ 
nephros, and is the permanent excretory organ 
of fishes and amphibians, while only an em¬ 
bryonic organ in reptiles, birds, and mammals. 
Finally, in the last named classes, the definitive 
kidney or metanephros appears in several of the 
somites posterior to the mesonephros. Its 
tubules, while similar to those of the meso¬ 
nephros, are still more complex, having no trace 
of a ciliated funnel, and by budding very many 
of them are formed in each somite. The duct 
into which they open, the ureter, is an out¬ 
growth of the segmental duct. It is thus to be 
seen that the very complex excretory system of 
vertebrates can be derived, step by step, from 
the simple nephridial system of such inverte¬ 
brates as the annelids. 

Finally, the nephridia may carry off from 
the body cavity not only ccelomic fluid, but 
also cells which are set free into this fluid; 
some of these cells in the annelids may be 
loaded with urates which are thus carried to 
the exterior (chlorogogue cells), but the most 
important of the cells which thus escape from 
the coelom are the sex cells, ova and spermato¬ 
zoa. The nephridia may be especially modified 
for carrying off these sex cells, in which case 


they are known as gonoducts. Even among 
the vertebrates the oviducts and spermiducts 
(vasa deferentia ) are derived from the nephric 


A 



Fig. 19. — Diagrams illustrating the development of the 
urino-genital organs of a vertebrate (after Parker 
and Haswell).— A, pronephros and segmental duct; 
B, atrophy of pronephros, development of meso¬ 
nephros; C, appearance of Mullerian duct; D, 
development of metanephros, male type; E, the 
same, female type. The sex gland, ovary, or testis 
is obliquely shaded; phonephros and mesonephros 
unshaded; metanephros stippled; Mullerian duct 
heavily shaded. The large chamber to the right, 
into which these ducts as well as the intestine 
open, is the cloaca. 

system. The former in most vertebrates arises 
in the embryo as part of the segmental duct and 
opens into the body cavity at its anterior end 
through a pronephric tubule; the latter is the 
remainder of the segmental duct, and in animals 
above the amphibians, which have a metanephros 
and ureter, acts exclusively as a spermiduct. 

8 . Reproductive System. — Reproduction 
among animals is both sexual and asexual; the 
former occurs among all animals, the latter is 
limited to the lower forms and to the constituent 
cells of higher ones. Sexual reproduction or 
amphigony consists in the union of two cells, 
the sex cells or gametes, to form a single cell 
of double origin, the oosperm or zygote, from 
which a new individual similar to the parental 
form develops. If the gametes are approxi¬ 
mately equal in form and size their union is 
spoken of as conjugation, if they are very unlike 
in these respects they are called ova and sperma¬ 
tozoa, and their union is known as fertilization. 
Both conjugation and fertilization occur among 
the Protozoa, whereas all Metazoa reproduce 
by means of differentiated sex cells, namely, ova 





















ANATOMY 


and spermatozoa. In a few animals ova have 
the power of developing without previous fer¬ 
tilization, the process being known as partheno¬ 
genesis. If such development without fertiliza¬ 
tion occurs in larval forms which have not 
completed their development it is known as 
paedogenesis. In most animals the sexes are 
separate,— that is, ova and spermatozoa are 
produced by different individuals, males and 
females, and the species is dioecious; in some 
cases, however, both kinds of sex cells are 
produced by the same individual, which is then 
said to be hermaphrodite, and the species to be 
monoecious. 

The essential reproductive organs are the 
gonads, or the glands which produce ova and 
spermatozoa, namely, the ovaries and the testes. 
In sponges the reproductive cells are scattered 
through the mesoderm so that in these animals 
ovaries and testes cannot be said to exist. In 
the lowest cnidarians ( Hydrozoa ) the sex cells 
are at first widely scattered in the ectodermal 
epithelium, but they actively migrate to certain 
portions of the hydroid stem where reproduc¬ 
tive buds are being formed, and, aggregating 
here, form gonads. In all higher animals definite 
gonads are present. No genital ducts are pres¬ 
ent in the ccelenterates, and none are needed, 
since the sex cells can escape directly into the 
water. In animals above the coelenterates the 
sex cells are mesodermal in origin, and in most 
cases form a part of the epithelium lining the 
coelom. In animals without a true coelom the 
sex cells arise within tubes or glands the cavi¬ 
ties of which may perhaps represent the coe¬ 
lom. In flatworms the gonads occur in con¬ 
siderable numbers in a single individual. In 
roundworms they are limited to one or two 
tubes, in rotifers, mollusks, molluscoids, and 
echinoderms they are confined to one or at 
most a few sex glands, while in segmented ani¬ 
mals they are found in primitive forms in every 
body somite, though with advancing organization 
they become limited to a few segments or even 
to one. In most animals above the ccelenterates 
some form of duct exists for carrying the sex 
cells to the exterior; among the flatworms, 
roundworms, and rotifers these ducts are never 
the excretory tubules, though they may possibly 
represent the coelom of higher animals. In 
these higher forms they are frequently meta- 
nephridia, or modified excretory ducts. 

In many animals the ova and spermatozoa 
escape directly into the water, and there the 
eggs are fertilized and undergo development; 
it is probable that in these animals the escape 
of ova stimulates the males to eject spermatozoa 
so that both kinds of sex cells are shed at about 
the same time. In such cases enormous num¬ 
bers of sex cells are produced and very many 
are wasted. A slight advance over this con¬ 
dition is found in those animals (frogs, bony 
fishes, etc.) in which the openings of the male 
and female ducts are placed close together at 
the time of shedding the sex cells; this is 
known as external copulation. In other cases 
the spermatozoa only escape from the body, and 
by means of currents of water they are car¬ 
ried into the body of the female, where they 
fertilize the ova in situ, as in sponges, or in 
certain receptacles into which the eggs are col¬ 
lected, as in fresh-water mussels. In other ani¬ 
mals copulatory organs exist which serve to in¬ 
troduce spermatozoa into the sex ducts of the 


female, thus increasing the chances for the 
fertilization of the ova; this is internal copula¬ 
tion. In many cases copulation occurs but once, 
and the spermatozoa are stored in a seminal 
receptacle which opens into or near the oviduct. 
Internal copulation is a necessity in all land 
animals and in parasites, and it also occurs in 
many phyla of invertebrates (flatworms, round- 
worms, rotifers, gasteropods, cephalopods, anne¬ 
lids, arthropods). 

In certain animals the sexes differ not only 
with respect to the sexual apparatus but also 
in many other regards; when such differences 
are very marked they constitute what is known 
as sexual dimorphism. In such cases the male 
is frequently very degenerate in form, being 
sometimes not more than a hundredth part the 
size of the female and entirely lacking alimen¬ 
tary canal, sense organs, and nervous system 
(rudimentary males of rotifers, barnacles, etc.). 

Asexual reproduction, or monogony, consists 
in the formation of new individuals by division 
of an old one. In one-celled organisms and in 
the constituent cells of higher animals this 
takes the form of cell division. In the lower 
Metazoa asexual reproduction is not limited to 
cell division, but the entire body or portions of 
it may undergo constriction and subsequent 
division, thus giving rise to new individuals. 
This division may be into equal parts, in which 
case it is called fission; or into unequal parts, 
when it is known as budding or gemmation. In 
animals which reproduce both sexually and 
asexually there is a more or less regular alter¬ 
nation of one method with the other; this is 
known as alternation of generations or meta¬ 
genesis. The alternation of amphigony with 
parthenogenesis is called heterogony. 

9. Nervous System and Sense Organs .— 
Sensation and co-ordination are manifestations 
of protoplasmic irritability, or that capacity of 
receiving and responding to stimuli characteris¬ 
tic of every cell. Animals, even the simplest, 
are sensitive to a variety of stimuli, among 
which may be mentioned mechanical, chemical, 
thermal, and electrical, as well as light, gravity, 
etc. These stimuli, acting on the organism, 
start changes in the protoplasm (impulses) 
which are transmitted to portions of the body 
distant from the point first stimulated and call 
forth the co-ordinated activities of many dif¬ 
ferent parts. ' In higher animals there are spe¬ 
cial sense organs for receiving certain of these 
stimuli and specialized protoplasmic fibres 
(nerve fibres) for transmitting impulses, while 
nerve centres for co-ordinating activities ap¬ 
pear very far down in the animal scale. In the 
lowest animals, however, there are neither nerv¬ 
ous system nor sense organs, and yet through 
the irritability of the general protoplasm these 
functions are performed. 

A protozoan reacts to all stimuli in the same 
way, and it is probable that however different 
the stimuli may be they produce essentially the 
same changes in the protoplasm. The sensa¬ 
tions of Protozoa, if they can be said to have 
sensations, must be of the most general and 
indefinite sort, just as their responses to stimuli 
show the most monotonous sameness. The 
same thing is probably true of sponges, where 
none of the cells are differentiated for receiv¬ 
ing and transmitting stimuli. In all other 
phyla, however, certain cells of the body are 
set apart for these particular functions, and 


ANATOMY 


the greater the differentiation in these respects 
the more definite and varied are the sensa¬ 
tions, the more swiftly impulses are transmitted 
to the motor system, and the more complicated 
are the responses. 

Nervous System. — The elements out of 
which the nervous system is built are nerve cells 
and fibres, the latter being merely outgrowths 
of the former. In practically all Metazoa these 
cells are derived from ectoderm, and in a good 
many animals the sense organs and entire 
nervous system remain throughout life a part of 
the superficial epithelium which covers the body 
(Ccelent erata, Chcetognatha, certain Annelida, 
Molluscoidea, many Echinodermata, Balano- 
glossus ) ; such a nervous system is said to be 
epithelial. In all other Metazoa the nervous 
system, though formed from epithelium, sepa¬ 
rates from it in the process of development, so 
that brain, ganglia, and nerve trunks come to lie 
some distance from the surface of the body; 
this is known as an epitheliogenous nervous 
system. In addition to the two classes just 
mentioned, which are based on the relations of 
the nerve cells to the body layers, four types 
of nervous system are found among Metazoa 
which are based upon the relations of the nerve 
cells to one another; these are (i) the diffuse 
type, (2) the linear type, (3) the ganglionic 
type, and (4) the tubular type. 

(1) A diffuse nervous system consisting of 
nerve cells and fibres scattered throughout the 
superficial epithelium is the simplest type known 
and is found among such animals as sea-anemo¬ 
nes ( Actinozoa ) ; the nerve cells are here con¬ 
nected together by means of the fibres into a 
ganglionic plexus. (2) The next step in in¬ 
creasing complexity is represented by a linear 
nervous system such as is found in the jelly¬ 
fishes ; here many nerve cells and fibres are ag¬ 
gregated into a double nerve ring around the 



Fig. 20 Fig. 21 



Fig. 22 Fig. 23 


Fig. 20 . — Diagram of the nervous system of a starfish 
(from Claus).— N, nerve ring. 

Fig. 21 . — Nervous system of a flatworm ( Mesostomum ). 
— G, cerebral ganglia and eyes; St, the two late¬ 
ral nerve trunks; D, intestine with mouth. 

Fig. 22 . — Nervous system of the larva of a ladybug 
(Coccinella ).— Gfr, frontal ganglion; G, cerebral 
ganglia; Sg, subcesophageal ganglion; G — G , 
ganglia of the ventral chain. 

Fig. 23 . — Nervous system of adult ladybug. Ag, op¬ 
tic ganglion. 


margin of the umbrella, thus forming a cen¬ 
tralized nervous system; other nerve cells re¬ 
maining, scattered throughout the epithelium, 
s^rve to connect the ganglia with the muscles. 
(3) The ganglionic type. In ctenophores, a 


sense organ from which nerves radiate, is found 
at the apical pole, and in a great many of the 
higher animals the earliest formed and most 
widely represented portion of the nervous sys- 





Fig. 24 


Fig. 24. — Diagrams of the vertebrate brain (after 
Parker and Haswell).— A, first stage, with three 
brain vesicles; B, second stage, four brain vesicles; 
C, D, side view and sagittal section of fully 
formed brain without cerebral hemispheres. 

tern is a sense organ and ganglion which ap¬ 
pear at the apical pole of the gastrula, and 
becomes in the adult the cerebral ganglion or 
brain, lying on the dorsal side of the oesopha¬ 
gus. Nerve trunks are always given off from 
this ganglion, and very generally two of them 
run down on each side of the oesophagus 
to its ventral side, thus forming a circum- 
oesophageal nerve ring. In different phyla 
longitudinal nerve trunks may be given off from 
different parts of this ring; among annelids, 
arthropods, mollusks, and molluscoids from the 
ventral side, and in annelids and arthropods 
this forms the (( ventral chain,® which consists 
typically of a pair of ganglia in each somite con¬ 
nected with those in front and behind by nerve 
cords. The first one in the chain is the sub- 
oesophageal ganglion, connected with the cere¬ 
bral ganglion by the circumoesophageal com¬ 
missures. In the mollusks the nervous system 
consists of a pair of supra- and sub-oesophageal 
ganglia (cerebral and pedal) which with their 
connectives form an oesophageal ring. To 
these is usually added a pair of pleural and of 
parietal ganglia forming a loop which extend 
back into the body, while ventral trunks (pedal 
cords) may be present in the foot. (4) The 
tubular type of nervous system is found only 
among the chordates; here the nervous system 
develops from an epithelial plate (neural plate) 
on the dorsal surface of the embryo, which be¬ 
comes invaginated in such a way as to form a 
longitudinal groove, the neural groove. This 
then separates from the epithelium as a tube, 
which jn all vertebrates is enlarged at its an¬ 
terior end to form the brain. This neural tube. 



























ANATOMY 


while, apparently a continuous structure, is really 
composed of segments, the neuromeres, one 
neuromere being found in each body somite; 
the neuromeres are thus comparable to the 
ganglia of the ventral chain of arthropods and 
annelids. This segmentation of the central 




Fig. 25. — Diagrams of vertebrate brain (after Parker 
and Haswell).— E — H, transverse sections of 
brain at different levels; E, of the cerebrum; F, 
of the ’tween brain; G, of the mid brain; H, of 
the hind brain; I, J, side view and sagittal section 
of a brain with cerebral hemispheres. 


nervous system of vertebrates is indicated even 
in the adult by the segmental arrangement of 
the spinal and cranial nerves. In the embryonic 
development of all vertebrates the brain con¬ 
sists of three enlargements or vesicles, the fore 
brain, mid brain, and hind brain; the first gives 
rise to the cerebrum and ’tween brain of the 
adult, the second remains as the mid brain, while 
the third gives rise to the cerebellum and medul¬ 
la. The portion of the neural tube posterior to 
the brain becomes the spinal cord of the adult. 
With the differentiation of nerve cells and fibres 
in the walls of the neural tube these walls in¬ 
crease greatly in thickness, while the originally 
large cavity of the tube becomes restricted in 
size, forming in the adult the ventricles of the 
brain and the central canal of the cord. 



Fig. 26. — Dorsal view of vertebrate brain with the cav¬ 
ities of the right side exposed (after Parker and 
Haswell). 

Sense Organs .— The simplest sense organs 
are the scattered sensory cells found in the 
superficial epithelium of many animals; these 
may be solitary or aggregated into buds. They 
are elongated epithelial cells with a hair¬ 
like process at the free border and a fibre at the 
deeper end connecting with the branches of a 


ganglion cell. They are organs of general sen¬ 
sation,— that is, they are capable of receiving 
various kinds of stimuli, such as mechanical, 
thermal, electrical, and chemical, and are there¬ 
fore largely undifferentiated, though probably 
chiefly subserving the sense of touch. These 
integumentary sense organs are found in almost 
every group of animals. Among the verte¬ 
brates they are present in primitive form over 
the general body surface; in the fishes and 
amphibia they are aggregated into buds, form¬ 
ing the lateral line organs, while among those 
vertebrates which do not dwell in water deeper- 
lying organs, of modified type, are found (tactile 
cells, corpuscles, and bulbs). In addition to 
these organs of general sensation, higher Meta¬ 
zoa generally possess specific sense organs, name¬ 
ly, those differentiated for the reception of par¬ 
ticular kinds of stimuli. These are organs of 
(1) smell and taste, (2) equilibrium and hear¬ 
ing, (3) vision. 

(1) Organs of smell and taste are present in 
all vertebrates and in many invertebrates. Their 
structure is extremely simple, being but slightly 
modified from the type of the primitive organs 
described above. In fact the olfactory sense 
cells of vertebrates are merely scattered sensory 
cells, while the organs of taste (taste buds) 
are simple aggregations of such cells. Through¬ 
out the Metazoa the organs of taste and smell 
are generally located in ciliated pits or depres¬ 
sions of the integument either on the head or 
at least near the mouth or respiratory organs. 
In these positions they serve in the one case to 
test food and in the other the quality of the 
medium used in respiration. Among fishes the 
olfactory organs are located in pits on the front 
of the head; in all air-breathing vertebrates 
these open posteriorly into the mouth cavity or 
pharynx, and thus form the anterior part of 
the respiratory tract. The organs of taste are 
of course in or near the mouth. Among the 
mollusks a sense organ which is probably ol¬ 
factory in function, the osphradium, is located 
near the gills. Among the arthropods we find 
notable modifications of these organs owing to 
the fact that the entire body surface is there 
covered with an impermeable chitinous coat. 
These sense organs are here peculiar hollow 
tubes, the olfactory tubes or cones, which are 
borne on the anterior portion of the body, usu¬ 
ally on the antennae and mouth parts; these 
hairs are filled with fibrillar protoplasm which 
connects with sense cells at the base of the 
hair. 

(2) Organs of hearing and equilibration are 
very widely represented throughout the animal 
kingdom. It is advisable to consider these two 
organ systems together, since the two functions 
which they subserve are united in the same 
general organ in the vertebrates, while in lower 
forms it is by no means easy to distinguish be¬ 
tween the two. It has long been customary to 
speak of all vesicular sense organs containing 
free solid bodies as auditory in function, but 
it is much more likely that in the lower Metazoa 
they serve to acquaint the animal with its bodily 
positions,— that is, that they are organs of equil¬ 
ibration. In many respects the simplest type of 
organ of this class is found among certain 
jellyfishes. It here consists of a short tentacle 
situated in a depression of the ectoderm and 
bearing a solid body or otolith near its free 
end; by the movements of the tentacle the 












































ANATOMY 


hairs or protoplasmic processes of surrounding 
sensory cells are stimulated. In other Medusa; 
the sensory cells may entirely enclose the ten- 



Fig. 27 

Fig. 27 .—Auditory or equilibrative organs of jelly¬ 
fishes (from Hatschek).— A, of Cunarcha. B, of 
Pectis. C, of Rhopalonema. D, of Cumarina. 
Ok, auditory tentacle; 01 , Otolith; Oh, auditory 
hairs; n, nerve. 

tacle, thus forming an auditory vesicle or oto- 
cyst. The auditory organs of most vertebrates, 
as well as of most invertebrates, can be traced 
back to this simple type. The sensory cells 
forming the walls of the otocyst are similar 
to tactile cells,— that is, they bear processes 
projecting into the cavity of the otocyst, while 
the bases of these cells are connected with 
ganglion cells. By the movements of the oto¬ 
lith, usually a calcareous concretion, these cells 
are stimulated and the impulses thus generated 
conveyed away by the nerve fibre. Otocysts of 
this type are possessed by mollusks, certain 



Fig. 2 8 

Fig. 28 .— Auditory or equilibrative organs of mollusks 
(from Hatschek). 


annelids, turbellarians, and brachiopods. In the 
case of arthropods organs of a different type 


are generally found, owing to the fact that the 
body is here covered by chitin and that the fine 
protoplasmic processes or cilia are absent. 
Among the crustaceans the auditory organ 
usually consists of a cavity in the basal joint of 
the first antenna, which is open to the exterior 
and which contains water and grains of sand; 
the wall of the cavity bears chitinous processes 
or auditory hairs which have a nervous connec¬ 
tion at their base; these hairs are stimulated by 
the movements of the water and sand within the 
auditory sac. Many insects have a true tone¬ 
perceiving organ, the chordotonal organ; in 
principle this consists of a few elongated cells, 
the chord, which are attached directly to the 
integument at one end and by a ligament to an 
opposite point of the integument; when this 
apparatus is thrown into vibration impulses are 
conveyed to the nerve cells attached to some 
portion of the chord. In other insects ( Orthop- 
tera ) a tympanal organ may be present, con¬ 
sisting of a vibrating membrane overlying a 
tracheal chamber; sense cells are present be¬ 
tween the membrane and chamber, and when 
the membrane is set into vibration by sound 
waves the sense cells are stimulated. Among 
aquatic vertebrates a system of integumentary 



Fig. 29. —'Internal ear of .different vertebrates. I, 
Fishes. II, Birds. Ill, Mammals. (From Claus.) 
— U, utriculus with semicircular canals; S, sac- 
culus; US, utriculus and sacculus; C, cochlear 
duct; L, lagena; Cr, canalis reuniens; R, recessus 
vestibuli. 


sense buds is found along the lateral borders of 
the body and over the head, which is known 
as the lateral line system. The function of 
these organs is not surely known, but it is 
probable that they are organs of touch and also 
of equilibration. In all vertebrates it is proba¬ 
ble that the auditory organs, as well as the or¬ 
gans of smell and taste, have been derived from 
integumentary sense organs homologous with 
those of the lateral line. In the process of 
development the ear appears as a pit-like in¬ 
vagination of the skin which is then infolded 
to form a vesicle; this vesicle then becoming 
partially divided into two chambers, the utricle 
and the saccule. In most vertebrates the for¬ 
mer bears three pairs of semicircular canals 
which are organs of equilibration, while the 
latter gives rise to a recess, the lagena, which 
becomes the cochlear duct in mammals and is a 
true auditory organ. Calcareous concretions or 
















ANATOMY 


otoliths are present in this much-folded and 
complicated otocyst. This sensory portion of 
the auditory organ is known as the inner ear; 



A B. 


Fig. 30 

Fig. 30. — A, section through the open eye-pit of a 
limpet ( Patella ); B, the two kinds of retinal cells, 
pigmented and sensory (from Hatschek). 

to this is added in all animals above the frogs 
and toads a middle ear or tympanum which 
transmits the sound waves from the surface 
to the inner ear. Finally, in the mammals there 
are folds of the integument around the tym¬ 
panic membrane which serve to collect sound 
waves and which constitute the external ear. 

(3) Visual Organs .— Animals without any 
trace of eyes are sensitive to light (certain 
Protozoa, Turbellaria, Larva ), and it must there¬ 
fore be assumed that protoplasm may be di¬ 
rectly stimulated by light without the interven¬ 
tion of any special organ. In its simplest form 
an eye consists of one or a few transparent cells 
partially surrounded by pigment in the form of 
a cup, so that the light can enter only from 
one side; the pigment not only absorbs light 
rays, but it optically isolates the cells within 
from those without this cup (some Medusas, 
Turbellaria, Annelida). The function of such an 
eye is probably to determine the direction of 
light, since it could give no image of luminous 
objects. A slight advance over this simplest 
type of eye is found in the cup-shaped eyes of 
certain mollusks; here certain superficial epithe- 


P9 cv 1 



Fig. 31 

Fig. 31. — Section through the eye of a water-beetle 
(Hydrophilus ) (from Hatschek); l, chitinous 

lens; cv, transparent cells; pg, pigment cells; 
R, retina. 

lial cells are infolded to form a cup; in some 
cases deeply pigmented, while other intermediate 
cells remain clear and unpigmented. The latter 


are the sensory cells and are connected at their 
bases with nerve fibres. If this cup-shaped 
eye becomes infolded still further and its open¬ 
ing grows smaller and finally closes altogether, 
it forms a vesicular eye such as is present in 
certain mollusks and annelids. The wall of 
this vesicle, which is turned toward the epithe¬ 
lium, is transparent and may become thickened 
to form a lens; the opposite wall of the vesicle 
is pigmented and is known as the retina. In 
such an eye the free ends of the retinal cells 
are turned toward the cavity of the vesicle, 
while the opposite ends, which are directed away 
from the vesicle, are prolonged into fibres; such 
an eye has a direct retina. This type of eye 
reaches its highest development among the 
cephalopods, where it bears a striking super¬ 
ficial resemblance to the vertebrate eye. A rudi¬ 
mentary eye of this type is present in all ver¬ 
tebrates as the pineal organ or gland. This is 
an unpaired structure on the dorsal side of the 



Fig. 32. — Section through the cup-shaped eye of a 
gasteropod ( Haliotis ) (from Hatschek).— e, 

epithelium covering body; cv, vitreous body; R, 
retina; N, nerve. 

’tween brain and in certain reptiles is plainly 
a vesicular eye with direct retina. The paired 
eyes of vertebrates are also vesicular, but in 
them the retina is inverse,—that is, the free ends 
of the retinal cells are directed away from the 
cavity of the vesicle, while the ends which bear 
the fibres are directed toward it. The explanation 
of this remarkable condition is found in the 
study of the development of these eyes. They 
arise as lateral evaginations of the walls of the 
embryonic fore brain, are then constricted from 
the brain, and become vesicles connected with 
the fore brain by only a stalk. At this stage 
the vertebrate eye is like the invertebrate one 
save only that it has arisen from the neural in¬ 
stead of the superficial epithelium. All the cells 
which form the vesicle have their free ends 
directed toward its cavity, while their basal ends 
are directed away from it. The outer wall of 
this optic vesicle is then infolded until it comes 
into contact with the inner wall, thus forming 
a cup open toward the skin. The ectoderm over 


















ANATOMY OF MELANCHOLY; ANATOMY OF PLANTS 



Fig. 33. — Longitudinal section through the pineal eye 
of a lizard ( Sphenodon ) (after Baldwin Spencer), 
The eye is located in the middle of the dorsal side 
of the head and is covered by translucent scales. 
The outer wall of the eye vesicle is thickened to 
form a lens, while the inner pigmented wall is 
the retina from which the nerve proceeds. 



Fig. 34 


Fig. 34.— A, section through the compound eye of a 
crayfish (from Hatschek).— 1, cornea; 2, crystal¬ 
line cones; 3, retinulae; 4, pigment cells; 5, cuti¬ 
cle; 6, epithelium; n, optic nerve, g, ganglia. 
B. A single element (ommatidium) from the com¬ 
pound eye of a crayfish.— 1, corneal lens; 2, cor¬ 
neal cells; 3, crystalline cone cells; 4, 5, outer and 
inner parts of the crystalline cone; p, pigment 
cells; r, retinula; R, rhabdome; b, basement mem¬ 
brane. 


the opening of the optic cup is then infolded 
to form the lens, which completely separates 
from the surface and lies in the mouth of the 
cup. The infolded wall of the cup alone forms 
the retina, and therefore the free ends of the 
retinal cells are directed away from the lens 
and the cavity of the cup. The lens and optic 
cup are then surrounded by fibrous and vascular 
coats, the sclerotic and choroid; a chamber is 
formed in front of the lens which is filled with 
water or aqueous humor, while one behind the 
lens and in front of the retina is filled with 
vitreous humor. 

The compound eye is another type found 
chiefly among arthropods. It consists of a 
large number of closely-packed single eyes or 
ommatidia, each of which is surrounded by pig¬ 
ment and is optically isolated from the others. 
Each ommatidium consists of (1) a hexagonal 
cornea at the surface, (2) a crystalline cone 
below this, and (3) the retinula or group of 
retinal cells which are connected with nerve 
fibres. The cornea and crystalline cone are re¬ 
fractive and serve in the capacity of a lens, 
while the retinula alone is the sensory element. 

Edwin - Grant Conklin, 

University of Pennsylvania. 

Anatomy of Melancholy, The, a famous 
work by Robert Burton (1577-1640). It was first 
issued in 1621 under the name ( Democritus 
Junior,> and was revised five times by the author 
before his death. It is divided into three sys¬ 
tematic sections devoted respectively to the 
causes and symptoms of melancholy, its cure, 
and of amorous and religious melancholy. It 
is in effect an omnium gatherum of all sorts of 
out-of-the-way lore, from diet to demonology, 
and its literary felicity and humor have aided 
in keeping it alive as genuine literature. 

Anatomy of Plants. The cell, the elemen¬ 
tary organ of plants and animals, was first ob¬ 
served by the English micrographer Robert 
Hooke (1667), who suggested the name (( cell ® 
because of its resemblance to the cell of a honey¬ 
comb. A few years later another English au¬ 
thor, Nehemiah Grew, extended this observation 
and published the first work on plant-anatomy 
(1672), in which he described the minor struc¬ 
ture of leaves, stems, and roots, and introduced 
several anatomical terms still in use. Grew 
was soon followed by an Italian, Marcello Mal¬ 
pighi, the author of the illustrious work, ( Ana- 
tome Plantarum ) (1675), and these three men 
are thus the founders of the science of plant 
anatomy. Many years later Robert Brown 
(1833) detected the nucleus in the cell, and the 
German botanist Schleiden (1838) pointed out 
the general occurrence of this new body within 
the cells of plants and its importance to the 
cell-division. These discoveries soon led to the 
apprehension of the cell as being the elementary 
organ of plants, and when the occurrence of 
nucleus had been proved also in the cells of 
animals the German naturalist Schwann (1839) 
advanced the important doctrine that bodies of 
animals and plants consist of cells and the 
products of these. 

While the nucleus had thus been detected 
and described to some extent, there still re¬ 
mained a closer examination to be made of the 
other parts of the cell-content, which some of 
the earlier investigators had already observed 
and described as a soft, gritty matter, capable 























ANATOMY OF PLANTS 


of motion in the cell. This cell-content was 
studied by Mold (1846), who gave it the name 
protoplasm. The constituents of the cell were 
thus properly defined as the cell-wall, the 
protoplasm, and the nucleus. Of these the 
protoplasm and the nucleus are the most essen¬ 
tial parts, since the wall is not always developed, 
but is totally absent in numerous animal-cells 
and also in those of several plants among the 
lower Alga and Fungi , at certain stages, forex- 
ample. A completely developed plant-cell may 
for the most part be defined as a microscopical, 
closed vesicle consisting of a wall, and the con¬ 
tents, nucleus, protoplasm, and cell-sap. The 
shape of the cell presents a vast number of 
forms, generally referred to only two types: 
the parenchymatic and the prosenchymatic. Of 
these the parenchymatic is either isodiametric 
or elongated, but with blunt ends and usually 
thin-walled, while the prosenchymatic is mostly 
elongated with pointed or sharp endings, and 
is more or less thick-walled. A third type of 
cell may be mentioned, the ^hypha® of certain 
Alga and Fungi, which is very thin, thread¬ 
like, and composed of a single cell or many. 
There are plants consisting of one cell only, 
but most plants are composed of an enormous 
number, which together constitute the so-called 
<( cellular tissues,® parenchyma and prosenchyma, 
in respect to the shape of the cells of which 
they are composed. The function performed 
by these tissues is very different, and the classi¬ 
fication as parenchyma and prosenchyma is thus 
not sufficient, since this only applies to the 
external shape of the cells. In accordance with 
both structure and function the following tissues 
are observable in the higher plants: Epidermis, 
the mechanical tissue, the conductive tissue, and 
the fundamental tissue; the first and the last 
of these tissues being parenchymatic, the others 
prosenchymatic. 

The minor structure of these various tis¬ 
sues may be described as follows: 

Epidermis .— This is the outermost cell¬ 
covering of a plant-organ, such as the leaf, stem, 
and root, and consists of at least one layer of 
cells. The outer cell-wall is often considerably 
thickened and invariably covered by a thin mem¬ 
brane, the so-called cuticle (c in Fig. 1) which 



is highly impermeable to water, and especially 
well-developed in land-plants; in submerged 
water-plants the cuticle is, on the other hand, 
much reduced. The epidermal system of plants 
has a threefold significance: it protects the 
more delicate parts of the organs against 
mechanical injuries, pressure, etc.; it forms a 
protection against evaporation by being im¬ 
permeable to water and water-vapor, and forms 
also a water-supplying system. These three 
functions are expressed by various development 
of the cells, which may be illustrated by a sec¬ 


tion of a leaf of aloe (Fig. 1) in which all 
three epidermal peculiarities are quite well de¬ 
veloped. The thick cuticle and cuticular layers 



Fig. 2.— a, simple hair of Mertensia: d, glandular 
hair of Saxifraga . 

form an excellent protection against loss of 
moisture, while the thickening of the outer cell- 
wall and portion of the radial walls furnishes 
the mechanical support. Characteristic of epi¬ 
dermis, furthermore, is its covering of hairs, 
which present a number of forms, and of which 
the majority are developed from the epidermis 
itself. Some of them consist only of a single 



cell, but usually they are composed of several. 
The hairs may be simple (Fig. 2, a) or branched 
(Fig. 3), and attain various forms from sharply- 





























ANATOMY OF PLANTS 


pointed to globose, scale-like (Fig. 4) or star¬ 
shaped. The ordinary hairs contain only air, 
and when occurring as a dense covering of the 



Fig. 4.— Scale-like hair of Tillandsia. 


plant-organ aid materially in the protection 
against loss of moisture, thus entering directly 
into the function of epidermis. Other hairs 
contain and secrete ethereal oils, the so-called 
glandular hairs (Fig. 2 d) , which may serve for 
attracting insects to carry the pollen, or if the 
secretion is of a sticky consistence, the function 
may be to keep off injurious, crawling insects, 
less adapted for aiding in cross-fecundation. 
Several hairs contain poisonous matters and 
cause great pain when touched, as for instance 
the hairs of the common nettle, but the 
physiological significance of such and other hair 
structures is not satisfactorily explained. 

A very simple structure is possessed by the 
root-hairs, which consist of only a single epider- 



Fic. 5.— Epidermis, with stomata, of Medeola: g, the 
two guard-cells; s, the subsidiary cells. 

mis-cell, and of which the function is to absorb 
and conduct food substances in solution. A purely 
mechanical function is exhibited by the climb¬ 


ing-hairs,— that is, hairs in the shape of hooks 
by which the weak stems of certain plants — for 
instance, hop, cleavers, etc.— are able to climb by 
attaching themselves to other plants. 

Finally to be mentioned are the stomata. If 
the epidermis be able to regulate the evapora¬ 
tion, it is readily understood that this tissue 
must be compact and without intercellular 
spaces unless these be capable of closing and 
opening themselves under certain conditions. 
Such intercellular spaces occur in the epidermis 



Fig. 6.— Epidermis, with stomata, of Cotnmelina; g, 
guard-cell; s, subsidiary cells. 

and were by De Candolle named ^stomata.® 
Each stoma consists of two crescent-shaped 
cells (g in Fig. 5), the guard-cells, which turn 
their concave faces against each other, thus 
forming an intercellular space leading into 
a wide cavity, the so-called air-chamber (ac 
in Fig. 7). Adjoining the guard-cells are usu- 



Fig. 7.— Cross-section of a stoma from the leaf of 
Cotnmelina: ac, the air-chamber; g, guard-cells; 
s, subsidiary cells. 

ally two or more epidermis-cells of a shape 
somewhat different from the others, and these 
have been called the subsidiary cells (.? in Fig. 
5) ; their number and manner of arrangement 
is often very variable in several orders of the 
phanerogams. The guard-cells are, as a rule, 
the only cells of epidermis which' contain chloro¬ 
phyll and starch; they have the power of closing 
or opening the orifice of the intercellular space, 
a phenomenon that has been studied and ex¬ 
plained by Schwendener. When moist these 









ANATOMY OF PLANTS 


cells become swollen, and, as they lengthen, 
curve outward in the middle so as to leave a 
free opening. An opposite movement takes 
place when they become dry: they are then 
shortened and straightened with their inner 
faces applied to each other, closing the orifice. 
Stomata occur as a rule on all green plant- 
organs, stems, and leaves, but lack in those 
that are constantly under water, and they are 
totally absent in the thallophytes. The location 
of the stomata varies somewhat, but they are 
more numerous on the lower face of the leaves 
than on the upper. Their position offers a 
number of variations and is sometimes de¬ 
pendent upon the nature of the surroundings, 
especially of the climate, the dryness of the air, 
etc. The guard-cells may be free, reaching 
above the surrounding epidermis (Fig. 7), or 
they may be sunk below this. A very peculiar 
arrangement is noticeable in Nerium, where 
the stomata are located, several together, in de¬ 
pressions of the leaf-surface. A modification 
of stomata are the so-called water-pores, ex¬ 
hibiting a like structure, but somewhat larger 
than these and unable to open or close them¬ 
selves. They are mostly located on the margins 
of leaves near the ends of the nerves. 

The Cork .— While the epidermis is seldom 
of any long duration in plant-organs which 



Fig. 8 .— Cross-section of the stem of Trifolium, show¬ 
ing the cork (c). 

persist for more than one season, another cov¬ 
ering becomes necessary and is represented by 
the so-called cork. This tissue may be de¬ 
veloped by the epidermis itself, but in most 
instances it originates in the parenchymatic lay¬ 
ers underneath the epidermis, or sometimes 
much deeper, in the innermost portion of the 
cortex, for instance. The cork is able to con¬ 
tinue its growth, following the increase in thick¬ 
ness of the stem, and consists of several strata 
of quadratic or rectangular cells, arranged in 
compact rows, vertical on the surface of the 
plant-organ (Fig. 8). 

The Mechanical Tissue .— The best known 
elements of this tissue are the so-called <( stere- 
ome-cells,® which are thick-walled, very long 
prosenchymatic cells, of which the walls have 
narrow pores and consist of cellulose. The 
stereome-cells are mostly arranged in strands 
and located in such portions of leaves or stems 
as are the most exposed to injury. The cells 
are very flexible, and the arrangement of the 
layers is remarkably well fitted for rendering 
the plant-organ the greatest possible support 
by means of the smallest quantity of material, 
as demonstrated by Schwendener. Besides this 
function the mechanical tissue is also observed 
to form protective layers around the mestome- 
bundles, especially near the leptome-elements. 


Another thick-walled but parenchymatic 
cell-form is the so-called sclerotic, occurring in 
the cocoa-nut, walnut, etc. 

The collenchymatic cells may be mentioned 
here: they are elongated, prismatic cells of 
which the walls are thickened only in the 
corners and consist mainly of cellulose. Collen¬ 
chymatic tissue is frequent in the periphery of 
stems of herbaceous plants, and in leaves, near 
the larger nerves of these. 

The Conductive Tissue .— This tissue is rep¬ 
resented by the so-called <( mestome-bundles,® 
or <( vascular bundles® of earlier authors, which 
traverse the plant-organs mostly in a longitudi¬ 
nal direction; they constitute a part of the 
nerves in leaves and of the wood in trees. Their 
composition is often very complicated, especially 
in stems and roots, where they are often asso¬ 
ciated with some of the other tissues, from 
which they are not always readily distinguished. 
At present (( mestome,® as proposed by Schwen¬ 
dener, comprises only two elements, <( leptome® 
and <( hadrome,® of which the former conducts 
albuminous matters and contains the sieve- 
tubes and the medullary ray-parenchyma. The 
hadrome contains the vessels and the woody 
parenchyma and conducts the water. These 
terms, leptome and hadrome, are not identical 
with the ^phloem® and (( xylem® formerly sug¬ 
gested by Nageli, since this author included the 
mechanical tissue, the stereome, which is often 
developed in almost immediate connection with 
the true conductive tissue. 

Mestome-bundles, containing leptome and 
hadrome, are observable in all the higher plants: 
vascular cryptogams and phanerogams, but 
are not developed in any of the thallophytes 
(Fungi and Algce ) or in the mosses. In re¬ 
gard to the various cell-forms represented in the 
conducive tissue or mestome, the so-called ves¬ 
sels play an important role by their characteris¬ 
tic structure. Vessels are tubes which have 
been developed from cell-rows whose transverse 
walls have either entirely or partially disap¬ 
peared, leaving ridges or rings, and of which 
the longitudinal walls are strengthened by va¬ 
rious thickenings. The so-called <( tracheids® 
are somewhat modified forms of vessels, but 
hardly distinguishable from them except by 
their narrower width. Both vessels and tra- 
cheids occur under the same types as ^spiral,® 
<( reticular,® (< scalariform® and (( porous,® in ac¬ 
cordance with the manner of thickening ob¬ 
servable in their walls; of these the porous 
tracheids are particularly numerous. The wood 
of conifers consists exclusively of such porous 
tracheids, which are especially characteristic by 
the pores being bordered. 

The woody parenchyma and medullary rays 
resemble in structure those parenchymatic cells 
having numerous rounded, simple pores, but dif¬ 
fer in their position and arrangement; the 
former usually extending longitudinally in the 
shape of bands, while the medullary rays repre¬ 
sent radial bands or plates. Some distinction is 
also noticeable in the shape of these cells: that 
of the wood-parenchyma being elongated in the 
direction of the axis of growth, while the cell 
of the medullary ray is chiefly elongated in a 
radial direction. 

The leptome contains, as stated above, the 
sieve-tubes with the cambiform. This tissue 
differs widely from the hadrome in the great 





















ANATOMY OF PLANTS 


softness and much narrower lumen of its in¬ 
dividual cells. The sieve-tubes are usually 
elongated cells of which the transverse walls 
exhibit a very distinct perforation, whence the 
term sieve-plate is generally given to this par¬ 
ticular cell-wall. The openings in the sieve- 
plates permit the circulation of undissolved al¬ 
buminous matters. The sieve-tubes and plates 
are often difficult to observe on account of their 
delicate structure and minute size; they are, 
however, well distinguishable in the stems of 
the grape-vine and of the Cucurbitacea\ 

Ihere is still a small conducting system, 
which may be mentioned here, although belong¬ 
ing either to the leptome or the hadrome. It 
is the lactiferous tissue, containing the so-called 
milk-tubes, often located in the neighborhood of 
the leptome. The cell-wall consists of cellu¬ 
lose ; it is as a rule very thin and without pores 
or thickenings. The milk-tubes of certain spe¬ 
cies of Euphorbia differ from the type by being 
thick-walled and slightly porous. The content 
is a milky juice, mostly whitish, seldom yellow, 
as in celandine (Chelidonium) , or reddish as 
in bloodroot. Milk-tubes occur as “ducts® or 
“cells,® and are developed in different ways. 
The “ducts® are formed by parenchymatic cells 
arranged in rows, and of which the radial cell- 
walls become dissolved entirely. The “cells® 
are, on the other hand, single cells, which grow 
out into long and branched tubes similar in 
some respects to the so-called “hyphae® of cer¬ 
tain fungi. 

The Fundamental Tissue. — This tissue com¬ 
prises all the other tissues of the plant not refer¬ 
able to the epidermis, the mechanical, or the 
conductive tissue, and is as a rule composed of 
thin-walled, parenchymatic cells with distinct 
intercellular spaces. Its function is principally 
to prepare and store nutritive matters, hence the 
chlorophyll, the starch, and similar matters are 
contained in this tissue. Several types of fun¬ 
damental tissue have been distinguished in the 
various plant-organs, such as the cortex in stems 
and roots; the pith in stems, but only occa¬ 
sionally in roots; the mesophyll with the pali¬ 
sade- and pneumatic-tissue in leaves; and finally 
the parenchymatic sheaths, which often sur¬ 
round the mestome-bundles as the endodermis, 
the mestome-sheath, etc. 

The location of these various types of the 
fundamental tissue is as follows: The cortex, 
whose outermost layers are often designated as 
the “hypoderm,® is in the stem located beneath 
the epidermis and borders inwardly on the 
mestome-bundles or on the mechanical tissue, 
supporting these. The cortex contains often 
ducts and cells with chrystals, and is in not a 
few instances traversed by aeriferous lacunes 
of quite considerable width, which prevail in 
aquatic plants. The cortex in the root occupies 
the same position, and its innermost layer is 
here constantly differentiated as an endodermis, 
bordering on the pericambium. The endoder¬ 
mis of both stem and root differs from the 
other strata of the cortex by the cells being 
prismatic and often quite long, by the cell-walls 
sometimes attaining a prominent thickening, and 
by the corky substance of the cell-wall. 

In many respects the pith resembles the cor¬ 
tex, but is usually of a more regular and uni¬ 
form structure, as a rule constituting the inner¬ 
most portion of the central cylinder of stems. 
Mestome-bundles, ducts, lacunes, and chrystal- 


bearing cells may also be observed in the pith, 
but not so frequently as in the cortex. 

A tissue corresponding in many respects to 
the cortex is the chlorophyll-bearing palisade- 
and pneumatic-tissue in leaves. The cells of 
the palisade-tissue are very thin-walled, rectan¬ 
gular, and placed vertically on the upper surface 
of the leaves; they contain chlorophyll in abun¬ 
dance. The pneumatic-tissue is located under¬ 
neath the palisade-tissue and borders on the 
epidermis of the lower face of the leaf. It is 
of a very open structure on account of the fre¬ 
quently very irregular shape of the cells, which 
may vary from roundish to polyhedric or even 
stellate, a structure corresponding well with its 
function and its location near the lower epider¬ 
mis, where the stomata are most numerous. 

These tissues, briefly described above, are 
the most characteristic ones of plant-organs, 
but their mutual position in these organs offers 
not a few variations, hence it will be necessary 
to present a discussion of their occurrence as 
constituting the structure of roots, stems, and 
leaves. 

The Anatomy of the Root. — The fact that 
the root is only slightly susceptible of modifica¬ 
tion in respect to its external structure is espe¬ 
cially expressed by the great uniformity that 
prevails in its internal structure. Roots, however, 
are not always quite as uniformly developed 
as generally described, but very few botanists 
have paid much attention to their structural 
peculiarities. Some types of roots have been 
suggested,— for instance “nutritive,® “attach¬ 
ment,® “contractile,® and “storage,® — all of 
which possess a somewhat modified structure 
corresponding to their functions. But common to 
all roots are the following tissues: Epidermis, 
cortex, pericambium, and the conductive tissue. 

The epidermis is as described above, but 
lacks the cuticle, at least partly, and the only 
hair-formations that occur here are the long, 
unicellular root-hairs, observable on nearly all 
young roots excepting at the apex of these, 
which is covered by the root-cap. The cortex 
consists of parenchymatic cells, frequently ar¬ 
ranged in regular concentric rings; the outer¬ 
most strata beneath the epidermis are often 
differentiated as a more or less thick-walled and 
persisting hypoderm, while the inner ones are 
usually thin-walled and liable to collapse radially 
or tangentially, thus giving rise to wide lacunes. 
The innermost layer of the cortex differs from 
all the others and represents the endodermis 
(e in Fig. 9), whose structure offers several 
excellent characteristics for its distinction from 
the adjoining cortical parenchyma and the peri¬ 
cambium (p in Fig. 5). Such characteristics 
may be expressed by the different manner in 
which the cell-walls are thickened, or by the 
presence of the peculiar dots named after Cas- 
pary, which are seldom lacking in thin-walled 
endodermis-cells. These dots, readily visible in 
transverse sections, are due to foldings of the 
cell-wall. Inside the endodermis is a layer, and 
commonly a single one, of usually thin-walled 
cells, called the pericambium or the pericycle. 
This tissue is a most important one, since it 
is capable of cell-division, and it is in this layer 
that all lateral roots of phanerogams become 
developed, and usually also the root-shoots. In 
ferns the lateral roots do not originate in this 
tissue, but in the endodermis. The pericam¬ 
bium surrounds the conductive tissue in roots 


ANATOMY OF PLANTS 


represented by strands of leptome and hadrome 
in alternation with each other, sometimes en¬ 
closing a central mass of conjunctive tissue, or 
a wide central vessel. The leptome is not as 



Fig. 9.— Cross-section of the root of Commelina: b, 
the cortex; e, endodermis; p, the pericambium; 
the six rays of vessels alternate with six groups of 
leptome. 

well differentiated as in the stem, and the vessels 
are arranged in radial groups of which the out¬ 
ermost are the oldest and generally known as 
the (< proto-hadrome vessels.® The position of 
the proto-hadrome is variable, since it is not 
unusual to observe some of the vessels border-' 
ing on endodermis, having thus broken through 
the pericambium, a structure not uncommon in 
grasses and sedges. The normal position of 
these earliest developed vessels is, however, in¬ 
side the pericambium. But whatever the posi¬ 
tion may be of these primordial vessels, the 
development of the hadrome is in roots con¬ 
stantly centripetal in contrast to the stem; the 
central arrangement of the conducting elements 
in the roots offers also an excellent distinction 
between root- and stem-structure, besides the 
tangential and alternating position of the lep¬ 
tome and hadrome. It is a well-known fact 
that roots of trees and certain herbaceous plants 
increase in thickness. This is due to the de¬ 
velopment of a cambium, a formative tissue, 
inside the leptome, but forming an arch outside 
the proto-hadrome. In general this cambium 
behaves like that of the stem, forming hadrome 
inwardly, leptome and mechanical tissue out¬ 
wardly, thus the structure of such roots becomes 
exactly like that of a stem unless the central 
portion is still preserved. For in the root the 
centre must be occupied by three or more ra¬ 
diating primordial vessels instead of a pith. 

The Anatomy of the Stem .— The minor 
structure of the stem of the above- and under¬ 
ground differs materially from that described 
as characteristic of normal roots, even if the 
tissues themselves are much the same. There 
is an epidermis, a cortex, a mechanical- and 
conductive-tissue besides a pith, but no pericam¬ 
bium. The stem, however, exhibits a much 
larger plasticity than the root, and the numer¬ 


ous modifications that occur in respect to the 
mere external structure are usually accompanied 
by a corresponding variation in its interior. 
Marked distinctions are noticeable in stems 
when we compare the herbaceous with the 
woody, the annual with the perennial, the ter¬ 
restrial with the aquatic, and the aerial with 
the subterranean,— distinctions that have been 
very extensively studied and have rendered it 
possible to identify fragments of such stems 
merely by the aid of the microscope. 

When compared with the root, the presence 
of a pith is characteristic of the stem, while on 
the other hand a pericambium is observable only 
in roots. The minor structure of the stem is 
thus very variable, but may be described more 
generally as follows: The epidermis consists 
mostly of a single layer; the outer cell-wall 
always possesses a more or less distinct cuticle, 
and the cells may be extended into hairs of 
very different aspect and functions as already 
described. When the epidermis is not sufficient 
to protect the inner tissues,— as, for instance, in 
perennial stems or such as increase in thick¬ 
ness,— a cork develops either in the epidermis 
itself or in the cortical parenchyma. The cor¬ 
tex is often prominently represented by nu¬ 
merous layers of parenchymatic tissue in 
which bundles of stereome and mestome fre¬ 
quently occur, in addition to which lacunes and 
ducts are commonly observed. The inner¬ 
most layer of the cortex is usually modified as 
an endodermis {End, in Fig. 10), surrounding 
the central mass of conductive tissue. The 
mechanical tissue occurs either as isolated 
strands or as a partial or complete covering of 
the mestome-bundles. The arrangement of the 
mechanical tissue is extremely variable and the 
monocotyledonous plants are especially instruc¬ 
tive in respect to this particular tissue. The 
conductive tissue represented by the mestome- 
bundles contains the elements as described 
above, and most frequently each bundle consists 
of both leptome and hadrome, usually arranged 
radially with the leptome as the outermost. A 
very delicate tissue is observable between both 



Fig. 10.;—Cross-section of the stem of Lobelia: Ep, 
epidermis; C, cortex; End, endodermis; L, lep¬ 
tome; Cb, cambium; H, hadrome. 

of these, the so-called cambium (Cb in Fig. 
10) which by continuous cell-division develops 
leptome outwardly and hadrome inwardly. The 
cambium is only characteristic of the dicotyle- 













ANATOMY OF PLANTS 


demons plants. When the cambium occurs be¬ 
tween the leptome and the hadrome it is called 
intrafascicular in contrast to the interfascicular, 



L. 


Fig. ii. — Cross-section of the leaf of Cyperus, show¬ 
ing a mestome-bundle surrounded by palisade- 
tissue (PT): M, the mestome-sheath; P, the inner 
parenchyma-sheath; H, the hadrome; L, the lep¬ 
tome. 

located between the mestome-bundles, thus the 
cambium in such plants constitutes a closed 
ring. The mestome-bundles do not always ex¬ 
hibit this radial structure where the leptome 
is located outside the hadrome, a type that is 
called collateral (Figs, n and 12), but some 
modified structures have been described, namely 
the ^bicollateral® and the ^concentricT The bi¬ 
collateral are characterized by the presence of 
leptome on both sides of the hadrome, outside 
and inside, and this structure has been observed 
in several of the dicotyledonous orders, for 



Fig. 12. — Cross-section of a mestome-bundle from the 
leaf-stalk of a fern ( Polypodium ): C, the inner¬ 
most layer of cortex; E, endodermis surround¬ 
ing the conductive tissue with the vessels in the 
middle. 

instance in the Cucurbitacece and Solanacecc. 
The latter type, the concentric, represent a sin¬ 
gular arrangement of the leptome and hadrome, 
Vol. 1—33 


the one being surrounded by the other'; when 
the hadrome surrounds the leptome the bundle 
is called ^peri-hadromatic® (Fig. 13), while 
in the peri-leptomatic bundle the hadrome oc¬ 
cupies the central space (Fig. 12). These types 
of concentric bundles are not so very frequent, 
but the perihadromatic are, however, quite cha¬ 
racteristic of the rhizomes of the majority of the 
monocotyledons. The perileptomatic bundles are 
very rare among the phanerogams, but constitute 
the only form of mestome-bundles in ferns and 
lycopods. 

_ When we consider the general arrangement 
of the mestome-bundles in transverse sections 
of mono- and dicotyledons, we notice a striking 
difference by the fact that in the former these 
bundles are scattered without any order, while 
they form concentric rings in the latter. 

While thus these systems of tissues exhibit 
many. variations in the stems, the last tissue, 
the pith, is almost uniformly developed as a 
central parenchyma, and as a rule is always 



Fig. 13. — Cross-section of a mestome-bundle from the 
rhizome of a sedge (Carex incurva) : S, the stere- 
ome, surrounding the conductive tissue with the 
leptome in the middle. 

present in stems. The thickness of various un¬ 
derground stems, such as tubers, is due to the 
prominent development either of the pith or of 
the cortex, in which starch and similar nutritive 
matters may be stored. 

The Anatomy of the Leaf. — The manifold 
variation exhibited by leaves corresponds also 
with certain modifications of the internal struc¬ 
ture, but to a much less extent than observable 
in stems. The various functions performed by 
the leaves do not require such great internal 
modification as is necessary to the stem, even if 
the leaves exhibit a metamorphosis of no small 
importance. The stem-leaves and the floral 
leaves naturally show conspicuous anatomical 
distinctions, and the fleshy leaves of bulbs are 
of course very different in structure from the 
thin, scale-like leaves of tubers and stolons. 
However, the principal structure, such as is ex¬ 
hibited by the relative development and arrange¬ 
ment of the main tissues, for instance the meso- 
phyll (the chlorophyll-bearing parenchyma 












ANAXAGORAS; ANAXIMANDER 


including the palisade- and the penumatic-tis- 
sue), the stereome, and the conductive tissue, is 
not very variable in leaves when we consider 
the enormous variation in the shape and size 
of their outline. In the leaves the epidermis 
is perhaps the tissue that is subject to the most 
conspicuous modification, which is especially 
noticeable in the development of the cells when 
examined on both surfaces of the leaf, above 
and between the nerves. The various arrange¬ 
ments of the stomata often cause a modifica¬ 
tion of the surrounding strata, which is less 
pronounced in the stems. Thus the epidermis, 
when examined superficially, exhibits several 
distinct forms of cells, rectangular, polyhedric, 
or with the outline very prominently modulate 
(Fig. 5). The covering with hairs is especially 
characteristic of leaves, and several types of 
these may be found to occur on the same leaf. 
The cuticle is usually very distinct, and renders 
by its various consistence the most essential 
protection to the leaf while performing its func¬ 
tions. Besides the epidermis, corky layers may 
be developed, at least locally, in leaves which 



Fig. 14. — Cross-section of the leaf of Obolaria: Ep, 
epidermis of upper surface; ep, epidermis of the 
lower; M, the mesophyll. 

persist for several seasons; for instance, the 
evergreen, in which the outer cell-wall of epi¬ 
dermis often becomes very considerably thick¬ 
ened. 

The mesophyll is generally differentiated as 
a palisade- and a pneumatic-tissue, the former 
located on the upper face of the leaf, just 
beneath the epidermis, while the latter occupies 
the lower portion. In some leaves the meso¬ 
phyll is not differentiated into these two tissues, 
but only as a homogeneous (Fig. 14) tissue; 
such leaves are called “isolateral® in contradis¬ 
tinction to the others, the “bifacial.® Otherwise 
the mesophyll possesses the same forms of reser¬ 
voirs, ducts, and lacunes as are characteristic 
of the cortex. 

The mestome-bundles are generally collateral 
with the hadrome located above the leptome, 
and we find in the leaves the same mechanical 
support as observed in the stem. But while 
the mestome-bundles of the stem may show such' 
modifications as “bicollateral® or “concentric,® 
they lose this peculiarity as soon as they enter 
the leaves, in which they occur only as col¬ 
lateral. 


The leaf-structure thus possesses less varia¬ 
tion than that of the stem, if we compare the 
relative development and the arrangement of the 
tissues, especially of the mesophyll, the stereome. 
and the mestome. The main variation seems 
to lie in the epidermis, and becomes especially 
noticeable in the comparison of leaves of plants 
that grow under diverse conditions,— of terres¬ 
trial and aquatic plants, for instance. Among the 
former the desert-plants are known to possess 
highly complicated structures, which naturally 
are expressed by the epidermis and the meso¬ 
phyll rather than by the other elements. But 
considered as a whole, the leaves show less 
modification of the inner tissues than the stem, 
and when some prominent variations are found 
to occur in leaves these are generally observable 
also in the stems of the same plants. 

The object of the study of plant-anatomy is 
to ascertain the structure of the various plant- 
organs, and to bring this in connection with the 
functions performed by these, thus physiological 
botany must necessarily be preceded by anatom¬ 
ical studies. But in later years plant-anatomy 
has been extended still further, and a special 
branch of this science, “plant-anatomy,® is now 
recognized as the “anatomical method® by which 
modifications in structure are brought in con¬ 
nection with the systematic position of the 
plants. And anatomical investigations have 
proved that certain precise characteristics do 
exist in most of the natural orders; thus these, 
their genera, and in many instances even their 
species, may be distinguished simply by a few 
anatomical characters. 

This method was founded by the French 
botanist Mirbel, who was followed, but many 
years later, by Vesgne and Radlkofer, whose 
works constitute the real foundation of this 
particular branch of anatomy. In later years 
the anatomical method has been studied very 
extensively, but is of course of less importance 
than the former, where the structure is brought 
in connection with physiological problems, the 
life of the plant under various conditions of 
environment. Theo. Holm, 

Expert Botanist, Washington, D. C. 

Anaxag'oras, a Greek philosopher: b. in 
Clazomesiae, in Ionia, about 500 b.c. ; d. in Lam- 
psacus, about 428. Settling at Athens, his pupils 
included Pericles, Euripides, and Socrates. 
In middle life he was publicly charged with 
impiety and condemned to death, but the 
sentence was commuted to perpetual ban¬ 
ishment. Anaxagoras held that there was 
an infinite number of different kinds of ele¬ 
mentary atoms, and that these, in themselves 
motionless and originally existing in a state of 
chaos, were put in motion by an eternal, imma¬ 
terial, spiritual, elementary being, from which 
motion the world was produced. 

Anaxarchus, a native of Abdera, who was 
a friend and counselor of Alexander. He was 
put to death by Nicocreon, prince of Cyprios. 

Anaximan'der, a Greek philosopher, math¬ 
ematician. and astronomer : b. in Miletus 611 b.c. ; 
d. 547. The substance of his philosophical 
teaching is that the source of all things is an 
undefined substance infinite in quantity. Accord¬ 
ing to his theory the universe is a series of 
concentric cylinders surrounding the cylindrical 










ANAXIMENES — ANCHOR 


earth. Anaximander occupied himself much 
with mathematics and geography, and to him are 
ascribed the invention of geographical maps, 
the first application of the gnomon or style fixed 
on a horizontal plane to determine the solstices 
and equinoxes, and the discovery of the ob¬ 
liquity of the ecliptic. 

Anaximenes of Lampsacus, a Greek histo¬ 
rian : b. in Lampsacus, Asia Minor, about 340 
b.c. To him is attributed the ( Ars Rhetorica 
ad AlexandrunV found among the writings of 
Aristotle. Only fragments of his histories of 
Philip of Macedon, Alexander, and Greece re¬ 
main. 

Anaximenes of Miletus, a Greek philoso¬ 
pher : b. in Miletus, and flourished about 550 
B.c. He affirmed that air was the first principle 
of all things. Finite things were formed from 
the infinite air by compression and rarefaction 
produced by eternally existent motion; and heat 
and cold resulted from varying degrees of den¬ 
sity of the primal element. 

Anaya, a-na'ya, Pedro Maria, a Mexican 
commander: b. in Huichapan 1795; d. 1854. En¬ 
tering the army in 1811 he attained the rank of 
brigadier-general in 1833. He held several cab¬ 
inet positions, was acting president of Mexico 
for a few weeks in 1847, and at the time of his 
death was postmaster-general under Santa Anna. 

Ancachs, a department of northern Peru, 
extending from the Andes to the Pacific: capital, 
Huaraz. Agriculture and cattle-raising are the 
chief occupations, the silver-mines in the moun¬ 
tains being but ineffectively worked. Area, 17,- 
405 square miles. Pop. about 429,000. 

Ancaeus, the name of two of the Greek 
Argonauts, one the son of Poseidon and steers¬ 
man of the Argo, the other a son of the Ar¬ 
cadian Lycurgus. Each was killed by a wild 
boar. 

Ancelot, Jacques Arsene Frangois Poly- 
carpe, a French novelist, dramatist, and poet: 
b. Havre, 9 Feb. 1794; d. Paris, 7 Sept. 1854. 
His tragedy, ( Louis IX., } brought him a pension 
in 1819, but he lost it through the revolution of 
1830. He produced pleasing verses, epigrammat¬ 
ic satires; an epic, ( Marie de BrabanF (1825) ; 
a novel, ( L’Homme du Monde ) (1829), as well 
as other works, but ( Louis IX ) remains his most 
important achievement. His wife, Marguerite 
Virginie Chardon, b. Dijon, 15 March 1792; d. 
Paris, 21 March 1875, wrote novels and plays 
sometimes with him, but also independently, and 
won some attention as an artist. 

Ancestor, one who has preceded another 
in a direct line of descent; an ascendant, a 
former possessor; the person last seised. 
Termes de la Ley; 2 Shars. Bl. Com. 201. In 
the common law, the term is understood as well 
of the immediate parents as of those that are 
higher; as may appear by the statute, 25 Edw. 
III., De natis ultra mare, by the statute 6 Rich. 
II. c. 6, and by many others. But the civilians’ 
relations in the ascending line, up to the great¬ 
grandfather’s parents, and those above them, 
they term majores, which common lawyers aptly 
expound antecessors or ancestors, for in the de¬ 
scendants of like degree they are called pos- 
teriores. Cary, Litt. 45. The term ancestor is 
applied to natural persons. The words prede¬ 
cessors and successors are used in respect to the 


persons composing a body corporate. See 2 
Bl. Com. 209; Bacon, Abr.; Ayliffe, Pand. 58; 
Reeve, Descents. 

Ancestor-Worship. See Man. 

Anchieta, an-shya-ta, Jose de, a Portu¬ 
guese missionary in Brazil: b. Laguna, Teneriffe, 
J 533 i d. 1597. He was a Jesuit and founded 
in Brazil the first institution for the conversion 
of the inhabitants. He was the author of Nat¬ 
ural Productions of Brazil.* 

Anchisaurus, a carnivorous dinosaur of 
the Triassic period. It has many primitive 
characteristics, notably small size, four com¬ 
plete toes in the hind foot and five in the 
fore foot. 

Anchises, a legendary hero of Troy, to 
whom Venus, in the guise of a Phrygian shep¬ 
herdess, bore a son, ^Eneas. At the burning of 
Troy ^Eneas carried his father away on his 
shoulders, and their voyage to Sicily is de¬ 
scribed in Virgil’s < ^Eneid. )) 

Anchitherium. See Fossil; Horse. 

Anchor, a heavy instrument of iron, in¬ 
tended to be dropped from a ship to the sea- 
bottom, to hold her in a desired position. 
It usually consists of a shank, having at 
one end a ring, to which the cable is fas¬ 
tened with a cross-piece or stock, and at the 
other end two arms with blades at the end, called 
flukes. In one form of anchor the stock is not 
a cross-piece in the sense of lying transversely 
to the direction of the arms, but lies in the same 
direction. In the Homeric times large stones 
were used for anchors; afterward they are said 
to have been sometimes of wood loaded with 
lead. In some places baskets full of stones 
or sacks filled with sand were employed for the 
same use. All these were let down by cords 
into the sea, and by their weight stayed the 
course of the ship. Among the Greeks of later 
times anchors were composed of iron. Some¬ 
times there was only one tooth or fluke, but 
generally there were two. Anchors with two 
flukes appear from ancient monuments to have 
been much the same as those used as present, 
but the transverse piece of wood fastened to the 
shank (the stock) is wanting in all of them. 
Every ship had several anchors, one of which, 
surpassing all the rest in bigness and strength, 
was peculiarly termed, in Greek, hiera, and in 
Latin sacra, and was never used but in extreme 
danger; whence sacram ancoram solvere is pro¬ 
verbially applied to such as are forced to their 
last refuge. When an anchor of the usual form 
is let fall from the vessel, it generally strikes 
the bottom with the crown or curve of the arms, 
and then falls over on one of the ends of the 
stock, the arms lying flat on the ground. In this 
position it cannot bite, so that it has to be 
canted or turned over till the stock lies flat, and 
the point of one of the flukes (the bill or peak) 
rests on the ground. The canting is effected by 
the vessel pulling at the cable, and the longer the 
stock and the shorter the arms the less is the 
force required to perform the operation; for this 
reason the stock is always made longer than the 
arms. The anchor will now either drag or pen¬ 
etrate the ground, the readiness with which it 
does the latter depending on the sharpness of 
the bill, the angle at which the fluke rests on 
the ground, and of course the nature of the bot¬ 
tom. Formerly the arms used to be rigidly at- 


ANCHORAGE — ANCHOVY 


tached to the shank of the anchor; but in 1838 
Mr. Porter took out a patent for an anchor of 
a new construction (though the principle was 
known before, however), in which the arms were 
movable around a pivot at the end of the shank, 
the plane of their movement being perpendicu¬ 
lar to the direction of the stock. The advan¬ 
tages of this anchor are, that there is almost no 
possibility of fouling it,— that is, of the cable 
becoming entangled with one of the arms; it can¬ 
not lodge on the stock end; it presents no upper 
fluke to injure the vessel to which it is attached, 
or others, in shoal water (since the swivel move¬ 
ment enables the peak of the upper fluke to come 
close to the shank when the anchor is fixed) ; 
it is not so liable to break, is more conveniently 
stowed on board, etc. This form of anchor as 
improved by Trotman is now largely used in 
the merchant service. In the navies both of 
Great Britain and of foreign countries the an¬ 
chor perhaps most commonly employed is the 
admiralty anchor with fixed arms, the chief 
recommendation of which is the excellence of 
its proportions. Another favorite is Rodgers’, 
the chief peculiarity of which is its small flukes. 
The inventor claims for this anchor that it holds 
the ground better than those with large flukes. 
Another excellent anchor is that patented by a 
Frenchman named Martin. In his anchor the 
stock lies in the same direction as the arms, the 
consequence of which is that when the anchor 
reaches the ground it inevitably falls flat, with 
both stock and arms resting on the bottom. The 
arms are capable of turning in a socket through 
an angle of 30° in such a manner that when the 
anchor is lying flat on the ground the flukes of 
both arms may sink into the ground at an angle 
of 15 0 . The weight of the arms and the pull 
of the vessel cause them to do this. It will be 
understood that the flukes are not, as in other 
anchors, perpendicular to the direction of the 
arms, but lie in the same direction. Besides 
holding the ground more firmly than any other 
anchor of equal weight, this anchor has the ad¬ 
vantages of being free from liability to foul 
and easily stowed. The latter circumstance 
particularly recommends it for use in unmasted 
turret ships, almost all of which are equipped 
with it. 

The different anchors carried by a ship are 
called bower, sheet, stern, and kedge anchors. 
The bower anchors are so called from their be¬ 
ing stowed in the bow. When one bower an¬ 
chor is heavier than the other it is called the 
best bower and is stowed on the starboard side. 
Sheet anchors are stowed in the waist of the 
ship as far forward as convenient. The stream 
anchor is used in a river or sheltered place 
where a large anchor is not required. The 
stern anchor is stowed in the stern, and is em¬ 
ployed with a bower anchor where there is no 
room for a vessel to swing with the tide. The 
kedge anchor is used to warp a ship from place 
to place; that is, the anchor is carried to a dis¬ 
tance in a boat, and the ship is then pulled up 
to it by means of the cable. A large ironclad 
carries eight anchors: two bower, two sheet, 
and two kedge anchors, with one stream and 
one stern anchor. The anchor is said to be 
a-peak when the cable is perpendicular between 
the hawse and the anchor; and to come home 
when it does not hold the ship. To shoe an 
anchor is to fix boards upon the flukes so that it 


may hold better in a soft bottom. Riding at 
anchor is the state of the vessel when moored 
by the anchor or anchors. Dropping or casting 
anchor is letting it down into the sea. Weigh¬ 
ing anchor is raising it from the bottom. A 
mooring anchor is a stationary anchor in a har¬ 
bor or roadstead, with a buoy attached to it by 
a cable, enabling a ship to moor by simply fas¬ 
tening itself to a ring-bolt on the buoy. These 
anchors should not project above the bottom, or 
the ship may receive injury by grounding on 
them. Mooring anchors are of various kinds, and 
in some cases a heavy block of stone or cast iron 
serves as such. One of the most powerful 
mooring anchors yet invented consists of a 
wrought-iron shaft with a pointed screw end, 
and near the lower end a cast-iron screw flange 
3^2 feet in diameter. The anchor is screwed 
down into the solid ground, and its holding 
power is more than equal to that of a cast iron 
anchor weighing 7 tons. The making of anchors 
used to be a most formidable piece of smith 
work, but it has been much facilitated by the in¬ 
vention of the steam hammer. The shank of a 
large anchor, nearly 20 feet long and 10 or 12 
inches thick, requires to be built up of a 
number of bars of iron which are then welded 
together. Crucible steel is now to some extent 
used for anchors. 

Anchorage, a suitable place for anchoring. 
A good anchorage should have a soft bottom 
and a depth of from 10 to 20 fathoms. When 
deeper than this the cable bears too nearly per¬ 
pendicular and is apt to drag up the anchor. 
The length of cable paid out by a ship in an¬ 
choring in ordinary weather is about three 
times the depth of the water. Anchorage also 
means dues paid by a vessel anchoring. As a 
rule a ship sheltering from stress of weather 
and not discharging cargo at the place where 
it anchors is not required to pay dues, but 
shore-dues are payable whether a ship anchors 
or not. 

Anchorite, Anchoret, or Anachoret, one 

who has renounced the world and retired into a 
seclusion remote from inhabited places. The 
desire is not distinctively Christian: it manifests 
itself in all religions and in all ages. Anchorites 
of various Hindu ascetic sects are at present to 
be found among the jungles and hills of India, 
and the Orient has always been a land of 
them. The peculiarity of the ancient anchorites 
was that, though retiring for solitude to the 
wilderness, they lived there in fixed abodes, 
generally caves or hovels, in place of wandering 
about. When they did travel they slept wher¬ 
ever night overtook them, so that visitors might 
not know where to find them. They were most 
numerous in the Egyptian desert, where they 
lived on roots and plants, believing that to af¬ 
flict the body was the best method of spiritually 
benefiting the soul. The most of them were 
laymen. There were also female anchorites. 
These first arose, it is said, about the middle of 
the 3d century; in the 7th the Church extended 
its control over them, ultimately throwing diffi¬ 
culties in the way of anyone who wished to 
adopt such a mode of life. 

Anchovy, an-cho'vi (of uncertain origin, 
perhaps literally a dried or pickled fish, from 
Basque, antzua, dry), a small, richly flavored, 
herring-like fish (Engraulis encrasicholns ), of 
the family Engraulidida. It is caught abundant- 


ANCHOVY-PEAR — ANCONA 


ly along the sea-coasts of southern Europe when 
coming in from the deep sea to spawn in 
early summer. The Mediterranean fishers in 
particular salt and dry it in large quantities for 
export. Closely allied species are found on the 
eastern and western coast of America and off 
southern Asia. A Californian species (En- 
graulis mordax ) is extremely abundant in large 
schools and is a valuable food fish. In gen¬ 
eral, anchovies are 5 to 7 inches long, shaped like 
herrings, and have a pointed head and project¬ 
ing upper jaw. 

Anchovy-pear ( Grias cauliflora), a tree of 
the natural order Myrtacece, found in moist dis¬ 
tricts of the West Indies. It grows to the 
height of 50 feet, has oblong leaves 2 or 3 feet 
long, and large white blossoms carried on short 
peduncles. Its fruit, somewhat larger than a 
hen’s egg, is pickled and eaten like the mango, 
which it strongly resembles in taste. 

Anchusa. See Alkanet. 

Anchylosis, an-ki-lo'sis. See Joints. 

An'chylo'stomiasis, a disease due to the 
presence of an intestinal parasite, the Anchy- 
lostomum duodcnale (Uncinaria duodenalis ). 
This parasite lives in the upper portion of the 
small intestine, where, by means of a series of 
tooth-like hooks about the mouth, it attaches 
itself to the mucous membrane. It is particu¬ 
larly prevalent among Italian and Polish labor¬ 
ers, especially among those who work in con¬ 
fined spaces, as mines, tunnels, etc. 

The chief symptoms are those due to the loss 
of blood which the worm constantly sucks from 
the wall of the intestine. Gastro-intestinal dis¬ 
turbance, progressive anaemia, diarrhoea, and 
colicky pains with shortness of breath and swell¬ 
ing of the limbs are among the important symp¬ 
toms. The diagnosis can be made by means of 
a microscopical examination of the faeces, in 
which the eggs are found, and also by the mi¬ 
croscopical examination of the blood. Careful 
attention given to the drinking water is one of 
the most important prophylactic measures. See 
Parasite. 

Ancient Demesne, a term employed in 
English law to denote ancient estates belonging 
to the crown. They are mentioned in Domesday 
Book as Terra Regis. 

Ancient Lights, a term denoting windows 
so long existent that they have obtained a right 
to the light entering them, and cannot be inter¬ 
fered with by the owner of the property whence 
the light enters. Rights of this nature cannot 
commonly be acquired by prescription in the 
United States. Ancient lights in England are 
now regulated by a statute calling for but 20 
years’ existence to create the right. 

Ancient Mariner, Rime of the, a cele¬ 
brated poem (1817) by Samuel Taylor Cole¬ 
ridge. It is one of the most original poems in 
the English language. A wedding guest on his 
way to bridal festivities is stopped by an old 
man, the Ancient Mariner. The Ancient Mar¬ 
iner describes his voyage, how his ship was 
locked in the ice, and how he shot with his 
cross-bow the tame albatross, the bird of good 
omen which perched upon the vessel. The en¬ 
tire universe seemed stunned by this wanton 
act of cruelty; and the albatross is hung around 
the neck of the Ancient Mariner. A spectre 


ship appears, and the crew die, leaving the gray- 
beard alone. After a time he is moved to 
prayer, whereupon the evil spell is removed. 
The albatross sinks into the sea, and the Mar¬ 
iner’s heart is once again a part of the universal 
spirit of love. The weird ballad is capable of 
many interpretations, and in its small compass 
it contains a tragedy of remorse and of re¬ 
demption through repentance. 

Ancient Order of Hibernians. See Hiber¬ 
nians, Ancient Order of. 

Ancient Regime, The, an historical work 
by H. A. Taine (1875), a masterly study of 
the France which, after 1,200 years of devel¬ 
opment, existed in 1789, of great value for the 
history of France and for judgment of the fu¬ 
ture of the French Republic. Taine’s brilliant 
style and picturesque narrative, his philosoph¬ 
ical contemplation of data, and his keen reason¬ 
ing, have never been more strikingly exhibited 
than here. 

Ancient Rome in the Light of Recent 
Discoveries, an archaeological work by Ro¬ 
dolfo Lanciani: b. 1847. In his character of 
official investigator Prof. Lanciani has grouped 
in this volume various illustrations of the life of 
ancient Rome as shown in its recovered antiqui¬ 
ties. From these he reads the story of the 
wealth, taste, habits of life, ambitions, and ideals 
of a vanished people. 

Ancients, Council of, the upper one of 
two branches of the legislative body of France, 
1795-99. It included 250 members and its func¬ 
tion was to consider measures submitted by the 
lower branch, the Council of Five Hundred. 

Ancile, a shield reported to have fallen 
from heaven in the time of Numa. It was be¬ 
lieved to be the shield of Mars; and as the 
prosperity of Rome was held to depend upop 
its preservation, 11 facsimiles of it were made, 
that anyone wishing to steal it might not know 
which to take. It is conjectured to have been 
originally a lump of meteoric iron. 

Ancillon, an'se'yon, Johann Peter Fried¬ 
rich, a German historian of French extrac¬ 
tion: b. Berlin, 30 April 1767; d. there, 19 April 
1837. Besides ( Melanges of Literature and Phi¬ 
losophy'* (1801) he was the author of a ( View 
of the Revolutions of the Political System of 
Europe since the 15th Century y (1803-5), which 
secured him the post of royal historiographer. 
From 1832 till his death he was minister of 
foreign affairs. 

Ancona, Allessandro d’, a prominent 
Italian critic and philologist: b. Pisa, 1835, and 
from i860 a professor of literature in the Uni¬ 
versity of Pisa. Among his many works are 
( I Precursors di Dante 1 * (1874) 1 ( Origini del 
Teatro in Italia 1 * (1877) 1 ( La Poesia Popolare 
Italiana 1 * (1878) ; ( Varieta Storiche e Lettarie ) 
(1883-5) ; ( Studi sulla Letteratura Italiana de’ 
Primi Secoli 1 * (1884). 

Ancona, an Italian province of the king¬ 
dom of Italy, between Pesaro ed Urbino on the 
north, Macerata on the south, and the Apennines 
and Adriatic on the west and east; area, 736 
square miles. It is a mountainous region 
watered by the rivers Cesano, Esino, and Mu- 
sone, and produces grain, wine, oil, olives, silk, 
and fruit. Capital, Ancona. Pop. (1894) 
273 , 941 . 


ANCONA — ANDALUSITE 


Ancona, an important Italian port on the 
Adriatic, the capital of the province of the 
same name. Its site is an amphitheatre between 
two headlands, and on its ancient mole, designed 
by Trajan, is a triumphal arch by Apollodorus. 
The modern mole is adorned by a triumphal 
arch by Vanvitelli. Among important buildings 
are the cathedral of St. Cyriac dating from the 
nth and 12th centuries, a 13th-century town 
hall, and a museum. Sugar-refining, ship¬ 
building, and manufactures of silk, paper, and 
sail-cloth are the main industries;. A United 
States consul is stationed here. The city is said 
to have been founded by Syracusans fleeing 
from the persecutions of the Elder Dionysius. 
Pop. (1901) 57,000. 

Ancre, aN'kr, Concino Concini, Marshal 
and Marquis d’, a Florentine who went to 
France in 1660, where he obtained rapid pro¬ 
motion, more especially after the assassination 
of the king (1610). Successively governor of 
Normandy, marshal of France, and last of all 
prime minister, he was thoroughly detested by 
all. At last a conspiracy was formed against 
him and he was shot dead on the bridge of the 
Louvre in 1617. 

Ancud, a Chilian port, capital of the 
province of Chiloe. It is situated on the island 
of Chiloe, about 580 miles from Valparaiso, a 
line of steamships connecting the two. First 
settled in 1768, it was the last place surrendered 
by the Spaniards to the Chilians in 1826. Pop. 

(1895) 3P82. 

Ancus Marcius, the fourth king of Rome: 
b. 638 b.c. ; d. 614 b.c. The son of Numa’s 
daughter, he attempted to imitate his grand¬ 
father by reviving the neglected observances of 
religion. His peaceful pursuits were disturbed 
by the Latins, whom he subdued and caused to 
be brought to Rome, where he assigned them 
the Aventine to dwell upon. These conquered 
Latins, according to Niebuhr, formed the origi¬ 
nal plebs. He fortified the Janiculum against 
Etruria, connecting it with the city by the wood¬ 
en bridge across the Tiber known as the Sub- 
lician; dug the ditch of the Quirites; con¬ 
structed the harbor of Ostia; and built the first 
Roman prison of which there is any record. 

Ancy'ra. See Angora. 

An'da, a genus of plants of the natural 
order Euphorbiacece. The A. brasiliensis, the 
single species, is an inhabitant of Brazil. 
The wood is spongy and light, the flower yellow 
and large, and the fruit a gray nut which en¬ 
closes two kernels in a double rind. The fruit 
is strongly purgative and is used by Brazilians 
as a remedy in cases of indigestion, jaundice, 
and other diseases. Oil is pressed from these 
kernels, with which the natives anoint their 
limbs. It is said to be a good drying oil and 
excellent for painting. The rinds of the fruit, 
thrown into ponds, destroy the fish. 

Andalusia, an'da-loo'zi-a (Spanish, Anda- 
lucia), a district of southern Spain, celebrated 
for its fertility and picturesque beauty; bounded 
north by Estremadura and New Castile, east by 
Murcia, south by the Mediterranean Sea, and 
west by Portugal and the Atlantic. Length 
east and west about 310 miles; average breadth 
about 120; area about 33,650 square miles. It 
is traversed throughout its extent by ranges of 
mountains. The Sierra Morena runs along its 


northern border, and in the southeast rise the 
mountains of Granada and the Ronda, including 
numerous sierras, and among them those of 
the famous Sierra Nevada. Many summits of the 
latter ranges are covered with perpetual snow ; 
the Mulahacen rising 11,678 feet, and the Pi- 
cacho de Veleta 11,378 feet above the sea. All 
the mountains abound with mineral wealth, 
yielding chiefly copper, cinnabar, and lead, as 
well as some silver, copper, and coal. Mines 
have been opened recently by English compa¬ 
nies, especially in the province of Huelva in the 
west, where the Tharsis and Rio Tinto copper 
mines are situated. The principal river of An¬ 
dalusia is the Guadalquivir, which rises in the 
east part of the province of Jaen, near Carzola, 
and thence flows west-southwest, and below 
Seville south-southwest, entering the sea at 
San Lucar. Its principal affluents are the Gua- 
dalimar, Guadiato, and Xenil. The rivers south 
of the Sierra Nevada are quite insignificant. 
The basin of the upper Guadalquivir lies at an 
elevation of from 500 to 1,500 feet, and con¬ 
sists mainly of saline wastes and other sterile 
tracts. The lower basin presents sharp con¬ 
trasts : around Cordova and Seville luxuriant 
gardens; on the Xenil a desert without a drop of 
water; on the left bank of the lower Guadal¬ 
quivir the extensive marshy district of Marisma; 
and stretching from the mouth of the Guadal¬ 
quivir to that of the Rio Tinto, a sandy depres¬ 
sion (Arenas Gordas) partially clothed with 
pine-woods. The vegetation is of the character 
peculiar to the extreme south of Europe and the 
north of Africa. Wheat, maize, barley, many 
varieties of fruit, grapes, honey, silk, and 
cochineal form important articles of culture. A 
large portion of the soil is in pasture. The 
horses are the best breed in the Peninsula; the 
bulls of Andalusia are sought for bull-fighting 
over all Spain; sheep are reared in vast num¬ 
bers, and bear an abundance of good but not 
fine wool; and the hogs reared on the acorns 
of the mountain forests furnish hams unsur¬ 
passed in any part of Europe. The chief manu¬ 
factures are woolens, silk, and leather, and 
are by no means extensive. The name Anda¬ 
lusia is commonly taken to have been originally 
Vandalusia, the land of the Vandals. The pop¬ 
ulation was in 1897 about 4,000,000. 

Andalu'site, a native anhydrous silicate of 
aluminum, first discovered in Andalusia. Its 
chemical formula is Al 2 Si 0 5 , and it crystallizes 
in the orthorhombic system. It usually occurs 
in coarse crystals, prismatic in form, and nearly 
square. Its hardness is 7.5, at least on the basal 
face, and its specific gravity about 3.18. Anda- 
lusite is commonly subtranslucent and varies 
greatly in color. Some specimens are strongly 
pleochroic, changing from olive green to blood 
red according to the angle at which the inci¬ 
dent light strikes them. A variety known as 
chiastolite contains carbonaceous impurities dis¬ 
tributed through the prismatic crystal according 
to a definite geometric plan, so that a trans¬ 
verse section of the crystal presents a curious 
tesselated or cruciform appearance. A variety 
from eastern Finland has been called (( malte- 
site,» from the regularity of the Maltese cross it 
exhibits when seen in section. Andalusite is 
found in many parts of Europe, usually in schist 
or gneiss. Fine specimens also come from the 
province of Minas Geraes, Brazil. In the Unit- 


ANDAMANS — ANDERSON 


ed States it occurs in Maine, New Hampshire, 
Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Pennsyl¬ 
vania, South Dakota, and California. 

Andamans, an'da-manz, a chain of volcan¬ 
ic lands on the east side of the Bay of Bengal, 
consisting of four principal islands called the 
North, Middle, South and Little Andamans, 
with a number of islets. Middle Andaman, the 
largest, is about 50 miles long and 15 or 16 miles 
broad. North and South Andaman are each 
about 44 miles long, and the former has near 
its east coast a mountain called Saddle Peak, 
about 2,400 feet high. The vegetation on the 
islands is very luxuriant — so much so as to 
render parts almost impenetrable. The aborigi¬ 
nes, about 10,000 in number, are small (gen¬ 
erally much less than 5 feet), well formed, and 
active, skilful in the use of the bow and in the 
management of their canoes, and excellent 
swimmers and divers. These islands have been 
occupied since 1858 as a penal colony by the 
British government of India, the settlement be¬ 
ing at Port Blair on South Andaman. Here 
cultivation has been introduced, rice, coffee, nut¬ 
megs, etc., being grown, and the neighboring 
hills now afford pasturage for numerous cattle. 
A good deal of thoroughly cleared land has been 
given over to ticket-of-leave men to cultivate. 
The coffee produced is very well flavored, fruits 
thrive excellently, and the pineapples of Port 
Blair have already a good reputation in India. 
Edible birds’ nests are found in large numbers. 
The natives in the vicinity of the settlement have 
been taken under the protection of the govern¬ 
ment, and have become to some extent civilized. 
The climate is moist, but fairly healthy. Area, 
2,700 square miles. Pop. of Port Blair settle¬ 
ment (1902J about 20,000, of which four fifths 
are convicts. 

Andersen, an'der-sen, Hans Christian, a 

Danish novelist, poet, and writer of fairy tales: 
b. in Odense, 2 April 1805; d. Copenhagen, 4 
Aug. 1875. He learned to read and write in a 
charity school, whence he was taken when only 
nine years old, and was put to work in a manu¬ 
factory in order that his earnings might assist 
his widowed mother. In his leisure time he 
eagerly read national ballads, poetry, and plays, 
and wrote several tragedies which he failed to 
get accepted. His abilities at last brought him 
under the notice of Councilor Collin, a man of 
considerable influence, who procured for him 
free entrance into a government school at Sla- 
gelse. From this school he was transferred to 
the university and soon became favorably 
known by his poems. His first considerable 
work, ( A Journey on Foot from Holmen’s Canal 
to the East Point of Anger,* was published in 
1828, the year of his admission to the univer¬ 
sity. Through the influence of Oehlenschlager 
and others he received a royal grant to enable 
him to travel, and in 1833 he visited Italy, his 
impressions of which he published in ( The 
Improvisatoren* (1835), a work which ren¬ 
dered his fame European. The scene of his 
following novel, ( 0 . T.,* was laid in Denmark, 
and in ( Only a Fiddler* he described his own 
early struggles. In 1853 appeared the first vol¬ 
ume of his ( Fairy Tales,* of which successive 
volumes continued to be published year by year 
at Christmas, and which have been the most 
popular and widespread of his books. Among 
his other works are ( Picture-books without Pic¬ 


tures^ ( A Poet’s Bazaar,* and a number of 
dramas. In 1845 he received an annuity from 
the government. He visited England in 1848 
and acquired such a command of the language 
that his next work, ( The Two Baronesses,* 
was written in English. In 1853 he published 
an autobiography under the title, ( My Life’s 
Romance,* an English translation of which, pub¬ 
lished in 1871, contained additional chapters by 
the author, bringing the narrative to 1867. 
Among his later works are, ( In Sweden ) 
(1849) ; ( To Be or Not to Be ) (1857) ; ( Tales 
from Jutland ) (1859) ; ( The Sand-hills of Jut- 
land > (i860) ; ( The Ice Maiden* (1863) ; ( In 
Spain ) (1863). 

Anderson, Edwin Hatfield, American libra¬ 
rian: b. Zionsville, Ind., 27 Sept. 1861. He was 
graduated from Wabash College 1883; librarian 
Carnegie Free Library, Braddock, Pa., for three 
years; organized and became first librarian of 
Carnegie Library, Pittsburg, 1895. He is the 
author of numerous papers on library economy 
in ( Library Journal^ 

Anderson, George B., an American Con¬ 
federate soldier: b. Wilmington, N. C., 1831; d. 
16 Oct. 1862. He was graduated from West 
Point in 1852, and in 1855 obtained his commis¬ 
sion as first lieutenant in the United States 
army, and served as regimental adjutant after 
1858. Entering the Confederate service in 1861, 
he was made a brigadier-general and placed in 
command of the North Carolina coast defenses. 
While leading a brigade at the battle of An- 
tietam, 17 Sept. 1862, he received the wound 
which caused his death. 

Anderson, Henry John, an American edu¬ 
cator: b. New York, 6 Feb. 1799; d. Lahore, 
Hindustan, 19 Oct. 1875. Was graduated from 
Columbia College, 1818; M.D. College of Physi¬ 
cians and Surgeons, 1823. Professor of mathe¬ 
matics and astronomy at Columbia, 1825-50; 
trustee 1851, and professor emeritus 1866; geol¬ 
ogist to the Dead Sea expedition under Lieut. 
Lynch; member of the scientific expedition to 
observe the transit of Venus, 1873. He died 
while exploring the Himalayas. He early be¬ 
came converted to the Catholic faith and was 
active in promoting its interests in New York 
city. The United States government published 
his ( Geology of the Expedition to the Dead 
Sea* (1848). 

Anderson, James, a Scottish agricultural 

economist: b. Hermiston, in Midlothian, Scot¬ 
land, 1739; d. Islewortu, 1808. When scarcely 
20 years of age he invented the small two-horse 
plow without wheels, known as the Scotch 
plow. Four years later he left Hermiston and 
rented a large moorland farm of 1,300 acres in 
Aberdeenshire, where he devoted his leisure 
hours to writing on agricultural subjects, his 
first production being a series of essays on plant¬ 
ing contributed to the ( Edinburgh Weekly Mag¬ 
azine. * His principal works are, Encourage¬ 
ment of the National Fisheries ) ; ( An Inquiry 
into the Nature of Corn Laws ) ; Observations 
on Slavery,* and ( Recreations in Agriculture, 
Natural History, Arts, and Miscellaneous Liter- 
ature ) (1799-1802). 

Anderson, John, a Scottish philosopher, 
founder of Anderson College, Glasgow: b. Rose- 
neath, Dumbartonshire, 1726; d. 1796. He stud- 


ANDERSON 


ied at the University of Glasgow, where he was 
afterward professor of Oriental languages, and 
later of natural philosophy. In addition to his 
usual class in physics he instituted one for ar¬ 
tisans, which he continued to conduct to the 
end of his life. In 1786 appeared his institutes 
of Physics,* which went through five editions 
in 10 years. He invented a gun whose recoil 
was stopped by air condensation; but having in 
vain endeavored to attract the attention of the 
British government to it, he went to Paris 
in 1791 and presented his model to the National 
Convention. It was hung up in their hall with 
this inscription over it, (( The Gift of Science to 
Liberty.® When the allies had drawn a military 
cordon around the frontiers of France Ander¬ 
son suggested the expedient, which was adopted, 
of making small paper balloons, to which news¬ 
papers and manifestos were fastened and car¬ 
ried to Germany. Anderson by his will directed 
that his entire effects should be devoted to the 
establishment of an educational institution in 
Glasgow for the use of the unacademical 
classes. This college, opened with a single 
course of lectures, has now nearly 20 professors 
and lecturers; courses of instruction are given 
in physical and medical science and in chemis¬ 
try; mathematics, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, French, 
music, etc., are also taught. As a school of 
medicine in particular it possesses a high repu¬ 
tation. 

Anderson, John, Scotch physician and 
scientist: b. Edinburgh, 4 Oct. 1833; d. 1900. 
He obtained his medical degree at the University 
of Edinburgh, in 1862, and three years later 
was appointed superintendent of the Indian 
Museum at Calcutta, and was called to the chair 
of Comparative Anatomy in the Calcutta Medi¬ 
cal College. In 1868-69 and again in 1874^75 
he accompanied expeditions to western China 
as scientific officer. In 1881 the trustees of the 
Indian Museum commissioned him to investi¬ 
gate the marine zoology of the Mergui archi¬ 
pelago, the results of his researches being pub¬ 
lished in ( Fauna of Mergui and its Archipelago* 
(1889) ; and also in the Journal of the Linnsean 
Society (vols. XXI and XXII). In 1887 he re¬ 
tired from the service of the Indian Govern¬ 
ment. Among his writings, which are mainly 
reports to the government and scientific papers, 
the most noteworthy are: ( Mandalay to Mo- 
mien } (1875) ; ( Anatomical and Zoological Re- 
searches ) (1878) ; ( Two Expeditions to West¬ 
ern China ) (1876) ; ( Herpetology of Arabia,* 
also containing a list of Egyptian reptiles and 
batrachians (1896); ^Handbook of the Archae¬ 
ological Collections in the Indian Museum;* 
( Catalogue of the Mammalia in the Indian Mu¬ 
seum^ etc. 

Anderson, John Jacob, an American au¬ 
thor and educator: b. New York, 30 Sept. 1821; d. 
14 March 1906. Graduated at Normal School, Col¬ 
lege of City of New York, 1846. Teacher for 30 
years in public schools of New York city; traveled 
over North and Central America, Europe, and Af¬ 
rica. He published a large number of text-books 
on history, chief of which are: ( Manual of 
General History* (1867) ; ( School History of 
the United States > (1868); ( Manual of Mediae¬ 
val and Modern History* ; ( History of France ) 
(1877) ; ( Complete Course in History, Part 1* 
(1881). 


Anderson, Larz, an American diplomat: 
b. Paris, France, 15 Aug. 1866; d. 1902. Gradu¬ 
ated at Harvard, 1888; second secretary United 
States legation, London, 1891—3; first secretary, 
Rome, 1893-7; assistant adjutant general, United 
States Volunteers, during the Spanish-/* merican 
war, 1898. 

Anderson, Martin Brewer, an American 
educator: b. in Brunswick, Me., 12 Feb. 1815; 
d. 26 Feb. 1890; was graduated at Waterville 
College, now Colby University, in 1840; became 
professor of rhetoric and organized and taught 
the course in modern history at Waterville; and 
was president of the University of Rochester, 
N. Y., 1853 to 1888. 

Anderson, Mary Antoinette, American 

actress: b. Sacramento, Cal., 28 July 1859. She 
was educated at the Ursuline Convent and the 
Academy of the Presentation Nuns in Louisville, 
and when 13 years of age began to study for the 
stage. She first appeared at Louisville on 27 
Nov. 1875, in the character of Juliet. Her suc¬ 
cess was immediate, and during the following 
years she played with increasing popularity in 
the principal cities of the United States in vari¬ 
ous roles. In 1883 she appeared at the Lyceum 
Theatre in London and opened the Memorial 
Theatre at Stratford-on-Avon in the character 
of Rosalind in ( As You Like It,* and speedily 
became well known in England. At the age of 
28 she married Antonio de Navarro and retired 
from the stage. In 1896 she published a volume 
entitled, ( A Few Memories.* 

Anderson, Melville Best, American edu¬ 
cator and author: b. Kalamazoo, Mich., 28 
March 1851. He was educated at Cornell Uni¬ 
versity (1870-74) ; the University of Gottingen 
(1875-76); and at the University of Paris 
(1876-77). Returning to the United States he 
occupied several professorships in some of the 
principal colleges, notably Butler University, 
Purdue University, the State University of Iowa, 
and in 1891 became professor of literature in 
Leland Stanford, Jr. University, which chair he 
has since occupied. He has translated and 
edited ( Paul and Virginia* ; Hugo’s ( William 
Shakespeare* ; Boissier’s ( Mme. de Sevigne* ; 
Caro’s ( George Sand* ; Simon’s ( Victor Cousin* ; 
Sorel’s ( Montesquieu* ; Say's ( Turgot* ; Re- 
musat’s ( Thiers* ; Joutel’s ( Journal of La Salle’s 
Last Voyage* (1896) ; Tonty’s ( Relation* 
(1898) ; ( Nicholas de La Salle’s Narrative* 

(1898); ( Cavalier de La Salle’s Discovery cf 
the Mississippi River* (1901), etc. He also 
edited ( Bacon’s Essays, with Introduction and 
Notes* (1890) ; and wrote Representative 
Poets of the Nineteenth Century* (1896). 

Anderson, Rasmus Bjorn, an American 
author: b. Albion, Wis., 12 Jan. 1846. Gradu¬ 
ated at Luther College, Iowa, 1866, and Univer¬ 
sity of Wisconsin, 1869. Professor of Scandi¬ 
navian languages and literatures in University 
of Wisconsin, 1875-83; United States minister 
to Denmark, 1885-9. Author of ( America Not 
Discovered by Columbus* (1874) 5 ( Norse* 

Mythology* (1875) ; ( Viking Tales of the North 
(1876) ; translator of Horn’s ( History of the 
Literature of the Scandinavian North* (1884), 
of various stories by Bjornson, ( The Younger 
Eddas* (1880), and G. Brandes’ ( Eminent 
Authors of the 19th Century* (1886). 


ANDERSON 


Anderson, Richard Henry, an American 

Confederate soldier: b. South Carolina, 7 Oct. 
1821; d. Beaufort, S. C., 20 Feb. 1879. Gradu¬ 
ated from West Point in 1842; served in Mexi¬ 
can war. In May 1861 he resigned from the 
United States army to join the Confederate ser¬ 
vice. He assisted in the bombardment of Fort 
Sumter and distinguished himself for gallantry 
throughout the war, especially at Fair Oaks, 
Gaines Mills, Frazier’s Farm, Bull Run, and 
Gettysburg. He had the rank of major-general 
<1862) and lieutenant-general (1864), command¬ 
ing the 4th corps of Lee’s army in the last cam¬ 
paign. 

Anderson, Robert, Scotch biographer and 

critic: b. Carmvath, Lanarkshire, 7 Jan. 1750; 
d. 20 Feb. 1830. In 1784 he became a resident 
and practitioner in Edinburgh, but soon after 
his marriage turned his attention to literary pur¬ 
suits and finally ceased the practice of medicine 
altogether. He became editor of the Edin¬ 
burgh Magazine, } wrote a ( Life of Dr. Johnson, , 
and published ( A Complete Edition of the Poets 
of Great Britain, with Prefaces Biographical and 
Critical } (14 vols. 1792-1807). 

Anderson, Robert, an American soldier: 
b. near Louisville, Ky., 14 June 1805; d. in 
France, 26 Oct. 1871. Graduating at West Point 
1825, he entered the artillery as second lieuten¬ 
ant. He was on Scott’s staff in the Seminole 
war, 1837-8; in the Mexican war was badly 
wounded at Molino del Rey. Commissioned ma¬ 
jor in 1857, in i860 he was given command of the 
troops in Charleston harbor with headquarters 
at Fort Moultrie. Threatened with attack, the 
fort untenable, and the Buchanan administration 
making no reply to his appeals for its strength¬ 
ening or for instructions, on 26 December he re¬ 
moved the garrison to Fort Sumter. An at¬ 
tempt of the government to provision it being 
assumed by the Confederates as a declaration of 
war, they invested it and compelled its surren¬ 
der by a bombardment, 12-13 April 1861; its 
commander leaving with the honors of war. 
Appointed brigadier-general, he was assigned 
to the department of the Cumberland; but his 
health failing, he was relieved from active duty 
in October and retired in 1863. Brevetted 
major-general in 1865, in 1869 he went to Nice, 
France, for his health. Fie wrote works on tac¬ 
tics, and was instrumental in organizing the 
Soldiers’ Home at Washington. 

Anderson, Sir Robert, an Irish barrister 
and author: b. 29 May 1841. He was assistant 
commissioner of police in London, 1888-1901, 
and was knighted in the year last named. His 
published works include ( The Coming Prince ) ; 
( A Doubter’s Doubts about Science and Re¬ 
ligion ) ; ( Human Destiny } ; ( The Gospel and 
its Ministry J ; ( Daniel in the Critics’ Den ) ; 
( The Silence of God ) (1897) ; ( The Buddha of 
< Christendom ) (1899) ; ( The Bible and Modern 
Criticism } (1902). 

Anderson, Rufus, American Congrega¬ 
tional clergyman, and Secretary of the Ameri¬ 
can Board of Foreign Missions: b. North Yar¬ 
mouth, Me., 17 Aug. 1796; d. Boston, Mass., 30 
May 1880. Having graduated at Bowdoin Col¬ 
lege in i8t8 , he studied theology at the Andover 
Theological Seminary, completing his course in 
1822. In 1824 he became assistant secretary to 
the Board of Foreign Missions, serving as such 


till 1832, when he became full secretary. In 
this position he continued for 34 years, till 1866, 
when owing to his advanced age and failing 
health he retired. He inspected the missions 
in the Mediterranean in 1828-29 and again in 
1 843-44, the results of his tours of these years 
being chronicled in his Observations on the 
Peloponnesus and Greek Islands } (Boston, 
1830). He also visited the Indian Missions in 
t 854 - 55 > and the Sandwich Islands in 1863. 
From 1867 to 1869 he was lecturer on Foreign 
Missions in the Andover Theological Seminary. 
He with others founded the Mount Holyoke 
Female Seminary, at South Hadley, Mass., was 
for several years president of the board of trus¬ 
tees of Bradford Academy, Mass., and a mem¬ 
ber of the board of trustees of the Andover 
Theological Seminary. Besides his Observa¬ 
tion^ he also wrote: ( The Hawaiian Islands, 
Their Progress and Condition under Mission¬ 
ary Labors* (1864); ( A Heathen Nation Civi¬ 
lized^ ; ( A History of the Sandwich Islands’ 
Missions ) (1870); ^History of the Missions of 
the American Board of Commissioners for For¬ 
eign Missions to the Oriental Churches* (3 
vols., 1872-4), etc. 

Anderson, Ind., city and county-seat of 
Madison County; on the White River, 36 miles 
northeast of Indianapolis. It is the junction of 
four steam railroads, trunk lines, and is the 
centre of one of the most extensive systems of 
electric traction lines in the middle west. The 
power house is the largest in the State, gener¬ 
ating the power which carries cars to every im¬ 
portant city in northern and central Indiana. 

Industries. —Anderson lies in the centre of a 
rich agricultural region and is also an import¬ 
ant manufacturing centre. Here was established 
one of the first and largest tin plate mills, in¬ 
troducing that industry into the United States. 
Over 100 shops are engaged in industrial enter¬ 
prises where nearly every commodity known to 
trade is made. Chief among these are tin plate, 
glass, wire fence, steel springs, nails, automo¬ 
biles, carriages, shovels, files, wind pumps, steel 
tanks, shovel handles, carriage and buggy ma¬ 
terials, tools and tool workers’ supplies, encaus¬ 
tic tiles, etc. Natural gas was discovered in 
1887, and while the flow has diminished to some 
extent it is still sufficient in supply for heating 
and small manufacturing purposes. 

Banks, Public Works, Buildings, Etc. — The 
city has five banks, with a capitalization of 
$1,500,000, and deposits of $3,000,000; three daily 
papers; a city electric railway covering over 10 
miles; 20 miles of brick paved streets; 50 miles 
of cement sidewalk; an excellent fire department, 
and owns and operates its own water and elec¬ 
tric lighting plants. Among the prominent 
buildings are the Court House, erected in 1882 
at a cost of $200,000, the Government building 
for postal service, a handsome public library, an 
Orphan’s Home, and numerous hotels. There 
are many substantial school buildings, valued at 
$300,000, with a school enumeration of 6,500 
children. Nearly all religious denominations 
are represented and well housed in the city. 

History, Government, and Population. — The 
first settlement was in 1822, when, as the home 
of the Delaware Indians, it was known as Ander¬ 
son’s Town, the chief of the Delaware tribe 
being known as ®Kik-tha-we-nund, or Ander- 


ANDERSON — ANDES 


son.® Anderson’s Town became a county-seat 
in 1827. The name was changed to Anderson 
by act of the Legislature in 1838, and in 1865 the 
city was incorporated. The city government is 
vested in a mayor and council, elected by the 
people. Pop. (1900) 20,178; (1905) 26,000. 

John L. Forkner, 

Mayor of Anderson. 

Anderson, S. C., city and county-seat of 
Anderson County, on the Charleston & West¬ 
ern Carolina, and Blue Ridge railroads; 127 
miles northwest of Columbia. The city was 
settled in 1827. It is in the centre of a large 
and fertile cotton-growing and agricultural re¬ 
gion. It contains the city hall, court house 
and other large buildings, and numerous 
churches and schools. It has cotton-seed oil, 
eight cotton mills, lumber, and flour mills, and 
manufactures of fertilizers, clothing, machinery, 
and numerous small manufactories. The city 
is supplied by a private corporation with light 
and power from an electric plant located on the 
banks of the Seneca River, 10 miles distant. 
The same company supplies the water supply 
for the city. The municipal government is 
vested in a mayor and a council, elected every 
two years, under a charter of 1882. Pop. 
(1890) 3,018; (1900) 5,498; (1904) 8,500. 

G. P. Browne, 
Publisher ( Daily Mail? 

Andersonville, Ga., a village of Sumter 
County, 62 miles southwest of Macon, noted as 
the seat, during the Civil War, of a military 
prison of the Confederate States. This prison 
was established in November 1863, and con¬ 
sisted of an unsheltered enclosure containing at 
first 22 acres, an area subsequently increased to 
27. It was commanded by Gen. W. S. Winder, 
but the superintendent was one Henry Wirz, a 
Swiss. It has been stated that Andersonville 
was selected as a suitable site because secure 
against Federal raiders and generally considered 
healthful; but that the laying waste of the fields 
of the South and the destruction of the means 
of transportation brought upon the Southern 
army and people great suffering, in which pris¬ 
oners of war necessarily shared. It is true that 
rations were meagre for Confederate soldiers, 
to whose fare such prisoners were legally en¬ 
titled. But evidence shows that the conditions 
which prevailed at Andersonville were due to 
mismanagement and cruelty; such evidence in¬ 
cluding ample Confederate testimony, as for ex¬ 
ample, that rendered by Dr. G. S. Hopkins and 
Surgeon H. E. Watkins, constituting a Confed¬ 
erate medical commission (1864), and that by 
Colonel Chandler of the Confederate war de¬ 
partment in an inspection report (5 July 1864). 
Into the enclosure as many as 33,000 prisoners 
were at times crowded, for the most part com¬ 
pletely without shelter, and supplied with insuf¬ 
ficient and unsuitable food. Between February 
1864 and April 1865 there were received at the 
prison 49,485 prisoners, of whom 26 per cent, 
or over 12,800, died there. In the autumn of 

1864 the Confederate government removed many 
to Florence, S. C., and Millen, Ga., where they 
fared decidedly better. Wirz was convicted in 

1865 by a military court under an indictment 
charging him with injuring the health and de¬ 
stroying the lives of prisoners, and was hanged 
10 November. The prison burying-ground was 
made a national cemetery. Consult: Stevenson. 


R. R., ( The Southern Side; or Andersonville 
Prison ) (1876) ; Chipman, <The Horrors of 
Andersonville Rebel Prison > (1891) ; Schouler, 
^History of the United States,> Vol. VI. (1899)- 

Andes, an'dez, or, as called in Spanish 
South America, Cordilleras (ridges) de los 
Andes, or simply Cordilleras, a range of moun¬ 
tains extending along the whole of the west 
coast of South America, from Cape Horn to the 
Isthmus of Panama and the Caribbean Sea. 
Sometimes it is spoken of as a continuation of 
the Rocky Mountains in North America, but 
there seems to be no reason for this other than 
the continuity of the two divisions of America, 
and the fact that both ranges lie in the west of 
their respective continents. There is a suffi¬ 
ciently marked break between the ridges of the 
Isthmus of Panama and the range of the Andes 
of South America, and a still more distinct hia¬ 
tus between the sierras of Central America and 
Mexico and the Rocky Mountains. 

The south part of this huge chain begins 
to be continuous about lat. 52 0 S., and from this 
point to about lat. 42 0 S., a distance of nearly 
1,100 miles, the range presses close to the Pa¬ 
cific Ocean. Its average height in this part is 
only about 3,000 feet, though several summits 
rise some thousands of feet higher, namely, 
Mount Melimoyu, Yanteles (the highest, above 
8,000 feet), and the volcanoes of Corcobado and 
Minchinmadiva. The width of the chain in the 
extreme south is about 20 miles, further north 
it increases to 40 miles, and it attains a still 
greater width before reaching lat. 42 0 S. About 
this latitude the chain begins to recede from the 
coast, leaving wide plains on the west 1,000 or 
1,500 feet above sea-level. North of lat. 35 0 S. 
a double range may be traced, and the whole 
system of mountains widens out to about 130 
miles. At about lat. 21 0 S. the direction of the 
chain, which up to this point is north and 
slightly east, begins to change a little to the 
west, and around this elbow, as it were, is a 
knot of mountains, partly in Argentina and 
partly in Bolivia, consisting of chains running 
in various directions, some of which are uncon¬ 
nected with the chain of the Andes. This knot 
forms part of the watershed dividing the rivers 
of the La Plata from those of the Amazon basin. 
Among the peaks, up to 21 0 S. lat., are the 
active volcanoes of Antuco, Maypu, and Tupun¬ 
gato; but the culminating point of this portion, 
and so far as is known of the whole Andes, 
is Aconcagua, rising to the height of 23,028 feet, 
and distinctly visible from Valparaiso, 100 miles 
distant. The Chilean Andes, under the 35th 
parallel of south latitude, are about 150 miles 
from the Pacific; but this distance decreases to 
about 80 miles in the latitude of Valparaiso. 

At lat. 21 0 S. the Andes range bifurcates, 
forming two chains of great elevation, the Andes 
of Bolivia and Peru, enclosing the lofty table¬ 
land or longitudinal valley of the Desaguadero 
and Lake Titicaca. Of these two chains the 
western or Peruvian has the peaks of Sahama, 
Parinacota, Gualateiri, and Pomarape, above 
21,000 feet in height; and the eastern or Bolivian 
(Cordillera Real) those of Illimani and Sorata 
or Illampu (21,484 feet). The highest seems 
to be Gualateiri, the loftiest active volcano 
in the chain, 21,960 feet in height. Sa¬ 
hama, another active volcano, is 21,054 feet. 
These parallel cordilleras, the united breadth of 




A SOUTH AMERICAN INN. 


21,420 FEET HIGH. 


MOUNT CHIMBORAZO IN THE ANDES. 


NATIVE HOTEL IN 


THE CORDILLERAS 


















' 










* 






ANDES 


which nowhere exceeds 250 miles, are united 
at various points by enormous transverse groups 
or mountain knots, or else by single ranges 
crossing between them like dikes. The descent 
to the Pacific is exceedingly steep; the dip is 
also very rapid to the east, whence offsets di¬ 
verge to the level plains. The table-land of the 
Desaguadero, thus enclosed, has itself an ab¬ 
solute altitude of 12,900 feet and an area of 
150,000 square miles. A large eastern offset, the 
Sierra de Cochabamba, leaves the eastern cor¬ 
dillera under the 17th parallel, bounding the 
rich plain of Cochabamba north, and ending 
nearly under the 63d meridian of west longi¬ 
tude at Santa Cruz de la Sierra. The two 
main cordilleras once more unite in the group 
of \ ilcanota, in lat. 15 0 S., and the united range 
then runs about 280 miles northwest to about 
lat. io° S., where the Andes separate into three 
nearly parallel chains — the eastern, central, and 
western cordilleras, which enclose between 
them the Huallaga and Upper Maranon rivers; 
the western or coast cordillera running north 
as far as the group of Loja, near the southern 
extremity of Ecuador. 

About lat. 6° S., opposite the Point Aguja, 
the Andes chain again takes a course north and 
slightly east, forming, as in Chile, a single mass 
or rocky plateau, 80 miles broad, covered with 
a double series of highly elevated summits en¬ 
closing longitudinal valleys, one of which, that 
of Cuenca, in the group of Assouan, is upward 
of 15,000 feet high, or nearly within the region 
of perpetual snow. North of this point the 
chain again divides, the western range com¬ 
prising Mounts Chimborazo (21,240 feet), Ili- 
niza, and Pichincha ; while on the eastern range 
are the volcanoes Sangay, Tunguragua, Coto¬ 
paxi, Antisana (19,137 feet), and Mount Cay- 
ambe ( 19,535 feet). Shortly after entering New 
Granada, crossing the equator, the chain, in lat. 
i° 5' N., again meets in the knot or plateau of 
Los Pastos, on which is the volcano of Cumbal 
(16,620 feet) ; but a little north of the city of 
Pastos it once more bifurcates, enclosing the 
mountain plain of Almaguer, comprising the 
volcano of Purace (17,034 feet) on its eastern 
branch: and finally, somewhat north of the 
town of Popayan, the Andes separate into three 
distinct ridges — the Sierra di Choco, running 
north to the Isthmus of Panama; the Sierra di 
Quindiu, running east of the Cauca River; and 
the Sierra Suma Paz, extending east of the 
Magdalena to Lake Maracaibo and the city of 
Valencia in Venezuela. North of the fifth 
northern parallel the only summits within the 
snow line on these cordilleras belong to the 
eastern chain, which also is very precipitous on 
its eastern slope. On the Quindiu or central 
chain is the volcano of Tolima (18,325 feet), in 
lat. 4° 46' N. The Choco or coast chain is of 
comparatively small elevation, its highest point 
not exceeding 9,000 feet. The total length of 
the Andes has been estimated at about 4,400 
miles. 

Passes, Roads, and Railways .— This gigan¬ 
tic mountain chain is traversed in its different 
parts by numerous roads or passes at heights 
almost equal to those of the extreme summits 
of the European ranges. Most of them are 
narrow, steep, and sometimes dangerous, pass¬ 
ing through gorges, across yawning chasms, and 
up nearly perpendicular rocks; nor can they be 


attempted with success except by the active and 
well-practised native or the courageous and 
well-provided traveler. It is worthy of remark, 
likewise, that nearly all these roads cross the 
ridge transversely and direct, not, as is some¬ 
times the case in the Alps, by a circuitous 
course through the longitudinal valleys. Sub¬ 
joined is a list of most of the known mountain 
passes, with their position, connected localities, 
and highest elevation, commencing with those 
on the south. 

Names Feet 

Portillo, lat. 33° j from Santiago to Estaca- 

40' S.) da . n .above 14,000 

Peiiquenes, lat. 33°^ from Santiago to Estaca- 

4 °' S. ) da .above 13,000 

Cumbre, lat. 32°? from Valparaiso to Men- 

5 2 ' S. ) doza .above 12,400 

Pass of Tolapalca. i from Potosi to Oruro- 

( above 14,000 

Pass of Condur / from Potosi to Oruro.... 

Pacheta .) above 14,00a 

Pass of Pacuani... i from La Paz to the Val- 

( ley of the Beni...above 15,000 
Pass of Gualillas, l , . _ 

lat. 17 0 50' S. . . ) from Arica to La Paz._ 14,750 

Pass of Chullun- i from Arica to La Paz.... 

quiani .J above 15,000 

Pass of Alto de To- (from Arequipa to Puno. . . . 

ledo, lat. 16° 2' S. ) above 15,500 

Angostura . 5 between Tacora & Lake Ti- 

.( ticaca .above 10,500 

Pass by San Mateo, ( from Lima to Tarma and 

lat. ii° 48' S. ) Pasco .above 15,700 

Alto de Tacaibam- (from Jauja to Huanuco. . 

ba Pass.) aoove 15,000 

Alto de Lachagual ( from Jauja to Huanuco.. 

Pass .| above 15,000 

Road over the Pa-(from Alausi to Cuenca.. 

ramo de Assuay '.above 15,500 

Road over the Quin- t , ., . , 

diu Pass. . . 7 . . . ; from Alausi to Cartago... 11,502 

Besides the routes just mentioned, a great 
commercial road runs longitudinally along the 
Andes the whole distance from Truxillo, lat. 
8° 5' S., to Popayan, lat. 2° 25' N., in the valley 
of the Cauca, not much less than 1,000 miles, 
and attaining at its highest point, the Paramo 
de Bolicha, an elevation of 11,500 feet. Two 
railways across the Andes have already been 
completed, both in the republic of Peru. The 
first in operation extends from the port of 
Mollendo, near the south of Peru, by Arequipa 
to Puno on Lake Titicaca, a distance of 217 
miles. The eastern terminus of this railway 
is situated in a table-land 12,196 feet above the 
level of fhe sea. The first locomotive reached 
the shores of Lake Titicaca on 1 Jan. 1874. 
The other and more recent railway is from Lima 
to Oroya, a distance of 145 miles. The crest 
of the Andes is traversed by a short tunnel at 
an altitude of 15,645 feet above sea-level; the 
steep and irregular slope up to this point being 
ascended by a series of sharp curves, and the 
ravines spanned by bridges. A transandean 
railway from Buenos Ayres to Valparaiso is 
nearly completed. 

Rivers and Lakes .— From the Andes rise 
two of the largest water systems of the world 
— the Amazon and its affluents, and the La 
Plata and its tributaries. Besides which, in the 
north, from its slopes flow the Magdalena to the 
Caribbean Sea, and some tributaries to the 
Orinoco, but no streams of importance flow 
from its western slopes. The number of lakes 
interspersed through this vast mountain system 
is not great, and in this respect it presents a 
striking contrast to the Swiss Alps. The 























.iNDES 


largest, and the only one worthy of notice, is 
that of Titicaca on the Bolivian plateau. 

Geology, etc. — In considering the geology 
of the Andes, the first fact that strikes the ob¬ 
server is the vast development of volcanic force 
along the whole length of the chain, which is 
continued north through Guatemala and Mex¬ 
ico. These volcanic vents occur in three linear 
groups, the extreme southern extending from 
the 42d to the 33d parallel of south latitude; 
the next from the 27th to the 15th parallel, and 
the last from lat. 2° S. to about lat. 5 0 N. 
Mention has already been made of the principal 
volcanoes. Another striking circumstance in 
the geology of this range is that it consists 
almost entirely of sedimentary rocks, showing 
that its highest parts must at one time have 
been submerged. Granite comes so rarely to 
the surface in the northern parts of the chain, 
that, according to Humboldt, a person might 
travel for years in the Andes of Peru without 
meeting this species of rock; and he never 
saw any at a greater absolute elevation than 
11,500 feet. Gneiss is sometimes found in con¬ 
nection with the granite; but mica-schist is by 
far the commonest of all the crystalline rocks. 
Quartz is likewise extremely abundant, gen¬ 
erally mixed with mica, and rich in gold and 
specular iron. Vast tracts of red sandstone, 
w T ith gypseous and saliferous marls, occur in 
Peru. Porphyry and greenstone abound all 
over the range at every elevation, both on the 
slopes and extreme ridges; and trachyte is al¬ 
most as abundant as porphyry, both in Peru and 
Chile, great masses of it, from 14,000 to 18,- 
000 feet thick, being visible on Chimborazo and 
Pichincha. As respects volcanic products, the 
western face of the Andes presents immense 
quantities of lava, tufa, and obsidian, none of 
which are found on the eastern side; this ap¬ 
plies especially to that part of the chain lying 
between Chile and the equator. Fossil remains 
are by no* means common; but in the limestone 
strata of the coast toward the northern extrem¬ 
ity of the range Humboldt found many marine 
shells of the Silurian period, about 30 miles 
from the coast; and Pentland observed others 
of the same era at a height of 17,500 feet on 
Mount Antakawa in Bolivia, as well as in sev¬ 
eral other parts. 

Earthquakes .— Many of the volcanoes, as be¬ 
fore observed, are in a state of either constant 
or occasional action; it cannot, therefore, be 
matter of surprise that there should be fre¬ 
quent and violent earthquakes. All the districts 
of the Andes system, but Chile especially, have 
suffered more severely from these oscillations 
than any other part of the world; and among 
the towns either destroyed or greatly injured 
by these visitations may be mentioned Bogota, 
Quito, Riobamba, Lima, Callao, Valparaiso, and 
Concepcion. In 1819 Copiapo was entirely 
overturned, not a house being left standing. 
Concepcion was twice destroyed — in 1730 and 
1751 ; and in November 1822 an earthquake was 
felt on the same day at this town, in lat. 37 0 
S., and at Lima in lat 12° N., more than 1,700 
miles distant; it was on this occasion that Val¬ 
paraiso, Melipella, and Quillota were all but 
completely annihilated. This earthquake, too, 
had the remarkable effect of upheaving the land 
on the coast, upward of 100 miles in extent, to 
the height of three or four feet, and elevating 


a portion of the shore above high-water mark. 
These shocks continued at brief intervals till 
the autumn of 1823; and since that time the vol¬ 
canoes of Maypu, until then for many years 
quiescent, have had frequent eruptions. In Au¬ 
gust 1868 the towns of Arequipa, Iquique, 
Tacna, and many other smaller towns in Peru 
and Ecuador, were destroyed. Earthquakes, 
slight or more serious, are of yearly occurrence, 
and faint oscillations of the soil are regarded 
with scarcely more attention than a hail-storm 
in the temperate zone. 

Mineral Productions .— The Andes are ex¬ 
tremely rich in the precious metals. In Chile, 
Bolivia, Peru, and Colombia gold is obtained. 
Silver occurs in Chile in the provinces of Co- 
quimbo and Atacama, and the mines of these 
districts are remarkable for the richness of their 
ores. The Peruvian Andes have numerous sil¬ 
ver mines scattered over their whole extent from 
the province of Caxamarca south to the confines 
of Chile; but incomparably the richest are the 
mines of Cerro de Pasco, which have been 
worked upward of two centuries. The mines of 
Chota likewise, which are situated on Mount 
Hualgayoc, are productive. The ore, which is 
richer even than that of Pasco, lies either on or 
very near the surface. Close to the Pacific, at 
Huantajaya, in the district of Arica, are sev¬ 
eral mines celebrated for the quantity of virgin 
silver found therein, sometimes in masses of 
great weight. The most famous mines are 
those of the Cerro de Potosi, in Bolivia, lat. 
19 0 36' S., which is perforated in all directions 
by thousands of openings, some of which are 
within 100 feet of the summit (16,000 feet). 
Quicksilver is found in several parts of the 
Andes, but in combination with sulphur, form¬ 
ing the red sulphuret of mercury commonly 
known as cinnabar. Copper is found both in 
the east and west cordilleras of Peru; but the 
eastern chain is too far from the coast to admit 
of mines being profitably worked. The copper 
mines of Chile are the most valuable. They are 
situated chiefly in the desert of Atacama. Tin 
also, wrought in Chile, forms an article of ex¬ 
port ; but lead and iron, though plentiful, are 
not worked. Considerable platinum is ob¬ 
tained from the state of Choco in Colombia. 

Climate and Meteorology .— On the western 
side of the range little or no rain falls, except 
at the southern extremity; and scanty vegeta¬ 
tion appears only in spots, or in small valleys, 
watered by streams from the mountains; while 
on the opposite slope excessive heat and mois¬ 
ture combine to give the range a thick covering 
of tangled forest trees and dense brushwood. 
Currents of cold west and northwest winds 
blow nearly all the year from the ice-topped 
cordilleras on the plateau beneath, daily accom¬ 
panied during four months by thunder, light¬ 
ning, and snow storms. Currents of warm air 
are also occasionally found on the crest of the 
Andes; they usually occur two hours after sun¬ 
set, being both local and narrow, like the hot 
blasts in the Alps, not exceeding a few yards in 
width. They run parallel to each other, and so 
closely that five or six of them may be passed 
in a few hours. They blow chiefly from south- 
southwest to north-northeast and are especially 
frequent in August and September. Notwith¬ 
standing the great number of snow-clad sum¬ 
mits, glaciers are of rare occurrence in the 


ANDES AND THE AMAZON — ANDOVER 


Andes, being found only % and then of but small 
extent, in the narrow ravines which furrow the 
sides of some of its giant summits. 

Vegetation .— In the low torrid plains that 
flank the bases of the Andes reign the banana, 
cycas, plaintain, cassava, cacao, the cotton tree, 
indigo and coffee plant, and sugar-cane, all of 
which are extensively and profitably grown be¬ 
low the altitude of 4,000 feet. Maize is like¬ 
wise plentiful, and may be said to form the 
bread of the Peruvians; it is of three different 
kinds, and, according to Humboldt, is cultivated 
7,000 feet above the sea. Within the same lim¬ 
its also are found, either wild or cultivated, the 
pineapple, pomegranate, shaddock, orange, lime, 
lemon, peach, apricot, together with olives, aji 
or pepper plants, tomatoes, sweet potatoes, gum 
copal, copaiba balsam, dragon’s blood, sar¬ 
saparilla, and vanilla. To these groups suc¬ 
ceed, in the humid and shaded clefts on the 
slopes of the cordilleras, the tree-ferns, and cin¬ 
chona or cascarilla, whence we derive the febri¬ 
fuge bark and quinine. Between the heights of 
6.000 and 9,000 feet is the climate best suited 
for the European cereals. To these may be 
added the qainoa (Chenopodium quinoa), a 
most useful production for domestic uses. In 
this region also, and a little above it, grow the 
potato, indigenous to Chile and thence intro¬ 
duced into Europe, and various tuberose con¬ 
geners, all extensively used as food; and here 
likewise grow the chickpea, broad bean, cab¬ 
bage, and other European vegetables. Within 
the cereal limits are found the oak, elm, ash, 
and beech, which never descend lower than 
5,500 feet, and seldom rise higher than 9,200 
feet above the sea. Above this level the larger 
forest trees, except the pine, begin to disappear. 

Zoology .— The fauna of the Andes is still 
very imperfectly known; Among the carniv¬ 
orous animals the principal are the jaguar, 
puma, ounce, ocelot, and wild-cat. There are 
also bears, tapirs, raccoons, wild hogs, foxes, 
and otters, with both red and roe deer. The 
characteristic animals of the Andes, however, 
are the llama and its different congeners—the 
guanaco, vicuna, and paco or alpaca. They are 
the chief beasts of burden on the Andes. The 
forests of the warmer regions abound with 
members of the monkey tribe, etc. Many vari¬ 
eties of serpents are found. Bats are numerous 
and of large size, the vampire bat being one of 
the most remarkable. The condor soars over 
the highest summits, making its nest among the 
highest and least accessible rocks; other birds 
of prey are also numerous. Curassows, wild tur¬ 
keys, parrots, and parrakeets are common in 
the woods, and there are also a great many 
varieties of smaller birds. 

Marrion _ Wilcox, 
Authority on Latin-America. 


An'des and the Amazon, The, a volume of 
travels by James Orton (1870, enlarged ed 
1876). Under the auspices of the Smithsonian 
Institution, the author, who for many years was 
professor of natural history at Vassar College 
led an exploring expedition to the equatorial 
Andes and the river Amazon. Its experiences 
are set forth in this work. 

Andesine, an'dez-in, a triclinic feldspar 
intermediate in composition between albite and 
anorthite. Albite and anorthite are lsomor- 


plious, and andesine includes those mixtures of 
the two in which the ratio of albite to andesine 
ranges from 1:1 to 3:2. Andesine may be de¬ 
scribed as an anhydrous silicate of sodium, 
aluminum, and calcium. Its hardness is from 5 
to 6, and its specific gravity about 2.68. In 
color it is white, gray, greenish, yellowish, or 
pink. It was first found in the Andes (whence 
the name), but has since been observed in 
Alsace, in Iceland, and in other localities. In 
the United States it occurs at Sanford, Me. 

Andesite, an'dez-it, a common volcanic 
rock, consisting of a triclinic feldspar (such as 
andesine) mixed with hornblende or augite and 
sometimes also with quartz. It varies in color 
from green to gray and occasionally has a 
purplish cast. It is difficult to define andesite 
accurately because basalt, andesite, and trachyte 
are similar in composition, and intermediate va¬ 
rieties exist, which, with the typical rocks of the 
three classes, form an almost continuous series. 
Andesite is more fusible than trachyte, but less 
fusible than basalt. 

Andigan, an'di-jan', a city of the Russian 
khanate of Khokandin, central Asia. It is the 
centre of an immense cotton-raising district, 
whence Russia received three fourths of all the 
cotton used in the empire. In 1902 the city 
was totally destroyed by an earthquake which 
killed over 5,000 of the 47,000 inhabitants. 

Andira, an-di'ra, a genus of leguminous 
typical American trees, with fleshy plum-like 
fruits. The wood is well fitted for building. 
The bark of A. inermis, or cabbage-tree, is 
narcotic, and is used as an anthelminthic under 
the name of worm bark or cabbage bark. The 
powdered bark of A. araroba is employed as a 
remedy in certain skin diseases, as herpes. 

Andocides, an'dos'T-dez, an Athenian ora¬ 
tor : b. 467 b.c. ; d. about _ 393 b.c. Active in 
public affairs, he was four times exiled; the first 
time along with Alcibiades, for profaning the 
Eleusinian mysteries. Three of his orations are 
extant. 

Andorra, an-dor'ra, a small republic in the 
Pyrenees between Ariege, a department of 
France, and Lerida, a province of Spain. It is 
only partially independent, being under the su¬ 
zerainty of both France and Spain. The town 
covers an area of 175 square miles and the in¬ 
habitants are devoted chiefly to cattle-raising 
and iron and lead mining. The republic and its 
history have attracted much attention from stu¬ 
dents of governmental institutions. Pop. 6,000. 
See Tucker, ( The Valley of Andorra ) (1882) ; 
Deverell, ‘History of the Republic of Andorra 5 
(1885); Spender, ( Through the High Alps 5 
(1898). 

An'dover, an English market town in 
Hampshire, 12 miles west of Winchester. Its 
large parish church was built about 1850 on the 
site of a Norman predecessor. The Massachu¬ 
setts Andover was named in honor of the Hamp¬ 
shire town. Pop. about 6,000. 

An'dover, Mass., a town in Essex County, 
on the Merrimac River and the Boston & M. 
R.R.; 23 miles north of Boston. It is widely 
known as the seat of the Andover Theological 
Seminary (q.v.), the Phillips Academy for boys, 
and the Abbot Academy for girls, and has manu¬ 
factories of flax, shoes, and woolen goods, two 
national banks, Memorial Hall, and school libra- 


ANDOVER THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY — ANDRE 


ries, a free public library of over 12,000 volumes, 
and a property valuation of over $4,000,000. 
Harriet Beecher Stowe lived here many years, 
and it was Jong the home of Elizabeth Stuart 
Phelps Ward. It was first settled in 1646. Pop. 
(1900) 6,813. 

An'dover Theological Seminary, Andover, 
Mass., one of the oldest and most famous theo¬ 
logical schools in the United States. It was 
founded in 1807, at a period when there was 
little provision for special education in theology, 
the Greek or Hebrew languages, Biblical criti¬ 
cism, etc.; and it was usual for ministerial can¬ 
didates to study for a time under the private 
tuition of some noted divine. These private 
divinity schools were often very effective intel¬ 
lectually and practically, but could not supply 
the minute and accurate scholarship of regular 
institutions with longer set terms, the need of 
which was now sharply felt. At this time also, 
not only was New England divided into strenu¬ 
ous Calvinists and semi-Calvinists or outright 
Arminians, but the former were themselves di¬ 
vided into Calvinists proper and Hopkinsians, 
a more extreme type. Under a common alarm 
at the inroads of religious liberalism, however, 
the former drew together and united in up¬ 
holding a general theological seminary. This 
was founded by Samuel Abbot, a Boston mer¬ 
chant, who associated with him Phoebe Phillips, 
widow of the founder of Phillips Academy, and 
her son John; and the three drew up a consti¬ 
tution for the seminary, submitted it to the 
General Assembly June 1807, and committed it 
to the board of trustees 31 Aug. 1807. The ar¬ 
ticles were rigidly drawn to prevent the teach¬ 
ing of anything but the especial form of Cal¬ 
vinism held by the founders, the endowment 
to be forfeited if these restrictions were dis¬ 
regarded. But no such provision could be 
enforced in an age of free thought and con¬ 
sequent flux of belief without shutting up 
the seminary. The trustees have had twice 
to choose between relaxing the iron-bound 
rules of the deed and closing the doors. 
By the irony of fate the defenders against 
assaults for heresy in the one generation 
were the chief prosecutors of it in the 
next. The seminary makes no charge for 
tuition or room rent, the endowment fund 
($850,000 in 1901) providing for all; and though 
under Congregational control it is free to all 
Protestants who can present a college diploma. 
The latter requirement can be waived by the 
trustees. The library contains over 55,000 vol¬ 
umes. In 1905 there were 7 professors besides 
five lecturers and tutors. President, Charles O. 
Day, D.D. (For its foundation and history 

from a rigidly othodox standpoint see Leonard 
Woods’ Wlistory of Andover, } Boston, 1884.) 

An'dradite (named for the Portuguese 
mineralogist, d’Andrada), the common or black 
garnet. See Garnet. 

Andral, an'dral', Gabriel, a distinguished 
French physician and pathologist: b. in Paris, 
6 Nov. 1797; d. 13 Feb. 1876. In 1827 he was 

called to the chair of hygiene, in 1830 to that 

of pathology in the University of Paris. An¬ 
dral may be said to have been the first to 

apply an analytical and inductive method to 
pathology. His ( Medical Clinic ) (1824) estab¬ 


lished his reputation, and his ( Summary of 
Pathological Anatomy 5 (1829) was equally suc¬ 
cessful. Other works of importance are his 
( Essay on Pathological Haematology 5 (1843) ; 
( Course in Pathology — Interne 5 ; and ( Investi¬ 
gations into the Modification of the Relative 
Proportions of Haematic (Blood) Principles. 5 

Andrassy, an'dra-shi, Julius, Count, Hun¬ 
garian statesman: b. Zempben, 8 March 1823; 
d. 18 Feb. 1900. He took part in the revolution of 
1848 and was condemned to death, but escaped 
and went into exile. Appointed premier when self- 
government was restored to Hungary in 1867, he 
became imperial minister for foreign affairs in 
1871; drew up the famous Andrassy note to the 
Porte in 1876; was a conspicuous member of the 
Congress of Berlin in 1878; negotiated the Ger- 
man-Austrian alliance with Bismarck in 1879; 
retiring the same year from public life. The 
Andrassy (( Note 55 was a declaration relating to 
the disturbed condition of Bosnia and Herze¬ 
govina, formulated by the governments of 
Austria, Russia, and Germany, with the approval 
of England and France. It commanded the es¬ 
tablishment of religious liberty, the application 
of local revenues to local purposes, and other 
reforms, and was formally presented to the 
Porte, 31 Jan. 1876. 

Andre, an'dra, or an'dri, John, a British 
soldier: b. London, of Swiss-French parentage, 
1751; executed at Tappan, N. Y., 2 Oct. 1780. 
His fate is peculiar; failure has given him a 
monument in Westminster Abbey from his own 
side, and undying romantic pity from the other, 
where success would have loaded him with in¬ 
famy from one, and made the other glad to for¬ 
get him. He entered the English army at 20, 
and was sent to Canada in 1774; November 1775 
he was taken prisoner at St. John’s by Mont¬ 
gomery’s expedition and sent to Lancaster, Pa. 
Exchanged in December 1776, he was made cap¬ 
tain in 1777, aide to Gen. Charles Grey, major in 
1778, and in 1779 aide to Clinton and adjutant- 
general of the forces in America. He owed this 
rapid advancement, as he has owed his en¬ 
shrinement by posterity, to his extraordinary 
and somewhat feminine charm of person and 
manner, which won the hearts not only of his 
chiefs and associates, but of the very officers 
who put him to death. He was full of wit and 
vivacity, a most entertaining companion, a good 
amateur musician and artist, and a fluent, pleas¬ 
ing writer, which, more than all else, made him 
Clinton’s adjutant and secretary. He was also 
a fair society poet, known in London literary 
circles; and his casual skits in verse, ( The Cow 
Chased ( Yankee Doodle’s Expedition to Rhode 
Island, 5 ( The Affair Between Generals Howe 
and Gadsden, 5 etc., were great favorites in the 
English army. During that army’s winter in 
Philadelphia, 1777-8, Andre was the promoter of 
and a chief actor in all the festal occasions and 
social events, including the ( Mischianza, 5 a pa¬ 
geant in honor of Howe on his departure. In 
1780 it fell to his official duty to conduct Clin¬ 
ton’s negotiations with Benedict Arnold (q.v.) 
for the betrayal of West Point, the key of the 
Hudson, whose command Arnold had solicited 
in order to betray it, with its magazines and the 
entire stock of powder of the American army. 
Both sides were wary and suspicious of each 
other, and Clinton uncertain of his correspond¬ 
ent’s identity or whether the affair might not be 


ANDRE — ANDREASBERG 


a trap. After various abortive attempts at a 
secret interview, Andre, on 19 September, went 
as (( John Anderson” up the Hudson in the sloop- 
of-war Vulture, nearly to the American lines 
above Fort Montgomery. The plan was to meet 
under a flag of truce, on pretense of arranging 
as to the confiscated property of the loyalist 
Col. Beverly Robinson, whose house was Ar¬ 
nold’s headquarters; but this, too, failed, and 
finally on the night of 21 September Arnold in¬ 
duced a loyalist farmer, Joshua Smith, to carry 
a packet from Robinson to a Anderson” on the 
Vulture. Andre returned with Smith, was met 
on the shore by Arnold, and after a private con¬ 
ference the two went to Smith’s house, where 
they spent the night and part of the next day 
arranging the betrayal, which was fixed for 
the day of Washington’s expected return. Ar¬ 
nold gave him six papers containing drawings 
of the West Point defenses and full information 
concerning them, and passes to return to New 
York either by land or water. He also sent 
Smith as escort, charged not to leave Andre till 
he had reached the English lines in safety. But 
in the morning the American batteries had fired 
on the Vulture and driven her so far down 
stream that the boatmen would not carry him 
to her. Andre, therefore, disguising himself as 
a civilian, set out on horseback, carrying the pa¬ 
pers in his boots. Smith, despite Arnold’s in¬ 
junction, left Andre on the way, probably in fear 
for himself. About 9 a.m. of the 23d, near Tar- 
rytown, and almost in sight of the British lines, 
he was stopped by three patriot militiamen, John 
Paulding, David Williams, and Isaac Van Wart. 
Supposing them to be Tory (( cowboys,” he told 
them he was an English officer, and offered them 
money. Finding that they were not loyalists, he 
offered more and his horse, showing also Ar¬ 
nold’s pass. Their suspicions thoroughly aroused, 
they searched him, found the papers, and car¬ 
ried him to one Lieut-Col. Jamison, who, not 
suspecting treachery on Arnold’s part, notified 
him of the capture and proposed to hand the 
prisoner over to him. The gleam of hope was 
delusive, and Andre was finally sent to Washing¬ 
ton, while Arnold fled to the Vulture and saved 
his own life. By military law Andre was, of 
course, subject to immediate hanging; but in 
consideration of his rank, Washington on 29 
September convened a military court of six 
major-generals and eight brigadier-generals, with 
Gen. Nathanael Greene as president, who unani¬ 
mously convicted him of being a spy and sen¬ 
tenced him to death on 2 October. Clinton, of 
course, did his best to save Andre, protesting 
that he was not a spy because he was under a 
flag of truce (which was false), and that his 
movements were in obedience to the directions 
of Arnold, an American commander,— a grimly 
humorous defense under the circumstances; but 
Washington replied with firm courtesy that the 
circumstances justified no exception to the rules 
of war. Andre died like a man, and need not 
be grudged our pity; but he was treated with 
a generous humanity curiously in contrast with 
the treatment accorded to Nathan Hale. 

A monument to Andre was placed in West¬ 
minster and in 1821 his remains were taken up 
and reburied near it. See Sparks, ( Life of 
Andre } in ( American Biographies ) ; Sargent, 
( Life of Andre* (1861) ; Lossing, ( Two Spies,* 
1886. Lord Mahon in his ( History of England* 


assumes Clinton’s case for Andre as good both 
in law and in equity. In 1858 Charles J. Biddle, 
a Philadelphia editor and ex-soldier, reviewed 
Mahon’s opinions before the Pennsylvania His¬ 
torical Society. See its { Memoirs,* Vol. VI. 
For documents see H. W. Smith’s ( Andreana* 
(1865) ; Dawson’s ( Collection (1866). 

Andre, an'dra, Louis Joseph Nicolas, a 

French military officer: b. in Nuits, Burgundy, 
29 March 1838. He was graduated at the Poly¬ 
technic School, and in 1865 became captain, 
serving in that capacity throughout the Franco- 
Prussian war of 1870-1. He was made general 
of brigade in 1893 and placed in charge of the 
Polytechnic School. On 29 May 1900 he was 
appointed minister of war by President Loubet, 
succeeding General the Marquis de Gallifet, 
who held the office during the exciting period of 
the Dreyfus revision. 

Andre, an'dra, St., Jacques d’Albon, Mar¬ 
quis of Fronsac, generally known as Marechal 
de St. Andre, a French nobleman, made gen¬ 
tleman of the bedchamber by Henry II. In 
1550 he was deputed to bear the collar of his 
order to Henry VIII. of England, by whom he 
was invested with that of the Garter. On his 
return he was appointed to the command of the 
army in Champagne, where he greatly dis¬ 
tinguished himself till taken prisoner at the 
battle of St. Quentin. On the death of Henry 
II. he was chosen one of the regency. Killed 
at the battle of Dreux in 1562. The Huguenots 
called St. Andre «The Harquebusier of the 
West.” 

Andrea, an'dra, Jakob, a German Protes¬ 
tant theologian: b. in Waiblingen 25 March 
1528; d. in Tubingen 7 Jan. 1590; became pro¬ 
fessor of theology and chancellor of the Uni¬ 
versity of Tubingen in 1562, and was the author 
of over 150 works, nearly all of a polemical 
character, besides being the chief author of the 
( Formula Concordise.* 

Andrea, an'dra, Johann Valentin, a Ger¬ 
man theologian: b. Herrenberg in 1586, near 
Tubingen; d. Stuttgart, 1654. He studied at 
Tubingen, became a Protestant pastor, and 
was chaplain to the court at Stuttgart. Emi¬ 
nently practical in mind, he was grieved to see 
the principles of Christianity made the subject 
of mere empty disputations, and accordingly 
devoted his life to the correction of this ten¬ 
dency of his age. His writings are remarkable 
for the wit and humor as well as for the acute¬ 
ness and moral power which they display. He 
was long regarded as the founder or restorer of 
the order of the Rosicrucians, a view based on 
his quaint but misunderstood ( Chemical Jubilee 
of Christian Rozenkreuz ) (1616). But his in¬ 
tention was certainly not to originate or promote 
a secret society of mystics, but to ridicule the 
follies of the age, including the theosophic 
Rosicrucians. He wrote mainly in Latin, but 
also in the Suabian dialect. Among the best of 
his works are his ( Menippus, or a Hundred 
Satyric Dialogues 1 * (1617), and his spiritual 
(Clerical) Relaxation (1619). 

An'drea del Sarto. See Sarto. 

Andreasberg, an-dra'as-berg, Saint, a Prus¬ 
sian mining town in the province of Hanover, 
57 miles southeast of the town of Hanover, on 
a site, 1,800 feet above sea-level, a little to the 


ANDREE — ANDREW 


southwest of the Brocken. The minerals ob¬ 
tained in the mines of the district are silver, 
copper, lead, arsenic, etc. The Samson shaft, 
2,950 feet deep, is the deepest mine in the 
Harz Mountains. Pop. 4,000. 

Andree, an'dra, Salomon Auguste, a 

Swedish aeronaut: b. in Grenna, 18 Oct. 1854; 
date of death unknown. He was educated in 
Stockholm.. In 1882 he took part in a Swedish 
meteorological expedition to Spitzbergen. In 
1884 he was appointed chief engineer to the pat¬ 
ent office, and from 1886 to 1889 he occupied 
a professor’s chair at Stockholm. In 1892 he 
received from the Swedish Academy of Sci¬ 
ences a subvention for the purpose of undertak¬ 
ing scientific aerial navigation. From that time 
he devoted himself to aerial navigation, making 
his first ascent at Stockholm in the summer of 
1893. In 1895 he presented to the Academy 
of Sciences a well-matured project for explor¬ 
ing the regions of the North Pole with the aid 
of a balloon at an estimated cost of about $40,- 
000. A national subscription was opened, which 
was completed in a few days, the king of Sweden 
contributing the sum of $8,280. With two com¬ 
panions, Dr. S. T. Strindberg and Herr Fraenck- 
ell, Andree started from Dane’s Island, Spitzber¬ 
gen, 11 July 1897. His balloon was 67 % feet in di¬ 
ameter, with a capacity of 170,000 cubic feet. 
Its speed was estimated at from 12 to 15 miles 
an hour, at which rate the Pole should have 
been reached in six days provided a favorable 
and constant wind had been blowing. Two 
days after his departure a message was received 
from Dr. Andree by carrier pigeon, which stated 
that at noon, 13 July, they were in lat. 82.2° 
and Ion. 15.5° E., and making good progress to 
the east, io° southerly. Several expeditions 
sent in search of Andree have returned without 
obtaining any further intelligence of the ex¬ 
plorer. 

Andreini, an'dra-e'ne, Giovanni Battista, 

an Italian comedian and poet: b. in Florence, 
1578; d. in Paris about 1650. From his sacred 
drama, < Adam ) (1613), Milton is by some sup¬ 
posed to have derived the idea of ( Paradise 
LostP 

An'dreolite, an'dre-o'lit (from Andreas- 
berg, in the Harz Mountains), a mineral better 
known as harmotome (q.v.). The name an- 
dreolite should be retained for it according to 
the law of priority; but mineralogists have pre¬ 
ferred to adopt the name harmotome, as given 
by Hauy, although no good reason can be as¬ 
signed for so doing. 

Andreossy, an'dra'o'se', Antoine Francois, 
Count, a French general and statesman: b. 
Castelnaudary in Languedoc, 6 March 1761; d. 
at Montaubon, 10 Sept. 1828. He entered the 
artillery in 1781, joined the revolutionists, served 
under Bonaparte in Italy and Egypt, and took 
part in the revolution of the 18th Brumaire. 
He was ambassador at London, at Vienna, and 
at Constantinople, from which latter post he 
was recalled at the restoration. He was raised 
to the peerage by Napoleon after his return 
from Elba. After Waterloo he advocated the 
recall of the.Bourbons, but, as deputy, generally 
took part with the Opposition. He was elected 
to the Academy in 1826. He was a man of em¬ 
inent scientific attainments, one of his earliest 
works being the ( Histoire Generate du Canal 


du Midi (1800). Besides his scientific works 
he wrote several military (< Memoirs.® 

An'drew, a Neapolitan king, assassinated 
with the connivance of his queen in 1345. 

An'drew, James Osgood, an American 
Methodist bishop: b. in Wilkes County, Ga., 
3 May 1794; d. in Mobile, 1 March 1871. He 
was an itinerant preacher in South Carolina 
from 1816 till consecrated bishop, 1832. His 
social relations were the immediate cause of the 
division of the Methodist Episcopal Church 
into (< North® and ® South.* His second wife 
whom he married in 1844 was a slave holder; 
and the General Conference of that year re¬ 
solved that he should <( desist from the exercise 
of his office® on the ground that the fact of 
his wife’s owning slaves (( would greatly em¬ 
barrass if not in some places entirely prevent® 
the exercise of this office. The Southern dele¬ 
gates protesting against this action, the diffi¬ 
culty was settled only by dividing the churches 
and property into the Northern and Southern 
jurisdiction. Bishop Andrew adhered to the 
South, retiring from active work in 1868. 

An'drew, John Albion, an American 

statesman, the ®War Governor® of Massachu¬ 
setts: b. Windham, Me., 31 May 1818; d. Bos¬ 
ton, 30 Oct. 1867. He was graduated from 
Bowdoin College in 1837, and practised law in 
Boston 1840-61. He was an earnest anti¬ 
slavery advocate and defended the fugitive 
slaves Shadrach, Burns, and Sims. Elected to 
the State legislature in 1858, was a delegate to 
the Chicago Convention in i860, and being nom¬ 
inated governor was elected by an immense 
majority. He forecast the war, announced in 
his message the intention to put the State mi¬ 
litia on a war footing, and privately invited co¬ 
operation from other governors. On Lincoln’s 
first call for troops, 15 April 1861, he sent them 
so promptly that on 19 April the 6th Massachu¬ 
setts shed the first blood of the war in passing 
through Baltimore, and within a week he had dis¬ 
patched to the front five regiments of infantry, 
a battalion of riflemen, and a battery of ar¬ 
tillery. In 1862 he urged the national aboli¬ 
tion of slavery and the enrollment of colored 
troops, and in 1863 sent out the first colored 
regiment, 154th Massachusetts; yet he repeatedly 
interfered to prevent harrying Southern sympa¬ 
thizers by arbitrary arrests, and after the war 
was foremost in urging conciliation and ab¬ 
stinence from vindictive or - humiliating mea¬ 
sures. He was re-elected regularly till 1866, 
when he refused further honors from pecuniary 
grounds and impaired health, continuing his law 
practice till death. He was a man of great per¬ 
sonal charm and oratorical force, intensely sym¬ 
pathetic and humane, and of simple and frank 
nature. In religion he was a moderate Uni¬ 
tarian, believing in Christ’s supernatural char¬ 
acter, and was president of the first Unitarian 
National Convention in 1865. 

An'drew, Saint, one of the twelve Apos¬ 
tles, and the brother of Peter. There are four 
important references to him in the gospels, John 
i. 40, the only account of his introduction to 
Jesus, in which as a disciple of John the Bap¬ 
tist he follows Jesus on John’s word and 
brings his brother Peter to him; John vi. 8, 
where he calls attention to the boy with the 
barley loaves, when the miracle of the loaves 


ANDREW — ANDREWS 


and fishes occurs; John xii. 22, where Philip, 
asked by the Greeks if they may see Jesus, 
consults Andrew before laying the request be¬ 
fore Jesus; and Mark xiii. 3, where he is one 
of the four who privately asked Jesus the mean¬ 
ing of his utterance about th; ruin of the tem¬ 
ple. The other two synoptics do not allude to 
him. John i. 44 says he was from Bethsaida in 
Galilee. Tradition early gave him a conspicu¬ 
ous place among the Twelve, and very impor¬ 
tant “acts of the Apostle Andrew® were in cir¬ 
culation as early as the middle of the second 
century, but have survived only in later re¬ 
casting. There were also acts of Matthew and 
Andrew, and of Peter and Andrew, and a 
“Martyrdom of Andrew.® A gospel of An¬ 
drew is mentioned later, but not otherwise 
known. A tradition of unknown date and no 
value accredits him with preaching in north 
Greece and Epirus and in Scythia, and being 
martyred on a cross shaped like an X at about 
70 A.D. 

Andrew I., a king of Hungary, 1046-1061; 
compelled his subjects to embrace Christianity, 
exiled his brother Bela, and died in battle. 

Andrew II., king of Hungary, 1205-1235, 
who fought in the crusades, and displayed 
great valor; granted the Golden Voull, styled 
the Hungarian Magna Charta. 

Andrew III., king of Hungary, 1290-1301. 
He was opposed in his claims to the throne, 
and involved in a civil war during his reign; 
he died in 1301. 

An'drew, Saint, Cross of, is a white sal¬ 
tire on a blue ground, to represent the X- 
shaped cross on which the patron saint of Scot¬ 
land suffered martyrdom, from an early date 
adopted as the national banner of Scotland. 
Tt is combined with the crosses of St. George 
and St. Patrick in the Union Jack. The Scot¬ 
tish Order of the Thistle is sometimes known 
as the Order of St. Andrew. 

An'drew, Saint, The Russian Order of, the 

most important of Russian orders, founded by 
Peter the Great in 1698. It has but one class 
and is confined to members of the imperial 
family, princes, and persons of the rank of 
general who already hold two other important 
orders. The badge of the order displays on 
the obverse the double-headed eagle, crowned, 
on which is a St. Andrew’s cross enameled in 
blue, with a figure of the saint and bearing in 
the four corners the letters S. A. P. R. (Sanctus 
Andreas Patronus Russice). 

An'drewes, Lancelot, an eminent bishop 
of the English Church: b. near Barking, Essex, 
1555; d. London, 25 Sept. 1626. Having taken 
orders he was appointed to the parsonage of 
Alton, afterward to the vicarage of St. Giles, 
Cripplegate, and in 1589 was made a prebend 
and canon of St. Paul’s, and master of Pem¬ 
broke Hall. Queen Elizabeth, esteeming him 
highly, appointed him one of her chaplains in 
ordinary, besides bestowing other preferment 
upon him; and he was in no less favor with 
James I. In 1605 he became bishop of Chiches¬ 
ter, in 1609 was translated to Ely and ap¬ 
pointed one of the king’s'privy councilors, and 
in 1618 was translated to Winchester. He was 
one of the greatest preachers of his time, and 
was one of those engaged in preparing the 
Vol. 1—34 


authorized version of the Scriptures. He left 
sermons, lectures, and other writings, a manual 
of private devotions compiled by him in Greek 
and Latin being well known through several 
English translations. 

An'drews, Charles Bartlett, an American 
jurist: b. Sunderland, Mass., 4 Nov. 1834; d. 
Litchfield, Conn., 12 Sept. 1902. He was grad¬ 
uated from Amherst College; member Con¬ 
necticut Senate 1868-9; of the House 1878; 
governor of Connecticut 1879-81; judge of the 
supreme court 1882-9, and chief justice 1889- 
1901. He presided over the Connecticut con¬ 
stitutional convention of 1902. 

An'drews, Charles McLean, an American 
historical and descriptive writer: b. in Wethers¬ 
field, Conn.,22 Feb. 1863; became professor of his¬ 
tory at Bryn Mawr College; author of historical 
Development of Modern Europe;-* ( River Towns 
of Connecticut ;> <The Old English Manor ;> 

( Contemporary Europe, 1871-1901 > (1902). 

An'drews, Christopher Columbus, an 

American diplomat and writer: b. in Hillsboro, 
N. H., 27 Oct. 1829; was brevetted major- 
general in the Civil War; United States min¬ 
ister to Sweden from 1869 to 1877, and consul- 
general to Brazil from 1882-1885. Among his 
many works are ( Minnesota and Dakota ) 
(1857) ; ( Practical Treatise on the Revenue 
Laws of the United States* (1858) ; history 
of the Campaign of Mobile > (1867), and ( Bra¬ 
zil, Its Condition and Prospects 1 * (1887). 

An'drews, Edward Gayer, an American 
clergyman: b. New Hartford, N. Y., 7 Aug. 
1825. Graduated from Wesleyan University, 
Conn. 1847; entered the Methodist ministry 
1848; principal of Casenovia Seminary, 1854-64; 
pastor in Stamford, Conn., and Brooklyn, N. 
Y., 1864-72; and elected bishop 24 May 1872. 
He visited missions in Europe and India 
1876-7; Mexico 1881; Japan and China 1889-90; 
and was delegate to English and Irish Meth¬ 
odist Churches 1894. 

An'drews, Elisha Benjamin, an American 
college president: b. Hinsdale, N. H., 10 Jan. 
1844. Served in Connecticut regiments through 
the Civil War, rising to the rank of 2nd lieu¬ 
tenant ; graduated at Brown University 1870, 
and Newton Theological Institution 1874. 
Teacher and pastor, 1874-82, professor of his¬ 
tory and political economy at Brown 1882-8; of 
political economy and finance at Cornell 
1888-9. In the year last named he was elected 
president of Brown University and under his 
administration that institution greatly increased 
its efficiency. In 1897 he resigned the presi¬ 
dency on account of criticism of his views on 
the silver question, but complied with the re¬ 
quest of his trustees to withdraw his resigna¬ 
tion. He was elected superintendent of schools 
in Chicago 1898, and in July 1900, chancellor 
of the University of Nebraska. He has writ¬ 
ten: “Institutes of General History 1 * (1887); 
“Institutes of Economics > (1892) ; “An Hon¬ 
est Dollar > (1894) ; “Wealth and Moral Law > 
(1894) ; “History of the Last Quarter Cen¬ 
tury in the United States 5 (1896). Colby Uni¬ 
versity conferred on him the degree of D.D., 
and the University of Nebraska that of LL.D. 

An'drews, Ethan Allen, an American 
scholar: b. New Britain, Conn., 7 April 1787; 
d. there 4 March 1858. Graduated at Yale in 


ANDREWS 


1810, studied law and practised for some years. 
Then taught ancient languages in University 
of North Carolina, the New Haven gymna¬ 
sium, 1822-9; established New Haven Young 
Ladies’ Institute, 1830; succeeded Jacob Ab¬ 
bott as head of a young ladies’ school in Bos¬ 
ton 1833-9. Returning to New Britain he de¬ 
voted himself to the publication of a series of 
Latin text-books, which soon became widely 
used throughout the United States. The most 
important of these were ( Andrews’ and Stod¬ 
dard’s Latin Grammar 5 ; and ( Latin-English 
Lexicon 5 (1850), an abridged translation, with 
alterations and additions, of Freund’s ( Worter- 
buch der Lateinischen Sprache. 5 

Andrews, George Pierce, American jurist: 
b. North Bridgeton, Maine, 29 Sept. 1835; d. 
New York 24 May 1902. He was educated at 
Yale, studied law and was admitted to the bar 
in 1861. He was United States district attorney 
for six years, assistant and corporation counsel, 
New York, 1872-84, and associate justice of the 
New York supreme court, 1884-1901. He was 
esteemed a high authority on municipal and cor¬ 
poration law and his opinions in tax cases were 
especially valued. A very notable event in his 
career was his conviction of Capt. Nathaniel 
Gordon in i860 for slave trading. Gordon was 
captured with a crew of nearly 900 negroes, was 
twice tried for piracy and finally convicted as a 
result of the convincing argument of Andrews. 
It is generally conceded that the conviction and 
execution of Gordon ended the slave trade in the 
United States. It had existed for more than 
300 years, and for 42 years after Congress had 
made it piracy, punishable with death. Thou¬ 
sands of negroes had suffered tortures on the 
long voyages between African and American 
ports, and thousands more had died and been 
cast overboard, but not a person engaged in the 
nefarious traffic had been punished in this coun¬ 
try until Mr. Andrews obtained the conviction 
and execution of Gordon. Prior to that event 
130 vessels had been engaged in the slave trade, 
and New York was their headquarters. See 
United States — Slavery in the. 

An'drews, Jane, an American juvenile 
story-writer: b. in Massachusetts . in 1833; d. 
1887. Among her stories for children which 
have enjoyed great popularity are ( Seven Little 
Sisters Who Live on the Round Ball That 
Floats in the Air 5 (1876) ; ( The Stories Mother 
Nature Told ) ; ( The Seven Little Sisters Prove 
their Sisterhood ) (1878) ; ( Ten Boys on the 
Road from Long Ago to Now > (1885) ; ( Only 
a Year and What It Brought 5 (1887). 

An'drews, John N., an American military 
officer: b. in Delaware, 1838; d. 1903. He was 
graduated at West Point in i860; served with 
distinction through the Civil War; commissioned 
colonel of the 12th United States infantry in 1895 ; 
and appointed a brigadier-general of volunteers 
for the Spanish war, 1898, and retired 1 April 1899. 

An'drews, Lorrin, an American mission¬ 
ary: b. East Windsor, Conn., 29 April 1795; d. 
Honolulu, 29 Sept. 1868. He was educated at 
Jefferson College and Princeton Theological 
Seminary; missionary in the Hawaiian Islands, 
1827, until, in 1840, from anti-slavery scruples, 
he resigned connection with the American 
Board. He became a judge and secretary of the 
privy council, 1845-55 1 translated a part of the 
Bible into Hawaiian and compiled the following 


works: ( Vocabulary of Words in Hawaiian 5 
(1836) ; ( Grammar of the Hawaiian Language > 
(1854) ; dictionary of the Hawaiian Language 1 * 
(1865) ; all published in the island. 

An'drews, Samuel James, an American 
clergyman: b. Danbury, Conn., 31 July 1817; 
d. 11 Oct. 1906. Graduated at Williams Col¬ 
lege, 1839, he was admitted to the bar in Con¬ 
necticut and Ohio and practiced law in those 
States 1842-4. He then studied at Lane Theo¬ 
logical Seminary; ordained in Congregational 
ministry, 1846; pastor, East Windsor, Conn., 
1848-55; adopted the Irvingite doctrines and 
was in charge of a Catholic and Apostolic Church 
congregation in Hartford, Conn., from 1868. 
Author of ( Life of Our Lord Upon Earth 5 
(1862); ( God’s Revelations of Himseif to Men 5 
(1885) 1 Christianity and Anti-Christianity in 
Their Final Conflict 5 (1898) ; ( William Watson 
Andrews: A Religious Biography 5 (1900); 
( Man and the Incarnation 5 (1903). 

An'drews, Stephen Pearl, an American 
author: b. Templeton, Mass., 22 March 1812; d. 
New York city, 21 May 1886. Educated at Am¬ 
herst; practised law in New Orleans and Texas. 
His enthusiastic advocacy of the abolition of 
slavery took him to England in 1843 to raise 
money to pay for the slaves and make Texas 
free. He learned in England phonography, and 
became the founder in this country of the 
present system of phonographic reporting, edit¬ 
ing journals devoted to it, and publishing nu¬ 
merous instruction books. Early in life he 
announced the discovery of the unity of law in 
the universe, and devoted the last half of his 
life to developing this philosophy, called by 
him <( Integralism, 5) and to the construction of a 
universal language which he named <( Alwato, )5 
as a part of this system of (( universology. )5 He 
spoke several languages and is said to have had 
a knowledge of thirty. In 1882 he instituted the 
Colloquium, 55 a series of conferences for the 
exchange of opinions between leading New York 
clergymen and others of the widest diversity of 
religious, philosophical, and political views. His 
chief works are ( Discoveries in Chinese 5 
(1854) ; ( Synopsis of Universology and Alwato 5 
(1871); ( Basic Outline of Universology 5 

(1872) ; ( Grammar of Alwato 5 (1877) 1 ( Trans- 
actions of the Colloquium, 5 (Vols. I., II., 
1882-3) 1 ( The Church and Religion of the Fu¬ 
ture 5 (1886). 

An'drews, William, an English author and 
compiler: b. Kirkby Woodhouse, Nottingham¬ 
shire, 11 Aug. 1848. He established the Hull 
Press in 1890, and is the librarian of tne Royal 
Institution at Hull. Among his many publica¬ 
tions are ( 01 d Church Lore 5 (1891) : ( Bygone 
England 5 (1892) ; ( Modern Yorkshire Poets 5 ; 

( Historic Byways and Highways 5 ; ( Bygone 

Punishments. 5 

An'drews, William Draper, an American 
inventor: b. Grafton, Mass., 1818; d. 1896. In 
1844 he invented the centrifugal pump which 
made it possible to save goods not injured by 
water from abandoned wrecks; the pump was 
manufactured in England as the Gwynne pump • 
was patent^ in the United States in 1846. 
Later he invented and patented the anti-friction 
centrifugal pump; made various modifications 
of centrifugal pumps, ana patented a widelv- 
used system of gangs of tube-wells. 


ANDROCONIA — ANDROS 


Androconia, an'dro-co'm-a, certain highly- 
modified scent-scales shaped like battledores, 
on the wings of certain butterflies and caddis 
flies (Trichoptera) . In certain butterflies 
(Thecla, Danais, etc.) they occur on the upper 
side of the fore wings in limited areas, such as 
ir. the discal spots, or they may be scattered in 
rows or irregularly over the upper surface, 
or in the folds of the wings. Fritz Muller has 
shown that these minute scales function as 
scent-scales, and are confined to the males. 
Thomas has proved by sections of the wings of 
Danais, etc., that the androconia arise from 
glands situated in a fold of the wing, and that 
the material elaborated by the local glands, and 
distributed upon the surface of the wing by the 
androconia is that which gives to many of the 
Lcpidoptera their characteristic odor. Scudder, 
who named them, says that they are very capri¬ 
cious in their occurrence. A number of allied 
genera may possess them, while a single genus, 
as closely allied, may be quite destitute. They 
occur in the Nymphalidce, Pieridce, Lycccinidoc, 
Papilionidce, and Hesperidce. 

Andromachus, an-drom'ak-us, a physician 
tc the Emperor Nero, and the inventor of a cele¬ 
brated compound medicine called theriake, de¬ 
scribed in Galen’s works. 

Andronicus I., an'dro-ni'cus (Comnenus), 
a Byzantine emperor: b. mo; d. 12 Sept. 1185. 
In his youth he served against the Turks, in 
1141 was for some time a prisoner, and was 
afterward appointed to a military command in 
Cilicia, but was unsuccessful. Engaging in a 
treasonable correspondence with the king of 
Hungary, he was thrown into prison by his 
cousin, the Emperor Manuel; but after 12 years 
he succeeded in making his escape and reached 
Kiev, the residence of Prince Jaroslav. He re¬ 
gained the favor of his cousin by persuading 
Jaroslav to join him in the invasion of Hungary, 
and by his gallantry in that war; but again in¬ 
curred his displeasure and was sent in honor¬ 
able banishment to Cilicia. After a pilgrimage 
to Jerusalem and his scandalous seduction of 
Theodora, the widow of Baldwin, king of Je¬ 
rusalem, he settled among the Turks in Asia 
Minor with a band of outlaws, making frequent 
inroads into the province of Trebizond; but 
at length made his peace with the emperor and 
was sent to CEnoe in Pontus. Upon the death 
of Manuel in 1182 he was recalled to become, 
first guardian, then colleague, of the young Em¬ 
peror Alexius II. Soon after he caused the 
empress-mother to be strangled, and afterward 
Alexius himself, whose youthful widow he mar¬ 
ried. His reign, though short, was vigorous, 
and restored prosperity to the provinces; but 
tyranny and murder were its characteristics in 
the capital. At last a destined victim, Isaac 
Angelus, one of his relatives, having fled to the 
Church of St. Sophia for sanctuary, a crowd 
gathered, and a sudden insurrection placed Isaac 
on the throne, while Andronicus, now 73 years 
of age, was put to death by the infuriated popu¬ 
lace after horrible mutilations and tortures. 

Andronicus of Rhodes, a Roman philoso¬ 
pher who interpreted the works of Aristotle 
(q.v.). He lived in Cicero’s time. None of his 
known works are extant. 

Andropogon, an'dro-po'gon, a genus of 
about 200 species of grasses of very diverse util¬ 


ity, distributed widely, especially over dry plains 
throughout the temperate and tropical zones. 
The species are usually characterized by long, 
narrow leaves; terminal and axillary spikes; ses¬ 
sile perfect spikelets paired with pedicelled 
staminate, empty ones or scales; and straight or 
twisted awns. A. halepensis, or Sorghum hale- 
pense of some authors, Johnson grass, attains a 
height of from 3 to 6 feet from stout, perennial 
creeping rootstocks, which being difficult to 
eradicate make the plant a troublesome weed 
where not needed for pasture or hay, for which 
it is largely grown in South America, Australia, 
and the southern United States, where it was 
introduced about 1830. It makes quick growth, 
yields abundantly, and may be cut several times 
in a season. It is not fully hardy in the north, 
where, as in Europe, it is often grown for orna¬ 
ment. A. schoenanthus, lemon grass, and A. 
nardus, citronella grass, are handsome tropical 
species cultivated in India and Ceylon for the 
fragrant oils they contain, and which are used 
in perfumery, soap-making, and in the former 
case for the adulteration of certain perfumes, 
notably attar of roses. A. sorghum, or Sorghum 
vulgare of some authors, is of wide economic 
importance, its numerous varieties or sub-species 
being cultivated for fodder, sugar, alcohol, 
brushes, brooms, and its seeds, which last are 
used for poultry, stock, and human food. (See 
Sorghum.) A. provincialis, A. scoparius, and 
various other species known as blue-stem grass, 
are valued as fodder grasses in arid regions 
where they are native. 

Andros, Sir Edmund, an American colo¬ 
nial governor: born in London, England, 6 Dec. 
1637; died there 24 Feb. 1714. His father was 
master of ceremonies to Charles I.; shared with 
distinguished service the Stuarts’ exile, made his 
son a page, and put him early into the army of 
Henry of Nassau. His uncle was cupbearer 
to Charles’ sister, the queen of Bohemia, and in 
1660 Edmund was made her gentleman in 
ordinary. Her adviser in her widowhood was 
William, Earl of Craven, and Andros in 1671 
married the sister of Craven’s kinsman and heir. 
He earned the favor of the Stuarts by steady 
and laborious service, unwavering loyalty and 
honor, and a military and executive ability which 
was equally appreciated by their successors. In 
1666 he was made major of an infantry regi¬ 
ment and sent to America, where he won laurels 
against the Dutch, and in 1672 was titular com¬ 
mander of the British forces in Barbados, with 
the reputation of being skilled in American 
affairs. At this time he was in England, and in 
April 1672 was made major in a regiment of 
dragoons raised for Prince Rupert; also a <( land- 
grave® in Carolina, two years later succeeding 
his father as bailiff of Guernsey. 

In 1674 Andros was made <( lieutenant and 
governor® of (( all the Duke of York’s territories 
in America,® including New York (just restored 
by the Dutch, who had retaken it the year be¬ 
fore), New Jersey, and Delaware, Martha’s 
Vineyard, and parts of Maine, and a claim to all 
Connecticut west of that river. He arrived in 
November, and the next year began to push the 
Connecticut claim; but the duke did not desire 
an appeal to force, and after making formal 
declarations at Saybrook, Andros retired. Dur¬ 
ing the next two years the Indian troubles were 
acute; and he proved himself one of the ablest 


ANDROS 


and most useful of Indian managers, winning 
the good will of the Iroquois at a critical time, 
and not only keeping his own colony protected, 
but sending help to the outlying points in Rhode 
Island, Massachusetts, and Maine. He spent a 
few months in England in 1677-8, and was 
knighted. In 1678-80 there was increasing fric¬ 
tion, religious and otherwise. He was an Epis¬ 
copalian, and one of his appointees to a coadj tu¬ 
torship in an Albany church was tried for 
heresy, but acquitted; Andros, however, tactfully 
quieted the disturbance and contributed to build 
a Reformed church in New York. Then the 
merchants charged him with unfairness in trade 
matters, and with suppressing part of his re¬ 
ceipts in his public accounts, with the object of 
inducing James to sell to some of them the 
right to farm the New York revenues. At this 
period Philip Carteret was acting as governor 
of East Jersey under the Duke of York’s grant 
to his brother and Berkeley; there were compli¬ 
cations inherited from previous changes which 
forced Andros to keep interfering, under his 
superior commission, and at last he sent a body 
of soldiers to seize Carteret and bring him to 
New York, to be tried for exercising illegal 
jurisdiction. Andros acted as judge, but the 
jury acquitted Carteret, who was triumphantly 
reinstalled. Lady Carteret complained to James, 
who recalled Andros, and sent out a commis¬ 
sioner to investigate this and the other charges: 
he reported that Andros was not in fault, but the 
latter was retained at home, made gentleman of 
the privy chamber to Charles II., and received a 
99-years’ grant of the island of Alderney and 
other favors. 

The accession of James II. (February 1685), 
brought him a great though ill-starred position, 
which has loaded his memory with unjustifiable 
abuse. The Massachusetts charter had been va¬ 
cated in October 1684, and Charles II. had ap¬ 
pointed the notorious Col. Piercy Kirke govern¬ 
or ; but as he never entered on his duties, Andros 
was commissioned governor of all New Eng¬ 
land as one consolidated colony on 3 June 1686. 
Dislike to James has done injustice to the 
scheme, which was statesmanlike, distasteful as 
it was to the New Englanders: to make one 
powerful province with a militia army strong 
enough to resist French and Indian aggres¬ 
sion, and under one command, instead of sev¬ 
eral weak ones fighting each other rather than 
the common enemy. As to Andros, the plan 
was not his, there is no evidence that he sought 
the place, there was no reason why he should 
not accept it, and there was no way to execute 
it but the one he adopted: we cannot justify 
the end and blame the indispensable means. He 
could only be blamed for needless harshness 
or blundering or corruption in obeying his in¬ 
structions ; and despite the current opinion 
there was none of this, but rather the re¬ 
verse. On arriving at Boston, 19 Dec. 1686, 
he organized his new government, which, 
as the people had no longer the right to tax 
themselves, levied a new tax, which, however, 
was exactly the same as the old. Ipswich 
refused to pay, and the ringleaders were 
fined and imprisoned, as must happen un¬ 
der any law. He was ordered to proclaim 
all land titles invalid unless confirmed by 
the Crown for a quit-rent. Outrageous as 
this may seem, it was held to be sound 


law, and he enforced it in the most hu¬ 
mane way by bringing test suits against a few 
of the wealthiest citizens before proceeding 
further. As a fact, only a part had yielded 
when the Revolution interrupted it. He granted 
waste common-lands to individuals who would 
improve: a venial crime. Heavy fees were 
charged by the public officials; but he neither 
fixed the rates, received the proceeds, nor ap¬ 
pointed the officers who did. He had Episcopal 
services held in the Old South Church, but 
only when its regular congregation was not 
using it; this sacrilege, however, has blackened 
his memory worse than anything else. He was 
sometimes sharp in speech; but when some 
wickedly foolish people charged him with se¬ 
cretly fomenting an Indian war, he only 
laughed at them and left the courts to attend 
\o the matter. In a word, there was neither a 
political nor a religious reign of terror set 
up: no one was persecuted for nonconformity, 
or executed or whipped for political offenses. 
Andros behaved like a statesman, an honest 
man, and a humane one. He early extended his 
authority over Plymouth, New Hampshire, and 
Rhode Island, as well as Maine and Massachu¬ 
setts. In October 1687 he visited Hartford, to 
take up the Connecticut charter: the story of 
its being hidden in the Charter Oak is classic, 
and it is certain enough that one copy was hid¬ 
den and was efficient in restoring the charter 
rights of the colony later; but there was another 
copy and the event was of no significance at 
the time. Andros, on returning to Boston in 
1688, received the news that he was made gov¬ 
ernor also of all the British provinces in 
America except Pennsylvania, Delaware, Mary¬ 
land, and Virginia. While making a tour of 
his northern provinces he was checked by the 
information that the Penobscot Indians, stirred 
up by Castine (q.v.), whose property had been 
taken, were about to go on the war-path. He 
collected 700 troops, and in November pro¬ 
ceeded to Maine and garrisoned several posts. 
On 4 April 1689 news was received of the de¬ 
position of James II.; on the 18th the citizens 
rose and captured Andros, and kept him pris¬ 
oner till 2 August, when he escaped to New 
York, but was recaptured and brought back, 
and not released till February 1690. William 
III. needed officials as able and upright as he, 
and in 1692 made him governor of Virginia. 
He carried with him the charter of William 
and Mary College, and till. 1698 remained in 
Virginia, a most public-spirited, hard-working, 
excellent ruler, doing much for the progress of 
the colony and esteemed by its people. His 
removal was caused by a quarrel with the com¬ 
missary of the Bishop of London, and president 
of the college, who quarreled with all the gov¬ 
ernors. He was governor of Guernsey 1704-6, 
and bailiff of the island for life. He had been 
governor of every mainland English province 
in North America, and won the esteem of four 
successive monarchs, of hostile lines. Even for 
New England, his departure was not an un¬ 
mixed good, for it was followed by one of her 
bloodiest and most disastrous Indian wars, 
which his presence might have averted. 

An'dros Islands, a group of islands of the 
West Indies belonging to the English colony of 
the Bahamas, about 150 miles southeast of 
Florida. 


ANEMOMETER — ANEURISM 


Anemometer, an-e-mom'e-ter (from the 
Greek words anemos, “wind,® and metron, 
“measure®), an instrument for measuring the 
velocity of an air current, or the force such a 
current exerts against an obstacle. The two 
problems here suggested are widely different in 
nature ; for while the velocity of an air current 
can easily be obtained with a fair degree of pre¬ 
cision, the determination of the wind pressure 
exerted against buildings and other structures 
involves many considerations that cannot be 
overlooked without falsifying the results. The 
problem of wind pressure is so complicated, in 
fact, that the numerous forms of apparatus pro¬ 
posed for its solution are mostly unreliable, mis¬ 
leading, and incapable of furnishing even ap¬ 
proximate values of the real forces in play. 
For further discussion of the force of the wind 
see Wind. 

Of the numerous forms of anemometer pro¬ 
posed for the determination of the velocity of 
an air current, only two are in general use. 
These are (i) Robinson’s, and (2) Casella’s. 
The Robinson instrument is designed for mete¬ 
orological use, and consists of four hemispher¬ 
ical cups, mounted upon horizontal arms, and 
capable of rotating freely about a vertical axis. 
The wind strikes the convex surfaces of the 
cups on one side of the axis of rotation, and the 
concave surfaces on the other side; and as it 
exerts more force against a concave surface than 
against an equal convex one, the system of arms 
and cups is caused to rotate continuously, with 
a speed depending upon the velocity of the 
wind. Dr. Robinson, the inventor of this type 
of instrument, concluded that the linear speed 
of the centre of the cups is one third of the 
velocity of the wind causing the rotation, but it 
is now certain that this ratio varies somewhat 
with the proportions of the arms and cups, and 
that the real velocity of the wind may be from 
2.5 to 3-5 times as great as that of the centre of 
the cups. Before accurate results can be ob¬ 
tained from a Robinson anemometer of given 
proportions it is therefore necessary to deter¬ 
mine the constant of this particular design of 
instrument experimentally, either by exposing 
it by the side of another instrument previously 
studied, or by whirling it through the air at the 
extremity of a revolving arm whose speed of 
rotation is known. The Robinson anemometer 
is the official instrument of the United States 
Weather Bureau for the measurement of wind- 
velocities. 

The Casella anemometer is designed for 
measuring the velocities of air currents in mines, 
ventilating shafts, and like places. It consists 
essentially of a set of spokes radiating from an 
axis and each carrying at its extremity a small 
fan or blade, set at an oblique angle to the cen¬ 
tral shaft. The instrument is placed in the cur¬ 
rent whose velocity is to be measured, its axis 
of rotation being set parallel to the direction 
of flow of the air. The velocity of the current is 
determined by observing the number of revolu¬ 
tions made by the fan in a given time, as re¬ 
corded upon a graduated dial whose index is 
actuated by the fan, through a suitable train of 
wheels. In some forms of the Casella anemom¬ 
eter a half-minute sand glass is provided, which, 
when inverted, automatically throws the re¬ 
cording needle into gear and out again. It is 
hardly, necessary to add that the Casella instru¬ 
ment, like the Robinson, must be carefully 


tested by experiment, or by comparison with 
another instrument which has been so tested, 
before its indications can be considered reliable. 

(See Abbe’s ( Meteorological Apparatus and 
Methods,* also Prof. C. F. Marvin’s paper in 
the ( Report, for 1890, of the Chief Signal Of¬ 
ficer of the United States Army.*) 

Anemone, a-nem'o-ne, wind-flower, a 
genus of plants belonging to the Buttercup 
family ( Ranunculacece ) containing many species 
found in temperate regions. Many of them 
occur in the United States, where their bloom 
whitens the fields in spring and summer. The 
most important are: A. nemorasa, the com¬ 
mon wood-anemone; flowers white, externally 
tinged with purple; A. patens mittalania , the 
American Pasque flower; A. quinquefolia, A. 
caroliniana, and A. narcissiUora, found in moun¬ 
tainous regions. 

An'eroid Barometer, a species of barom¬ 
eter in which no fluid is employed, an ingen¬ 
ious and delicate instrument invented by M. 
Vidi, of France, in 1844. Its mechanism consists 
of a hollow metal cylinder, with thin and cor¬ 
rugated ends, which contract or expand accord¬ 
ing to the pressure of the atmosphere, the air 
within having been previously exhausted by the 
air-pump. The motion of the ends of the cylin¬ 
der acts upon a principal lever attached to it, 
and connected with two smaller levers, to one 
of which a chain is attached, working upon a 
roller, and to the axis of the roller a hand is 
fixed, exhibiting the variations of the atmosphere 
by means of an index on the face of the barome¬ 
ter. A pocket aneroid is very useful for mea¬ 
suring small heights. See Barometer. 

An'eurism, a disease of the walls of the 
arteries resulting in the formation of a pulsating 
sac or swelling. At times the disease process 
leads to rupture of the walls of the blood-vessels 
with an extravasation of blood into the adjacent 
tissues, making a tumor-like formation. Such 
an aneurismal swelling is known as a false 
aneurism. In the true aneurism the sac is 
formed by one or more of the arterial coats. 
True aneurisms vary in shape and size, being 
fusiform, cylindrical, cirsoid (in which a branch 
of the artery is included in the swelling), cir¬ 
cumscribed, or sacculated. Most aneurisms are 
fusiform, the dilatation of the vessel usually be¬ 
ing uniform. Another type of aneurism usually 
occurring in the aorta is known as a dissecting 
aneurism. In this the inner wall of the artery 
ruptures and the blood dissects its way between 
the coats of the artery wall. When an aneuris¬ 
mal swelling occurs at the junction of an artery 
and a vein, an arterio-venous aneurism results. 
Aneurismal varix is a type of this form of 
aneurism. 

The causes of aneurisms are manifold. The 
most important feature is a chronic disease of 
the connective tissue of the blood-vessels, arte- 
rio-sclerosis (q.v.) that results in the weaken¬ 
ing of the wall and gradual distention of the 
vessel with the formation of a sac. The symp¬ 
toms are often extremely obscure and depend in 
large part on the presence of a tumor that makes 
pressure symptoms on important organs. These 
will vary widely according to the situation of 
the aneurism. The treatment is largely sur¬ 
gical and the details are dependent upon the 
variety and situation of the aneurismal swelling. 


ANGEL OF THE BATTLEFIELD—ANGLES 


Angel of the Battlefield. See Anthony, 
Sister. 

Angell, an'jel, George Thorndike, Ameri¬ 
can reformer: b. Southbridge, Mass., 1823. He 
was graduated at Dartmouth College in 1846, 
and admitted to the bar in 1851. He has been 
active in promoting measures for the prevention 
of crime, cruelties, and the adulteration of food. 
He founded and is president of the American 
Humane Educational Society. 

Angell, James Burrill, an American 
educator: b. in Scituate, R. I., 7 Jan. 1829. He 
was graduated from Brown University in 1849; 
and was professor of modern languages and lit¬ 
erature there, 1853-60; editor Providence Jour¬ 
nal, 1860-6; president of the University of Ver¬ 
mont, 1866-71; president of the University of 
Michigan since 1871. United States minister to 
China, 1880-1 ; minister to Turkey, 1897-8; mem¬ 
ber of the Anglo-American Commission on 
Canadian Fisheries, 1887, and of the Deep Water¬ 
ways Commission, 1896. Author of ( Manual of 
French Literature ) (1857); ( Progress in In¬ 
ternational Law 5 (1875) ; and many articles in 
the leading American reviews. 

Angell, Joseph Kinnicut, an American 
legal writer: b. Providence, R. I., 30 April 
1794; d. Boston, Mass., 1 May 1857. Graduated 
at Brown University, 1813. Edited the ( Law 
Intelligencer and Review, 5 1829-31, and pre¬ 
pared the first published law reports of Rhode 
Island. Alone or in collaboration he produced a 
number of valuable and much used legal text¬ 
books, chief of which are, ( Treatise on Corpora- 
tions ) (4th ed. 1858), highly commended by 
Chancellor Kent; ( Common Law in Relation to 
Watercourses 5 (4th ed. 1850) ; ( Liabilities and 
Rights of Common Carriers 5 (2d ed. 1845) ; 
( Law of Fire and Life Insurance. 5 

Angelo, an'jelo, Michael. See Michelan¬ 
gelo. 

Angelus, the Catholic prayer and practice 
by which the mystery of the Incarnation is re¬ 
called to mind and is honored, morning, noon, 
and evening. It forms the subject of a famous 
painting by Millet (q.v.). 

Angi'na Pec'toris, a symptom of dis¬ 
ordered heart action, frequently called a neuro¬ 
sis. It is a rare disease and is characterized 
by paroxysmal attacks of excruciating pain in 
the heart region. These pains frequently radi¬ 
ate into the arms and neck and sometimes are 
so severe as to cause a sense of suffocation and 
jfear of death. It is a suffocative breast pang. 
True angina pectoris — for there are false varie¬ 
ties that occur largely in hysterical and neu¬ 
rasthenic women —often causes death, whereas 
the false variety is rarely as severe and never 
fatal. Men are more frequently affected than 
women, and it is a disease of adult life. It is 
sometimes found in families for several genera¬ 
tions. Gout, syphilis, diabetes, excessive tea or 
coffee drinking, and even influenza are im¬ 
portant factors in bringing about certain changes 
in the arteries, notably the coronary arteries of 
the heart, that are nearly always found as con¬ 
comitants of this condition. This change of the 
arteries is a true arterio-sclerosis (q.v.). The 
attacks are usually brought on by sudden acute 
exercise, or by marked emotional excitement, 
notably worry and anger. 


References .— Osier, ( Lectures on Angina 
Pectoris 5 (1897) ; Hoffman, <Die Herzneurosen 
und die funktionellen Kreislaufstorungen 5 

(1903). 

An'gle, the point where two lines meet, or 
the meeting of two lines in a point. Techni¬ 
cally, the inclination of two lines to one another. 
A plane angle is the inclination of two lines to 
one another in a plane, which two lines meet 
together. A solid or polyhedral angle is that 
made by the meeting in one point of more than 
two plane angles, which, however, are not in 
the same plane. A dihedral angle is formed by 
the intersection of two planes. Angles may 
again be subdivided into rectilinear, curvilinear, 
and mixed angles. A plane rectilinear angle is 
the inclination to each other of two straight 
lines which meet but are not in the same 
straight line. A curvilinear angle is the in¬ 
clination to each other of two curved lines 
which meet in a point, and is equal to the in¬ 
clination of the tangents to the curves at their 
intersection. A mixed angle is one formed by 
the meeting of a curve and a straight line. 

Angles are measured by arcs, and it is im¬ 
material with what radius the latter are de¬ 
scribed. The result is generally stated in de¬ 
grees, minutes, and seconds 0 ' " ; thus 36° 14' 
23"= 36 degrees, 14 minutes, and 23 seconds. 
Angles are also measured in radians, a radian 
being the arc equal to the radius of the circle, 
or about 57.3 0 . The quadrant, or right angle, 
is also a convenient unit for many purposes. 
When an angle is isolated from other angles it 
may be named by a single letter; but when two 
or more angles meet at one point they are named 
by three letters, never by one or two. In such 
cases the letter at that point is always named 
in the middle. The point at which the lines 
forming the angle meet is called the angular 
point or vertex of the angle, and the lines 
themselves are called the sides or legs of the 
angle. 

Plane rectilinear angles are generally divided 
into right and oblique, or into right, obtuse, 
and acute. When a straight line standing upon 
another straight line makes the two adjacent 
angles (those on the right and left of it) equal 
to one another, each of them is called a right 
angle. An oblique angle is one which is not a 
right angle. An obtuse angle is that >which is 
greater than one right angle, but less than two. 
An acute angle is that which is less than a 
right angle: both are oblique. A spherical angle 
is one formed by the intersection or the meeting 
of two great circles of a sphere. 

An'gle Iron. See Rails and Structural 
Shapes. 

An'gler. See Goosefish. 

An'gles, a German tribe who probably 
lived originally on the east side of the Elbe, be¬ 
tween the Saale and Ohre rivers, whence they 
moved to what is now the district of Angeln in 
Schleswig-Holstein, lying between the territories 
of the Jutes and Saxons. They never ap¬ 
proached the Rhine and the Roman frontiers, 
hence we do not find their name mentioned by 
the Roman authors, who comprehended them, 
with many others, under the general name of 
Chauci and Germani, till the conquest of Britain 
made them better known as a separate nation. 
In the 5th century they joined their powerful 


ANGLESEY — ANGLING 


northern neighbors, the Saxons, and took part 
m the conquest of Britain, which from them 
derived its future name of England. A part re¬ 
mained in their Continental homes and gave 
their name also to the district of Angeln. 

Anglesey, an'gl’-se, Henry William Paget, 
Marquis of, an English soldier and states¬ 
man: b. 1768; d. 1854. He was educated at Ox¬ 
ford, and in 1790 entered Parliament as member 
for the Carnarvon boroughs. In 1794 he took 
part in the campaign in Flanders under the 
Duke of Y ork, and in 1808 was sent into Spain 
with two brigades of cavalry to join Sir John 
Moore, and in the retreat to Coruna commanded 
the rear guard. In 1812 he became, by his fa¬ 
ther’s death, Earl of Uxbridge. On Napoleon’s 
escape from Elba he was appointed commander 
of the British cavalry, and at the battle of 
Waterloo overthrew the Imperial Guard. For 
his services he was created Marquis of Anglesey. 
In 1828 he became lord-lieutenant of Ireland 
and made himself extremely popular, but was 
recalled in consequence of favoring Catholic 
emancipation. He was again lord-lieutenant in 
1830; but lost his popularity by opposition to 
O’Connell and his instrumentality in the passing 
of the Irish coercion acts, and he quitted office 
in 1833. 

Anglesey, an'gl’-se, or Anglesea, an island 
and county of North Wales, in the Irish Sea, 
separated from the mainland by the Menai 
Strait. It is about 20 miles long and 17 miles 
broad, with an area of 175,836 acres, of which 
fully 150,000 acres are under rotation crops and 
permanent pasture, exclusive of mountain and 
heath land used for pasturage (about 7,600 
acres). It is divided into three cantrefs, and 
each of these into two czvmwds, equivalent to 
the English hundreds. The surface of the is¬ 
land, with the exception of Holyhead, Parys, and 
Bodafon Mountains, is comparatively flat, and 
the climate, though milder than that of the ad¬ 
joining coast, is not so favorable to the growth 
of trees. There are no streams of any impor¬ 
tance, but the coast affords some natural har¬ 
bors, the principal of which are Holyhead and 
Beaumaris. The principal crops are oats, bar¬ 
ley, turnips, and potatoes. Cattle and sheep are 
the staple productions of the island, and large 
numbers of both are annually exported. Of 
minerals, Anglesey contains copper, lead, and 
silver ore, limestone, marble, asbestos, and marl, 
but the copper mines at Parys and Mona, once 
so celebrated and productive, have much de¬ 
creased in value. The Menai Strait is crossed 
by a magnificent suspension-bridge, 580 feet be¬ 
tween the piers and 100 feet above high-water 
mark, allowing the largest vessels which navi¬ 
gate the strait to sail under it; and also by the 
great Britannia Tubular Bridge, for the con¬ 
veyance of railway trains, Holyhead being the 
point of departure for the Irish mails. The 
market towns are Holyhead, Beaumaris, Llan¬ 
gefni, and Amlwch, the first-named by far the 
largest. The county itself returns a member to 
Parliament. On the coast are several small is¬ 
lands, the chief being Holyhead and Puffin Is¬ 
land. Pop. (1901) 50,590. 

An'glesite, an'gle-sit (from the island of 
Anglesea, where it was first observed, a native 
sulphate of lead, PbSCh. It crystallizes in the 
orthorhombic system and has a hardness o r 


from 2.75 to 3, and a specific gravity varying 
from 6.1 to. 6.4. It may be transparent or 
opaque, and in color white, greenish, yellowish, 
or gray. It occurs in many localities, usually 
in connection with galena, whence it is appar¬ 
ently derived by oxidation. Beautiful trans¬ 
parent crystals of it, several inches in diameter, 
are known. Anglesite, in a massive form, is ex¬ 
tensively mined as an ore of lead (q.v.). 

An gleworm. See Earthworm. 

An'glia, East, an English kingdom founded 
by the Angles (q.v.) in the 6th century in the 
eastern part of England in what now forms the 
present counties of Norfolk and Suffolk. It 
was conquered by the Danes in 878, and became 
part of the English kingdom in 921, under Ed¬ 
ward, son and successor of Alfred. The mod¬ 
ern see of Norwich corresponds in extent to the 
East Anglian kingdom, and the name East 
Anglia is still frequently employed to denote 
these two shires. 

An'glican Church. See Church of Eng¬ 
land. 

An'glin, Margaret, an American actress: 
b. in Ottawa, Canada, 1876. She studied at the 
Empire School of Dramatic Acting in New 
York city and made her debut in 1894 in ( Shen¬ 
andoah^ Her roles include Roxane with Mans¬ 
field in ( Cyrano de Bergerac,> Mimi in ( The 
Only Way,* Mrs. Dane in ( Mrs. Dane’s De¬ 
fense, 5 and Mabel Vaughn in ( The Wilder¬ 
ness^ 

An'gling is one of the words which have 
made themselves a specific meaning that has 
eluded the lexicographer, or nearly so. Of 
course it is, as he says, (( to fish with an angle 
or rod and line and bait®: but to those of the 
craft it is so much more and so much less. It 
is to fish in a certain way, and not with any 
rod and line and bait. When the real disciple 
of the gentle Izaak uses the words «Let us go 
angling,® it means Let us wander away with the 
lightest of bamboo rods, the multiplying reel, 
the thinnest and most perfect of lines, and a 
book full of artificial flies. Angling is for the 
knights of the craft, and for the kings of fight¬ 
ing fish. 

After fixing the separate pieces of his rod 
together and attaching the winch on which his 
line is wound, the angler passes the line through 
the rings along the length of the rod, and 
through the loop at the top. He then attaches 
a length of gut, and on that he fastens the 
artificial-fly hook. After unwinding as much 
of the line as will be necessary to reach the 
spot on the water where he thinks the fish is, 
he is ready for the sport. There are two 
schools of fly-casters among anglers, the old- 
fashioned wet caster, who was not restricted 
to any number of flies, and who moved up or 
down the stream casting frequently as he went, 
and the modern school of dry casters who re¬ 
strict themselves to a single artificial fly, made 
very small, dressed with upstanding wings, so 
as to ensure its floating on the surface, and 
sometimes anointed with an odorless oil to 
keep it dry. The dry caster remains inactive 
until the trout is seen to rise. 

In either school the casts are divided into 
six classes: the overhand, the underhand, the 
spray cast, the wind cast, the flip cast, and the 
switch cast. The object of them all is to cause 


ANGLO-AMERICAN COMMISSION—ANGLO-JAPANESE TREATIES 


the fly to fall upon the water as if it were a 
natural fly which had alighted on the surface 
in its natural habit, or had fallen off some over¬ 
hanging branch, or been blown from the grass 
and was floating down stream. The most com¬ 
monly used cast is the overhand. To perform 
it the angler standing on the river’s brim un¬ 
winds a few yards of his line and lets the fly 
float down stream, raising his rod until it is 
at an angle of some 60 to 80 degrees in front 
of him. With a swift movement of the wrist, 
he lifts it so that it passes over his shoulder: 
the line follows and passes away beyond it. At 
a moment only to be learned from experience, 
but which every angler soon feels, he throws the 
rod forward and onward in the direction in 
front of him which he wants the fly to take, 
and it falls there, gently. This cast is possible 
wherever there are neither trees nor rocks for 
the necessary distance behind the angler. When 
these are present the switch cast is used: in 
that the fly is drawn along the top of the 
water toward the angler’s feet, and then, lower¬ 
ing his rod by a quick downward movement, 
the line is sent forward rolling over and over 
itself in curves. When all the curves are un¬ 
wound the fly falls back into the water at the 
extreme end of the line. The first movements 
in the wind cast are the same as those of the 
switch cast: the difference is in the thrash by 
which the line is made to travel up against the 
wind. The flip cast is made by taking the fly 
between the thumb and finger, pulling the top 
of the rod down until it is a bow, and then 
letting it slip back. The force will carry the 
fly to the desired spot. The spray cast is used 
now when a great length of line is out. The 
fly is then drawn up to the feet of the angler 
and the pole thrown forward up stream, not, 
as in the overhead cast, swished behind the 
line of the shoulders. 

An'glo-Amer'ican Commission, a joint in¬ 
ternational commission appointed in 1898 by 
the United States and Great Britain for the 
negotiation of a plan for the settlement of all 
controversial matters between the United States 
and Canada. The subjects submitted for the 
consideration of the commission were officially 
determined as follows: <( The Behring Sea seal¬ 
ing question, reciprocal mining regulations, the 
preservation of the fisheries of the Great Lakes, 
the North Atlantic fishery question, the boun¬ 
dary question, the alien labor laws, and reci¬ 
procity of trade.® Lord Herschell, Sir Wilfred 
Laurier, Sir Richard Cartwright, Sir Louis H. 
Davies, and Mr. J. Charlton, a member of the 
Dominion Congress, were appointed British 
commissioners. The American commissioners 
were United States Senators Fairbanks and 
Gray, Congressman Dingley, Reciprocity Com¬ 
missioner Kasson, and ex-Secretary of State 
Foster. The commission met at Quebec, 23 
August, Lord Herschell being chosen chairman; 
W. C. Cartwright, of the Foreign Office, and 
H. Bourassa, member of Parliament for La- 
belle County, Quebec, were chosen British sec¬ 
retaries, and C. P. Anderson United States 
secretary. Later in the year an adjourned ses¬ 
sion was held in Washington, D. C., which ad¬ 
journed without practical results. 

An'glo-Amer'ican League, The, an organ- 
ization formed 13 July 1898 at a meeting 
held at Stafford House, London. Its object is to 


give practical effects to the terms of the follow¬ 
ing resolution, passed at that meeting: 

“ Considering that the peoples of the British Em¬ 
pire and of the United States of America are closely 
allied in blood, inherit the same literature and laws, 
hold the same principles of self-government, recog¬ 
nize the same ideas of freedom and humanity in the 
guidance of their national policy, and are drawn to¬ 
gether by strong common interests in many parts of 
the world, this meeting is of opinion that every effort 
should be made, in the interest of civilization and 
peace, to secure the most cordial and constant co-opera¬ 
tion between the two nations.” 

Membership is open to all British subjects 
and citizens of the United States. A strong 
and representative committee was formed, with 
the Right Hon. James Bryce, M. P., as chair¬ 
man. 

An'glo-Cath'olic, a term applied to those 
members of the Anglican communion whose 
beliefs and religious forms most nearly approach 
those of the Roman Catholic Church. Ritual¬ 
ists, as Anglo-Catholics are frequently called, 
lay especial emphasis on the (( Catholic prin¬ 
ciples® of apostolic succession, regeneration in 
baptism, the Eucharistic real presence, and the 
authority of tradition. 

An'glo-Is'raelite The'ory, a peculiar belief 
as to English origins. It assumes that the 
English are descended from the lost 10 tribes 
of Israel; but the theory is untenable on any 
scientific grounds, for the tribes vanished 
through absorption in neighboring peoples and 
were not lost in any real sense. See Streator, 
( The Anglo-Alliance in Prophecy, or the Prom¬ 
ises to the Fathers ) (1900). 

Anglo-Japanese Treaties. The first treaty 
between England and Japan was signed 30 Jan. 
1902. The text is as follows : 

The Governments of Great Britain and Japan, 
actuated solely by a desire to maintain the status 
quo and general peace in the extreme East, being 
moreover specially interested in maintaining the 
independence and territorial integrity of the Em¬ 
pire of China and the Empire of Korea, and in 
securing equal opportunities in those countries 
for the commerce and industry of all nations, 
hereby agree as follows : 

Article 1. The High Contracting Parties, 
having mutually recognised the independence of 
China and Korea, declare themselves to be en¬ 
tirely uninfluenced by any aggressive tendencies 
in either country. Having in view, however, 
their special interests, of which those of Great 
Britain relate principally to China, while Japan, 
in addition to the interests which she possesses in 
China, is interested in a peculiar degree politically, 
as well as commercially and industrially, in Korea, 
the High Contracting Parties recognise that it 
will be admissible for either of them to take such 
measures as may be indispensable in order to safe¬ 
guard those interests if threatened either by the 
aggressive action of any other Power, or by dis¬ 
turbances arising in China or Korea, and neces¬ 
sitating the intervention of either of the High 
Contracting Parties for the protection of the lives 
and property of its subjects. 

Article 2. If either Great Britain or Japan, 
in the defence of their respective interests as 
above described, should become involved in war 
with another Power, the other High Contracting 
Party will maintain a strict neutrality, and use its 
efforts to prevent other Powers from joining in 
hostilities against its ally. 


ANGLO-JAPANESE TREATIES 


Article 3 . If in the above event any other 
Power or Powers should join in hostilities against 
that ally, the other High Contracting Party will 
come to its assistance, and will conduct the war 
in common, and make peace in mutual agree¬ 
ment with it. 

Article 4 . The High Contracting Parties 
agree that neither of them will, without consult¬ 
ing the other, enter into separate arrangements 
with another Power to the prejudice of the inter¬ 
ests above described. 

Article 5 . Whenever, in the opinion of Great 
Britain or Japan, the above-mentioned interests 
are in jeopardy, the two Governments will com¬ 
municate with one another fully and frankly. 

Article 6. The present agreement shall come 
into effect immediately after the date of its signa¬ 
ture, and remain in force for five years from that 
date. In case neither of the High Contracting 
Parties should have notified twelve months before 
the expiration of the said five years the intention 
of terminating it, it shall remain binding until 
the expiration of one year from the day on which 
either of the High Contracting Parties shall have 
denounced it. But if, when the date fixed for its 
expiration arrives, either ally is actually engaged 
in war, the alliance shall, ipso facto, continue 
until peace is concluded. 

The second treaty was signed at London 12 
Aug. 1905. The following letter explains its 
objects and purposes. 

Despatch to his Majesty’s Ambassador at St. 
Petersburg, forwarding a copy of the Agree¬ 
ment between the United Kingdom and Japan, 
signed at London, Aug. 12, 1905. 

The Marquis of Lansdowne to Sir C. Hardinge 
Foreign Office, Sept. 6, 1905. 

Sir, — I inclose, for your Excellency’s infor¬ 
mation, a copy of a new Agreement concluded be¬ 
tween his Majesty’s Government and that of 
Japan in substitution for that of Jan. 30, 1902. 
You will take an early opportunity of commu¬ 
nicating the new Agreement to the Russian 
Government. 

It was signed on Aug. 12, and you will explain 
that it would have been immediately made 
public but for the fact that negotiations had 
at that time already commenced between Russia 
and Japan, and that the publication of such a 
document whilst those negotiations were still 
in progress would obviously have been improper 
and inopportune. 

The Russian Government will, I trust, recog¬ 
nise that the new Agreement is an international 
instrument, to which no exception can be taken 
by any of the Powers interested in the affairs of 
the Far East. You should call special attention 
to the objects mentioned in the preamble as 
those by which the policy of the contracting 
parties is inspired. His Majesty’s Government 
believe that they may count upon the goodwill 
and support of all the Powers in endeavouring to 
maintain peace in Eastern Asia, and in seeking 
to uphold the integrity and independence of 
the Chinese Empire and the principle of equal 
opportunities for the commerce and industry of 
all nations in that country. 

On the other hand, the special interests of 
the contracting parties are of a kind upon 
which they are fully entitled to insist, and the 
announcement that those interests must be safe¬ 


guarded is one which can create no surprise, and 
need give rise to no misgivings. 

I call your especial attention to the wording 
of Article II., which lays down distinctly that 
it is only in the case of an unprovoked attack 
made on one of the contracting parties by 
another Power or Powers, and when that party 
is defending its territorial rights and special 
interests from aggressive action, that the other 
party is bound to come to its assistance. 

Article III., dealing with the question of 
Korea, is deserving of especial attention. It 
recognises in the clearest terms the paramount 
position which Japan at this moment occupies 
and must henceforth occupy in Korea, and her 
right to take any measures which she may find 
necessary for the protection of her political, 
military, and economic interests in that coun¬ 
try. It is, however, expressly provided that 
such measures must not be contrary to the prin¬ 
ciple of equal opportunities for the commerce 
and industry of other nations. The new Treaty 
no doubt differs at this point conspicuously 
from that of 1902. It has, however, become 
evident that Korea, owing to its close proximity 
to the Japanese Empire and its inability to 
stand alone, must fall under the control and 
tutelage of Japan. 

His Majesty’s Government observe with satis¬ 
faction that this point was readily conceded by 
Russia in the Treaty of Peace recently con¬ 
cluded with Japan, and they have every reason 
to believe that similar views are held by other 
Powers with regard to the relations which should 
subsist between Japan and Korea. 

His Majesty’s Government venture to antici¬ 
pate that the alliance thus concluded, designed 
as it is with objects which are purely peaceful 
and for the protection of rights and interests 
the validity of which cannot be contested, will 
be regarded with approval by the Government 
to which you are accredited. They are justified 
in believing that its conclusion may not have 
been without effect in facilitating the settlement 
by which the war has been so happily brought 
to an end, and they earnestly trust that it may, 
for many years to come, be instrumental in secur¬ 
ing the peace of the world in those regions which 
come within its scope. — I am, &c., 

(Signed) Landsdowne. 

The text is as follows : 

Inclosure. Agreement between the United 
Kingdom and Japan, signed at London, Aug. 12, 
1905. 

Preamble. The Governments of Great Britain 
and Japan, being desirous of replacing the Agree¬ 
ment concluded between them on Jan. 30, 1902, 
by fresh stipulations, have agreed upon the fol¬ 
lowing articles, which have for their object : — 

(a) The consolidation and maintenance of the 
general peace in the regions of Eastern Asia and 
of India; 

(b) The preservation of the common interests 
of all Powers in China by insuring the indepen¬ 
dence and integrity of the Chinese Empire and 
the principle of equal opportunities for the com¬ 
merce and industry of all nations in China; 

(c) The maintenance of the territorial rights 
of the High Contracting Parties in the regions 
of Eastern Asia and of India and the defence 
of their special interests in the said regions : 

Article 1 . It is agreed that whenever, in the 


ANGLO-JAPANESE TREATIES—ANGLO-SAXON 


opinion of either Great Britain or Japan, any of 
the rights and interests referred to in the preamble 
of this Agreement are in jeopardy, the two Gov¬ 
ernments will communicate with one another 
hilly and frankly, and will consider in common 
the measures which should be taken to safeguard 
those menaced rights or interests. 

Article 2 . If by reason of unprovoked attack 
or aggressive action, wherever arising, on the 
part of any other Power or Powers either con¬ 
tracting party should be involved in war in de¬ 
fence of its territorial rights or special interests 
mentioned in the preamble of this Agreement, 
the other contracting party will at once come to 
the assistance of its ally, and will conduct the war 
in common, and make peace in mutual agreement 
with it. 

Article 3 . Japan possessing paramount politi¬ 
cal, military, and economic interests in Korea, 
Great Britain recognises the right of Japan to take 
such measures of guidance, control, and protec¬ 
tion in Korea as she may deem proper and neces¬ 
sary to safeguard and advance those interests, 
provided always that such measures are not con¬ 
trary to the principle of equal opportunities for 
the commerce and industry of all nations. 

Article 4 . Great Britain having a special in¬ 
terest in all that concerns the security of the 
Indian frontier, Japan recognises her right to take 
such measures in the proximity of that frontier as 
she may find necessary for safeguarding her 
Indian possessions. 

Article 5 . The High Contracting Parties 
agree that neither of them will, without consult¬ 
ing the other, enter into separate arrangements 
with another Power to the prejudice of the objects 
described in the preamble of this Agreement. 

Article 6 . As regards the present war be¬ 
tween Japan and Russia, Great Britain will con¬ 
tinue to maintain strict neutrality unless some 
other Power or Powers should join in hostilities 
against Japan, in which case Great Britain will 
come to the assistance of Japan, and will conduct 
the war in common, and make peace in mutual 
agreement with Japan. 

Article 7 . The conditions under which armed 
assistance shall be afforded by either Power to the 
other in the circumstances mentioned in the 
present Agreement, and the means by which such 
assistance is to be made available, will be arranged 
by the naval and military authorities of the con¬ 
tracting parties, who will from time to time con¬ 
sult one another fully and freely upon all questions 
of mutual interest. 

Article 8 . The present Agreement shall, sub¬ 
ject to the provisions of Article VI., come into 
effect immediately after the date of its signature, 
and remain in force for ten years from that date. 

In case neither of the High Contracting Par¬ 
ties should have notified twelve months before the 
expiration of the said ten years the intention of 
terminating it, it shall remain binding until the 
expiration of one year from the day on which 
richer of the High Contracting Parties shall have 
denounced it. But if, when the date fixed for its 
expiration arrives, either ally is actually engaged 
in war, the alliance shall, ipso facto, continue 
until peace is concluded. 

In faith whereof, the undersigned, duly author¬ 
ised by their respective Governments, have 
signed this Agreement, and have affixed thereto 
their seals. 


Done in duplicate at London, the 12th day ot 
August, 1905. 

Landsdowne, 

His Britannic Majesty's Principal Secretary 
of State for Foreign Affairs. 

Tadasu Hayashi, 

Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Pleni¬ 
potentiary of His Majesty the Emperor of 
Japan at the Court of St. James. 

Thus it will be seen that whereas the first 
treaty referred to China and Korea exclusively, 
and only became operative upon the intervention 
of a third Power, the treaty which is superseded 
applies also (< to the regions of Eastern Asia and 
of India, )} and becomes operative when either 
party to the agreement becomes the object of 
wanton attack or aggression with respect to the 
special interests in the regions coming within the 
scope of the agreement. In effect this new treaty 
guarantees the status quo for very nearly the entire 
continent of Asia, of course omitting Turkey. 
England will have Japan’s support to withstand 
any foreign aggression in Persia and Afghanis¬ 
tan or against India, while Japan has the offensive 
and defensive backing of England in the new rela¬ 
tions which she occupies toward Asiatic countries. 
The terms of this treaty are eminently satisfactory 
to neutral nations in that they practically give the 
(< open-door w to all and present vast permanent 
commercial opportunities. Many of the prin¬ 
ciples agreed upon and incorporated in the agree¬ 
ment were known before the Battle of the Sea 
of Japan. 

An'gloman'ia, a term denoting undiscrim¬ 
inating imitation of everything English on the 
part of persons of other nationalities. In the 
United States it is applied to a recent fad ot 
fashionable society. 

An'glo-Sax'on, the name given by modern 
historians to the Angles, Jutes, and Saxons 
who migrated to Britain from Germany in the 
5th and 6th centuries a.d. They emigrated-, 
from the districts about the mouths of the Elbv 
and Weser, and the first body of them who 
gained a footing in England are said to have 
landed in 449, and to have been lead by Hengist 
and Horsa. The Jutes settled chiefly in Kent, 
the Saxons in the southern and middle country, 
.and the Angles in the northern. Among the 
various Anglo-Saxon states that afterward arose 
those founded by the Angles first gained the 
preponderance, and gave to the whole country 
the name of Eng la-land, that is, the land of the 
Angles. 

Among the Anglo-Saxons we find the Eng¬ 
lish constitution already existing in all its essen¬ 
tials, but its origin is not to be attributed to 
Alfred, though he brought it to a greater pitch 
of completeness. In a rudimentary form it was 
the common property of the Germanic peoples 
before the emigration of the Saxons and Angles 
from the Continent. It developed itself more in¬ 
dependently, however, among the Anglo-Saxons 
than among those Teutonic races who came 
into closer connection with the Romans, and 
afterward with the Roman hierarchy. The 
Anglo-Saxon community was frequently spoken 
of as consisting of the eorls and the ceorls, or 
the nobles and common freemen. The former 
were the men of property and position, and 
were themselves divided into different ranks; 


ANGLO-SAXONS 


the latter were the small landholders, handi¬ 
craftsmen, etc., who generally placed them¬ 
selves under the protection of some nobleman, 
who was hence termed their hlaford or lord. 
Besides these there was the class of the serfs 
or slaves ( theowas ), who might be either born 
slaves or freemen who had forfeited their lib¬ 
erty by their crimes, or whom poverty or the 
fortune of war had brought into this position. 
'They served as agricultural laborers on their 
masters’ estates, and though mere chattels, as 
absolutely the property of their master as his 
cattle, their lot does not appear to have been 
very uncomfortable. They were frequently 
manumitted by the will of their master at his 
death, and were also allowed to accumulate sav¬ 
ings of their own, so as to be able to purchase 
their freedom or that of their children. 

One of the peculiar features of Anglo-Saxon 
society was the wergyld, or life-price, estab¬ 
lished for the settling of feuds. sum, paid 
either in kind or in money where money existed, 
was placed upon the life of every freeman ac¬ 
cording to his rank in the state, his birth, or 
his office. A corresponding sum was settled 
for every wound that could be inflicted upon 
his person; for nearly every injury that could 
be done to his civil rights, his honor, or his 
domestic peace; and further fines were ap¬ 
pointed according to the peculiar adventitious 
circumstances that might appear to aggravate 
or extenuate the offense. From the operation 
of this principle no one was exempt, and the 
king as well as the peasant was protected by a 
wergyld, payable to his kinsmen and his people® 
(Kemble, ( Saxons in England^. 

The king ( cyning, cyng ) was at the head of 
the state; he was the highest of the nobles 
and the chief magistrate. He was not looked 
upon as ruling by any divine right, but by the 
will of the people, represented by the witan, or 
Great Council of the nation. Accordingly we 
find that the new king was not always the direct 
and nearest heir of the late king, but one of the 
royal family whose abilities and character rec¬ 
ommended him for the office. The king was 
invested with certain honors and privileges in 
order that he might maintain his position with 
becoming dignity. Besides his wergyld as an 
aetheling or person of royal blood, his life was 
further guarded by a sum of equal amount, 
called cynebot, or price of royalty, and the for¬ 
mer sum was to be paid to his relations, the 
latter to the people. As king he held posses¬ 
sion of the Crown lands, which were national 
property, distinct from any private estates he 
might himself purchase. Among other privi¬ 
leges he was entitled to a portion of the fines 
and confiscations laid upon offenders; he had 
the right of maintaining a standing army of 
household troops, the duty of calling together 
the Council of the Witan, and of laying before 
them measures which concerned the welfare of 
the state, with certain distinctions of dress, 
dwelling, etc., all his privileges being possessed 
and exercised by the advice and consent of the 
witena-gemot, or Parliament. 

The queen also was held in high honor. She 
sat by the king in the assemblies, and she pos¬ 
sessed a separate establishment from that of the 
king, though on a smaller scale. Next in rank 
and dignity to the king were the ealdormcn. 
These were at the head of the administration 
of justice in the shires, possessing both judicial 


and executive authority, and had as their officers 
the scir-gerefan, or sheriffs. One of their most 
important functions was the leading of the 
armed force of the county, a duty which often 
fell to their share during the period of the 
Danish invasions. The ealdorman, as such, 
held possession of certain lands attached to the 
office, and he was also entitled to a share of 
fines and other moneys levied for the king’s use 
and passing through his hands. (( Thus the posi¬ 
tion which his nobility, his power, and his 
wealth secured to the ealdorman was a brilliant 
one. In fact, the whole executive government 
may be considered as a great aristocratical asso¬ 
ciation, of which the ealdormen were the mem¬ 
bers, and the king little more than the president. 
They were in nearly every respect his equals, 
and possessed the right of intermarriage with 
him; it was solely with their consent that he 
could be elected or appointed to /the Crown, 
and by their support, co-operation, and alliance 
that he was maintained there. Without their 
concurrence and assent, their license and per¬ 
mission, he could not make, abrogate, or alter 
laws; they were the principal witan or coun¬ 
sellors, the leaders of the great gamot or na¬ 
tional inquest, the guardians, upholders, and 
regulators of that aristocratical power of which 
he was the ultimate representative and head® 
(Kemble, Vol. II., p. 142). 

Under the Danish kings the ealdorman fell 
into a subordinate position, the eorl or earl tak¬ 
ing his place in the county. The ealdorman 
and the king were both surrounded by a number 
of followers called thegns or thanes, bound by 
close ties to their superior. The king’s thanes 
were the higher in rank, and formed a kind of 
nobility by themselves. They possessed a cer¬ 
tain quantity of land, smaller in amount than 
that of an ealdorman, and filled offices connected 
with the personal service of the king or with 
the administration of justice. According to 
Leppenberg they were in all respects the 
predecessors of the Norman barons. We fre¬ 
quently hear of a class of functionaries called 
gerefan or reeves, such as the scir-gerefa (shire- 
reeve or sheriff), the port-gerefa (port-reeve ), 
the tun-gerefa (farm-reeve or bailiff; Scotch, 
grieve). These, of course, had different duties 
to perform, those of the shire-reeve being the 
most important. He presided at the county 
court along with the ealdorman and bishop, 01 
alone in their absence; and had to carry out 
the decisions of the court, to levy fines, collect 
taxes, etc. In virtue of his office he had a por¬ 
tion of land allotted to him, hence called reeve- 
land. The shires were divided into hundreds 
and tithings, the former being equal to 10 of 
the latter. The tithing consisted of 10 heads 
of families, jointly responsible to the state for 
the good conduct of any member of their body. 
For the trial and settlement of minor causes 
there was a hundred court held once a month. 
The place of the modern Parliament was held 
by the witena-gemot, the representative council 
of the nation. Its members, who were not elect¬ 
ed, comprised the sethelings or princes of the 
blood royal, the bishops and abbots, the ealdor¬ 
men, the thanes, the sheriffs, etc. 

Agriculture, including especially the raising 
of cattle, sheep, and swine, was the chief occu¬ 
pation of the Anglo-Saxons. Large tracts of 
the marshy land in the east of England were 
embanked and drained by them and brought 


ANGLO-SAXON LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 


into cultivation. Gardens and orchards are fre¬ 
quently mentioned, and vineyards were common 
in the southern counties. The forests were ex¬ 
tensive, and valuable both from the mast they 
produced for the swine and from the beasts of 
the chase which they harbored. Hunting was 
a favorite recreation among the higher ranks, 
both lay and clerical. Fishing was largely car¬ 
ried on, herrings and salmon being the principal 
fish caught. The whale fishery was also pur¬ 
sued, when the Anglo-Saxon vessels used to go 
as far as Iceland. The manufactures were 
naturally of small moment. Iron was made to 
some extent, and some cloth, and salt works 
were numerous. In embroidery and working 
in gold, however, the English were famous over 
the continent, and very elegant specimens of 
gold work have come dowi^i to our times. There 
was already a considerable trade at London, 
which was frequented by Normans, French, 
Flemings, and the merchants of the Hanse 
towns. The Anglo-Saxon forefathers were no¬ 
torious for their excessive fondness for eating 
and drinking, and in this respect formed a 
strong contrast to the Normans who invaded the 
country. Ale, mead, and cider were the com¬ 
mon beverages, wine being limited to the higher 
classes. Pork was a favorite article of food, 
and so were eels, which were kept and fattened 
in eel ponds and sometimes paid as rent. The 
houses were rude, ill-built structures, mostly of 
wood and without proper chimneys, but were 
often richly furnished and hung with fine tapes¬ 
try. The dress of the Anglo-Saxons was loose 
and flowing, the materials being linen, woolen, 
and also silk; and their garments were often 
adorned with embroidery. The men looked 
upon the hair as one of their chief ornaments, 
and wore it long and flowing over their shoul¬ 
ders, while they also usually wore beards. 

Christianity was introduced among the 
Anglo-Saxons in the end of the 6th century by 
St. Augustine, who was sent by Pope Gregory 
the Great and became the first Archbishop of 
Canterbury. Kent, then under King Ethelred, 
was the first place where it took root, and thence 
it soon spread over the rest of the country. It 
must, of course, be remembered that the Britons 
and Scots had already embraced Christianity, 
and missionaries from these labored in the con¬ 
version of the Anglo-Saxons. Monasteries were 
founded at an early period and became numer¬ 
ous. For a time the Anglo-Saxon Church main¬ 
tained customs different in discipline from Rome, 
but uniformity was established in 670 by Theo¬ 
dore, the Archbishop of Canterbury. 

Anglo-Saxon Language and Literature. 

(a) Anglo-Saxon or Old English is the period 
of the English language extending from the end 
of the 5th to the end of the nth century, the 
traditional story of the coming of Hengest and 
Horsa to England in 449, and the Norman Con¬ 
quest in 1066 being convenient but arbitrary 
limiting dates. In its origins it is the language 
brought to Britain by the Teutonic conquerors 
of Roman and Celtic Britain in the 5th and 
6th centuries. These Teutonic invaders were 
of three north German tribes, the Jutes, who 
settled mainly in Kent and on the Isle of 
Wight; the Angles, who settled the country 
north of the Thames; and the Saxons, who 
settled the regions south of the Thames except 
those occupied by the Jutes. The language of 


these three tribes was a branch of the West 
Germanic group of languages, its closest re¬ 
lationships being to Frisian and Low German. 
Following the lines of the tribal settlement in 
Britain, the language of the Anglo-Saxon period 
falls into three main dialects: (1) the Anglian, 
which subdivides into the Northumbrian, spoken 
north of the Humber, and the Mercian, spoken 
by the Angles occupying the Midland counties 
between the Thames and the Humber; (2) the 
West-Saxon, spoken by the Saxons who settled 
in the regions south of the Thames; (3) the 
Kentish, spoken by the Jutes in Kent and the 
Isle of Wight. In time the Kentish speech was 
assimilated by the West-Saxon. Kentish and 
West-Saxon 'combined, thus constituting a 
southern dialect, Mercian and Northumbrian a 
northern or Anglian dialect. As the dialect in 
which a literature was first produced and as the 
speech of originally the most powerful of the 
various kingdoms established by the invaders, 
the Angles gave the name to the speech of 
the country as a whole, Englisc or Englisc 
sprccc, and to the country itself, Engla-land, 
land of the Angles. The term Anglo-Saxon 
was rarely used in the Anglo-Saxon period, and 
then only as the collective name of the people, 
not as the name of the language or of the 
country. At no time, however, in the Anglo- 
Saxon period, was a single ^standard** literary 
or colloquial speech established for all sections 
of the country, although an appearance of con¬ 
siderable uniformity is presented to us now, by 
the fact that most of the extant monuments of the 
Anglo-Saxon period are preserved only in the 
West-Saxon dialect. This is due to the im¬ 
portant unifying position which the West-Saxon 
royal house took under Egbert (802-839), and 
his successors Alfred (871-900), and Alfred's 
son Eadweard (900-924), Winchester, the capi¬ 
tal of Wessex, thus becoming the literary as 
well as the political capital of the country. 
The literature of the earlier periods, chiefly 
poetic and written in the Anglian dialect, was 
at this time translated into West-Saxon, the 
West-Saxon versions replacing the more orig¬ 
inal ones, which were thus largely lost. Since 
the body of Anglo-Saxon literature is preserved 
only in the West-Saxon dialect, it is that dialect 
which is commonly understood by the term 
Anglo-Saxon and which is usually made the 
basis of systematic presentations of the gram¬ 
mar of the language. 

Besides the natural changes in the vowel and 
consonant system to which language is always 
subject, Anglo-Saxon differs from later periods 
of English in two main respects. First, the 
inflectional system of Anglo-Saxon is relatively 
a full one. Nouns are inflected for four cases, 
nominative, genitive, dative, and accusative, and 
for three grammatical genders, masculine, fem¬ 
inine, and neuter. The definite article and the 
adjective are inflected in all the forms of the 
noun to agree with it. Adjectives are also 
inflected strong and weak, as they are in 
Modern German, according to their syntactical 
position. The verbal system, in its main out¬ 
lines the same as that of Modern English, dif¬ 
fers from the latter in the greater number of 
forms which it possesses, the subjunctive mood, 
for example, being still clearly distinguished 
both in form and use. Owing to its more com¬ 
plicated inflectional system in general, the rules 


ANGLO-SAXON LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 


of concord play a much more important part in 
Anglo-Saxon than they do in Modern English. 

1 he second main distinguishing character¬ 
istic of Anglo-Saxon as compared with the 
English of the Middle and Moder v English 
periods relates to its vocabulary. The Anglo- 
Saxon vocabulary is practically a uni-lingual 
one, whereas the tremendous transforming in¬ 
fluence of French in the 13th and 14th centuries, 
and of the Renascence in the 15th and 16th cen¬ 
turies, upon English, have changed the language 
of the later periods into abi-lingual tongue. Aside 
from an insignificant Celtic element, the greater 
but still comparatively slight influence of Latin 
learning and Latin Christianity on literary 
Anglo-Saxon, and towards the end of the 
Anglo-Saxon period, a small Scandinavian loan 
element, taken from the Danish and Norse con¬ 
querors of England, the vocabulary of Anglo- 
Saxon is an etymologically pure one. New 
ideas imported into the life of the people were 
usually expressed by means of native words, 
giving the language to the historical student, an 
appearance of homogeneity and simplicity pos¬ 
sessed by no later period of English. 

( b ) Anglo-Saxon literature is rarely pre¬ 
served in contemporary documents, the main 
reason being that, in a method of manuscript 
transmission, early monuments are gradually 
altered to fit the contemporary conditions and 
tastes of successive later generations, with the 
consequence that the originals are either lost or 
destroyed. Since most Anglo-Saxon literature 
is also anonymous, it becomes necessary to 
determine its date and authorship, so far as 
this can be done, by the internal evidence of 
the works themselves, aided by such slight out¬ 
side help as may be afforded by occasional al¬ 
lusions in contemporary historical documents. 
Chronologically we may divide the literature 
of the whole period into three main groups: 
(1) the early or Anglian period, comprising 
chiefly poetical works composed in the latter 
half of the 7th and in the 8th century; (2) 
the Early West-Saxon period, comprising 
chiefly prose works written in the time of 
Alfred the Great; (3) the Late West Saxon 
period, centering about the name of yEflfric, in 
the late 10th and the early nth centuries, com¬ 
prising mainly works in prose but also a few 
attempts at a revival of the earlier poetry. The 
body of this literature may be most conveniently 
reviewed under the two general heads of poetry 
and prose. 

Anglo-Saxon poetry has been preserved to 
modern times in several different manuscripts 
of miscellaneous content, the most important 
being the ( Vercelli Book,* or ( Codex Vercellen- 
sisF so called because the volume is now con¬ 
tained in the cathedral library at Vercelli in 
northern Italy; the ( Exeter Book,* or < Codex 
ExoniensisF still in the possession of Exeter 
Cathedral in England, to the library of which 
it was presented about the year 1050 by Bishop 
Leofric; the ( Junian manuscript* (Junius XI.), 
in the Bodleian Library at Oxford; and the 
( Cotton Manuscript* (Cotton Vitellius A XV.), 
in the British Museum, which contains the 
unique copy of the Beowulf.* These manu¬ 
scripts were all written in the late 10th and 
early nth centuries, although the period of the 
original composition of the works which they 
contain is of course much earlier. As to met¬ 


rical form, however, the whole body of this 
poetry is remarkably homogeneous, and a single 
description will answer for all of it. The nor¬ 
mal line of Anglo-Saxon verse consists of 
two halves, bound together by alliteration, 
alliteration consisting in the identity of initial 
consonants, or in the case of vocalic alliteration, 
the alliteration of any vowel with any other 
vowel. Each half line contains at least one 
alliterating syllable, although one may contain 
two and the other one, or both may contain 
two. Normally the number of alliterating syl¬ 
lables in a full line cannot be more than four 
and is usually less. Each half line contains two 
feet, the principle of the structure of the foot 
being accentual. Each half line contains at 
least two and no more heavily stressed syl¬ 
lables, the metrical stress coinciding with the 
logical stress of the words, and at least two 
unstressed syllables, although the number of 
the unstressed syllables may vary within fairly 
wide limits. According to the order of the 
stressed and unstressed syllables the half lines 
fall into a limited number of types, consecutive 
passages being made up of half lines of the var¬ 
ious types arranged in whatever order the poet 
pleases. Within the limits of its own system the 
scansion of Anglo-Saxon poetry is rigid and 
exact. The use of stanzaic forms, except in one 
or two sporadic instances, was unknown to the 
Anglo-Saxon poets. Not only in metrical form, 
but also in its use of the various devices of 
poetical ornament, the body of Anglo-Saxon 
verse is fairly constant for all periods. The 
simile is very rarely used, its place being taken 
by the metaphor of (( kenning.® Specially char¬ 
acteristic of the poetic style is the device of 
<( variation,® by which an idea once expressed is 
repeated in several different forms by the use 
of synonymous terms. This gives to the poetry 
a retarding effect which is often particularly 
noticeable, and to our modern taste, particularly 
inappropriate, in the narrative verse. The 
diction and tone of the poetry is elevated and 
dignified throughout, the poetic convention ap¬ 
parently not tolerating anything that approached 
^doggerel® in tone. 

As to its content, Anglo-Saxon poetry is 
best considered in two groups, according as it 
follows the heroic or native tradition, or the 
Christian or literary tradition. Anglo-Saxon 
poetry of the native tradition goes back in 
its origins to the earliest historical periods of 
the race. The most primitive pieces are such 
poems as the ( Widsith, ) ( The Complaint of 
Deor,* bits of popular lore such as the ( Charms* 
and Middles,* and above all the Beowulf.* Al¬ 
though given a Christian coloring here and 
there by the interpolations of later transcribers 
and redactors, this poetry is essentially heathen, 
or at least, non-Christian, in spirit. The ( Beo¬ 
wulf^ the most important single monument of 
the Anglo-Saxon period, is an heroic or epic 
poem of 3,182 full lines, telling the legendary 
and mythical deeds of a hero, Beowulf. Al¬ 
though in its present form the poem was prob¬ 
ably composed in England in the 8th century, 
by an unknown author or compiler, from a 
group of more or less loosely connected lays 
which had grown up in popular oral tradition, 
its tone is that of a much earlier period. The 
action of the poem, which falls into two parts, 
is altogether legendary and mythical. It takes 


ANGLO-SAXON LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 


place not in England, nor are any of the 
characters Anglo-Saxons. In the first part, 
Beowulf, a Geat from the Scandinavian penin¬ 
sula, comes to the great hall Heorot, the royal 
residence of the Danish king Hrothgar, probably 
on the island of Zealand, to save it from the 
ravages of the moor-dwelling monster Grendel. 
He destroys Grendel and also Grendel’s mother, 
both of whom may be interpreted in the terms 
of nature myth as symbolizing the destructive 
power of nature in certain phases, and then 
returns to his own country. In the second part, 
Beowulf, who is now an old man and has for 
many years been king of the Geats, fights with 
a terrible fire-drake that has been devastating 
his land; but the hero himself is mortally 
wounded in the combat, and the poem closes 
with the account of his death and burial. Be¬ 
side the main character Beowulf, and the myth¬ 
ological characters Grendel, Grendel’s mother, 
and the fire-drake, numerous minor characters 
are introduced and several longer episodes of 
great interest and beauty are developed. De¬ 
spite the mythological character of the main 
action, the poem is given a strong human inter¬ 
est. The tone of the narrative throughout is 
epic and warlike and the action is always 
upon an extremely noble and dignified plane. 
The ideal of character presented in the hero 
Beowulf is one of valor and power directed by 
a self-sacrificing zeal for the welfare of others. 
Aside from the ( Beowulf, ) native Anglo-Saxon 
epic poetry is limited to a fragment (48 lines) 
of what in its complete form was probably a 
poem on the same scale as < Beowulf, ) the 
fragment of the ( Battle at FinnsburhP In the 
Late West-Saxon period a revival of interest 
in the earlier heroic poetry took place, the prin¬ 
cipal results being the ( Battle of Brunanburh,* 
descriptive of a battle between the Anglo- 
Saxons and the Danes in 937, and the spirited 
and technically admirable ( Battle of Maldon,* 
descriptive of a battle which took place in 991. 
With these poems expressive of the native or 
heroic spirit should be grouped a small number 
of shorter lyric pieces, also non-Christian in 
origin and feeling, ( The Wanderer,> ( The Hus¬ 
band’s Message,* ( The Wife’s Lament,* ( The 
Seafarer,* and a group of some 90 poetical 
riddles. These poems are generally elegiac in 
tone and are often characterized by great im¬ 
aginative beauty and charm of expression. 

Anglo-Saxon poetry of the Christian tra¬ 
dition consists chiefly of the poetry of the 
Caedmonian and the Cynewulfian schools. It 
is'Christian in subject matter, but in method and 
style it resembles closely the native heroic 
poetry, a resemblance due to the conscious 
maintenance of the national and traditional po¬ 
etic style. The only early authority for the 
existence of a poet Caedmon is Bede ('Historia 
Ecclesiastical Book IV., Chapter 24) who tells 
us that Caedmon was an illiterate lay-brother of 
the monastery at Whitby (then known as 
Streonesbalh), who received miraculously the 
gift of song and who versified certain stories 
from the Old and New Testaments. The date 
at which Caedmon lived, according to Bede, 
was several generations before himself, that is 
about 650. Answering in part to Bede’s de¬ 
scription, we have still extant long versified 
narratives based on the story of Genesis, of 
Exodus, of Daniel, and of Judith. That all of 


these, however, are the work of a single poet, 
and that poet the one that Bede mentions, the 
internal evidence of the poems themselves for¬ 
bids us to believe. It is probable that the only 
actual exact specimen of the work of Caedmon 
is a short poem of nine lines known as Caed¬ 
mon’s Hymn. ) The other Caedmonic poems, al¬ 
though they have features in common, particu¬ 
larly as to style and subject matter, which 
justify holding them together in a group, are 
undoubtedly the work of various authors. 

Our information concerning a poet Cynewulf 
is derived altogether from certain poems to 
which the author has appended his signature in 
runic letters woven into the context of his 
verse. These signed poems are the Christ^ 
^Juliana,* ( Elene,* and the Cates of the Apos¬ 
tles^ The period at which Cynewulf lived and 
wrote was probably the last half of the 8th 
century, and the region in which he lived was 
probably Northumberland. Various attempts 
have been made to identify the poet with per¬ 
sons mentioned in contemporary historical an¬ 
nals, but although the name Cynewulf is of 
not infrequent occurrence, none of these attempts 
has so far proved convincing. The remaining 
important poems of the Cynewulf group, some 
of which may have been composed by Cynewulf, 
although in no instance do the proofs permit a 
positive assertion, are ( Andreas,* based on the 
apocryphal legend of Saint Andrew; < Guthlac, ) 
in praise of the English saint of that name; 
the Cream of the Cross ) ; < Phoenix, ) a Chris¬ 
tian allegorical poem; ( Harrowing of Hell,* and 
a number of shorter hymnic poems. The char¬ 
acteristics which distinguish the Cynewulfian 
from the Qedmonic poems are sharply marked. 
The subject matter of the latter is chiefly Old 
Testament story, of the former, New Testa¬ 
ment story, as in ( Christ, } and Christian legend, 
as in ( Elene,* the story of the finding of the 
( Cross* by Saint Helena, the story of Saint 
Juliana, of Saint Andrew, and of Saint Guthlac. 
The Caedmonic poetry is characterized in gen¬ 
eral by severity and simplicity of style, whereas 
the Cynewulfian poetry is highly colored and 
romantic in tone. Particularly noticeable in 
the Cynewulfian poetry is the free and often 
extravagant use of phrases and themes bor¬ 
rowed from the ( Beowulf.* These differences in 
style, however, are relatively not great, and 
in a general review of Anglo-Saxon poetry, one 
is struck by the remarkable similarity of treat¬ 
ment which characterizes it throughout. There 
is but one metrical form, sporadic instances 
of attempts at stanzaic structure, as in ( Deor,* 
merely serving to emphasize the fixed character 
of the metre. 

Aside also from a few pieces written under 
the influence of the church hymns, the basis of 
all Anglo-Saxon poetical composition is narra¬ 
tive. Moreover the authority acquired by the 
poetry of the native heroic tradition succeeded 
in imposing an established and conventional 
standard of style which remained constant 
throughout the period. In its respect for rule 
and convention, in its uniform and <( classic** 
quality, Anglo-Saxon poetry is paralleled by 
only one other period of English Literature, 
the Augustan age of the 18th century. 

Anglo-Saxon prose owes its origins to two 
impulses, first a national or patriotic, and 
second, a religious, educational, or Latin im- 


ANGLO-SAXON LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 


pulse. The earliest prose (consult Sweet, ( Old¬ 
est English Texts,> ( Early English Text So¬ 
ciety,’ Vol. 83) dates from the end of the 7th 
and the beginning of the 8th centuries, and con¬ 
sists chiefly of glosses on Latin texts, of wills 
and similar legal documents. Anglo-Saxon laws 
were early written in the vernacular, being 
recorded apparently in much the same form 
which they had assumed in oral tradition; and 
it is probable that by the middle or end of the 
8th century, a custom of preserving records of 
events of national or local interest in English 
had grown up at various seats of learning 
throughout the country. If so, however, these 
records have not been preserved, owing 
probably to the fact that after their content 
had been incorporated into other and later 
documents, the originals were lost or destroyed. 
The chief extant prose monuments of patriotic 
or national interest are the codes of laws, 
which were got together and revised at various 
periods, and under the direction of various 
kings, one of the most notable forms be¬ 
ing that known as the Legal Code of Alfred, 
and the Anglo-Saxon ( Chronicle ) (consult ‘Eng¬ 
lish Chronicles’), in its final form written 
under the direction of Alfred the Great and per¬ 
haps in part actually by him, but to some de¬ 
gree also based on pre-existing Anglo-Saxon 
and Latin documents. The prose of educational 
and religious interest may be considered in 
two groups, that centering about the name of 
Alfred (849-901), or Early West-Saxon prose, 
and that centering about the name of 
.Elfric (955-1025?) or Late West-Saxon prose. 
Early West-Saxon prose consists almost al¬ 
together of translations of Latin works. Those 
which there is reason to believe issued directly 
from the pen of King Alfred are translations 
of Pope Gregory’s ‘Cura Pastoralis,’ Bede’s 
‘Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum’, Oro- 
sius’ ‘Compendious History of the World’ 
(‘Pauli Orosii Historiarum Adversum Paga- 
nos, libre VII.’), Boethius’ ‘De Consolatione 
Philosophise,’ and a combination from the writ¬ 
ings of Gregory and Augustine known as the 
‘Blooms’ (i.e. ‘Anthology’) of Alfred. A trans¬ 
lation of the ‘Dialogues’ of Gregory was made, 
probably by Bishop Werferth of Worcester, 
for which Alfred wrote a preface. These works 
differ in the degree of fidelity with which they 
follow their originals, some, as for example the 
‘Cura Pastoralis,’ being close but always idio¬ 
matic translations, whereas others, for example 
the versions of Orosius and Boethius, are fairly 
free and contain extensive original additions. 
The style of this prose of the Early West-Saxon 
period, of both the religious and the patriotic 
interest, is generally clear and simple, but is 
utterly without literary quality, its highest at¬ 
tainment being a certain naive directness and 
vigor of expression. 

The prose of the Late West-Saxon period 
consists in part of translations of Latin theo¬ 
logical writings and of parts of the Bible, but 
owing to the renewed interest in preaching ris¬ 
ing out of the Benedictine reform of the latter 
half of the 10th century, also of a considerable 
body of sermon literature reflective of con¬ 
temporary conditions in England. The chief 
collections are the ‘Blickling Homilies,’ so 
called because the manuscript in which they are 
preserved is kept at Blickling Hall, Norfolk; 


the sermons of Wulfstan; and the ‘Homilae 
Catholicae,’ or ‘Catholic Homilies’ of zElfric. 
I he ‘Blickling Homilies’ and the sermons of 
Wulfstan are popular in tone, frequently ris¬ 
ing, especially in the sermons of Wulfstan, to 
passages of considerable oratorical power and 
effectiveness. yElfric’s homilies are more liter¬ 
ary, both in themes and in style. They are 
written easily and lightly and represent the 
highest development of Anglo-Saxon in the 
direction of a literary artistic prose. TE1 fric's 
taste, however, is not pure, and he frequently 
falls into the error of a too elaborate and 
conscious use of ornament and figure. Very 
characteristic of his method is a half-verse, 
half-prose style, which he made use of in his 
‘Saints’ Lives.’ 

A fragment of a translation of the Greek 
romance of Apollonius of Tyre, made from a 
Latin version in the Late West-Saxon period 
by an unknown translator, should be mentioned 
as the sole example in Anglo-Saxon of the 
literature of the imagination in prose. 

Bibliography .—The Standard Anglo-Saxon 
grammars are Siever’s ‘Angelsaechsische Gram- 
matik’ (3d ed. 1898, translated into English by 
A. S. Cook) ; Buelbring, ‘Altenglisches Elemen- 
tarbuch’ (unfinished, the first part appearing in 
1902) ; and Kaluza, ‘Historische Grammatik der 
englischen Sprache’ (Pt. 1, 2d ed. 1906). More 
elementary presentations of the grammar will 
be found in the beginners’ books by Sweet, ‘An 
Anglo-Saxon Reader’ (4th ed. 1881), and 
Bright, ‘An Anglo-Saxon Reader’ (3d ed. 
1899). The dictionaries are Bosworth-Toller, 
‘Anglo-Saxon Dictionary’ (1882) ; Grein, 
‘Sprachschatz der angelsaechsischen Dichter’ 
(1861-1864), a dictionary of only the verse 
texts but an invaluable aid in the study of them ; 
Sweet, ‘Students’ Dictionary of Anglo-Saxon’ 
(1897); and Clark Hall, ‘A Concise Anglo- 
Saxon Dictionary’ (1894). Practically all 
Anglo-Saxon poetical texts are contained in 
Grein-Wuelker, ‘Bibliothek der angelsaech¬ 
sischen Poesie,’ and a good part of the prose 
in the ‘Bibliothek der angelsaechsischen Prosa’, 
by the same general editors. Separate editions 
of most texts have been made, for which and 
for the bibliography of Anglo-Saxon in general, 
consult Wuelker, ‘Grundriss zur Geschichte 
der angelsaechsischen Litteratur’ (Leipzig 
1885), and Koerting, ‘Grundriss der Geschichte 
der englischen Litteratur’ (4th ed. Muenster 
1905). For Anglo-Saxon metre consult Schip- 
per, ‘Grundriss der englischen Metrik’ (1895), 
and Siever’s, ‘Altgermanische Metrik’ (1893). 
The history of Anglo-Saxon literature is treated 
by Brooke, ‘The History of Earlv English Lit¬ 
erature’ (1892), and ‘English Literature from 
the Beginning to the Norman Conquest’ (1898), 
and Ten Brink, ‘Geschichte der englischen 
Litteratur’ (Vol. I., 2d ed. 1899), in English 
translation by Kennedy. 

George P. Krapp, 

Instructor in English, Columbia University. 

Angola, an-go'la, a Portuguese depend¬ 
ency on the Atlantic coast of Africa, south of 
the Kongo; area about 500,000 square miles; 
population variously estimated at from 4,000,- 
000 to 12,000.000. It is watered by the Coanza 
and other rivers, and its climate, though exces- 


ANGORA—ANILINE 


sively hot, is greatly tempered by the trade 
winds. The interior, in which tracts of amaz¬ 
ing fertility occur, produces rice, millet, sugar¬ 
cane, yams, coffee, etc., and almost every kind 
of tropical fruit. The animals include wild 
cattle, lions, leopards, elephants, hippopotami; 
and many venomous serpents. The principal 
town is the seaport of St. Paul de Loanda. 

Angora, or E.ngour (the ancient Ancyra), 
a town of Asiatic Turkey; 215 miles east of 
Constantinople, with which there is now rail¬ 
way communication. It has ruinous walls, and 
there are some remains of Byzantine architec¬ 
ture belonging to the ancient city, and a few 
relics of earlier times, both Greek and Roman. 
Among the latter are the remnants of the 
Monumentum Acyranum, raised in honor of 
the Emperor Augustus, who much embellished 
the ancient city. Angora is celebrated for the 
long-haired goats bred in its vicinity called 
by the Arabs the chamal goat, meaning «silky 
or soft.» Goat’s hair forms an important ex¬ 
port ; other exports being goats’ skins, dye¬ 
stuffs, principally madder, and yellow berries; 
mastic, tragacanth, and other gums; also honey 
and wax. British manufactures are imported 
to some extent. Estimated pop. 35,000. 

Ango'ra Cat. See Cat. 

Ango'ra Goat. See Goat. 

Angostu'ra, a Venezuelan city, the cap¬ 
ital of the State of Bolivar, on the Orinoco, 
about 240 miles from the sea, with governor’s 
residence, a college, a cathedral, and a consid¬ 
erable trade, steamers and sailing-vessels ascend¬ 
ing to the town. Exports: gold, cotton, indigo, 
tobacco, coffee, cattle, etc. Imports: manufac¬ 
tured goods, wines, flour, etc. Pop. about 
12,000. 

Angostura, or Angustura, an'gas-tur'a, 
Bark, the bark of a shrub or small tree of the 
Orinoco River valley, Galipea cuspara, fam¬ 
ily Rutacece. It comes into the market in the 
form of broken quills, the outer surface being 
yellowish-gray and covered with small warty, 
corky growths. The taste is very bitter and 
aromatic. Its active constituents are volatile oil, 
hence its aromatic nature; angusturin, a bitter 
principle, and four alkaloids; cusparin, C20 Hi 9 
N 0 3 ; galipein, ConPEiNO?.; cusparedin, C19H17 
NOs; and galipedin, C19H19NO2. The action of 
these principles has not been thoroughly inves¬ 
tigated. The bark is used as an antimalarial 
remedy and as an aromatic bitter for the stim¬ 
ulation of the intestines. It is also a laxative. 
It is a common ingredient of many potent med¬ 
icines and liqueurs. 

Angouleme, an'goo-lam', a city of France, 
capital of the department of Charente, and for¬ 
merly of the province of Angoumois, on the left 
bank of the Charente, 60 miles north-northeast 
of Bordeaux. It stands on the summit of an 
isolated rocky hill, at the foot of which are the 
suburban quarters. There is a handsome mod¬ 
ern town-house on the site of the old castle of 
the ancient counts of Angouleme. The cathe¬ 
dral is a Romanesque building, dating from the 
12th century. Angouleme possesses a lyceum, 
theological seminary, normal school, two hospi¬ 
tals, a lunatic asylum, theatre, etc.; besides a 
public library and a museum of natural history. 


The staple manufacture is paper, made in numer¬ 
ous mills in the neighboring valleys. There are 
also manufactures of carpets, fire-arms, gun¬ 
powder, wire; brandy distilleries, etc. . A con¬ 
siderable trade is carried on. Angouleme rep¬ 
resents the ancient Iculisma, destroyed by the 
Normans in the 9th century. The bishopric was 
founded in 379. Pop. (1901) 37,650. 

Angstrom, ang'strem, Anders Jons, a 
Swedish scientist: b. 1814; d. 1874. From 1867 
to his death the secretary to the Royal Society 
of Sciences at Upsala. He was a recognized 
authority upon optics, and among his writings 
are ‘Optiska Undersokningar' (1853); his best 
known work, ‘Recherches sur le Spectre 
Solaire' (1869); ( Sur les Spectres des Gas 
Simples' (1871); and ( Memoire sur la Tem¬ 
perature de la Terre' (1871). 

Anhy'drid, an-hi'drid (from a Greek word 
signifying «without water»), an oxid which pro¬ 
duces an acid when it combines with water, or 
which is obtained by removing water from an 
acid. Oxids which yield salts by combining 
directly with other more basic oxids may also 
be classed as anhydrids. The oxids of most of 
the non-metallic elements are anhydrids. 

Anhydrite, a mineral having the composi¬ 
tion of calcium sulphate, CaSCh, and differing 
from gypsum in its lack of water. In its com¬ 
mon white, massive form it much resembles the 
snowy-white gypsum (q.v.), but is readily dis¬ 
tinguished by its superior hardness, 3 to 3.5. 
Anhydrite also occurs in orthorhombic crystals 
and in cleavable-lamellar and fibrous masses. 
Its colors are very varied, white or gray being 
the most common, but blue and even brick-red 
not being uncommon. It is brittle, breaking 
with an uneven or splintery fracture, or when 
crystallized, cleaving with ease into rectangular 
chips. Its lustre is also very varied, the crys¬ 
tals appearing pearly, greasy or vitreous accord¬ 
ing to the faces examined. 

Ani, a'ne, a lustrous blackbird (Crotophaga 
ani), of Florida, the West Indies, and tropical 
America, which is one of the cuckoo family and 
distinguished prominently by the arched keel on 
the top of the compressed beak. It is about 
a foot in length, including a long tail, unique 
in having only eight feathers. Their coarsely 
built nests are placed in bushes and contain 
greenish eggs overlaid with a chalky crust. 

Aniline, an'i-lin, an organic substance, dis¬ 
covered by Underdorben in 1826, but of no com¬ 
mercial importance until W. H. Perkin pre¬ 
pared a purple dye from it in 1856. Since that 
time aniline and its derivatives have been used 
in great quantities . for the preparation of the 
aniline dyes, of which a great number are now 
known. (See Coal-Tar Colors.) Aniline, in 
its chemical aspect, is an amine of the organic 
radical ((phenyl,)) Cr,H 5 , with the formula 
C0H5NH2. (See Amine.) It may be prepared 
from benzene, C B H„, by the action of nitric acid 
and (subsequently) a reducing agent. Thus the 
effect of nitric acid upon benzene is represented 
by the following equation: 

Cr,He-f-HNOs^CfiHsN O2+H2O. 

The compound GHr.NCb, known as nitro¬ 
benzene, is. a yellow liquid, boiling at 400° F. 
By the action of nascent hydrogen, which may 


ANILINE POISONING; ANIMAL 


and iron filings) nitro-benzene is converted 
into aniline, hydrogen being substituted for 
the oxygen in the group N 0 2 . The equation 

IS I 

C 6 H b .N 0 2 + 6H = C 8 H 6 .NH 2 + 2 H 2 0 . 

In the commercial manufacture of aniline the 
nascent hydrogen is generated by the action of 
hydrochloric acid upon scrapings from soft 
iron castings. It may be noted as an interesting 
fact that lathe chips or borings from wrought 
iron or from hard castings do not answer the 
purpose satisfactorily. Pure aniline is a color¬ 
less liquid, freezing at i8° F., and boiling at 
about 363°. Its specific gravity is about 1.024 
at ordinary temperatures. It unites with many 
other substances to form compounds, and is 
expelled from its salts by potash, soda, and 
lime. Aniline does not mix with water, but 
can dissolve about five per cent of its own 
bulk of water. See Rosaniline. 

Aniline Poisoning. The use of the anilines, 
and particularly of the new synthetic drugs de¬ 
rived from this product, has become so universal 
that many instances of poisoning, both acute and 
chronic, are observed. In acute aniline poison¬ 
ing the chief effects are on the blood. It pre¬ 
vents the oxidation of haemoglobin in the red 
blood-cells, forms methemoglobin, causes the 
destruction o i red blood-cells (haemolysis), and 
thus results in death. The chief symptoms are 
headache, vertigo, weakness, and stumbling 
walk, blue color of defective blood oxidation 
(cyanosis), disturbances of respiration, increase 
of urine, which is frequently colored reddish 
to dark brown from the broken-down blood- 
cells, depression of temperature, chills, dilated 
pupils, and death from asphyxia. In non-fatal 
cases recovery may be much protracted. Treat¬ 
ment consists in withdrawal of all of the poison, 
washing the stomach, fresh air, artificial respi¬ 
ration, and infusion of normal salt solution. 
The aniline derivations mostly used are acetan- 
ilid . (antifebrin), phenacetin, exalgen, lacto- 
phenin, methacetin, malakin, phenocoll, citro- 
phen, apolysin, cosaprin, malarin, etc. Chronic 
aniline poisoning, found chiefly among work¬ 
ers in color factories, is of much the same char¬ 
acter, but the symptoms develop slowly. 
There are skin symptoms, urinary changes, 
and various nervous attacks, with headache, 
tremors, changes in sensation, anesthesias, etc. 
The treatment should involve the ventila¬ 
tion of the factories, thus getting rid of the 
color-dust floating in the moisture of the 
rooms. 

An'imal, the word animal being derived 
from anima, breath, soul, suggests the distinction 
popularly accorded to animals as contrasted 
with plants. Linne said that plants grow and 
live, but that animals grow, live, and feel. As 
will be seen below, however, animals do not 
fundamentally and in their simplest forms dif¬ 
fer from the simplest plants, as both are con¬ 
stituted of protoplasm, which is equally contrac¬ 
tile in both kingdoms, and thus we now recognize 
the fact that nature is divided into the inor¬ 
ganic world and the organic, and we are com¬ 
ing more and more to speak of living beings 
as organisms, since plants and animals have 
so much in common. All organized beings 
agree in being formed of protoplasm, (( the physi¬ 
cal basis of life.® 

Vol. 1—35 


Differences between Plants and Animals .— 
It is difficult, when we consider the simplest 
forms of either kingdom, to define what an 
animal is as distinguished from a plant, for it 
is impossible to draw hard and fast lines be¬ 
tween them. In defining the limits between the 
animal and vegetable kingdoms our ordinary 
conceptions of what a plant or an animal is will 
be of little use in dealing with the lowest forms 
of either kingdom. A horse, fish, or worm 
differs from an elm-tree, a lily, or a fern in 
having organs of sight, of hearing, of smell, 
of locomotion, and special organs of digestion, 
circulation, and respiration, but these plants also 
take in and absorb food, have a circulation of 
sap, respire through their leaves, and some 
plants are mechanically sensitive, while others 
are endowed with motion,— certain low plants, 
such as diatoms, etc., having this power. In 
plants the assimilation of food goes on all 
over the organism, the transfer of the sap is 
not confined to any one portion or set of or¬ 
gans as such. It is always easy to distinguish 
one of the higher plants from one of the higher 
animals. But when we descend to animals like 
the sea-anemones and coral-polyps, called by 
Wotton zoophytes, from their general re¬ 
semblance to flowers, so striking is the exter¬ 
nal similarity between the two kinds of or¬ 
ganisms that the early observers regarded them 
as (( animal flowers;® and in consequence of 
the confused notions originally held in regard 
to them the term zoophytes has been perpet¬ 
uated in works of systematic zoology. Even at 
the present day the compound hydroids, such 
as the Sertularia, are gathered and pressed as 
sea-mosses by many persons who are unobser¬ 
vant of their peculiarities and unaware of the 
complicated anatomy of the little animals filling 
the different leaf-like cells. Sponges until a 
very late day were regarded by our leading 
zoologists as plants. The most accomplished 
naturalists, however, find it impossible to sep¬ 
arate by any definite lines the lowest animals 
and plants. So-called plants, as Bacterium or 
Bacillus and their allies, and so-called animals, 
as Protamoeba, or certain monads, which are 
simple specks of protoplasm without genuine 
organs, may be referred to either kingdom. In¬ 
deed, a number of naturalists, notably Haeckel, 
relegate to a neutral kingdom (the Protista, 
q.v.), certain lowest plants and animals. Even 
the germs (zoospores) of monads like Uvella 
and those of other flagellate infusoria may 
be mistaken for the spores of plants; indeed, 
the active flagellated spores of plants were 
described as infusoria by Ehrenberg; and there 
are certain so-called flagellate infusoria so much 
like low plants (such as the red-snow or Pro¬ 
tococcus), and the slime molds ( Myxomycetes ) 
in the form, deportment, mode of reproduc¬ 
tion, and appearance of the spores, that even 
now it is possible that certain organisms placed 
among them are plants. It is only by a study 
of the connecting links between these lowest 
organisms, leading up to what are undoubted 
animals or plants, that we are enabled to refer 
these beings to their proper kingdom. 

As a rule, plants have no special organs of 
digestion or circulation and nothing approach¬ 
ing to a nervous system. They differ from 
animals in their metabolic processes. Most 
plants absorb inorganic food, such as carbonic 


ANIMAL 


acid gas, water, nitrate of ammonia, and some 
phosphates, silica, etc.; all of these substances 
being taken up in minute quantities. Low 
fungi live on dead animal matter and promote 
the process of putrefaction and decay, but the 
food of these organisms is inorganic particles. 
The slime molds, however, envelop the plant 
or low animals much as an amoeba throws it¬ 
self around some living plant and absorbs its 
protoplasm; but Myxomycetes, in their manner 
of taking food, are an exception to other molds 
and are now regarded as animals. The lowest 
animals swallow other living animals whole or 
in pieces; certain forms, like Amoeba (q.v.), 
bore into minute algae and absorb their proto¬ 
plasm; others engulf silicious-shelled plants 
(diatoms), absorbing their protoplasm. No 
animal swallows silica, lime, ammonia, or any 
of the phosphates as food. On the other hand, 
plants manufacture or produce from inorganic 
matter starch, sugar, and nitrogenous substances 
which constitute the food of animals. During 
assimilation plants absorb carbonic acid and in 
sunlight exhale oxygen ; during growth and work 
they, like animals, consume oxygen and exhale 
carbonic acid. 

Animals move and have special organs of lo¬ 
comotion ; few plants move, though some climb, 
and minute forms have thread-like processes or 
vibratile lashes (cilia) resembling the flagella 
of monads, and flowers open and shut; but these 
motions of the higher plants are purely me¬ 
chanical and are not performed by special organs 
controlled by nerves. The mode of reproduc¬ 
tion of plants and animals, however, is funda¬ 
mentally identical, and in this respect the two 
kingdoms unite more closely than in any other. 
Plants also, like animals, are formed of cells, 
the latter in the higher forms combined into 
tissues. 

Physiological Distinctions and Resemblances. 
—As has been said, the bodies of the lowest 
plants and animals are plainly enough made up 
of protoplasm. The irritability, contractibility, 
and metabolism of a plant-cell or a living, free 
unicellular plant do not differ from those of 
a unicellular animal (Protosoon) of the same 
morphological grade. The movements of the 
lowest algae, the sensitiveness of the leaves of 
the mimosa-tree, of the sun-dew and other in¬ 
sectivorous plants, are due to the same primary 
cause as the movements of animals of all 
grades, as the power of lifting one’s arm is 
fundamentally due to the contractibility of the 
protoplasm forming the cells of the muscles. 

Also, as has been said, the differences in 
metabolism are not fundamental, those molds 
which do not contain chlorophyll, and bacteria, 
performing the same metabolic functions as re¬ 
gards carbon dioxid as animals. Also the 
power of forming cellulose in plants is not pe¬ 
culiar to them, as this substance is found in 
several types of animals, as rhizopods and Tuni- 
cata. Animals are also subject to the same gen¬ 
eral tropisms as plants; they are geotropic, 
heliotropic, thermotropic, hydrotropic, chemo- 
tropic, etc. (See Tropisms.) To a much 
greater extent than formerly supposed even in¬ 
sects so highly developed as ants are subject to 
the influences of the primary factors of growth, 
morphogenesis, and of the conduct of life, and 
the instincts of animals in general are more 


dependent on these agents, on external stimuli, 
than was previously thought to be the case. 

Plants Fixed Organisms; Animals as a Rule 
Free-moving. — While the lowest plants (Pro- 
tophytes) are, as entire organisms, often motile, 
free-swimming, closely resembling monads, the 
higher or more specialized forms, comprising 
the great majority of the vegetable world, are 
fixed, and have always remained so. It is this 
fixed condition of life which, so to speak, has 
held the plant world in an iron grasp and kept 
it within its natural limits. On the other hand 
animals as a rule are active, free to move, rest¬ 
less. Whenever animals, though born as free- 
swimming germs or larvae, are constrained by 
change of circumstances to become attached or 
fixed to the sea-bottom or solid objects, they 
degenerate and become more and more sub¬ 
ject to the influence during growth of those 
cosmic and physical forces, such as gravity, 
light, air, currents of water, etc., which deter¬ 
mine the shapes and morphology of plants. 
Fixed animals, like the zoophytes or the polyps, 
sea-anemones, all sponges, ccelenterates, Poly- 
zoa, etc., which lead a purely vegetable life, tend 
to assume plant-like shapes. Even the echino- 
derms, as the fixed crinoids, are plant-like, 
hence their name, sea-lilies. It is freedom of 
motion, greater activity, which led to the vast¬ 
ly more complex and higher types of life in 
animals, to the development of a nervous 
system, and to the origin of mind and intelli¬ 
gence. 

Plants Not the Primitive Basis of Ani¬ 
mal Life. — As the lowest plants and ani¬ 
mals are scarcely distinguishable, it is prob¬ 
able that plants and animals first appeared 
contemporaneously; and while plants are gen¬ 
erally said to form the basis of animal life, 
this is only partially true; a large number of 
fungi are dependent on decaying animal matter; 
and most of the Protozoa live on animal food, 
as do a large proportion of the higher animals. 
The two kingdoms supplement each other, are 
mutually dependent, and probably appeared si¬ 
multaneously in the beginning of things. It 
should be observed, however, that the animal 
kingdom greatly overtops the vegetable king¬ 
dom, culminating in man. 

The Animal Series Tree-like. — It was an 
old idea that the living world forms a regular 
or linear series, more or less regularly gradu¬ 
ated. The older naturalists spoke of (( the scale 
of being,® <( the chain of being.® Lamarck was 
the first to show that such' a series does not 
exist. He compared the animal kingdom to a 
tree, (( a branching series, irregularly graduated,® 
and he recognized that there were breaks, miss¬ 
ing branches (( owing to the extinction of some 
species.® He explains that the animal kingdom 
begins by at least two special branches, then 
ending in branchlets. He thus broke entirely 
away from the idea of a continuous ascending 
series imagined by Bonnet and others in the 18th 
century. While therefore there is, speaking in 
general terms, a progressive series of animal 
forms from monad to man, the animal kingdom 
more truly resembles a tree which began to 
send out branches very near its base; many of 
the branches being inextricably interlaced, while 
others — representing the degenerate types, as 
sponges, stationary or fixed groups, such as 
polyps, barnacles, manv parasites, etc.— are 


ANIMAL ALKALOIDS —ANIMAL HEAT 


downward-bent branches. As a whole, how¬ 
ever, the branches show a tendency to ascend 
and spread out more or less upward. See 
Zoology. 

An'imal Al'kaloids. Ptomains (q.v.) was 
the name originally given to a large class of 
products resulting from the putrefactive process 
occurring in animal substances. These pos¬ 
sessed many of the chemical reactions of the 
vegetable alkaloids and have been termed ani¬ 
mal alkaloids. Similar products formed in the 
human body, as the result of normal metabo¬ 
lism chiefly of lecithin, or proteids, are termed 
leucomains. Many of these ptomains and 
leucomains are highly poisonous toxins. See 
Alkaloids; Metabolism; Ptomains; Toxi¬ 
cology. 

Animal Charcoal. See Charcoal. 

An'imal Chem'istry, the department of 
organic chemistry which investigates the com¬ 
position of the fluids and the solids of animals, 
and the chemical action that takes place in ani¬ 
mal bodies. There are four elements, sometimes 
distinctively named organic elements, which are 
invariably found in living bodies, namely, carbon, 
hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. To these may 
be added, as frequent constituents of the human 
body, sulphur, phosphorus, lime, sodium, potas¬ 
sium, chlorin, and iron. The four organic ele¬ 
ments are found in all the fluids and solids of 
the body. Sulphur occurs in blood and in many 
of the secretions. Phosphorus is also common, 
being found in nerves, in the teeth, and in fluids. 
Chlorin occurs almost universally throughout 
the body; lime is found in bone, in the teeth, 
and in the secretions; iron occurs in the blood, 
in urine, and in bile; and sodium, like chlorin, 
is of almost universal occurrence. Potassium 
occurs in muscles, in nerves, and in the blood 
corpuscles. Minute quantities of copper, sili¬ 
con, manganese, lead, and lithium are also found 
in the human body. The compounds formed in 
the human organisms are divisible into the or¬ 
ganic and inorganic. The most frequent of the 
latter is water, of which two thirds (by weight) 
of the body are composed. The organic com¬ 
pounds may, like the foods from which they are 
formed, be divided into the nitrogenous and 
non-nitrogenous. Of the former the chief are 
albumen (found in blood, lymph, and chyle), 
casein (found in milk), myosin (in muscle), 
gelatin (obtained from bone), and others. The 
non-nitrogenous compounds are represented 
by organic acids, such as formic, acetic, buty¬ 
ric, stearic, etc.; by animal starches, sugars; 
by fats and oils, as stearin and olein, and by 
alcohols (two compounds, cholesterin and gly¬ 
cerin). 

An'imal Col'ors. See Cochineal; Kermes; 
Purple Shells. 

An'imal E'lectric'ity, electricity which cer¬ 
tain species of animals, particularly those in¬ 
habiting the water, have the power of producing. 
The amount which they can produce varies with 
different animals. The electric eel or torpedo 
can give a severe shock. Contact between the 
nerve and muscle of a frog will produce a feeble 
current of electricity. 

An'imal Flow'er, a term applied to sea 
anemones or similar polyps on account of the 
resemblance which their expanded tentacles bear 
to flower petals 


An'imal Heat, nearly all animals possess 
a heat-regulating mechanism by which they 
maintain a temperature necessary for the con¬ 
tinuance of life processes. In many cold- 
blooded animals this sustains a temperature only 
slightly above that of the surrounding media, 
and thus in winter they relapse into a torpid 
state. Some few, however,— bees being an ex¬ 
ample,— have a higher temperature and are not 
torpid. In warm-blooded animals, especially 
those high in the evolutionary scale, a high con¬ 
stant temperature is usually sustained. Some 
warm-blooded animals occupy an intermediary 
position. In summer the temperature is high and 
constant, in winter they hibernate, and the tem¬ 
perature is low and dependent upon that of the 
surrounding medium. Some cold-blooded ani¬ 
mals living in the tropics may really show very 
high degrees of temperature, thus the terms 
warm-blooded and cold-blooded are relative 
only. The mean average temperature in man is 
36.97° C. (98.4° F.) in the mouth - , 36.98° C. 
(98.5° F.) in the axilla, and 37.2° C. (99° F.) 
in the rectum. There are slight daily variations, 
the lowest temperature usually being between 
midnight and early morning during sleep. Cer¬ 
tain warm-blooded animals show interesting 
average temperatures. Thus, the horse is 
99-100° F., ox 100-101° F., cow 101-102° F., 
sheep 104-105° F., dog 100-101° F., cat 101° F., 
{pig 101-103° F., rabbit 101-107° F., rhesus mon¬ 
key ioi° F., duckbill platypus 76° F., hen 106- 
109° F., duck 107-110° F., sparrow 110° F. In 
cold-blooded animals the temperature, as has 
been noted, varies widely. The study of the 
temperature of bees is of much interest in this 
connection. 

Several conditions modify the regulation of 
the animal heat: da$ and night, age, muscular 
work, sleep, sex, race, pregnancy, idiosyncrasies, 
surrounding temperature, season of the year, 
baths, and certain drugs, all have a distinct in¬ 
fluence on the heat regulatory apparatus. The 
variations in temperature in man compatible 
with life are wide; a range of less than 2° F. 
is normal, but variations from 75° to 112° F. 
have been recorded and the patients recovered. 
Temperatures below 80° F. and above 106° F, 
are dangerous. 

The chief sources of animal heat are the 
chemical processes of the body and they are de¬ 
pendent on the food supply. Every kind of 
food has its definite percentage of heat-producing 
elements measured in units, or calories. Thus 
1 gm. (15 grains) of the white of egg has 4,896 
calories; the same amount of cow’s milk 5,733 
calories, of fat 9,600 calories, etc. These are 
purely physical values, but they have their 
physiological equivalents. The chief sources of 
heat production in the human body are the mus¬ 
cles, the heart contraction being a very impor¬ 
tant one, and the glands (intestines, liver, etc.). 
Loss of heat takes place through the skin by 
radiation and conduction, by evaporation, from 
-the respiration, and from the dejecta. 

Regulation of these many factors is in the 
province of the nervous system. The vaso¬ 
motor system controls the heat loss by regu¬ 
lating the amount of blood in the deep and su¬ 
perficial portions of the body, the respiratory 
centre regulates the amount of respiration, and 
the cerebral cortex regulates the amount of mus¬ 
cular activity that is the main source of the 
heat production. See Fever. 


ANIMAL MAGNETISM; ANIMAL PSYCHOLOGY 


An'imal Mag'netism, a science or art, so 
called because it was once believed that it 
taught the method of producing on persons of 
susceptible organization effects somewhat simi¬ 
lar to those which a magnet exerts upon iron. 
Paracelsus (b. 1493) maintained that the human 
body was endowed with a double magnetism; on 
the one side attracting to itself the planets, 
whence comes wisdom and the senses, on the 
other side attracting the elements and nourished 
by their disintegration; that the attractive virtue 
resembles that of the magnet, and that healthy 
persons attract the enfeebled magnetism of the 
sick. Many writers of the 16th century sought 
to explain all natural phenomena by this princi¬ 
ple. 

Mesmer (b. 1734) drew largely from these 
sources in preparing his thesis on ( The Influence 
of the Planets in the Cure of Diseases^ Be¬ 
lieving in a subtle fluid through which the 
heavenly bodies acted upon living beings, he 
called this animal magnetism, because of certain 
properties he believed it to possess in common 
with the magnet. The sick were said to have 
been cured by the influence of magnets manipu¬ 
lated by the Jesuit Father Hell, in 1774, in Vi¬ 
enna. Mesmer began the use of the magnet, 
but soon gave it up, restricting himself to passes 
of the hand over or near the body of the pa¬ 
tient, or to placing the hand in contact with the 
body in the hypochondriac region, or the lower 
part of the abdomen. He declared animal mag¬ 
netism to be distinct from the magnet. His 
doctrine obtained notice for a time. As the 
patients increased in number it became impossi¬ 
ble for him to treat each one separately, and he 
devised a trough about which 30 persons or 
more could be magnetize^ at once. This baquet 
or trough consisted of a circular oaken case 
about one foot deep, surrounded by curtains 
through which a subdued light was permitted 
to penetrate. In the bottom of the case was a 
layer of powdered glass and iron filings; on this 
lay bottles arranged with their necks all point¬ 
ing toward the centre; a second lot of bottles 
were arranged with their necks in the opposite 
direction: the trough might be filled with water 
or remain dry. Through the lid of the trough 
jointed iron rods projected and branched in 
various directions: these were held by the pa¬ 
tients. Should the numbers be very large a sec¬ 
ond row of patients might be connected with the 
first row by cords about their bodies; and a 
third row could be arranged by joining hands 
with the second row. During an interval of si¬ 
lence a melodious air was heard from an ad¬ 
joining room. Soon, influenced by the magnetic 
effluvia issuing from the baquet, curious phe¬ 
nomena were produced. Some of the persons 
under treatment seemed to experience no change 
in their condition; others coughed, experienced 
pain, and sweat; others suffered from convul¬ 
sions of greater or less violence which lasted 
for hours. These convulsions were preceded or 
followed by a state of languor and depression. 
Such a state of convulsions, when produced in 
one person, was quickly followed by similar con¬ 
ditions in others. The movements of the limbs 
and body, the twitchings of the hypochondriac 
and epigastric regions are manifest signs of hys¬ 
teria and may be referred to the nervous ante¬ 
cedents of the group of persons and to the in¬ 
fluence of imitation and suggestion. Mesmer, 
in a coat of lilac silk, walked around among the 


crowd, touching the diseased parts of the bodies 
of the patients with a long iron rod which he 
carried in his hand. 

His cures in Paris attracted so much atten¬ 
tion that in 1784 a commission was appointed 
by the government to examine into the matter. 
The commission consisted of members of the 
Faculty of Medicine and of the Academy of 

Sciences. . 

A second commission from the Royal Society 
of Medicine was charged to make a distinct re¬ 
port on the same subject. Mesmer and his as¬ 
sistants desired that the cures that had been ef¬ 
fected be accepted as proof of the existence of 
animal magnetism. The commissioners, how¬ 
ever, placed themselves under treatment once a 
week; they experienced no convulsive move¬ 
ments or other effects that appeared to be shown 
in some patients. They found that patients un¬ 
aware of the fact that they were being magnet¬ 
ized experienced none of its effects, and that 
patients who were told they were being magnet¬ 
ized experienced the symptoms, though the 
magnetizer was not near them. 

The conclusion of the report of the commis¬ 
sioners is as follows: (( The commissioners have 
ascertained that the animal magnetic fluid is not 
perceptible by any of the senses; that it has no 
action, either on themselves or on the patients 
subjected to it. . . . Finally, they have demon¬ 
strated by decisive experiments that imagina¬ 
tion apart from magnetism produces convulsions, 
and that magnetism without imagination pro¬ 
duces nothing. They have come to the unani¬ 
mous conclusion with respect to the existence 
and utility of magnetism that there is nothing 
to prove the existence of the animal magnetic 
fluid; that this fluid, since it is non-existent, has 
no beneficial effect; that the violent effects ob¬ 
served in patients under public treatment are 
due to contact, to the excitement of the imagina¬ 
tion, and to the mechanical imitation which in¬ 
voluntarily impels us to repeat that which 
strikes our senses/* 

The existence of a magnetic fluid is yet to be 
proved. All of the phenomena which Mesmer 
produced and attempted to explain by the ex¬ 
istence of such a fluid are now explained by 
the principle of hypnotic suggestion. See Hyp¬ 
notism. Consult Binet and Fere, ( Animal 
Magnetism* (1888) ; Albert Moll, hypnotism’ 
(1898). 

An'imal Psychol'ogy is the science which 
investigates the phenomena of the life of ani¬ 
mals lower than man with reference to their 
mental endowment. It seeks to know the ani¬ 
mal mind, its nature and functions, in the differ¬ 
ent orders of animal life. In ordinary use the 
term is synonymous with comparative psychol¬ 
ogy,— a term expressing the fact of the neces¬ 
sary starting-point of the science from the 
human mind, of which alone we have direct 
knowledge. This term, however, may be applied 
to any department of psychology whose method 
is comparative — for example, folk psychology, 
the study of the mental life of different races of 
men — and the more definite name, animal psy¬ 
chology, is therefore to be preferred. The in¬ 
terest of the science is threefold: in itself it 
grants insight into animal nature and life; in 
relation to man it lends light to anthropology 
and psychology, especially with reference to 
human instincts and impulses; and it has a deep 


ANIMAL PSYCHOLOGY 


bearing upon the problems of evolution, both 
biological and mental. With regard to these lat¬ 
ter two interests, it is a branch of genetic psy¬ 
chology (q.v.), treating, together with folk 
psychology, the phylogenetic as distinct from 
the autogenetic problem; that is, the question of 
mental evolution as distinct from mental devel¬ 
opment of the individual. 

Animal psychology, as a science, dates from 
the middle of the last century, finding its rise 
in the movement of thought inaugurated by 
Charles Darwin. The first suggestion, how¬ 
ever, of a genetic psychology was made by 
Aristotle (385-322 b.c. ), who laid the founda¬ 
tion for so much of modern thought. The or¬ 
ganic world, he said, forms an ascending scale, 
all of whose numbers are differentiated from 
inorganic bodies by an inner impelling principle, 
a ^psyche® or soul, which employs a number of 
organs to realize its purposes. The soul of the 
plant performs the functions of assimilation and 
reproduction only; that of the animal has besides 
the faculty of feeling, and, in the higher orders, 
memory. The soul of man, in addition to all 
these, possesses the faculty of knowledge or 
reason, and is the end or goal of the process 
of nature’s ascent. Despite this profound hint of 
the father of logic and psychology, almost the 
only reference to the animal mind for many 
centuries is in form of very doubtful anecdotes 
of individual cases of animal sagacity. Pliny 
tells the story of an elephant that was punished 
during a performance for his bad dancing, and 
set to w'ork in the night to practise, so that he 
could do it better the next time — a good ex¬ 
ample of a familiar type. Descartes (1596-1650) 
looked upon the body as a mere automaton, to 
which mind or soul is essentially opposed in 
nature — man, however, being a combination of 
the two. But the animal does not possess mind 
and is thus merely an unconscious machine. 
The logical outcome of this doctrine is that ani¬ 
mals cannot even feel pain; for sensations, he 
says, belong to the body, but the soul alone can 
be conscious of them. It is somewhat doubtful 
whether Descartes himself was not inconsistent 
here, and admitted that animals could feel while 
denying them the cognitive aspect of sensations. 
His followers, however, notably Bossuet and 
Malebranche, held that sensations in the animal 
are nothing more than mechanical, unfelt move¬ 
ments, and used the argument to justify vivi¬ 
section. Pascal welcomed the doctrine because 
it relieved the divine goodness of the charge of 
animal suffering. The most interesting appli¬ 
cation of the view, however, is that of La Met- 
trie (1709-51), one of Darwin’s precursors in 
holding a theory of evolution. If the animal is 
a machine, he said, man is just as much a ma¬ 
chine, : nd his so-called soul or mind is merely 
a higher development of the material animal 
functions. The animal is thus made the measure 
of man, a false animal psychology the basis of 
a false human psychology. 

But the modern theory of evolution, noted in 
the work of Darwin, took precisely the opposite 
standpoint. Man is not a machine, but pos¬ 
sesses mind; the animals, too, must then pos¬ 
sess mind of some sort or degree. Physically 
man is related to the lower animals through a 
long process of evolution: we should expect, 
then, a mental evolution co-ordinate with this 
biological evolution. This conviction gave birth 
to animal psychology, first undertaken, in sup¬ 


port of a theory which had to win its way, by 
Darwin himself, Romanes and Lindsay as pi¬ 
oneers. Their works are marked by industrious 
observation and collection of facts; but the 
first flush of a theory prevented the most sober 
elimination, collation, and interpretation. Now, 
relieved from the burden of proof first cast upon 
it, animal psychology is being investigated with 
an increasing degree of scientific accuracy and 
careful experimental method. 

There must, of course, always be one funda¬ 
mental difference between the methods of human 
and animal psychology. The former is always, 
in the last analysis, introspective; the latter 
never can be. We are conscious of our own 
minds; but that of the animal is forever outside 
of such direct knowledge. The animal psychol¬ 
ogist, therefore, can only study phenomena, the 
objective manifestations of the animal’s mental 
life; and from these he must infer what that inner 
life is. In this fact lie the fundamental diffi¬ 
culty of the science and its most fruitful source 
of error. The observer may of course underesti¬ 
mate the animal mind — a mistake hardly prob¬ 
able now. The great danger lies rather in 
overestimation. The ^psychologist’s fallacy® of 
importing into other minds the processes of his 
own is here possible as nowhere else. We know 
no mind save that of man: there can be no 
thought or discussion of mental processes except 
from this basis. Through lack of language the 
animal can tell us nothing of its mind — we 
must infer; and even the most careful psychol¬ 
ogist is liable to read into the facts too high an 
interpretation. This danger is often increased 
by an inclination to see things in the best light 
and to observe facts as interesting as possible; 
or by a false ideal of generosity to the animal, 
denying man the (( conceit® of usurping the high¬ 
est faculties. Special care must be observed in 
regard to the animal anecdote, liable to be colored 
by imagination or to be ill-authenticated; and it 
must be remembered that such stories relate in 
general to pets, individual cases of specially 
gifted animals living in a human environment. 
Thorndike well says: (( Most of the books do not 
give us a psychology, but rather a eulogy, of 
animals. . . . Anecdotes give really the abnor¬ 
mal or super-normal psychology of animals.® 
All these latter dangers may be avoided; but the 
^psychologist’s fallacy® of unintentionally hu¬ 
manizing the animal is an inevitable difficulty 
which must always be reckoned with. Wundt 
cites and comments upon one of the stories 
about ants from Romanes’ ( Animal Intelligence,* 
which is full of instances of the various fallacies 
mentioned: (( A friend of the ants gives this 

account: At one formicary half a dozen or 

more young queens were out at the same time. 
They would climb up a large pebble near the 
gate, face the wind, and assume a rampant pos¬ 
ture. Several having ascended the stone at one 
time, there ensued a little playful passage-at- 
arms as to position. They nipped each other 
gently with their mandibles and chased one 
another from favorite spots. They, however, 
never nipped the workers. These latter evi¬ 
dently kept a watch upon the sportive princesses, 
occasionally saluted them with their antennse 
in the usual way, or touched them upon the 
abdomen, but apparently allowed them full lib¬ 
erty of action. . . . Why should not a number 
of young queens have been crowded together 
upon a pebble, and some workers have been 


ANIMAL PSYCHOLOGY 


with them, and occasionally touched them with 
their antennae, as ants do everywhere? But 
that they i sported } and played, that the others 
( kept a watch upon them ) like chaperones, and 
now and then did homage to them by ( saluting ) 
— that is all due to the imagination of the ob¬ 
server. He would hardly have told the story as 
it stands had not zoology introduced the mis¬ 
leadingly suggestive term Queens 5 for the ma¬ 
ture female insects. If the adults are < queens, ) 
the young females must, of course, be prin¬ 
cesses^ and since no princess ever went out 
without an attendant or chaperone, the rest of 
the narrative follows as a matter of course.® 
Even the most sober observation may err if 
there be no variation of circumstances by ex¬ 
periment. Huber found that an ant, if taken 
from the nest and returned after four months, 
was received in a friendly way by its former 
companions, while ants from a different nest, 
though of the same species, were driven away. 
This was considered evidence of the accuracy 
of memory in these insects. But Lubbock 
found that ant larvae taken from the nest and 
not returned until they were fully developed 
were received with the same cordiality; and 
Bethe, that a strange ant was so ^recognized® 
if it had been previously dipped into an im¬ 
pounded mess of the home ants. This recogni¬ 
tion was thus seen to be merely a chemo-reflex, 
perhaps through a specific odor. 

The only sound basal principle for a true 
animal psychology is that laid down by Lloyd 
Morgan: <( In no case may we interpret an 
action as the outcome of the exercise of a higher 
psychical faculty if it can be interpreted as the 
outcome of the exercise of one which stands 
lower in the psychological scale.® Wundt points 
out that this is nothing other than the well- 
known law of economy which is so fundamental 
in physical science; and that animal psychology, 
by often refusing the simplest explanation, has 
thus adopted an implicit principle exactly oppo¬ 
site to that of all other exact science. Groos 
points out an important truth in relation to this 
law of economy, and indicates the trend of 
present scientific method in animal psychology, 
when he says: (( If the observation of animals 
is to be rendered fruitful for the unsolved prob¬ 
lems of anthropology . . . attention must be di¬ 
rected less to particular resemblances to man 
and more to specific animal characteristics.® 
This does not mean that the observer of animals 
need not be a psychologist in the proper sense; 
for lack of training in human psychology has 
been a fruitful source of error in the investiga¬ 
tion of the animal mind. Mental facts cannot 
be interpreted at all by one who does not know 
the laws and processes of the human mind, since 
it is the only mind we know. No more can the 
animal psychologist dispense with training in 
biology. (< It is necessary,® says Morgan, <( that 
accurate observation and a sound knowledge of 
the biological relationships of animals should 
go hand in hand with a thorough appreciation 
of the methods and results of modern psychol¬ 
ogy.® <( The animal psychologist,® says Groos, 
(< must harbor in his breast not only two souls, 
but more; he must unite with a thorough train¬ 
ing in physiology, psychology, and biology, the 
experience of a traveler, the practical knowledge 
of the director of a zoological garden, and the 
outdoor lore of a forester.® 


Exact experimental methods are gradually 
taking the place of the animal anecdote and the 
more loose general observation. Laboratory 
study of animals, where conditions can be stan¬ 
dardized and environment controlled, even at the 
risk of some degree of artificiality, is leading to 
surer results than were ever possible through 
former haphazard methods. Of course such 
investigation is most practicable in the cases of 
the micro-organisms whose investigation would 
be otherwise impossible. Careful study of these 
under the microscope has yielded data pointing 
to the presence of mind far down in the scale of 
life, as evolution would lead us to expect. Sa3*s 
Binet: <( If the existence of psychological 

phenomena in lower organisms is denied, it will 
be necessary to assume that these phenomena 
can be superadded in the course of evolution 
in proportion as an organism grows more per¬ 
fect and complex. Nothing could be more in¬ 
consistent with the teachings of general physi¬ 
ology, which shows us that all vital phenomena 
are already present in undifferentiated cells.® 
Jennings thinks that the poramecium, one of the 
Protozoa , is the lowest in the scale, its actions 
being explicable by <( simple irritability, or the 
property of responding to a stimulus by a fixed 
set of movements.® 

With regard to methods of experiment upon 
the larger animals, such as dogs and cats, 
Thorndike’s investigations may be cited. He 
placed a number of animals in cages and studied 
their actions when under the powerful motive 
of hunger. His results have tended to lessen, 
rather than increase, opinion as to the high 
character of the intelligence of these animals. 
His work, he says, <( has rejected reason, com¬ 
parison or inference, perception of similarity, 
and imitation. It has denied the existence in 
animal consciousness of any important stock of 
free ideas or impulses, and so has denied that 
animal association is homologous with the asso¬ 
ciation of human psychology.® Mills strongly 
opposes this method, and inclines toward the ex¬ 
planation of animal action by the higher mental 
powers. Groos has made a most important 
contribution to the science by pointing out the 
psychological and biological significance of ani¬ 
mal play. 

In general, Aristotle’s statement of the 
chasm between man and the lower animals 
still stands. There is not sufficient evidence to 
declare animals rational. The primary acts of 
the animal mind are cognition and recognition, 
which involve the associative faculties ; and 
there have been observed no activities which 
would be sufficient ground for attributing to the 
animals the higher powers of conception and 
reasoning. Emotions they certainly do possess; 
they manifest an aesthetic sense. Yet there is no 
proof of aesthetic judgment in relation to an 
ideal; the powers of imagination and thought 
are essentially human. Even in their play, says 
Wundt, there is no inventiveness, no imag¬ 
inative activity. Neither is it necessary to pos¬ 
tulate on animal conscience for explanation of 
the facts which seem to point toward such an 
ethical sense. Most of the problems of the ani¬ 
mal mind and of its varying degrees in different 
orders centre in the theory of instinct (q.v.). 

As animal psychology had its real birth in 
the theory of evolution, it is in connection with 
this that its greatest importance lies. Most of 
its problems are common to biology and psychol- 


ANIMAL SYMBOLISM —ANIO 


ogy. All of its questions have a deep bearing 
upon biological evolution which, it is now seen, 
must take account of the mental processes at 
different stages in the life-forms if it is to be 
at all adequate; just as mental evolution, on 
the other hand, must recognize the influence of 
the evolution of the physical organism. The 
future theory of evolution will be psycho-physi¬ 
cal. This* mental factor in biological evolution 
is already seen in the theories of sexual selection, 
of mimicry, and of organic selection. 

Bibliography. —The best introduction to the 
subject, eminently sane and modern, is C. Lloyd 
Morgan’s introduction to Comparative Psy- 
chology ) (Lond. 1894) ; Wundt, ( Human and 
Animal Psychology > ( trans. 1896) ; Groos, ( The 
Play of Animals } (trans. 1898) ; The Play of 
Man } (trans. 1901) ; Morgan, Animal Life and 
Intelligence ) (1891) ; _ < Habit and Instinct 
(1896) ; Morgan, ( Animal Behavior ) (1900) ; 
Thorndike, ( Animal Intelligence* (1898) ; Dar¬ 
win, ( The Origin of Species ) (Lond. 1859, N. 
Y. 1901) ; ( The Descent of Man ) (Lond. 1871, 
N. Y. 1901); Romanes, ( Mental Evolution in 
Animals* (1883); < Animal Intelligence* (1883); 
Binet, ( Psychic Life of Micro-organisms ) 
(1894) ; Lubbock, ( Ants, Bees, and Wasps > 
(1882). 

An'imal Sym'bolism in Ecclesiastical 
Architecture, a work by E. P. Evans; a work 
designed to trace the wide use of animal sym¬ 
bols in religious relations. The story of this 
symbolism in its application, with modifications, 
in architecture, is told with fullness of knowledge 
and sound judgment of significance of facts. 

An'imal Wor'ship, a practice found to 
prevail or to have prevailed in the most widely 
distant parts of the world: in India, where it is 
a consequence of the belief in the transmigration 
of souls, according to which the soul of a god 
may pass into the body of an animal; in the 
heart of Africa, where it is still in life; in South 
America, where very remarkable instances of 
it were met with by the earliest Spanish visitors; 
but its most extraordinary developments were in 
ancient Egypt. Nearly all the more important 
animals found in the country were regarded as 
sacred in some part of Egypt. Some animals 
were held sacred throughout the whole land, 
but in many cases the animals enjoyed a local 
reverence only, an animal that was worshipped 
in one nome might be an object of aversion in 
the next and destroyed at every opportunity. 
The degree of reverence paid to the sacred ani¬ 
mals was such that the voluntary killing of one 
was punishable with death, and if any one 
killed an animal involuntarily in a nome in 
which it was held sacred he was punished by a 
fine. Throughout Egypt the killing of a hawk 
or an ibis, whether voluntary or not, was pun¬ 
ished with death. So strong was the feeling of 
the people on this point that when it was of the 
utmost importance to the Egyptians that they 
should conciliate the Romans, even the inter¬ 
cession of the king was impotent to save from 
the fury of the people a Roman soldier who had 
killed a cat. The animals were regarded as 
sacred to the deities, and the worship paid to 
them was symbolical. The Egyptian idols al¬ 
ways bore on a human body the head of the 
animal sacred to the god represented by the 
idol. Only in three cases were certain animals 
believed to be incarnations of the deities them¬ 


selves. These were at Memphis, where the bull 
Apis was worshipped as an incarnation of 
Phtha; at Heliopolis, where the bull Mnevis 
was reverenced as an incarnation of Osiris; and 
at Mendes, where a goat received worship as an 
incarnation of Khem. 

An'imal'cule, the diminutive of animal; an 
old name applied to animals of microscopic size, 
and now frequently used for many Protozoa, 
such as the Amoeba and various Infusoria. The 
term is not now used in zoology in any strict 
significance, nor employed in classification. 

An'imals, Cruelty to. The earliest laws for 
the prevention of cruelty to animals were passed 
in England, whence the movement spread to the 
Continent and the United States. The first so¬ 
ciety for the prevention of cruelty to animals in 
the United States was chartered in 1866; and 
the agitation by similar societies has resulted in 
laws in almost every State providing for 
the punishment of cruelty to domestic animals 
by fines from $5 to $100, imprisonment from 
30 to 60 days, or both. These societies work 
also to prevent cruelty by education, advice, and 
personal effort in enforcing the law. 

An'ima Mun'di, an'i-ma mun'di ( (( soul of 
the world”), an ethereal essence considered by 
ancient philosophers as the informing principle 
of the universe of matter and bearing the same 
relation to it that the human mind does to the 
body. The conception originated in the East 
and was held by the Egyptians. Anaxagoras 
(q.v.), one of its earliest Western exponents, 
believed that it gave form to the universe; Plato 
treats of it at large in his ( Timseus* ; Aristotle 
considered the world a living entity, but in¬ 
formed by an external spirit. Nearly all philo¬ 
sophical sects dallied with the idea. The Stoics 
thought it the sole vital principle of the universe, 
but not the universe itself in a different shape, 
as the doctrine of pantheism imputed to them 
would imply. In modern times it appears in the 
works of Cornelius Agrippa (who calls it spi- 
ritus mundi), Paracelsus, Van Helmont, Giorda¬ 
no Bruno, Sebastian Franck, Jacob Boehme, 
etc., in More and Cudworth, in the later Platon- 
ists, and in the philosophy of Schelling, who 
has incorporated it into his whole system. 

Anime, a-ne-ma, a resin supposed to be 
obtained from the trunk of an American tree 
(Hymencea courbaril). It is of a transparent 
amber color, has a light, agreeable smell, and 
is soluble in alcohol. It strongly resembles co¬ 
pal, and, like it, is used in making varnishes. 
Specific gravity is 1.028 to 1.054. 

An'imism, the system of philosophy pro¬ 
pounded by Stahl, and based on the idea that 
the soul ( anima ) is the seat of life. In mod¬ 
ern usage a term applied to express the general 
doctrine of souls and other spiritual beings, and 
especially to the tendency, common among sav¬ 
age races, to explain all the phenomena in na¬ 
ture not due to obvious natural causes by at¬ 
tributing them to spiritual agency. Among the 
beliefs most characteristic of animism is that 
of a human apparitional soul, bearing the form 
and appearance of the body, and living after 
death a sort of semi-human life. 

Anio, a'ne-o, Aniene, or Teverone, an 
Italian river tributary to the Tiber, which it 
enters from the east a short distance above 
Rome. 


ANKERITE — ANNAS 


Ankerite, a carbonate belonging to the 
calcite group of minerals. It is intermediate 
between calcite, magnesite and siderite, the 
normal mineral being a carbonate of calcium, 
magnesium and iron, having the formula 
2CaC0 3 .MgC0 3 .FeC0 3 . It occurs in rhombo- 
hedral crystals which have perfect rhombohedral 
cleavage, a hardness of 3.5 to 4, specific gravity 
of about 3, vitreous to pearly lustre, and usually 
white color. It also occurs in granular, crystal¬ 
line and compact masses. 

An'nals of a Sportsman, a work by Ivan 
Turgeneff, consists of 22 short sketches of Rus¬ 
sian peasant life, appearing in book form in 
1852 and establishing the author’s reputation as 
a writer of realistic fiction. Turgeneff repre¬ 
sents himself as on a hunting trip through the 
country districts, noting the local life and social 
conditions, and giving truthful studies of the 
state of the serfs before their liberation by 
Alexander II.; his book being one of the agen¬ 
cies that brought about that reform. 

Annam, an'nanT. See Anam. 

Annamaboe, a'na-ma-bo', a seaport town, 
with a fort, on the Gold Coast, in western 
Africa, 10 miles east of Cape Coast Castle. It 
was at one time a principal mart for slaves, in 
trafficking in which many of its inhabitants be¬ 
came wealthy, and is still a place of consider¬ 
able trade. Pop. about 5,000. 

An'nan, a Scottish seaport and parliamen¬ 
tary borough in Dumfriesshire, on the Annan 
River. It has railroad connection with Glasgow, 
Carlisle, and Edinburgh, and water connection 
with Liverpool and Whitehaven. The important 
manufactures are tanning, rope-weaving, and 
cotton-spinning. Pop. (1901) 5,804. 

Annan, a river of Scotland, having a 
course of about 50 miles, flowing from north to 
south through the centre of Dumfriesshire to 
the Solway Firth, its sources being not far 
from those of the Tweed and Clyde. 

Annap'olis, Md., the capital and port of 
entry of Maryland and county-seat of Anne 
Arundel County; on the Severn River, near 
Chesapeake Bay and several railroads; 40 miles 
east of Washington, D. C. It is in a fruit and 
berry-growing region; has oyster-packing plants, 
marine railway, glass factory, a national bank, 
daily, weekly and other periodicals, and a prop¬ 
erty valuation of $3,000,000; is widely known 
as .the seat of the United States Naval Academy, 
and contains also St. John’s College, several 
State buildings, a convent, a house of Redemp- 
torist Fathers, residences of many naval officers, 
and bronze statues of Gen. John de Kalb and 
Chief-Justice Roger B. Taney. The city was 
founded in 1649 and was first named Providence. 
It received a city charter and its present name, 
in honor of Queen Anne, in 1708. The first Fed¬ 
eral Constitutional Convention was held here 
in 1786, and Washington surrendered his com¬ 
mission in the Senate-room of tne State House. 
Pop. (1900) 8,525. (Powell, ( Historic Towns 
of the Southern States, } 1900.) 

Annapolis, a town in Nova Scotia, the 
capital of Annapolis County, and up to 1750 
of the whole peninsula, situated on an arm of 
the Bay of Fundy, at the mouth of a river also 
called Annapolis, 95 miles west of Halifax. The 
place was originally called Port Royal, and is 


one of the oldest European settlements on the 
American continent. Pop. (1901) 1,019. 

Annap'olis Convention. This small gather¬ 
ing was held 11 Sept. 1786, to discuss proposed 
changes in the Articles of Confederation. By 
the time it met, the Confederation had utterly 
broken down: Congress could not find means 
to carry on the government, and the Annapolis 
Convention was anxiously looked to as the last 
hope by the business interests. Only five States 
were actually represented,— New York, New 
Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Virginia. 
These, however, were precisely the ones which 
wished the entire Confederation remodeled. New 
Jersey had instructed its delegates to accept 
nothing but a new federal government; and the 
New York group, headed by Alexander Ham¬ 
ilton, was equally zealous for a stronger system. 
John Dickinson, one of the chief authors of the 
Articles of Confederation, was made chairman; 
and a committee was appointed to prepare a re¬ 
port, which was drafted by Hamilton, though 
he was not on the committee. This report rec¬ 
ommended that the States they represented 
should agree, and try to induce the others to 
agree, <( to meet at Philadelphia on the 
second Monday of the next May, to consider 
the situation of the United States and devise 
such further provisions as should appear neces¬ 
sary to render the Constitution of the Federal 
government adequate to the exigencies of the 
nation; and to report to Congress such an act 
as, when agreed to by them and confirmed by 
the legislatures of every State, should effectually 
provide for the same.® They then adjourned; 
but this call led to the convention of 1787, where 
the Constitution was adopted. 

Ann Arbor, Mich., city and county-seat of 
Washtenaw County, on the Huron River, and 
the Michigan Central; Detroit, Ypsilanti & 
Ann Arbor and the Ann Arbor Railroads. It is 
situated among the picturesque hills of South¬ 
ern Michigan, 38 miles from Detroit, and is re¬ 
garded as one of the most desirable residential 
cities in the middle West. Here is the seat of a 
famous school of learning, the University of 
Michigan. (See Michigan, University of.) 
Ann Arbor has, among prominent buildings, a 
homoeopathic hospital, county court house, post- 
office building, high school and numerous 
churches and public and private schools. It is 
the business centre of a large agricultural and 
fruit growing region and an important shipping 
point. It has extensive manufactures of agri¬ 
cultural implements, furniture, pumps, engines, 
boilers, lumber products, organs, pianos, flour, 
wagons, etc. The municipal government is 
vested in a mayor, elected every two years, and 
a city council. The subordinate city officials are 
mostly appointed by the mayor, who acts under 
a revised charter of 1895. The city has an ex¬ 
tensive electric light system, water works plant 
and electric traction lines connecting with Jack- 
son, Kalamazoo, Battle Creek, Detroit and other 
cities. It has daily and weekly newspapers and 
four national banks. It was originally settled 
in 1824 and was incorporated as a city in 1851. 
Pop. (1890) 9,431; (1900) 14,509; (1903) est. 
17,200. 

Annas, an'as (Hebrew, «merciful»), a Jew¬ 
ish high priest; appointed high priest by Quiri- 
nus, proconsul of Syria, about 7 a.d., and deposed 


ANNATES — ANNECY 


by Valerius Gratus, procurator of Judea, in 14 a.d. 
His family was wealthy and he was evidently 
very influential, as the office of high priest was 
held by five of his sons and his son-in-law, Caia- 
phas before 36 a.d. In the New Testament 
JLuke iii. 2, John xviii. 13, Acts iv. 6) Annas 
is mentioned as high priest conjointly with 
Caiaphas. The first hearing of Jesus was be¬ 
fore Annas, who sent him bound to Caiaphas. 

Annates, a certain portion of the year's 
fruits or revenues paid to the Pope and his 
court. The term properly denotes the sum of 
half a year’s revenue of a vacant benefice (q.v.) 
payable by the new incumbent to the Pope. It 
was also used to indicate the tribute every bishop 
or mitred abbot was obliged to pay for the sup¬ 
port of the Pope and cardinals, and the lesser 
sums they contributed for the support of mem¬ 
bers of the Papal household. These tributes or 
taxes were frequently a cause of contention be¬ 
tween ecclesiastical and civil authorities. An 
effort was made to put an end to these conten¬ 
tions in the Councils of Pisa and Constance, 
and gradually all the minor tributes were abol¬ 
ished. In the Council of Basel it was decided 
to abolish every tribute of this kind, but to raise 
revenues for the antipope Felix exactions doubly 
severe were imposed on his adherents. In Ger¬ 
many the payment was satisfactorily regulated in 
the Concordat of Vienna (1448) and after several 
modifications it was finally abolished in 1803. 
In France the payment was stipulated in a Con¬ 
cordat between Innocent X. and Francis I.; it 
was finally refused entirely in 1789, and its aboli¬ 
tion recognized in the Concordat of 1801. In 
England such sums were first paid to the Arch¬ 
bishop of Canterbury, later to the Pope, and 
transferred to the Crown in 1534, the sovereign 
at present retaining only those derived from 
bishoprics and Crown livings, the rest, since 
Queen Anne’s time (see Queen Anne’s Boun¬ 
ty), going to increase the poorer livings. The 
Pope used them to support himself, the cardi¬ 
nals, and other papal officials; to defray the ex¬ 
penses of nuncios, legates, bishops exiled from 
their sees, princes deprived of their thrones, en¬ 
voys and vicars apostolic to missionary coun¬ 
tries. As this source of revenue has been con¬ 
stantly falling off during the past century, the 
deficit is made up by the voluntary contribu¬ 
tions of Catholics, known as (< Peter’s Pence }> 
(q.v.). See Ferraris, ( Prompta Bibliotheca. 5 
See First Fruits. 

Anne, an, Queen of Great Britain and Ire¬ 
land: b. at Twickenham, near London, 6 Feb. 
1664; d. 20 July 1714. She was the second 
daughter of James II., then Duke of York, and 
Anne, his wife, daughter of the Earl of Claren¬ 
don, and was educated according to the princi¬ 
ples of the English Church. In 1683 she was 
married to Prince George, brother to King 
Christian V. of Denmark. On the arrival of 
the Prince of Orange in 1688 Anne desired to 
remain with her father; but was prevailed upon 
by Lord Churchill, afterward Duke of Marl¬ 
borough, and his wife, to join the triumphant 
party. After the death of William III. in 
1702 she ascended the English throne. Her 
character was amiable but lacking in firmness, 
and she was influenced first by Marlborough 
and his wife and afterward by her favorite, 
Mrs. Masham. Most of the principal events of 


her reign are connected with the war of the 
Spanish Succession. The only important ac¬ 
quisition that England made by it was Gibraltar, 
captured in 1704. Another very important 
event of this reign was the union of England 
and Scotland, under the name of Great Britain, 
which was accomplished in 1707. She seems to 
have long cherished a wish to secure the 
succession to her brother James, but this was 
frustrated by the internal dissensions of the 
Cabinet. Grieved at the disappointment of her 
secret wishes, she fell into a state of weakness 
and lethargy and died. The reign of Anne was 
distinguished not only by the brilliant suc¬ 
cesses of the British arms, but also on account 
of the number of admirable and excellent writ¬ 
ers who flourished at this time, among whom 
were Pope, Swift, and Addison. See Oldmixon. 
Wife of Queen Anne ) (1716); Ashton, ( Social 
Life in the Reign of Queen Anne ) (1882). 

Anne, Sister, the sister of Fatima in the 
tale of WluebeardP From the top of the cas¬ 
tle tower she awaits the arrival of their broth¬ 
ers to rescue them. 

Annealing, a process to which metals and 
glass are subjected in order to increase their 
ductility, or lessen their liability to fracture 
under sudden stress. It is usually effected by 
heating the substance to be annealed until it 
approaches softness, and then allowing it to 
cool very slowly. Copper, however, is best an¬ 
nealed by heating it to a high temperature and 
then plunging it immediately into water. Met¬ 
als that are to be annealed should be heated in 
close vessels, so that they may not be affected 
by direct contact with the fuel. It is not un¬ 
common to anneal large masses of metal or 
glass by allowing the fires in the heating fur¬ 
nace to go out, and permitting the furnace and 
its contents to cool together. The articles to be 
annealed are also often buried, while still hot, 
in lime, ashes, or some other poor conductor of 
heat, and left until cold. Metals that are to be 
drawn into wire, or rolled into sheets, or pressed 
into complicated shapes, usually require an¬ 
nealing during the process, as otherwise 
they are likely to become brittle and crack 
or break. Zinc, however, grows strong and 
flexible as it is drawn into wire, though it 
loses its flexibility and regains its crystalline 
structure if kept in boiling water for a time. 
It is usually taught that the object of anneal¬ 
ing is to soften the material sufficiently to al¬ 
low molecules to move slightly among them¬ 
selves, and thus relieve the strains previously 
introduced by sudden cooling, or by the violent 
stresses to which the material has been subjected 
in the process of working. This theory is very 
possibly true to a certain extent, but the 
anomalous cases of copper and zinc, cited above, 
show that it can be regarded only as a first 
approximation to the ideal theory of annealing, 
which has yet to be discovered. See Temper¬ 
ing. 

Annecy, an'se', a town of eastern France, 
situated in the central part of the department 
of Haute Savoie at the northwest end of Lake 
Annecy. It has manufactures of silk, cotton, 
wool, and steel, and contains many buildings of 
historical interest, including a cathedral and 
the old castle of the counts of Genevois. Pop 
(1901) 13,611. 


ANNEXATION — ANNUALS 


An'nexa'tion, politically, the formal in¬ 
corporation by a State with itself of territory 
previously under another government; usually 
territory contiguous to itself or its colonial pos¬ 
sessions, or an insular neighbor, but only be¬ 
cause other annexations are rarely desired, not 
from any principle of international law. The 
annexation may be by purchase, peaceful cession, 
or conquest. Existing laws and local authori¬ 
ties do not lose their binding force and title to 
obedience till the formal act of annexation is 
passed by the new power, or treaty or proclama¬ 
tion validates it, even after cession by the old; 
though that cession cancels all legal relation to 
the former sovereign power. 

Annexations to the United States .— (i) 
The Louisiana Purchase (q.v.) from Napoleon, 
1803: 1,171,931 square miles, including Alabama 
and Mississippi south of lat. 31 0 S.; the 

whole of Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, 
Nebraska, North and South Dakota, Idaho, 
Montana, Oregon, Washington, and Indian Ter¬ 
ritory ; Colorado and Wyoming east of the 
Rocky Mountains; Kansas, except the southwest 
portion south of the Arkansas River, and Minne¬ 
sota west of the Mississippi. This was bought 
by Jefferson’s administration for $15,000,000, 
fe^ 0 * 000 of it in assumption of claims of Amer¬ 
ican citizens against France. The preliminary 
convention was signed by Livingston and Mon¬ 
roe 30 April 1803, and was confirmed by the 
Senate in special session 19 Oct. 1803, and by the 
House the 25th,— the extreme Federalists op¬ 
posing it as unconstitutional, and the President 
acknowledging it to be so, but necessary. 

(2) Florida (q.v.), 1819-21, from Spain: 
59,268 square miles; price $5,000,000, entirely in 
assumption by the United States of claims of 
its citizens against Spain, and the relinquish¬ 
ment by it of claim to Texas and the boundary 
of the Rio Grande. The treaty was signed by 
the Spanish minister at Washington, 22 Feb. 
1819; Spain refused to ratify it till after two 
years of vain insistence that the United States 
should refuse to recognize the independence 
of the South American States. 

(3) Texas (q.v.), 1845: 376,133 square miles. 
Texas, originally part of the Mexican province 
of Coahuila, obtained its de facto independence 
in the war of 1836 against Mexico, was acknow¬ 
ledged by the other powers in 1837, and at once 
began the attempts for admission into the 
United States which had been the ultimate object 
of its first colonization by Southern settlers. 
In the previous April a treaty of annexation 
with Texas had been concluded, but was re¬ 
jected by the Senate. President Tyler on the 
last day of his term sent a special messenger to 
secure the consent of the Texas Congress to 
annexation; it acceded unanimously, a popular 
convention of 4 July ratified the action, and the 
annexation was completed by a joint resolution 
of the United States House 16 Dec. 1845, and 
of the Senate on the 22d. It claimed west to 
the Rio Grande, taking in all the immemorially 
Spanish province of Coahuila, a circumstance 
which led to the Mexican war. 

. (4) New Mexico and Upper California, 
seized from Mexico in the war of 1847, and 
annexed by the treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, 
2 Feb. 1848: 545,783 square miles. Besides the 
present State of California it included Utah 
and Nevada, the most of Arizona and New 
Mexico, and Colorado west of the Rocky Moun¬ 


tains. Price, $15,000,000, and the assumption by 
the United States of $3,250,000 in claims of its 
citizens against Mexico. 1 he portion of New 
Mexico east of the Rio Grande was claimed by 
Texas, which afterward received $10,000,000 
from the United States in release. 

(5) The Gadsden Purchase (q.v.), 1853, 

from Mexico: southern Arizona and New Mex¬ 
ico from the Gila valley to Chihuahua (the 
Mesilla valley), 45,535 square miles; price 
$10,000,000. 

(6) Alaska (q.v.), 1867: 590,884 square 

miles; price, $7,200,000. Bought by the United 
States from Russia by treaty of 30 March, rati¬ 
fied by the Senate in special session 20 June. 

(7) Hawaii, 6 July 1898; 6,740 square 
miles; price, a compensation to the queen, 
Liliuokalani, recently adjusted at $200,000. 
Annexed by a joint resolution of Congress. 

(8) Porto Rico, the Philippine Islands, and 
Guam of the Ladrone Islands, 1898; taken from 
Spain as the result of war; ceded by Treaty of 
Paris, 10 Dec. 1898; about 150,000 square miles; 
price, $20,000,000, plus $100,000 subsequently 
paid for two small islands omitted from the 
treaty. 

(9) Tutuila, with the smaller islets of Tau, 
Onesinga, and Ofu, of the Samoan group, 1899; 

54 square miles, including the harbor of Pago- 
Pago; obtained by tripartite treaty with Great 
Britain and Germany. 

(10) A number of small scattered islands 
in the Pacific, taken at different recent times, 
including Wake, January 1899. See United 
States — Territorial Expansion. 

An'nie Kil'burn, a novel of New England 

life, by W. D. Howells, published in 1888. It 
is a character study of a woman in her later 
youth who returns to her native town after a 
long sojourn in Rome, unfitted by her life abroad 
for sympathy with her girlhood friends, yet 
with no diminution in the strength of her Puri¬ 
tan conscience. 

Anniston, an'nis-ton, Ala., a city in Cal¬ 
houn County; on the Louisville & N., and 
Southern R.R.’s. It is in one of the most in- 
portant coal- and iron-mining regions of the 
country; is a trade centre for cotton and agri¬ 
cultural products; and is noted for its manu¬ 
factures of iron and steel, cotton goods, bricks, ' 
cordage, and other articles. Anniston is the 
seat of the Southern Female College and the 
Noble Female Institute; has three national 
banks, 30 churches, 10 daily and weekly period¬ 
icals, and a property valuation of $5,500,000. It 
was founded by the Woodstock Iron Co. in 1872. 
Pop. (1900) 9,695. 

An'nuals, or Monocylic Plants, are those 

that complete their life histories — germinate, 
grow, mature, seed, and die — in a single vege¬ 
tative period. In garden parlance the term is 
extended to plants that are preferably raised 
from seed planted each year. Annuals are es¬ 
pecially common in dry climates and waste 
places, and among them are some of the most 
brilliantly colored and otherwise attractive of 
ornamental plants. 

Annuals, in literature, the name given to 
a class of publications enjoying at one time an 
immense yearly circulation, and distinguished by 
great magnificence both in binding and illus¬ 
tration, which render them much sought after 


ANNUITY 


as Christmas and New Year presents. Their 
contents were chiefly prose tales and ballads, 
lyrics and other verse. The earliest was the 
( Forget-me-not,> started in 1822, and followed 
next year by the/Friendship’s Offering.) The 
'Literary Souvenir) was begun in 1824, and the 
( Keepsake) in 1827. Among the names of the 
editors occur those of Alaric A. Watts, Mrs. 
S. C. Hall, Harrison Ainsworth, Lady Blessing- 
ton, and Mary Howitt. The popularity of the 
annuals reached its zenith about 1829, when no 
less than 17 made their appearance; in 1856 the 
( Keepsake,) the last of the series, ceased to 
exist. 

Annuity, a yearly payment of money to a 
specified person or persons, for a term of years, 
for life or perpetually. The varieties and com¬ 
binations of annuity payments are almost as nu¬ 
merous as the contingencies or desiderata of 
human life; each having figured so largely in 
law as to receive a specific legal title. If the 
annuity is for a definite term of years, it is 
called an annuity certain; if forever, continuing 
to heirs or specified successors, a perpetual an¬ 
nuity or perpetuity; if for a limited period, a 
term annuity; if during the whole of a given 
period, not cut short by any contingent event, a 
whole-term annuity; if for a short period, a 
short-term annuity; if it does not begin till 
after a certain date, a deferred annuity; if not 
till after the occurrence of some specified event, 
a contingent annuity; if its beginning or dura¬ 
tion is based on the continuance of a life or lives, 
it is called a life annuity; if for the time that 
certain persons survive, a temporary life annuity; 
if on any life provided another is living, or some 
event happen or not, a contingent life annuity; 
if it begin only after some death or deaths, 
a reversionary annuity; if for the duration of 
the longest of two or more lives, a joint-life an¬ 
nuity; if to the survivor of two or more, a sur¬ 
vivorship annuity. There are increasing and 
decreasing annuities, their nature obvious from 
their titles. An annuity ceasing only with the 
death of the annuitant, and with a proportionate 
part of the next payment made to the heirs, is 
called a complete annuity; if it ceases with the 
last payment made to the living, a curtate annu¬ 
ity. This by no means exhausts the forms or 
combinations possible or even actual; nor does 
it fully define even those mentioned. Thus, 
in a joint-life annuity, what is to happen on the 
successive deaths up to the last? The shares 
of the dead might return to the estate, but in 
practice are successively added to those of the 
survivors in equal portions till the last sur¬ 
vivor receives the whole. In contingent an¬ 
nuities the commonest contingency which ter¬ 
minates it is that the annuitant shall become 
self-supporting, as on marriage or remarriage 
or the attaining of majority; as when a man 
provides for his widow or daughter or son by 
will. 

In respect of object, annuities may be 
broadly divided into two sorts: those providing 
for others and those providing for one’s self. 
The former are probably the oldest, and are of 
course testamentary, taking the place of a leg¬ 
acy in the lump. Till modern times these were 
chiefly (and with great European houses are 
still so) charged directly on the private property 
of the testator in the hands of legatees or trus¬ 
tees. In Europe these permanent charges on 


property form a feature of the highest social 
and even political importance. The entailed es¬ 
tates are always incumbered with multitudes of 
annuities to connections or dependents of the 
houses, absolutely fixed, while the income from 
which they are to be paid may shrink indefinite¬ 
ly. But for a century and a half it has been 
gradually taken up by great incorporated com¬ 
panies and combined with the business of life 
insurance (q.v.). The insurance companies 
pay the annuities on contracts matured by the 
death of the testator, the payments beginning 
either then or at a specified time thereafter. 
In America this system has also absorbed al¬ 
most entirely the old contractual annuities, in 
which the annuitants buy incomes for them¬ 
selves by paying a lump sum to a person, com¬ 
pany or public body for a term or life. 

These contractual annuities, though based on 
the same calculations and mathematically iden¬ 
tical, are historically of two distinct kinds as 
respects their object: the one seeking security, 
the other investment. The latter is the older, 
and resulted from conditions now obsolete; part¬ 
ly the paucity of investment securities, partly the 
laws against usury, which could be evaded by 
annuities, as a given sum was paid for by a 
return of services, and the element of interest 
did not formally enter into it at all. Hence 
the favorite method of borrowing money by the 
great mediaeval companies and houses, and mu¬ 
nicipalities and States as well, was by annui¬ 
ties,. sold on a rough estimate of the chances 
of life; in which the buyers were always keen¬ 
er than the sellers, and till very modern times 
the bargain was always against the payers of 
the annuity. Many shrewd investors accumu¬ 
lated great properties by careful selection of 
annuities on good lives, being allowed to pro¬ 
pose the lives upon whose duration they laid 
this wager (until scientific mortality tables were 
constructed). The interest on government 
debts is a perpetual annuity; and of course any 
investment at interest is an annuity for its term, 
but such investments are not classed among an¬ 
nuities as the term is currently used. 

The other object, that of securing one’s self 
against the chances of fortune, though reached 
by the same means, has till recently had one 
broad distinction,— it was done at once and 
usually in early life, instead of in small lots as 
money accumulated. It was commonly the sink¬ 
ing of an inherited property (rarely an ac¬ 
quired one), by women, or by men of quiet 
tastes and unsuited for the struggle of business 
life, to produce a sure moderate income free 
from care and business chances. Naturally 
such annuities are much commoner in the older 
countries than in America, though steadily grow¬ 
ing here from the same causes. Large inher¬ 
ited fortunes are rare in new countries, and 
the desire to live in unventuring ease equally so, 
but as family properties increase and the strug¬ 
gle for life grows harder, the annuity system 
grows likewise. But it has been vastly ex¬ 
tended in recent years by its junction with the 
insurance system, enabling even relatively poor 
men to buy an income for their dependents after 
death, or themselves in old age, in small install¬ 
ments instead of an impossible lump sum; and 
also leaving to a widow a steady income for a 
term of years or life, in place of a lump sum to 
be invested by herself or trustees, and possibly 


ANNULARIA; ANNULATA 


mismanaged or lost or embezzled. Therefore, 
both in its ease of purchase and in its advan¬ 
tages of payment, it is steadily growing in favor, 
and becoming larger in proportion to the total of 
life-insurance dealings. 

Historically, annuities are probably as old as 
the great Assyrian-Babylonian times, in the 
7th and 6th centuries before Christ, when great 
banking houses that lasted for generations, and 
commercial and mercantile facilities, were well 
developed; but the first positive mention is 
brought out bv the Falcidian Law of Rome, 40 
b.c., which enacted that not more than three 
fourths of a property should be willed away in 
specific legacies. As this could not be obeyed 
unless some method of valuing annuity legacies 
was devised, the following rough estimate was 
accepted: up to 30, 30 years more of life; up 
to 60, as many as were wanting to make up 60. 
This extremely defective calculation — which 
assumed that a life over 60 was not worth even 
a year’s purchase, and was very inaccurate for 
others — was replaced by the great Roman 
jurist Ulpian (d. 228 a.d.) with one much bet¬ 
ter, though still imperfect; but interesting as 
the first known table of life probabilities grad¬ 
uated with reference to age, and, strangely 
enough, revived and used by the Tuscan gov¬ 
ernment in the early 19th century, long after 
more scientific ones were in use. It is as fol¬ 
lows : 


Birth 

to 

20, 

30 

years 

44 

to 

45 , 

46, 

15 

years 

44 

20 

to 

25, 

28 

44 

45 

to 

14 

25 

to 

30, 

25 

44 

46 

to 

47 , 

13 

44 

30 

to 

35 , 

22 

44 

47 

to 

48, 

12 

44 

35 

to 

40, 

20 

4 4 

48 

to 

49 , 

11 

44 

40 

to 

41, 

19 

4 4 

49 

to 

50 , 

10 

44 

4 i 

to 

42, 

18 

44 

50 

to 

55 , 

9 

44 

42 

to 

43 , 

1 7 

44 

55 

to 

60, 

7 

44 

43 

to 

44 , 

16 

44 

60 

and 

up, 

5 

44 


This contained no interest computation. Un¬ 
til the 18th century there was little advance in 
the scientific aspects of the business: it re¬ 
mained a speculation, though an extensive and 
recognized one, and England under William of 
Orange may almost be said to have maintained 
her national existence by borrowing money on 
annuities, as the Dutch had to some extent be¬ 
fore it. The researches of Pascal, Fermat, and 
Huygens in the 17th century into the theory of 
probabilities greatly advanced the accuracy of 
calculations; in 1742 Mr. Thomas Simpson pub¬ 
lished his ( Doctrine of Annuities and Rever¬ 
sions,? one of the landmarks of the business; 
and in 1762 the Equitable Assurance Society, 
the first insurance company of the world, was 
started, primarily to do annuity business, which 
is the parent of life insurance, though now but 
a minor incident in it. Several other companies 
were founded shortly after. The real founda¬ 
tion of modern life insurance, however, and of 
scientific annuities as well, was the publication 
in I 77 L by Richard Price, of his Northampton 
Table of Mortality. This estimated the term 
of life-average too low, but it was the prede¬ 
cessor of the Carlisle and other tables on which 
modern life insurance is built, now supplanted 
by the actual experience for generations in 
numberless great offices. 

It is obvious that while the rate of mortality 
is a determining factor in annuity rates as 
much as insurance rates, its incidence is exact¬ 
ly in reverse. That is, the higher the rate of 
mortality and the shorter the average term of 


life, the less money in gross will have to be 
paid on a contingent annuity contract, and con¬ 
sequently the less will be the sum needed to 
sink in it, or in current phrase, the lower the 
rate of annual premium. Conversely, the older 
the buyer is, and consequently the shorter his 
expectation of life, the less his annuity is worth 
On the contrary, the less an individual’s ex¬ 
pectation of life under an insurance contract, 
the higher must his premium be to accumulate 
sufficient money in the assumed period to 
amount to the promised sum. The factor of in¬ 
terest is the same for both: the higher the inter- 
est, the lower the premium or the initial sum 
paid. In the now frequent insurance contracts, 
where the principal sum is paid to the benefici¬ 
ary in annuity installments, the question is one 
of interest complicated by the probabilities of the 
beneficiary dying before the payments are com¬ 
pleted. More usually now, however, this, lat¬ 
ter element is eliminated by providing that in 
such case the remainder shall be paid to the 
legal representatives, so that it becomes an an¬ 
nuity certain. An interesting concrete illus¬ 
tration of the effect of overrating the mor¬ 
tality is the sale of annuities by the English 
government under the Northampton Table. 
This table had figured a correct total of deaths 
against an incomplete table of births in a given 
population, and consequently assumed too high 
a death rate; the government, therefore, fixed 
the annuity rate too low; and vast quantities of 
annuities were sold under Mr. Perceval’s 
scheme of 1808 for funding the national debt. 
The actuaries discovered the miscalculation, and 
one of them in 1819 warned the government 
that it was losing £8,000 a month on these con¬ 
tracts ; the advice was unheeded; buyers con¬ 
tinued to be shrewder than the government and 
purchased largely of the attractive bargain, and 
in 1827 another actuary publicly announced that 
the government was losing £8,000 a week. The 
next year the sale was suspended, with a total 
loss to the government of not less than $25,- 
000,000. 

The calculations for annuities are a part of 
actuarial science. In the United States the fol¬ 
lowing are the approved rates of the best-man¬ 
aged companies: In consideration of $1,000 
paid to a company the annuity granted to a per¬ 
son aged 40 would be $52.75; 45, $58.10; 50, 
$64.70; 55, $73.50; 60, $86.20; 65, $100; 70, 
$123.45; 75 , $ 145 - 95 80, $180.15. But, as stated, 
the pure annuity, sinking a large sum to buy a 
yearly income, does not figure largely in America. 

Legally the annuity, whether charged to the 
person of the grantor or on specific real or per¬ 
sonal estate, is. treated as personal property 
except for purposes of inheritance or devise- 
ment, when it is held to be real property. A 
rent-charge, however, is a charge on specific 
real estate only, and is held to be real prop¬ 
erty under all circumstances. 

An'nular'ia. See Calamities. 

An'nula'ta, or Anneli da, a term applied to 
the phylum of sea-worms, comprising the most 
specialized worms. They are represented by the 
leeches, the earthworm, the nais of fresh water, 
and the marine annelids. The phylum is divided 
into four classes: (1) Chcetopoda, (2) Gephy - 
rea, (3) Archi-annelida, and (4) Hirudinea. 
In the more typical form they are characterized 
by their long, bilaterally symmetrical body. 






ANNULATA, OR ANNELIDS 



1. Heteronereis. 

2. Phyllodoce Laminosa. 

3. Glycera. 

4. Arenicola. 

5. Rock Needle (Pontobdella muricata). 


6. Nais Proboscidea. 

7. Terrebilla Emmalina. 

8. Hermella. 

9. Common Earth Worm (Lumbricus agricola). 

10. Tubes of Hermella Alveolata. 



























ANNUNCIATION — ANOINTING 


which is cylindrical, consisting of numerous 
segments either unarmed, or more usually pro¬ 
vided with seta alone, or with seta and paddle¬ 
like appendages ( rami ). The head is simple, 
with a few simple eyes, or provided with tenta¬ 
cles ( antenna ) alone, or with tentacles and 
bronchia. An eversible pharynx, armed with 
teeth, is usually present. The alimentary canal is 
straight, the tubular stomach sometimes saccu¬ 
lated; the vent is always situated in the last 
segment of the body. The nervous system is 
w r ell developed, consisting of a brain and a ven¬ 
tral ganglionated cord. The circulatory sys¬ 
tem is closed, with a dorsal and ventral, and lat¬ 
eral vessels connected by anastomosing branches 
in nearly each segment. A system of numerous 
paired segmental organs, the sexes are united 
in the same individual or separate. The embryo 
passes through a cleavage-stage (morula or 
blastula), gastrula, sometimes a neurula stage, 
and after hatching, development is either di¬ 
rect or there is a. marked metamorphosis, the 
larva passing through a trochosphere and ceph- 
alala stage. Consult Parker and Haswell, 

( Text-book of Zoology ) (1897). 

Annuncia'tion, the declaration of the angel 
Gabriel to the Virgin Mary that she was to be¬ 
come the mother of our Lord (Luke i. 26-38). 
Annunciation or Lady Day is a feast of the 
Church in honor of the annunciation, celebrated 
in the western Churches on 25 March. The 
institution of this festival is' generally as¬ 
signed to the 7th century. The Italian, for¬ 
merly Sardinian, order of Knights of the An¬ 
nunciation {Ordine Supremo dell’ Annunziata) 
was instituted by Amadeus VI., Duke of Savoy, 
in 1360. It received statutes from Amadeus 
VIII. in 1409, was renewed in 1518, and raised 
to the first order of the Sardinian monarchy in 
1720. The subject of the Annunciation has been 
a favorite with artists from Fra Angelico to 
Dante Gabriel Rossetti. 

Annunzio, Gabriele d’, an-noon'tse-o, an 
Italian novelist and poet: b. near Pescara in 
1864. He was educated at Prato, where he 
published at 14 his ( Primo Vere. 5 He is now 
one of the most conspicuous Italian writers of 
the day, having abandoned Italian traditions for 
modern French realism. His poems and nov¬ 
els are brilliant, but often frankly sensual as 
well as pessimistic, and both prose and verse 
have been severely criticised for their licentious 
spirit. ( I 1 Piacere, 5 his first novel (The Child 
of Pleasure, 1889), was followed by others en¬ 
titled < LTnnocente > (The Intruder, 1891) ; 
( Giovanr.i Episapo ) (1892) ; ( I 1 Trionfo della 
Morte 5 (The Triumph of Death, 1849) ; ( Le 
Vergini delle Rocce ) (Virgins of the Rocks, 
1896) ; ( Fuoco 5 (Flame of Life, 1900). His' 
plays include HI Sogno d’un Mattino di Prima- 
vera 5 (1897) ; HI Sogno d’un Tramonto d’ 
Autunno ) (1898) ; ( La citta Morte ) (1898) ; ( La 
Gioconda 5 (1898) ; ( Francesca da Rimini 5 
(1901). D’Annunzio’s reputation is now in¬ 
ternational, his writings having been translated 
into English, French, and German. Among his 
poems'are: ( The New Song ) (1882); Hnter- 
ludes of Verse 5 (1883) ; and ( Marine Odes 5 
(1893). 

An'nus Mirab'ilis (Latin), (( the wonderful 
year, 55 1666. A year memorable for the great 
fire of London and the successes of British 


arms over the Dutch. Dryden has written a 
poem with this title, in which these events 
are described. 

Ann'ville, Pa., a village in Lebanon Coun¬ 
ty five miles west of Lebanon, the seat of Leb¬ 
anon Valley College, an institution controlled 
by the United Brethren in Christ. It was 
founded in 1762. Pop. (1900) about 2,000. 

Ano'a, a genus of Malayan buffaloes, par¬ 
ticularly the small black species, with low, erect 
horns, called sapi-utan (A. depressicornis ), and 
found in the highlands of Celebes. The genus 
was once classed with the antelopes. 

Anob'ium, a genus of beetles belonging 
to the ■ family Ptinida. It contains the death- 
watch insects, A. striatum, A. tesselatum , etc. 

An'ode, the name given by Faraday (in 
183^) to the electrode, or terminal, at which a 
current of positive electricity enters a battery 
or other electrical apparatus in which chemical 
work is performed. The term has since been 
extended so as to include the electrode by which 
a positive electric current enters a vacuum tube. 
The other electrode, in every case, is known as 
the (( cathode. 5> The anode of a primary battery 
(see Battery) commonly consists of a plate or 
rod of zinc, while the cathode consists of a plate 
of carbon, or copper, or platinum. In electrolysis 
the anode and cathode both consist, usually, of 
platinum or carbon. In a vacuum tube the 
anode commonly consists of a wire or disk of 
platinum, while the cathode (which is varied in 
shape* according to the purpose to which the 
tube is to be put) is usually made of aluminum 
or platinum. 

An'o-don'ta, a subdivision of the fresh¬ 
water mussels (q.v.), abundant in the streams 
and lakes of the United States and most temper¬ 
ate countries. They have smooth, thin shells 
without hinge-teeth. 

An'odynes. See Analgesics. 

Anointing, an Oriental custom of apply¬ 
ing oil to the head or unguents to the body. 
The Greeks and Romans, particularly the for¬ 
mer, anointed themselves after the bath. Wrest¬ 
lers used unguents in order to render it 
more difficult for their antagonists to get hold 
of them. The use of oil for ceremonial pur¬ 
poses is equally ancient. Its first mention is 
in Gen. xxviii. 18, where Jacob, in commemora¬ 
tion of a remarkable dream, is said to have set 
up a pillar and poured oil upon it. In the 
Mosaic law and several ancient religions a 
sacred character was attached to the anointing 
of the garments of the priests and things be¬ 
longing to the ceremonial of worship. This 
could be done only with oil made for the pur¬ 
pose, and signified a consecration of the articles 
to the service of religion. Jewish priests and 
kings were anointed when inducted into office, 
and were called the anointed of the Lord, to 
show that their persons were sacred and their 
office from God. The Old Testament prophecies 
respecting the Redeemer style him, on account 
of his royal descent and his dignity, Messias, 
that is, the Anointed, which is also the meaning 
of his Greek name Christ. The custom of 
anointing still exists in the Roman Catholic 
and Oriental Churches (see Sacraments), and 
is also frequently a part of the ceremony of 
coronation. 


ANOKA —ANSELM 


Anoka, a-no'ka, Minn., a small city, the 
county-seat of Anoka County, with manufac¬ 
tures of lumber, flour, and machinery. Pop. 
(1900) 3,769. 

Ano'lis, a genus of slender, long-tailed, 
iguanid lizards of the American tropics, which 
are expert climbers and seek their insect food 
principally in trees and bushes. They have a 
pouch under the throat and the ability to change 
color. It is not surprising, therefore, that one 
of the species (A. carolinensis ), a beautiful 
golden-green lizard, very common in our South¬ 
ern States, and often kept as a pet, should be 
called the American chameleon. About 100 
other species are known. See Chameleon. 

Anom'aly, a deviation from a rule. That 
which deviates is called anomalous. In astron¬ 
omy the true anomaly is the angle which a line 
drawn from a planet to the sun has passed 
through since the planet was last at its peri¬ 
helion or nearest distance to the sun. On ac¬ 
count of the planets not moving with the same 
velocity at all parts of their orbits, this angle 
does not increase uniformly; hence its name. 
The anomalistic year is the interval between two 
successive times at which the earth is in peri¬ 
helion, or 365 days 6 hours 13 minutes 48 
seconds. In consequence of the advance of the 
earth’s perihelion among the stars in the same 
direction as the earth’s motion, and of the pre¬ 
cession of the equinoxes, which carries the 
equinoxes back in the opposite direction to the 
earth’s motion, the anomalistic year is longer 
than the sidereal year, measured by the sun’s re¬ 
turn to the same position among the stars, and 
still longer than the tropical or common year, 
measured by the earth’s return to the same 
equinox. It exceeds the latter by 25 minutes. 

Anonaceae, an-6-na'ce-e, the custard-apple 
family, a natural order of trees and shrubs with 
simple, alternate leaves, destitute of stipules, by 
which character they are distinguished from the 
Magnoliacece, to which they are otherwise close¬ 
ly allied. Their flowers are commonly axillar, 
sometimes terminal. The calyx is persistent, 
with three deep divisions. The corolla is formed 
of six petals, disposed in two series. The sta¬ 
mens are very numerous, forming several series; 
their filament short, their anthers almost sessile. 
The carpels, generally aggregated in great num¬ 
ber in the centre of the flower, are sometimes 
distinct, sometimes connected; each of them has 
a single cell which contains one or more ovules 
attached to the inner suture, and often forming 
as many distinct fruits (rarely one only in con¬ 
sequence of abortion) ; sometimes they are 
united together and form a kind of fleshy, scaly 
cone. The seeds have a horny endosperm deeply 
grooved, and this is another character which 
distinguishes them from the Magnoliacea. The 
Anonacea are mostly tropical plants belonging 
both to the Old and New Worlds, the papaw 
being the best-known American species. They 
are generally aromatic, a quality found chiefly 
in the bark, but also in the leaves and flowers, 
and to some extent in the fruit, all of which 
parts are consequently employed in the countries 
of which the plants are native as remedies and 
for seasoning. Many of them yield likewise an 
edible and nutritious fruit, extremely agreeable 
to the taste. 

Anoph'eles, a genus of Culicidce (mos¬ 
quitoes), embracing those species of blood¬ 


sucking mosquitoes which carry and communi¬ 
cate to human beings, by biting, malarial 
diseases. See Mosquito. 

An'oplothe'rium, an extinct primitive 
ruminant fossil in the Upper Eocene formations 
of Europe. It was among the first fossil ver¬ 
tebrates discovered in the gypsum quarries of 
Montmartre in Paris, and was named by Cuvier 
in 1822 from its defenseless character (Gr. 
&vott\os, unarmed; Oriplov, beast), as it has 
neither tusks nor horns to protect itself from 
its carnivorous enemies. They form the type of 
a distinct family, in many respects intermediate 
between the swine and the true ruminants. 

Anorthite, a triclinic feldspar, having the 
composition of a silicate of aluminum and cal¬ 
cium, CaAbShOs. It is especially interesting to 
the chemical mineralogist because it stands at 
one end of the albite-anorthite ..series of feld¬ 
spars (see Feldspars). Its cleavage is per¬ 
fect parallel with the base, and distinct paral¬ 
lel with the brachypinacoid. It is brittle, break¬ 
ing with a conchoidal to uneven fracture. Its 
hardness is 6 to 6.5, and specific gravity about 
2.75. It is usually colorless or white, sometimes 
grayish or inclining to brick-red. It occurs in 
glassy crystals in the ejected blocks at Mount 
Vesuvius, Italy. 

Anos'mia, the loss of the sense of smell. 
This may be produced by: (1) Injury to the 
nerves of smell as they originate in the mucous 
membrane of the nose, in chronic nasal catarrh, 
in polypi, or in injury to the nose. (2) By in¬ 
jury to the olfactory bulbs or to the olfactory 
tracts. Such injuries occur in severe blows or 
falls, particularly in fracture of the ethmoid 
plate accompanying fracture of the skull. (3) 
By injury to the brain centres of smell, which 
are located in and about the uncinate gyrus. 
See Smell. 

An'selm, Saint, a celebrated theologian, re¬ 
garded by some as the founder of scholasticism: 
b. Aosta, in Piedmont, 1033; d. Canterbury, 21 
April 1109. At 27 he became a monk at Bee, 
in Normandy, whither he had been attracted by 
the celebrity of his countryman Lanfranc, then 
prior of the monastery there. When Lanfranc 
was promoted to the abbacy of Caen, Anselm was 
elevated to the dignity of prior, and in 1078 he 
was made abbot, which office he retained for 
15 years. During this period he wrote his first 
philosophical and religious works: the dialogues 
on ( Truth and Free-will,> ( De Veritate,* and 
( De Libertate Arbitrii,* and the treatises ( Mon- 
ologion > and ‘Proslogion^ and at the same time 
his influence made itself so strongly felt that 
Bee became the chief seat of learning in Europe. 
In 1093 Anselm was offered the archbishopric of 
Canterbury, which had lain vacant since the 
death of Lanfranc in 1089, and accepted the 
offer, though with great reluctance and with the 
condition that the king of England, William 
Rufus, should acknowledge Pope Urban in op¬ 
position to the antipope Clement, which the 
king ultimately consented to do. In 1097, a 
new difficulty having arisen between Anselm and 
William, the former set out for Rome to consult 
with the Pope. Urban received him with great 
distinction, but did not venture to declare him¬ 
self on the side of the prelate in his dispute 
with the king. Meanwhile William had seized 
on the revenues of the see of Canterbury, which 


ANSERES —ANT 


he retained till his death in noo. Anselm ac¬ 
cordingly remained abroad, where he wrote his 
celebrated treatise on the atonement, <Cur Deus 
Homo. ' When William Rufus was succeeded 
by Henry I., Anselm was recalled. His canon¬ 
ization seems to have taken place in 1494. All 
the works of Anselm are directed toward found¬ 
ing a reasoned system of Christian truth. Such 
a system he considered to be a legitimate demand 
of reason, although he repeats again and again 
the doctrine that faith is necessary to the in¬ 
telligence of the Christian mysteries, that the 
teaching of revelation must first be accepted by 
faith and afterward shown to have the support 
of reason. His celebrated ontological proof of 
the existence of God is to be found in the 
^roslogionP The ( Cur Deus Homo^ treat¬ 
ing, as already mentioned, of the atonement, is 
the most important of Anselm’s works. In 
order to satisfy the reason of the need of an 
atonement and of the efficacy of the particular 
atonement that the Christian religion represents 
as having been made in the death of Christ, 
Anselm endeavors to establish the following 
positions: First, that God’s honor is wounded 
by sin and his justice therefore requires satis¬ 
faction ; second, that this satisfaction can be 
given only through one who is at once God and 
man; and third, that the voluntary death of 
Christ actually accomplished this satisfaction. 
The works of Anselm have often been pub¬ 
lished. The last complete edition forms the 
155th volume of Abbe Migne’s ( Patrologise Cur- 
sus CompletusP Among the numerous sepa¬ 
rate editions of the ( Cur Deus Homo' may be 
mentioned those of Lammer (Berlin 1857) an d 
Fritzsche (Zurich 1868). Anselm’s personal 
character, distinguished by single-mindedness, 
gentleness, large-heartedness, and piety, makes 
him one of the brightest ornaments of the Chris¬ 
tian Church. 

Bibliography .— Eadmer, ( Vita AnselmP ; 
the works of Franck (1842) ; Hasse (1843-52) ; 
Remusat (1853); R. W. Church (1870) ; Rigg 
(1896) ; and Welch (1900). 

An 'seres (Lat. nom. plur. of anser, goose), 
an order of water-birds, chiefly marked by the 
series of tooth-like projections on the edges of 
both mandibles, so placed that those on the 
upper mandible fit into the spaces between those 
on the lower when the mandibles are closed. 
Ducks, geese, and swans (qq.v.) belong in this 
order, and some classifications also include the 
screamers. They live and breed near the wa¬ 
ter, are found in all parts of the world, and 
are usually of large size. As a rule, they are 
swimming-birds and their numerous young 
need but little care. About 200 species are 
known. 

An'son, George, Lord, a celebrated Eng¬ 
lish navigator: b. Shugborough, 23 April 1697; 
d. Moor Park, 6 June 1762. He entered the 
navy at an early age and became a captain in 
1724. In 1740 he was made commander of a 
fleet sent to the South Sea, directed against the 
trade and colonies of Spain. The expedition 
consisted of five men-of-war and three smaller 
vessels, which carried 1,400 men. After much 
suffering and many stirring adventures he 
reached the coast of Peru, made several prizes, 
and captured and burned the city of Paita. His 
squadron was now reduced to one ship, the 
Centurion, but with it he took the Spanish 


treasure galleon from Acapulco, arriving in 
England in 1744, with treasure to the amount 
of £500,000, after having circumnavigated the 
globe. His adventures and discoveries are de¬ 
scribed in the well-known Anson’s ( Voyage^ 
compiled from materials furnished by Anson. 
His victory over the French admiral Jonquiere, 
near Cape Finisterre in 1747, raised him to the 
peerage with the title of Lord Anson, Baron of 
Soberton. Four years afterward he was made 
first lord of the admiralty. In 1758 he com¬ 
manded the fleet before Brest, protected the 
landing of the British at St. Malo, Cherbourg, 
etc., and received the repulsed troops into his 
vessels. 

Anso'nia, Conn., a city of New Haven 
County, situated on the Naugatuck River, a 
few miles above its junction with the Housa- 
tonic, and on the New York, N. H. & H. R.R., 
being also the terminus of the New Haven and 
Derby branch. Two newspapers are published 
here, and the city contains two banks, many 
stores, public buildings, etc., besides extensive 
manufactories of brass and copper goods, clocks 
and clock equipments, movements, etc., electrical 
supplies, flour, lumber, and lumber products, 
foundries, and machine shops, etc. It was for¬ 
merly a part of Derby, and received its city 
charter from the legislature in 1892. Pop. 
(1900) 12,681. 

An'swer, in law, a defense in writing, 
made by a defendant to charges contained in a 
complaint filed by the plaintiff against him in a 
court of law. In all the code States a statute 
similar in its provisions to § 500 of the New 
York Code of Civil Procedure has been adopted. 
This section provides that the answer of the de¬ 
fendant must contain: (1) a general or specific 
denial of each material allegation of the com¬ 
plaint controverted by the defendant, or of any 
knowledge or information thereof sufficient to 
form a belief; (2) a statement of any new mat¬ 
ter constituting a defense or counterclaim, in 
ordinary and concise language, without repe¬ 
tition. 

Ant, a small social insect of the family of 
Hymenoptera, characterized by unusual distinct¬ 
ness of the three regions of the body, head, 
thorax, and abdomen, and by the stack or petiole 
of the abdomen having either one or (rarely) 
two “scales® or “nodes,® so that the abdomen 
moves very freely on the trunk or thorax. The 
antennae are elbowed as in wasps and bees. Ants 
live in societies, consisting, besides the males 
and "females, of smaller wingless workers. In 
all ants except the Odontomachidce and Doryli- 
dcu the mandibles are wide apart at their base or 
insertion, so that they can be used without the 
other appendages of the mouth being opened or 
even moved. Both males and females are 
winged, but the males are much smaller than 
the females, while the wingless workers are 
smaller than the males. In these wingless forms 
the segments of the thorax become more or less 
separated, making the body much longer and 
slenderer, and less compact than in the winged 
normal sexual forms, the prothorax being more 
developed than in the males and females. The 
workers often consist of two forms: one with a 
large cubical head, or worker major, sometimes 
called a soldier, and the usual small-headed 


ANT 


form, or worker minor. In certain genera this 
polymorphism (q.v.) is still more marked. The 
legs are usually long and slender, the tarsi are 
five-jointed as usual in Hymenoptera, but the 
front or basal joint is disproportionately long, 
so that it functions as if part of the tibia; the 
tibias of the fore pair of legs are furnished with 
comb for cleaning the antennae and mouth ap¬ 
pendages. A sting is sometimes present, as in the 
Poneridce, which sting like wasps and bees, and 
in the Myrmicina, while in the workers of ordi¬ 
nary ants it is either vestigial or entirely want¬ 
ing. Some ants secrete an active poison (formic 
acid), which they inject into the wound made 
by their jaws in biting. In the Formicince, 
whose sting is atrophied, the amount of poison 
secreted is (( relatively enormous® (Janet). Our 
Formica obscuripes is a very ferocious species, 
and, like the European F. pratensis, rises upon 
its hind legs, curves the abdomen, and ejects its 
venom, while Muckermann adds that the ejection 
of formic acid is so copious as to enforce the 
observer to momentarily retire. 

The larvae of ants are uniformly maggot¬ 
like, being legless, soft bodied, cylindrical, and 
with a small head bent on the breast. They are 
helpless and are fed by the workers. 

Wheeler has shown that different species of 
ants employ very different methods of feeding 
their larvae. Some (those of Camponotus, For¬ 
mica, Lasins, and Myrmica ) feed their young 
with liquid food regurgitated from their crops, 
and possibly also with the secretion of the sali¬ 
vary glands. Other species, however, Ponerince 
and some Myrmicince, feed their larvae with com¬ 
minuted insects. Wheeler states that the larvae 
of certain ants (( are not only able to subsist on 
solid food, but even on food of a vegetable 
nature.® 

The larvae of the stingless genera usually 
spin a delicate silken cocoon, while those of the 
aculeate genera do not. Within the cocoon the 
larva transforms into the pupa. 

Nesting Habits. — The history of a formica- 
riurn, or ants’ nest, is as follows: The workers 
only (but in some species the winged ants) 
hibernate, and are found early in spring taking 
care of the eggs and larvae produced by the 
autumnal brood of females. Every ant colony 
is founded by a single fertilized female. In the 
course of the summer the adult forms are de¬ 
veloped, swarming on a hot, sultry day. The 
small yellow ants, abundant in paths and about 
houses in New England, generally swarm on the 
afternoon of some hot day in the first week of 
September, when the air is filled toward sunset 
with myriads of them. The females, after their 
marriage flight in the air, may then be seen en¬ 
tering the ground to lay their eggs for new 
colonies, or they are often seized by the workers 
and retained in the old colonies. Having no 
more use for their wings, they pluck them off, 
and may be seen running about wingless. The 
female, after laying her eggs, does not go abroad 
in search of food, but feeds the young larvae 
with food regurgitated from her stomach and 
derived from her fat-bodies; thus the larvae are 
poorly fed and become workers. 

Nests. — The nests. of some species of 
Formica are six feet in diameter and contain 
many thousand individuals. Ants also build 
nests of clay or mud and inhabit hollow trees. 
Ants in Europe build true mounds, sometimes 
three feet high, but in North America they are 


mostly subterranean, though in Wisconsin one 
ant ( F . obscuripes ) erects a true mound about 
20 inches high. 

Formica sanguinea is one of our most abun¬ 
dant species, making hillocks of sand or clay, 
according to the nature of the ground. From 
the formicary walks and underground galleries 
radiate in a labyrinth in all directions; and deep 
down, where the soil is perpetually moist, the 
galleries descend to a relatively greater depth 
than in Europe. Packard has found a variety 
of this species in Labrador, where it is common. 
It does not throw up hillocks, but tunnels in the 
earth. The nest of (Ecophylla smaragdina is 
formed by drawing together a number of green 
leaves, which are united with a fine web. Some 
nests are a foot in diameter. This species 
swarms in hilly forests in New Guinea. Its 
sting is not very severe. 

It is in argillaceous countries especially that 
the CEcodomas build their enormous formicaries, 
so that one perceives them from afar by the 
projection which they form above the level of 
the soil, as well as by the absence of vegetation 
in their immediate neighborhood. These nests 
occupy a surface of many square metres, and 
their depth varies from one to two metres. Very 
many openings, of a diameter of about one to 
three inches, are contrived from the exterior, 
and conduct to the inner cavities which serve as 
storehouses for the eggs and larvae. The cen¬ 
tral part of the nest forms a sort of funnel, 
designed for the drainage of water, from which, 
in a country where the rains are often abundant, 
they could hardly escape without being entirely 
submerged if they did not provide some outlet 
for it. 

The ^agricultural ant® myth has been explod¬ 
ed by Wheeler, who shows that these ants do 
not plant grass seeds or (( ant-rice® for a harvest. 
It is probable that Lincecum’s error was due to 
the fact that the sprouted seeds stored up and 
then cast away as inedible take root and thus 
form a partial circle of tall grass around the 
nest. 

Mushroom Gardens. — Moller has described 
what he calls (( mushroom gardens® made by 
several South American species of Atta. The 
ants cut and bring the large pieces of leaves into 
their cellars, then cut them into smaller frag¬ 
ments, and finally comminute these still further 
till they form a flocculent greenish-brown pulp, 
i his pulp is heaped up and soon becomes in¬ 
vaded by the mycelium of a fungus (Rozites 
gongylophora ). The mycelium is kept aseptical- 
ly clean —that is, free from all other species of 
fungi and even from bacteria — and induced to 
grow in an abnormal way by bringing forth mi¬ 
nute swellings which constitute the only food of 
the ant colony. Moller likens these swellings to 
the kohlrabi of the German kitchen gardens. 

Forel has studied the habits of two other spe¬ 
cies (Atta cephalotcs and A. sexdens) in Co¬ 
lombia, in relation to this process of collecting 
and comminuting the leaves and in cultivating 
the mushroom. He has found that the largest 
workers (soldiers) triturate the leaves and de¬ 
fend the nest. They draw blood when they fight. 
The indigenes are said to use these insects for 
closing wounds. They induce them to bite the two 
lips of the wound, and thereupon sever the bodies 
from the. heads, which then serve as a suture. 
The medium-sized workers cut the leaves from 
the trees, while in the nest the workers of the 


ANTS 



Upper Section:—A. Red Ant (Formica rufa). i-8. Workers. 2. Head. 3. Larva. 4. Male. 5. Pupa. 
6. Female. 7. Egg. All magnified. B. Horse Ant (Camponotus herculeanus). 1. Male. 2. Fe¬ 
male. 3. Worker. 

Middle Section :—A. Honey Ant (Myrmecocystus Mexicanus). B. March of the Leaf-Carrying Ant 
(CEcodoma cephalotes). 

Lower Section :—4. Yellow Ants (Lasius flavus), with Root Lice; highly magnified. 







































































ANT 


minim caste are forever clipping the threads 
of the mycelium of the Rozites, which then 
develops the kohlrabi on which the ants feed. 

Wheeler has more recently excavated a large 
nest of leaf-cutting ants (Atta ferrens ) in a 
piece of woodland in Texas. The large bur¬ 
rows, nearly an inch in diameter, were found to 
extend down to a depth of from three to five 
feet, and to open into large chambers, some of 
which were fully ten inches across and five to 
eight inches high. A few of these chambers 
were traversed by the roots of a large cedar, 
in the shade of which the ants had dug their 
formicary. Mushroom gardens were found 
heaped upon the floor, or, more rarely, en¬ 
veloping, as aerial or <( hanging” gardens, the 
roots that extended across the chambers. 

The shape of a mushroom garden is that of 
a discoidal sponge. On its upper surface the 
ants pile up the flocculent vegetable debris, 
threaded in all directions with fungus hyphae, 
in the form of thin, vertical, anastomosing plates, 
so that as much surface as possible is exposed 
to the atmosphere of the chamber. This at¬ 
mosphere must contain a great amount of 
carbon-dioxid and a very small amount of oxy¬ 
gen. The ants leave several tubular or funnel- 
shaped openings, varying in diameter, and ex¬ 
tending down into some chambers excavated in 
the base of the vegetable mass. In these cham¬ 
bers lives the huge queen of the colony (an 
insect nearly an inch long), the newly-fledged 
males and virgin queens, together with the lar¬ 
vae, pupae, and attendant ants. The whole mush¬ 
room garden swarms with workers representing 
all the different castes so characteristic of the 
genus Atta. The big-headed soldiers stalk about 
slowly over the surface of the comb, descending 
from time to time into the interior, as if to 
make sure that the great family is properly at¬ 
tending to its multifarious occupations, while 
thousands of minims keep moving about through 
the meshes of the mycelium, weeding the garden. 

Relation of Quality and Quantity of Food to 
the Production of the Sexless Workers. — As 
is obvious, since the workers rarely lay eggs, 
the worker caste is not inherited either directly 
or collaterally from the parents. The view now 
suggested, and supported by a considerable body 
of facts, is that the larvae on hatching are at first 
all alike, and that those which become workers 
are fed with different as well as less food than 
those which develop into sexual individuals. 
We know that the differences between the queen 
and the worker bees are due to differences in 
the nature of the food. The worker white ants 
have been found by Grassi to be the result of 
having different food and less of it than the 
males or females. Wasmann believes that the 
large workers of Polyergus rufescens ( (( ergatoid 
females”) are produced by the slave ants ( For¬ 
mica fusca ), living in the colony, through ex¬ 
cessive care and feeding of certain larvae,— that 
is, that the fusca workers or slaves attempt to 
change worker larvae of Polyergus into queens, 
but succeed only in producing the wingless 
ergatoids. Emery also holds that the sexual 
polymorphism of the ant colony is the result of 
the development of an instinct in the workers to 
feed the larvae in different ways, and thus the 
characters in which the worker differs from the 
corresponding sexual forms are not congenital 

but acquired. 

Vol. 1—36 


As has been said, the female ant, on found¬ 
ing a new colony, herself lives and nourishes 
the freshly-hatched larvae with food from her 
stomach, ultimately from the fat-body. Hence 
these larvae of the first brood are poorly fed and 
become small or dwarf workers (micro-ergates). 
These workers leave the nest and bring in food 
to their half-starved parent. Thus fed she be¬ 
comes more prolific, lays another batch of eggs, 
and the larvae become larger, and finally change 
into larger-sized workers. The colony thus be¬ 
comes more populous and, as Wheeler states, 
the workers of successive broods grow larger 
until they attain the full stature of the species. 
Then and not till then do the workers bring up 
the males and queens, which are carefully herd¬ 
ed, fed, and groomed by the workers until ready 
for the marriage flight. In some species of ants 
the males and virgin queens do not appear till 
the second or third year after the colony is 
founded. In a few American species of the 
huge cosmopolitan genus Pheidole, Wheeler and 
others find that the large-headed and small¬ 
headed or dwarf workers, are connected by a 
perfect series of intermediate forms, and this is 
due to the varying quantity of food. After an 
unfavorable season (autumn and winter) of 
drought and cold the number of Pheidole sol¬ 
diers was unusually small. Thus Grassi’s view 
as to the origin of the polymorphic forms in the 
termites being dependent on the quality and 
quantity is borne out by recent observations on 
ants. 

Polymorphism and Variability of Ant Castes. 
— No solitary ants are known to exist, in all 
besides the males and females there are workers, 
and this is the direct result of their social mode 
of life. In our common species there is only 
one kind of worker, those in which the head is 
of uniform size, no big-headed ones or soldiers. 
But in ants collectively, though not in any one 
genus, there may be eight sets of individuals,— 
that is, ordinary males and ^ergatoid” males, 
ordinary females and ergatoid fertile females, 
and exceptionally ( Formica rufa), a set inter¬ 
mediate between the female and worker; there 
are also soldiers, worker-majors, and one or 
more kinds of worker-minors. The adult, sex¬ 
ually capable, though wingless forms, are called 
by Forel ^ergatoids” from their resemblance to 
workers ( 'Epyarrjs, a worker), this term is 
applied to both sexes. The worker females dif¬ 
fer from the normal-winged female in the lack 
of a receptaculum seminis. The greatest num¬ 
ber of castes in any one genus is five, occurring 
in Eciton, Cryptocerus. 

Wheeler shows that polymorphism and va¬ 
riability depends on the amount and nature of 
the food and the increase in the population of 
the colony, and on the care and protection af¬ 
forded to the reproductive individuals of the 
colony. There is, on the other hand, little va¬ 
riation in colonies which are poorly fed, and 
therefore unable to increase rapidly in number. 

Primitive Ants. — Two primitive subfamilies 
of ants, the Dorylince and Ponerince, appear to 
have been evolved from a still more primitive 
and ancestral group, the Cerapachynce, which 
Wheeler with good reason claims to be <( the 
most archaic and generalized of existing Formi- 
cidce. This group, species of which occur in 
Africa, southeastern Asia, Australia, and the 
southwestern United States (Texas) is repre* 


ANT 


sented in this country by Cerapachys, which 
mines the ground for a few inches under stones. 
The colony appears to be unusually small, the 
queen is wingless and the workers quite blind, 
and its life appears to be wholly subterranean, 
yet possesses senses of contact, odor (judging by 
the thick antennae), and of hearing (it has (< a 
beautifully developed stridulatory apparatus, 
which occupies the whole of the large membrane 
between the postpetiolar and first gastric seg¬ 
ment®) (Wheeler). This form, as Emery points 
out, seems to be the nearest of anj' ants to the 
Mutillidce, especially the genus Apterogyna, 
which has an ant-like pedicel to the abdomen, 
and also resembles the ants in other features. 
That this group is also a very primitive one is 
shown by the plastic forms of females, of which 
there are four kinds, significant, as Wheeler re¬ 
marks, <( as the phyletic source to which the dif¬ 
ferent female forms of all the subfamilies of 
ants are to be traced.® 

Slavery — This phase of social life is not in¬ 
frequent among ants, and it reacts upon 
the slaveholders by rendering them helpless. 
Formica sanguinea has been observed in Europe 
by P. Huber to go on slave-hunting expeditions. 
They attack a (( negro colony® belonging to a 
smaller black species, pillaging the nests and 
carrying off merely the larvae and pupae. The 
victors educate them in their own nests, and on 
arriving at maturity the negroes take the entire 
care of the colony. Polyergus rufescens is also 
a slave-making ant, and Latreille very justly ob¬ 
serves that it is physically impossible for the 
rufescent ants (P. rufescens) , on account of 
the form of their jaws, and the accessory parts 
of their mouths, either to prepare habitations 
for their family, to procure food, or to feed 
them. Formica sanguinea sallies forth in im¬ 
mensely long columns to attack the negro ant. 
Huber states that only five or six of these forays 
are made within a period of a month, at other 
seasons they remain at peace. Huber found that 
the slave-making Polyergus rufescens, when left 
to themselves, perish from pure laziness. They 
are waited upon and fed by their slaves, and 
when they are taken away their masters perish 
miserably. Sometimes they are known to labor, 
and were once observed to carry their slaves to 
a spot chosen for a nest. The Formica sanguinea 
are not so helpless; they assist their negroes in 
the construction of their nests, they collect their 
sweet fluid from the Aphides; and one of their 
most usual occupations is to lie in wait for a 
small species of ant on which they feed; and 
when their nest is menaced by an enemy they 
show their value of these faithful servants by 
carrying them down into the lowest apartments, 
as to a place of the greatest security. Pupae of 
both the slave-making species were placed in 
the same formicary by Huber, where they were 
reared by the <( negroes,® and on arriving at ma¬ 
turity lived together under the same roof in the 
most perfect amity. Darwin states that in Eng¬ 
land Formica sanguinea does not enslave other 
species. 

In this country forays of a colony of Formica 
sanguinea upon a colony of a black species of 
Formica, for the purpose of making slaves of 
them, has been not infrequently observed. 
Slavery (duloris) is known to exist only be¬ 
tween ants belonging to the same subfamily, the 
species of only four genera being known to prac¬ 


tise slavery. In Europe the <( paragon of dulotic 
ants® is Polyergus rufescens, or the <f amazon® 
ant, as the workers are very warlike, though 
they are in other respects helpless and com¬ 
pletely dependent on their slaves, dying of 
starvation if deprived of them. Darwin’s ex¬ 
planation of the origin of the slave-making 
habits is that they were originally due to the 
predatory instincts of ants in general, seen in 
their carrying off the pupae of other species, 
which, becoming stored as food, and, finally de¬ 
veloping, would in their new abode do what 
work they could; and this habit of collecting 
pupae for food might be rendered permanent for 
the purpose of raising slaves. 

Sound Produced by Ants. — Certain species 
of ants are evidently not deaf, because capable 
of producing sounds which must be heard by 
others of their own kind. Thus Myrmica rubra 
has a sound-producing apparatus, a strigil, or 
file on the seventh abdominal segment (Janet) ; 
another ant of this group ( Sima Iceviceps) is 
provided with a stridulating file; and in the 
ronerids there is a stridulating organ consisting 
of a band of very fine raised lines on the second 
segment behind the node. Other ants (Poly- 
rhachis) tap on the surface of a leaf with their 
heads, producing a sound audible to human ears, 
as does an Assamese species by scraping the end 
of its abdomen on the dry leaves of its nest. 

Senses of Ants. — While ants may be blind 
and deaf, none are known to be destitute of the 
sense of smell. The olfactory organs are little 
sensory pits in the antennae. It is undoubtedly 
by means of their sense of smell that ants recog¬ 
nize the members of their own nest, and those of 
other species which they treat as enemies. It is 
probably by this means that they distinguish 
their friends from their enemies. Thus the 
cause may be the result of reflex action, rather 
than any special degree or kind of intelligence. 

Parasitic Ants with No Workers. — Such are 
the ants of the genera Anergates and Epcecus; 
in the former the male and females are helpless, 
incapable of leaving the nest, and dependent on 
the attentions of the workers of another genus 
(Tetramorium ) which live with them. This 
strange relationship seems thus far inexplicable. 

Symbiosis in Ants. — The relation between 
ants and plants is very intimate, and it assumes 
different phases. See Symbiosis. 

Commensalism. — Ants’ nests are so many 
apartment or boarding hives. A vast number 
of beetles, aphides, cockroaches, flies, and arach¬ 
nids take up their abode in the nests of ants, 
where they are allowed by their willing or un¬ 
willing hosts to feed on the excretions of the 
ants themselves or their food. The fostering 
instincts of ants thus seem to be extended in 
various degrees to their guests and thus lay the 
foundation for this semi-parasitic community. 
Upward of 1,500 species of Artliropoda are 
known to live in more or less cordial relations 
with their hosts. 

Bibliography.— Huber, ( Recherches sur les 
Moeurs des Fourmis Indigenes* (Paris and 
Geneva, 1810) ; Forel, ( Les Fourmis de la 
Suisse* (Geneva 1874) ; Lubbock, <Ants, Bees, 
and Wasps 5 (New York 1894) ; McCook. <The 
Natural History of the Agricultural Ant of 
Texas > (Philadelphia 1879); ( The Honey Ants 
°oo^-! e Garden the Gods,* etc. (Philadelphia 
1882); Emery, ( Beitrage zur Kenntniss der 


ANTACID —ANTARCTIC REGIONS 


Nordamerikanischen Ameisenfauna 5 ( ( Zoolog- 
JahrbucV Vols. VII. and VII I. 1893-4) ; 
Wheeler, ( The Compound and Mixed 
Nests of American Ants,* ( American Natural¬ 
ist^ Vol. XXXV. (Boston 1901), with the writ¬ 
ings of Darwin, Bates, Belt, Bethe, Emery, 
Fabre, Forel, McShering, Janet, Lincecum, Loeb, 
Mayr, Wasmann, and Wheeler. For a good list 
of the chief works on ants see Wheeler’s ( Nests 
of American Ants* ( ( American Naturalist,* 
Vol. XXXV, p. 815). 

A. S. Packard, 

Late Prof. Zoology , Brown University , 

Antacid, ant'as-id, an alkali, or any rem¬ 
edy for acidity in the stomach. Dyspepsia and 
diarrhoea are the diseases in which antacids are 
chiefly employed. The principal antacids in use 
are magnesia, lime, and their carbonates, and 
the carbonates of potash and soda. 

Antaeus, an-te'us, the giant son of Posei¬ 
don (Neptune), and Ge (the earth), who was 
invincible so long as he was in contact with the 
earth. But Heracles (Hercules), whom he chal¬ 
lenged to combat, perceiving the secret of his 
strength, lifted him in the air and strangled him. 

Antal'cidas, a Spartan statesman, chiefly 
known by the celebrated treaty he concluded 
with Persia at the close of the Corinthian war 
in 387 b.c. The peace which followed was styled 
(( The Peace of Antalcidas.** 

Antali'kali, any substance which neutralizes 
an alkali, used medicinally to counteract an alka¬ 
line tendency in the system. All true acids 
have this power. 

Antananarivo, an'ta-na'na-re-vo, or Tana- 
rtvo, the former capital of Madagascar, situated 
in the province of Imerina. In recent years 
it has been almost entirely rebuilt, its old tim¬ 
ber dwellings having been replaced by buildings 
of sun-dried brick on European models. It 
contains two royal palaces, immense timber 
structures, one of which is surrounded with a 
massive stone veranda with lofty corner towers. 
It has manufactures of metal work, cutlery, silk, 
etc, and exports sugar, soap, and oil. Pop. 
about 100,000, of which but few are Europeans. 
See Madagascar. 

Antar, an'tar, or Antara, an'ta-ra, an Ara¬ 
bian warrior and poet of the 6th century, author 
of one of the seven Moallakas hung up in the 
Kaaba at Mecca, and the hero of a romance 
analogous in Arabic literature to the Arthurian 
legend of the English. This romance, which 
has been called the ( Iliad of the Desert,* is 
composed in rhythmic prose interspersed with 
tragments of verse, man)'- of which are attribut¬ 
ed to Antar himself, and has been generally 
ascribed to Asmai (b. 740 a.d. ; d. about 830 a.d.), 
preceptor to Harun al-Raschid. See Hamilton’s 
( Antar: a Bedouin Romance ) (1820). 

Ant'arc'tic Regions, the name given to 
part of the earth’s surface surrounding the 
South Pole. Its limits are variously defined by 
geographers; some consider it to be co-exten- 
sive with the Antarctic Ocean, which in a strict 
sense is bounded by the Antarctic Circle, while 
others include also that portion of the great 
Southern Ocean affected by Antarctic influ¬ 
ences. According to the latter interpretation 
the region is approximately defined by the 
northern limit of the drifting pack-ice or about 


lat. 6o° S, although icebergs are sometimes 
encountered as far north as lat. 45 0 S. The 
Antarctic region is surrounded by a great ex¬ 
panse of shoreless water which further north 
is divided bv the continental lands into the At¬ 
lantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans. The area 
comprised within the Antarctic Circle is about 
8,200,000 square miles. 

Exploration .— The early explorations into 
the region south of the equator and the discov¬ 
ery of numerous lands gave rise to the belief 
that a vast continent existed near the South 
Pole. The first voyage of Capt. Cook in 1769 
showed, however, that New Zealand, contrary 
to the general opinion, was an island, and in 
his second voyage, in 1772, it was proved that 
the continent, if it existed, did not extend be¬ 
yond the Antarctic Circle. In 1773 Cook sailed 
south again and the following year reached 
lat. 71 0 10' S. in Ion. 106° 54' W, where he 
was prevented from advancing further by enor¬ 
mous ice-floes. No land was seen on this 
voyage, although its presence was indicated by 
flights of birds. In 1819 Capt. Smith round¬ 
ed Cape Horn and sighted the South Shetland 
Islands, while in the following year Alexander 
Land still farther south was discovered by 
Bellingshausen. Morrell, an English explorer, 
sailing in 1822, visited the Falkland Islands, 
Bouvet Islands, and South Georgia, and reported 
that he found the temperature of both air and 
water to be milder the farther he advanced 
southward. Biscoe circumnavigated the south¬ 
ern ice region in 1831-2, penetrating beyond lat. 
67° S.; he discovered Enderby Land and its 
southwestern extension, which he named Gra¬ 
ham Land. Kemp sighted and marked Kemp 
Land in 1833. The Balleny Islands were dis¬ 
covered by Balleny in 1839, and D’Urville, in 
i 839 _ 4°» made a long voyage, during which he 
visited many of the previously discovered lands, 
changing their names to make room for se¬ 
lections of his own. The latter also found 
Adelie Land, an immense tract situated far 
south of New Zealand and stretching for an 
unknown distance toward the Pole. The voy¬ 
ages of Wilkes (1838-42) and of Ross (1841-42) 
were of great importance, especially in their 
scientific aspects. Ross encountered land in 70° 
41' S. lat., 172 0 30' E. Ion., which had a steep, 
rocky coast-line; farther south in 77 0 32' S. 
lat. he found a lofty, active volcano which he 
named Mt. Erebus and an inactive cone called 
Mt. Terror. He sailed for a distance of 450 
miles along an unbroken ice barrier rising 150 
feet above the water. During the next 30 years 
little- was added to our knowledge of the Ant¬ 
arctic region. Dallman in 1873-4, however, vis¬ 
ited many of the localities marked by previous 
explorers, and was able to confirm their reports. 
The Challenger expedition, which started out in 
1874, returned with proof of a floating ice bar¬ 
rier and also accomplished a vast amount of 
oceanographic investigation. More recently the 
expedition of Gerlache, who penetrated to lat. 
71 0 36' S., was fruitful in scientific results and 
added over 100 islands to the list of those pre¬ 
viously known. Borchgrevink, a Norwegian, in 
charge of an English expedition, passed the win¬ 
ter of 1898-9 in the Antarctic and in the follow¬ 
ing summer reached lat. 78° 50' S., the farthest 
then attained. In 1900 he set out again and suc¬ 
ceeded in locating the south magnetic pole in 


ANTARCTIC REGIONS 


lat. 73° 20' S., Ion. 140° E. Three expedi¬ 
tions were fitted out in 1901 with a view of 
testing the theory of an antarctic continent; 
they are in charge of Scott (English), Von Dry- 
galski (German), and Nordenskjold (Norwe¬ 
gian). In March 1903 a vessel sent to relieve 
Capt. Scott’s party returned to Auckland, N. Z., 
and reported that Capt. Scott had reached lat. 
82° 17'; Ion. 163°,— thus penetrating the farthest 
south recorded. See Polar Research. 

Antarctic Ocean .— The depths of the Antarc¬ 
tic Ocean have been explored in various parts 
by Ross, Wilkes, Nares (Challenger expedition), 
and Gerlache. Ross sounded in 4,000 fathoms 
in the vicinity of South Georgia without reach¬ 
ing bottom. The Challenger found depths of 
from 1,300 to 1,950 fathoms near the Antarctic 
Circle, south of Australia, while farther north 
the soundings ranged from 950 to 2,600 fath¬ 
oms. Between the Cape of Good Hope and 
Kerguelen Islands depths of 2,500 to 3,100 
fathoms have been reported. There seems to 
be a gradual shoaling of the waters toward the 
pole, for Wilkes sounded in 500 to 800 fathoms 
off Adelie Land and in 100 to 500 fathoms off 
Victoria Land, while Gerlache recorded less than 
200 fathoms west of Palmer Land. The bottom 
in the extreme south is covered with a layer of 
diatom ooze composed of the frustules of di¬ 
atoms which lived near the surface, together 
with shells of pelagic organisms and debris 
dropped by the floating ice. The diatom ooze 
has a chalky appearance when dried and is 
white or yellowish-white in color. Farther north¬ 
ward the bottom is covered with deposits of 
globigerina ooze made up of the casts of Fora- 
minifera, and in still deeper water the charac¬ 
teristic red clay, found at great depths in all 
the oceans, occurs. The temperature of the sur¬ 
face waters of the ocean range from a few de¬ 
grees below to a few degrees above the freezing 
point. Ross reported an average of 29.8° F. 
south of 63°, with extremes of 27.3 0 and 33.6°, 
and the Challenger found a temperature of 29 0 
F. at 65° S. In the deepest water the tempera¬ 
ture ranges from 32 0 to 35 0 , or about the same 
as is found elsewhere in the deep ocean. 

Antarctic Continent .— The question whether 
there is a large land area of continental char¬ 
acter within the Antarctic Circle has not yet 
been definitely settled, although most geogra¬ 
phers and explorers express an affirmative opin¬ 
ion based upon strong evidence. In the first 
place land areas of indefinite extent have been 
sighted by Wilkes, D’Urville, Ross, Kemp, Bel¬ 
lingshausen, and others, and these areas together 
form an interrupted ring about the Pole. The 
mountain ranges and peaks discovered by Ross 
in Victoria Land are apparently of continental 
character, being composed of ancient crystalline 
rocks and rising from 7,000 to 15,000 feet above 
the sea. Granite and gneiss were found by 
D’Urville near Adelie Land, and Borchgrevink 
states that the rock at Cape Adare is mica- 
schist ; these are distinctly continental types. 
Indirect evidence is furnished by the materials 
transported from the far south by the icebergs. 
Sandstone, basalt, and boulders of massive rocks 
were found by Wilkes on the ice, and the Chal¬ 
lenger returned with fragments of gneiss, gran¬ 
ite, diorite, and sedimentary rocks which had 
been dredged from the floor of the ocean. In ad¬ 
dition fossil wood and shells of mollusks closely 
resembling forms found in the Tertiary rocks of 


Patagonia were discovered on Seymour Island. 
The great icebergs which drift far into the re¬ 
gion of the Southern Ocean are difficult to ac¬ 
count for on any other theory than that they 
have been broken off from a vast sheet of land 
ice like that covering Greenland. The meteoro¬ 
logical phenomena, especially the system .of 
winds prevailing within the Antarctic Circle, in¬ 
dicate continental land about the Pole. If it is 
assumed that Alexander Land, Victoria Land, 
Graham Land, Enderby Land, and other lands 
sighted by explorers represent the borders of 
the continent, its area would amount to approxi¬ 
mately 4,000,000 square miles or about one half 
of the region comprised within the Antarctic 
Circle. 

Antarctic Ice .— The conditions of ice forma¬ 
tion in the Antarctic differ materially from those 
of the Arctic region. In the northern hemi¬ 
sphere the polar ocean is enclosed by land, so 
that sea ice is much more important than land 
ice, the latter occurring only on the edge of 
the area, while in the Antarctic the reverse is 
true. Enormous masses of floating ice, flat- 
topped with perpendicular walls and oftentimes 
measuring many miles in width and length, are 
found throughout the Antarctic Ocean. Wilkes 
and Bruce encountered icebergs 3 to 90 miles 
in length, extending 200 feet above the water and 
about 1,800 feet below, or about 2,000 feet thick. 
The newly formed bergs exhibit a parallel 
structure marked by the alternation of strata of 
snow-white and cobalt-blue ice in horizontal 
planes. They have evidently been broken off 
from the edge of a thick ice-cap covering the 
Antarctic lands and gradually pushed over the 
surface toward the sea. The thickness of the 
ice near the Pole is estimated by Croll upon 
theoretical grounds at from 12 to 14 miles, but 
such an enormous depth of ice seems hardly 
probable. Off the coast of Victoria Land the 
ice-wall is only 10 to 20 feet high. 

Climate .— The climatic conditions of the Ant¬ 
arctic are imperfectly understood, but as re¬ 
gards temperature they may be characterized 
as extremely severe. Compared with the Arc¬ 
tic the region is placed at a disadvantage in hav¬ 
ing its summer during perihelion and winter in 
aphelion. Observations made by Ross in the 
vicinity of Victoria Land from 6o° to 78° S. 
showed a mean summer temperature of 28.85° 
F. for the sea and 28.31° for air; in lat. 66° 29' 
S. the maximum temperature in the month 
of December was 45.52° F. Wilkes found the 
mean temperature for January and February 
near Wilkes Land to be 30.2° F., with extremes 
of 34.52° and 23°, while Gerlache reported a 
winter minimum in 71 0 30' S. of —45°. The 
German station in South Georgia gave a mean 
temperature of 37.52°. The glaciation of the 
land areas, the great ice-floes, and the saturated 
condition of the atmosphere producing heavy 
fogs, are influential in producing the extreme 
cold. Barometric observations by Ross indicate 
a gradual increase in pressure south of 75° S., 
and it is believed that an area of extreme high 
pressure exists around the Pole, producing a 
permanent anticyclone with winds blowing in a 
southeasterly direction toward the higher lati¬ 
tudes. No estimate of the precipitation has been 
made, but the atmosphere is probably compara¬ 
tively dry over the land areas in the extreme 
south and the precipitation is in the form of 
fine ice crystals. Farther north there is a 



SOUTH POLAR REGIONS 


North 


Trlsta» d 


SCALE OF MILES. 


Mean 


ANT ARCTI? 


Bellingshausen 

JT _! 820_±7 


.^Laurie I. \ 
'Coronation I. 


Blscoe 

.1*31 


.Bellingshausen 
p Feb. 1820 


Elephant I.Q t ^ 
King Oeorge I. 

. 'South f£M 
Livingston 
Sbetlands^ jSx 
.Smith I* ?ji 
Palmer 


Moore V 

lM&X. 


.C.Aun 

yGEinlerby Island 


U Staton I. 
Tierra delAC.S. Diego 

Javarln I. 

' 1 ^/tCape Hoi 
■.ISBcIfffl-Uoete L 


iJolnvllle L \ / 
’Dundee I. .X. 
Erotu8 Gulf \ 
ouls Philippe Land 

XKlng'Oscar II. 
V^^Land 


Morroll 
' 1828 . 


Kerguelen I. 


.Weddell’s Farthest 
Fob.,1823 \ 


K«*mp( \ -t.Kei.ip 
Island 1834 


Morrell 

1823 


0 ruliair 
i Land 
Blscoe Is*?* 


Heard I 


Probablo 


Bqillngsht 


Challenger' 
Feb. 137-1 


POL 

ANTAI 

( Unexplored Soutl 
(Probably all covorei 


Termination L 7 
\( Wilke*)’ *S 


Challenger ” 
EffUBta, 18+o 


Cook * 1 
1774 Jr 


Bellingshausen 

1821 V 


Totten 


'Barrier 


^ MAGNETIC P. Lt 
Dumont d’Urville' 
\ 1840 


Sabrina 
Ballcuy Lj 


Me Mur do 
Franklin I ® 


North 


Dougherty I. 


trpoiae Day 
Dumont d’Urville 
i U+o 


Coulman 1.0 
| Boss L-J 
Possession I.vj 
aAd&r« 


Wilkes, 1840 


'mttnent Tl. 


Binggold 


Balkny, 


I Antarctic" 


ciRci-E 


Campbell 1. 1 


Antipodes I. 


Bounty L StcW^A 


South Island/ 

Tim oru/i 

ChrietchurchP^jr} 




TWeiv Plymouth 

SjnVaifcato 1<- \ 


North island p 

BajofP U ’ 


Kast 170 from (irreu »lets 


The Americana Company. 


i° Greenwicli 


Longll nde 






































































































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6> 



t 













ANTARES — ANTELOPE 


heavy precipitation of snow and sleet; rain 
seldom falls within the ice-bound region. 

Fauna and Flora. — The largest of the Ant¬ 
arctic mammals are the whales which frequent 
the cold waters in great numbers. Many of the 
species are similar to if not identical with those 
inhabiting the Arctic seas; rorquals, humpback 
whales, pilot whales, grampuses, and dolphins 
are known, also a small whalebone whale ( Ba - 
Icena australis), but the right whale does not 
exist in the Antarctic. There are 13 species of 
seals, including four of fur seals, which are 
closely related to those found in the North Pa¬ 
cific, the sea-lion and the sea-elephant. Among 
birds the penguins are most abundant, their 
rookeries being found on the borders of all 
lands free from ice. The largest species is 
the king penguin: a specimen captured by Wilkes 
measured 4 feet 6 inches in height and weighed 
65 pounds. A gull-plover ( Chionis ) is found 
exclusively in the Antarctic. A small teal fre¬ 
quents Kerguelen, and stormy petrels, alba¬ 
trosses, gulls, skuas, and terns breed on most of 
the islands. Borchgrevink found 11 species of 
fish in Antarctic waters, most of them new to 
science. Explorers have usually reported that 
fishes were scarce. A few species of insects 
have been described by Arctowski and Borchgre¬ 
vink. It is believed that no land animals ex¬ 
ist in the extreme south. Of plant and inverte¬ 
brate life inhabiting the Antarctic Ocean there 
is a great abundance. The pelagic animals in¬ 
clude cephalopods, brachiopods, and gastropods, 
which furnish food for the whales, coelenterates, 
and Protozoa. The deep-sea fauna is much 
more strongly developed than the shallow-water 
fauna living in the vicinity of the Antarctic 
lands. Thirteen species of phanerogamous and 
numerous cryptogamous plants have been found 
near South Georgia. Hooker obtained from 
Cockburn Island four species of marine algae, 
three of fresh-water plants, and twelve land 
plants, the last-named mostly lichens and mosses. 

Antares, an-ta'rez (^corresponding to 
Ares® or Mars, because assumed to be like Mars 
in color), or Alpha Scorpii, a red double star 
of the first magnitude, the middle one of three 
in the body of the constellation Scorpio; much 
used by sailors in ascertaining longitude. 

Ant'-bear', the great ant-eater, or tama- 
noir. See Ant-eater. 

Ant'-birds', a general term applicable to 
members of certain groups of birds within the 
Formicariidce (q.v.), a South American group, 
all of which subsist largely upon ants. They 
have no proper oscine or singing organs, yet 
some of them have clear musical voices, and their 
notes of excitement when following the moving 
columns of destructive tropical ants, feeding not 
only upon them, but upon the insects they put 
to flight, are a warning which the natives under¬ 
stand and heed. All these birds are small and 
long-billed. The sub-family Thaninophilince is 
made up of the ^ant-shrikes.® The <( ant-wrens® 
belong to the sub-family Formicivorince; and the 
<( ant-thrushes® are a species of the Formic ariince, 
a typical sub-family. The pitta (q.v.) is also 
sometimes improperly called an <( ant-thrush.® 

Ant'-eat'er, a name given to several quite 
different mammals, but particularly applied to 
the Myrmecophagidce, a South American family 
of Edentata, with the head extremely long; the 


snout slender; the mouth, ears, and eyes small; 
the tongue, long, cylindrical, and covered with 
a viscid saliva which holds whatever insects are 
licked up until the tongue can be withdrawn 
into the mouth. When not in use the tongue 
lies doubled up in the mouth. The legs are 
strong and heavy; the toes vary in number in 
the different species, but in all species are 
united as far as the base of the large claws, 
which are adapted to digging, but are turned 
under the feet when the animal walks. The 
great ant-eater, or ant-bear ( Myrmecophaga ju- 
bata), found in tropical South America, is a 
sluggish animal, forest-dwelling, but entirely 
terrestrial; it grows to a height of two feet and 
a length of four feet, not including its long and 
very shaggy tail, which is often carried turned 
over its back like an umbrella. Though timid, 
it is capable of effective self-defense, using its 
strong fore-arms to hug and tear its opponents. 
Its body color is gray, set off by a black band 
which crosses the breast and tapers to the 
top of the shoulders, and by white feet and fore¬ 
legs. The hair is long, particularly on the back 
toward the tail, and on the tail itself. It is 
very unsocial, spending much time asleep, curled 
up with its tail spread over it as a protection 
from sun or rain. As more than one is seldom 
produced at a birth, the great ant-eater is not 
numerous. 

Another, much smaller, species ( Taniandua 
tctradactyla), which is also tropical, is arboreal 
and'has a prehensile tail. It is about the size of 
a cat; its head is broader in proportion than 
that of the great ant-eater; its hair is bristly 
and short, black on the body, yellowish white 
on the head, neck, fore-legs, and hind-quarters. 
A third species ( Cycloturus didactylus) , the lit¬ 
tle or two-toed ant-eater, is still smaller than the 
tamandua, and is also arboreal. Its claws are 
curved and very sharp for climbing, and its 
whole structure is peculiarly adapted for life in 
trees. 

Besides the animals of this family, called 
the true ant-eaters, are their allies, the scaly 
ant-eaters, or Manids (see Manis), the aard- 
vark, the porcupine ant-eaters (see Echidna), 
and certain insectivorus marsupials found in 
Australia and belonging to the genus Myr- 
rnecobius. Certain birds, such as the a?it- 
shrike , are also called ant-eaters. (See Ant- 
birds.) 

An'tedilu'vian ( (( before the flood®), theo¬ 
logically referring to the period previous to the 
Deluge recorded in Genesis. Geologically a 
term now disused, meaning before the waters of 
the earth had transformed its surface into the 
present form by submergence, erosion, etc. 

An'telope (Greek, antholops, a horned ani¬ 
mal), a bovine animal of the group formerly 
called the family Antilopidce, now placed as a 
subfamily between the cattle and the goats in 
the family Bovidce. Its members are all short- 
haired, lightly and gracefully built, and carry 
their heads uplifted; in size they vary from 
that of a kid to the height of a tall horse, and 
almost all are timid and fleet-footed. Although 
no very definite external differences separate 
the antelopes from the other groups of the 
Bovidce, they are easily recognized by these gen¬ 
eral characteristics. Popularly, the antelopes in¬ 
clude such widely varying species as the goat 
antelopes (the chamois and the Rocky Mountain 


ANTENNATA — ANTHOLOGY 


goat) at one extreme, and at the other the 
American prong-horn (q.v.), which has 
branched deciduous horns; but scientifically both 
these extreme forms must be excluded, and the 
term confined to Asian and African species hav¬ 
ing horns present in both sexes, the cores of 
which are solid, and which tend to grow upward 
rather than outward. To these rules there are 
exceptions, however, and a scientific distinction 
of the group from the cattle, and still more from 
the sheep, is very difficult. 

Antelopes have been pronounced the most 
generalized of the living Bovidce, and conse¬ 
quently are regarded as representing the form 
from which the other types within the family 
have descended. Their earliest fossil remains 
are found in the Miocene, when they flourished 
all over Europe and Asia, and their migration 
into Africa seems to have been comparatively 
recent. When Africa was first explored by 
Europeans, however, they were established there 
and had so enormously multiplied as to be the 
chief resource for meat of the natives and of 
carnivorous animals. Colonization so wasted 
and scattered them, however, during the latter 
part of the 19th century, that some species are 
already extinct, and others would be except for 
preservation on private estates. 

Antelopes may be ranged in certain groups, 
such as the antelopine gazelles, including many 
species which are beautiful in form but do not 
often exceed 30 inches in height, with goat-like 
teeth, hairy muzzles, and ringed horns, usually 
either spiral or lyre-shaped. This group in¬ 
habits deserts from the Cape of Good Hope to 
India, and among them are the ariel and other 
gazelles, the springbok, the blackbuck of India, 
the saiga, and various others. Another, the 
Cervicaprine group, contains the little African 
reedbuck, the small klipspringer and rehbok, 
the tiny steinbok, and the larger waterbucks, 
etc. A third group comprises several African 
forest-ranging species, among others the pygmy 
antelope, only 13 inches tall and the smallest 
known ruminant. Another group is far larger 
and has many of the characteristics of cattle, 
while still another section diverges toward the 
goats. The largest, most beautiful and valu¬ 
able group of all is that which contains the 
Indian nilgai and the African bushbuck and 
eland. 

There is an erroneous notion abroad that 
antelopes all live in large bands, or even vast 
herds, that roam over flat plains and perform 
migrations in large bodies from one place to 
another as scarcity of food and the weather 
compel them. Instead of this uniformity, how¬ 
ever, there exists great variety in size, shape, 
color, speed, agility, and habits, in adaptation 
to the varied circumstances in which they live. 
Some dwell altogether in mountains and are as 
expert in climbing about the rocks as are the 
goats. Others frequent forests and rarely leave 
"heir shade. Still others remain entirely among 
hills where dense thickets cover the rough sur¬ 
face, and dart in and out among the bushes so 
rapidly and expertly that the sportsman finds the 
greatest difficulty in getting a shot at them. 
Aquatic antelopes exist, especially in South Af¬ 
rica, where certain kinds, as for example, the 
reedbucks, spend nearly all their time in marshes, 
wading and swimming about and feeding upon 
aquatic vegetation. It is indeed only the larger, 
stronger, and better-armed kinds that can endure 


existence in plains where they have little means 
of protection against leopards, lions, and other 
enemies, and must trust entirely to escape by 
flight or by being overlooked. The result has 
been the development among them of great 
speed, but this has not been accompanied by en¬ 
durance, since few are required or are able to 
continue to run swiftly any great distance. As 
an aid to their safety, nature has developed in 
the desert- and plain-dwelling species an adap¬ 
tation in color to their surroundings, making 
them almost invisible when lying down or stand¬ 
ing against the rock and thicket. As a rule their 
coats have the dull colors of a plains landscape, 
the only somewhat conspicuous markings being 
those upon the face and tail, which serve the 
purpose of ^recognition marks® but are not suf¬ 
ficiently large to attract attention at any great 
distance. Sometimes this protective color of 
antelopes is very striking, as in the case of the 
red hartbeest of East Africa, which frequents 
the open country where the soil is rust-red and 
termite hills are exceedingly numerous. It is 
said that the most experienced hunters are con¬ 
stantly deceived by the exact resemblance be¬ 
tween one of these antelopes when lying down 
and an ant-hill. 

The flesh of most antelopes is regarded as 
excellent food and some of them yield meat that 
is most delicate eating. The hides of the larger 
ones make good leather, and the destruction 
which has overtaken the race in South Africa 
has been brought about mainly b}' hide-hunters. 
The horns were put to many uses by the native 
Africans and Asiatics and are still in demand 
for the making of fancy handles and other arti¬ 
cles of ornament. 

For additional information see Blackbuck; 
Gazelle ; Gnu ; Hartbeest, and other names of 
groups and species in this family. 

An'tenna'ta, a name given by Lang to a 
group of tracheate arthropods embracing his 
sub-classes Myriapoda and Hexapoda ( Insecta ). 
Consult Lang, ( Text-book of Comparative Anat¬ 
omy* (N. Y. 1891). 

Anthol'ogy ( (( nosegay®), a name originally 
given to a collection of short unconnected Greek 
poems from many sources, and till lately applied 
only to that and its various enlargements. In 
recent times it has been extended to any col¬ 
lection of detached pieces of miscellaneous au¬ 
thorship, prose or verse, to represent a lan¬ 
guage, a literature, a country, an epoch, or any 
sort of subjective idea as a thread on which to 
group it. The most famous anthologies of the 
past are the following: 

The Greek Anthology .— This originated in a 
class of poems, invented by the Greeks,— the 
epigram, properly meaning mere inscription, and 
used for epitaphs, votive offerings, or other com¬ 
memorative occasions. The modern restriction 
of the term to mean «short pungent witticism® 
is due to the characteristics of the original epi¬ 
gram imposed by its uses,— brevity, pregnancy, 
singleness of idea, and purity of style. Any piece 
which fulfilled this idea was later called an 
epigram by the Greeks themselves. The species 
was thoroughly developed and cultivated by the 
Alexandrian school. Polemon, Alcetas, and 
others made collections of poems on special 
subjects; but about 80 or 90 b.c. Meleager of 
Gadara in Syria, a poet and rhetorician, for the 
first time made a comprehensive selection from 
all the best Greek poems in this genus from 


ANTHON — ANTHONY 


Sappho down, 46 in all, besides contributing 
130 of his own. He called it Stephanos, ‘The 
Garland^ ; and so great were his taste and judg¬ 
ment that no other collection has ever averaged 
so high in quality. It was the “Golden Trea- 
sury” of Greece. 

In the 1 st century a.d. one Philip of Thessa- 
lonica enlarged Meleager’s group by 13 new 
poets and called the whole ( The Anthology . ) 
Not very long after, the sophist Diogenianus 
again supplemented it; and under Hadrian, Stra- 
to of Sardis made a new collection called the 
‘Muse of Love,-*—a very earthly muse. Under 
Justinian and after, there was a revival of epi¬ 
gram-writing by a literary circle of whom 
Agathias the lawyer and Paulus the Silentiary 
(privy councilor) were the heads, and who did 
some very beautiful work of this kind; and 
Agathias made a fresh collection based on Me¬ 
leager, called ‘The Circle, J divided into books, 
and for the first time arranged by subject. 

There were therefore five Greek anthologies 
at the beginning of the Middle Ages. About 
the beginning of the 10th century, apparently, a 
monk named Constantinus Cephalas made a fresh 
gathering from these and from the works of 
other epigrammatists which had been published 
separately, classifying it after Agathias’ fashion. 
For much of his matter we are indebted to this 
collection solely, the originals or earlier editions 
having perished. Another monk, Maximus 
Planudes, made a further recension, rather by 
mutilating Cephalas’ work than by new research; 
though he added some on works of a rf and some 
of his own of little value. His edition was first 
published at Florence in 1594, and was for nearly 
two centuries the only one known to the public; 
that by Cephalas discovered in 1606 not being 
published until 1772. From its being found in 
the Palatine Library at Heidelberg this MS. is 
usually known as the Palatine MS. It repre¬ 
sents over 300 poets of all ages of Greece, and 
therefore all sides and aspects of Greek emotion 
and poetic art as well as intellectual observation 
and reflection, with the greatest brilliancy and 
beauty. 

Through all the ups and down of Greek 
civilization this series of poems forms a living 
bond closely united with the feeling and spirit 
of each age. To read it has been justly com¬ 
pared to excavating an ancient city, where the 
strata succeed each other with scarcely percepti¬ 
ble change, but form a continuous history of its 
development. Dr. Garnett divides it into four 
stages: The Hellenic, of which .Simonides is 
the most typical, characterized by the bona fide 
nature of the inscriptions (not mere literary 
exercises), simplicity, dignity, and transparency: 
the Alexandrian era, of which Callimachus 
stands first, when it was a play of the imagina¬ 
tion, often anecdotal, sportive, amorous, or 
satirical,— much richer and more interesting, 
less pure and sincere; the Roman-Oriental, of 
which Meleager is the greatest, luxurious, gor¬ 
geous, fanciful; this passes later into the mod¬ 
ern epigram, stinging satire and lampoon, or 
ethical reflection; and finally, the circle of Aga¬ 
thias or the Byzantine school, imitators, but of 
real power and originality, of genuine feeling 
and much ingenuity and elegance of style. Its 
effect on European literatures has been enor¬ 
mous ; it has supplied them with imagery, filled 
them with expressions that are household words 


with us, been a model of style most beneficial in 
inculcating brevity, simplicity, and accuracy of 
language, and a treasure-house of information 
as to life. 

The best of recent translators are, in verse, J. 
A. Symonds and Richard Garnett; in prose. 
J. W. Mackail. 

The Latin Anthology .—A selection of Latin 
poems from Ennius to about 1000 a.d., was 
formed by Peter Burmann the younger in 1759. 
The Romans had nothing corresponding to the 
Greek Anthology, though collections of senten¬ 
tious thoughts were published, and individual 
poets like Martial wrote books of epigrams and 
published them. The great Scaliger in 1573 
made a collection of Latin pieces, and Pitthoeus 
another and larger one in 1594. These were 
added to by others from time to time; but 
Burmann edited them all into his ‘Anthology 
of the Ancient Latin Epigrams and Poems.* In 
1869 Alexander Riese brought out the first vol¬ 
ume of a better edition of the Latin Anthology 
(2d ed. 1894), discarding Burmann’s arrange¬ 
ment and placing the poems found in MSS. first, 
the inscriptions following in another volume. 
As these Latin anthologies had no literary pur¬ 
pose, being designed only to preserve all frag¬ 
ments good or bad, so they have slight literary 
value as wholes, the good pieces being swamped 
by grammarians’ exercises and conceits of 
worthless writers. Being mostly of late date 
they are not nearly so valuable historically as 
the Greek. There are also Arabic, Persian, 
Turkish, and other anthologies, including several 
by authors of the United States. 

An'thon, Charles, an American educator: 
b. in New York city, 17 Nov. 1797; d. there, 
29 July 1867. He was graduated at Columbia 
College in 1815 and admitted to the bar 1819, 
but never practised. He was adjunct professor 
of Greek and Latin at Columbia 1820-30, and 
full professor and head master of the grammar 
school connected with the college 1830^64. In 
1835, in connection with the Harper publishing 
house, he projected a Classical Series ) to in¬ 
clude works used in academies, preparatory 
schools, and colleges. It proved the most suc¬ 
cessful enterprise of its kind ever undertaken 
in America. Of the more than 50 volumes ed¬ 
ited by Anthon the following are the best 
known: an edition of Lempriere’s Classical 
Dictionary* (1822) ; ‘Horace,* with notes 

(1830) ; ‘Dictionary of Greek and Roman An- 
tiquities ) (1843) ; ‘Classical Dictionary ) (1841). 

Anthony, an'to-m, Clemens Theodor: b. 

1755; d. 1836. King of Saxony, who succeeded 
his brother Friedrich August I. 5 May 1827. 
The French revolutionary movement of 1830, 
spreading to Saxony, compelled him to grant a 
constitutional government in 1831. 

Anthony, an'toni, Henry Bowen, an Amer¬ 
ican legislator: b. in Coventry, R. I., 1815; d. 
1889. He was graduated from Brown Univer¬ 
sity in 1833 and was editor of the Providence 
Journal for over 20 years. He was governor of 
Rhode Island in 1849 and 1850, and United 
States Senator from 1859 till his death. 

Anthony, an'to-ni, John Gould, an Ameri¬ 
can naturalist: b. in Providence, R I., 17 May 
1804; d. in Cambridge, Mass., 16 Oct. 1877. 
Leaving school at 12 years of age he followed a 
business career for 35 years. Hfc early developed 


ANTHONY OF PADUA — ANTHOSIDERITE 


a taste for natural history, and his publications 
attracted the attention of Agassiz, through 
whom in 1863 he became head of the concho- 
logical department of the Museum of Compar¬ 
ative Zoology, a post he held until his death. 
He was a recognized authority on the subject of 
American Mollusca. 

Anthony of Padua, Saint: b. Lisbon 15 
Aug. 1195; d. in Padua 13 June 1231. Shortly 
after his ordination to the priesthood he was 
deeply stirred by the recital of the cruel martyr¬ 
dom of five Franciscan missionaries whose bod¬ 
ies had just been brought from Morocco to 
Coimbra, where Anthony was then living. Hav¬ 
ing entered the Franciscan order, he soon started 
for Africa in the hope of being permitted to die 
for Christ. He had scarcely landed when illness 
obliged him to leave. Hearing about the general 
council of his order which was going on, he 
started for Assisi, where he met Saint Francis, 
the founder of the order. His profound know¬ 
ledge of sacred things, joined to his sanctity, 
caused him to be made the first teacher in the 
Franciscan order and later on the Provincial 
of all the convents of the order in upper Italy. 
His feast is celebrated June 13. 

Bibliography. —Coleridge, S. J., ( Life and 
Works ) ; Meyer, ( Leben des H. Antonius ) ; 
Lepitre, ( Saint Anthony of Padua,* translated 
by E. Guest (1903). 

Anthony, an'to-m, Saint, the patriarch of 
monastic institutions: b. near Heraclea, in Up¬ 
per Egypt, 251 a.d. ; d. 356. Giving up all his 
property, he retired to the desert, where he was 
followed by a number of disciples, who thus 
formed the first community of monks. 

Anthony, an'to-ni, Saint, Cross of, a cross 
in the shape of the letter T, often styled the 
Tau Cross. In heraldry the name is given to 
two stripes, a horizontal and a vertical one 
crossing in the middle of the escutcheon. 

Anthony, an'to-ni, Saint, Falls of, a noted 
fall in the Mississippi River, within the limits of 
Minneapolis, Minn. (q.v.). The entire descent 
of the stream for three quarters of a mile is 65 
feet. The falls and surrounding scenery are 
exceedingly picturesque. 

Anthony, an'to-ni, Saint, Fire of, a name 
now applied to a form of erysipelas. A dis¬ 
temper of this character became epidemic in 
France in 1089. Many miraculous cures having 
been effected by the imputed intercession of 
Saint Anthony, the order of Canons Regular of 
Saint Anthony was founded the next year for 
the relief of those afflicted with this disease. 
The order continued to exist till 1790. 

Anthony, Sister, American nurse and nun, 
known before entering religious life as Mary 
O’Connell: b. Limerick, Ireland, 15 Aug. 1815; 
d. Cumminsville, Cincinnati, Ohio, 18 Dec. 
1897. She came with her parents to this coun¬ 
try in childhood and in 1835 entered the order 
of Sisters of Charity at Emmittsburg, Md., re¬ 
moving to Cincinnati in 1837, there to take 
charge of work in Saint Peter’s Orphan Asylum. 
On the establishment of Saint Joseph’s Orphan 
Asylum at Cumminsville, in 1854, Sister An¬ 
thony was placed in charge and the next year 
she was transferred to Saint John’s Hospital, 
where she remained 10 years. The terrible 
slaughter at the battle of Pittsburg Landing ap¬ 
pealed so strongly to her sympathies that with 


two companions she accompanied the noted sur¬ 
geon, George C. Blackman, to Nashville to min¬ 
ister to the wounded, there winning her title of 
«The Angel of the Battlefield.» She returned to 
Cincinnati on a hospital steamer with many 
wounded soldiers whom she cared for at Saint 
John’s Hospital. In 1866 two prominent Prot¬ 
estant business men of Cincinnati purchased 
the United States Marine Hospital and trans¬ 
ferred it to the Sisters of Charity in the hands 
of Sister Anthony. The name was then changed 
to <( The Good Samaritan, w and she remained in 
charge till 1882. Not only was she in charge of 
various institutions of her order, but was several 
times procuratrix of the community. She is 
buried at the mother house of Mount Saint 
Joseph and her grave is annually strewn with 
flowers on Memorial Day by the soldiers of the 
Grand Army of the Republic. 

Thomas P. Hart, M.D., 
Editor c The Catholic Tele graph d Cincinnati, O. 

Anthony, Susan Brownell, American re¬ 
former: b. South Adams, Mass., 15 Feb. 
1820; d. Rochester, N. Y., 13 Mar. 1906. 
She taught school in New York in 1835-50, 
in 1852 assisted in organizing the Woman's 
New York State Temperance Society, and 
in 1854-5 held conventions in each county 
in New York, in behalf of female suffrage. In 
1857 she became a leader in the anti-slavery 
movement, and in 1858 advocated the co-educa¬ 
tion of the sexes. She was influential in secur¬ 
ing the passage by the New York legislature, in 
i860, of the act giving married women the 
possession of their earnings, and guardianship 
of their children. In 1868, with Mrs. E. C. 
Stanton and Parker Pillsbury, she began the 
publication of the Revolutionist,* a paper de¬ 
voted to the emancipation of woman. In 1872 
she cast ballots at the State and Congressional 
election in Rochester, N. Y., to test the appli¬ 
cation of the 14th and 15th Amendments of the 
United States Constitution. She was indicted 
for illegal voting and fined, but the fine was 
never exacted. Her last public appearance of 
note was as a delegate to the International 
Council of Women, in London, England, in 
1899. In 1900 her birthday was celebrated by 
an affecting popular demonstration in Washing¬ 
ton, D. C., and she retired from the presidency 
of the National American Woman Suffrage As¬ 
sociation, which she had held for many years. 
See Rife and Work of Susan B. Anthony ) 
(1898). 

Anthony, an'to-m, William Arnold, an 

American physicist: b. in Coventry, R. I., 17 
Nov. 1835. He was graduated from Yale Scien¬ 
tific School i860, and taught science in various 
secondary schools 1860-67. He held chairs of 
physics and chemistry in Antioch College and 
Iowa Agricultural College 1869-72, was profes¬ 
sor of physics at Cornell 1872-87, and consult¬ 
ing electrician, Manchester, Conn., 1887-93. 
Since the last-named year he has followed his 
profession in New York city and is professor of 
physics in Cooper Union School of Science. He 
has contributed many papers to the volumes of 
the scientific societies of which he is a member. 

Anthosid'erite, an-tho-sid'er-it (from the 
Greek anthos, (f a flower,** and siderites, (( iron**), 
a mineral related to chloropal, occurring in 
fibrous tufts and sometimes in feathery forms 
resembling flowers. It is harder and heavier 


ANTHOZO A — ANTHRACITE 


than chloropal, is usually yellowish in color, and 
has the composition 2Fe2O3.9SiO2.2H2O. It is 
found in Brazil. 

An'thozo'a. See Actinozoa. 

An'thracene(from anthrax, or anthrac 
^coal®), a hydrocarbon having the chemical 
formula CTHio, and the molecular structure 


CH CH CH 



It is obtained by the distillation of coal-tar, 
occurring in that portion of the distillate which 
passes over at temperatures above 500° F. The 
<( anthracene oil,® as this part of the crude dis¬ 
tillate is called, is allowed to stand in the cold 
for a week or so, until the greater part of the 
anthracene has crystallized out. The solidified 
portion when freed from the mother-liquor by 
pressure or by a centrifugal separator is ground 
up and washed with petroleum spirit to remove 
as much as practicable of the paraffin and other 
impurities. Anthracene so obtained is then sub¬ 
limed and placed on the market as (( 50 per cent 
anthracene,® although it may contain as much 
as 65 per cent of the pure substance. Its precise 
strength is best determined by treating a known 
weight with boiling glacial acetic acid and 
chromium trioxid, and observing the quantity 
of anthra-quinone that is formed. The crude 
anthracene of commerce may be further purified 
by distillation with caustic potash to which a 
little caustic lime has been added. Most of the 
impurities are removed in this way, and the 
product is further improved by subsequent wash¬ 
ing with petroleum spirit, or with carbon disul- 
phid, and finally by re-crystallization from a hot 
mixture of benzene and aniline. Pure anthra¬ 
cene crystallizes in white, monoclinic tablets 
melting at 415° F., and boiling at about 680°. 
It is insoluble in water and dissolves but slightly 
in other common solvents. It is soluble, how¬ 
ever, in boiling glacial acetic acid, and also in 
hot benzene. It is used in large quantities for 
the manufacture of alizarin (q.v.). Anthracene 
is changed, by the action of sunlight, into an 
isomeric substance known as para-anthracene 
(or paranthracene), which melts at 472° F., and 
is reconverted into anthracene by fusion. See 
also Coal-Tar Colors. 

An'thracite, a variety of coal distinguished 
from other coals by its high proportion of car¬ 
bon and small quantity of volatile matter. It 
has a conchoidal fracture, bright lustre, dense 
black color, and superior hardness. The per¬ 
centage of carbon is variable, ranging from a 
minimum of about 80 per cent to a maximum 
of 95 per cent. Anthracite grades by imper¬ 
ceptible stages into bituminous coal, from which 
it has been produced by the action of heat or 
intense pressure. The coal-seams of eastern 
Pennsylvania are included in a series of strata 
which have been compressed and thrown into 


folds, while westward in the bituminous fields 
of Pennsylvania and Ohio the strata lie nearly 
horizontal. Beds of bituminous coal are fre¬ 
quently observed to grade into anthracite in the 
vicinity of igneous intrusions, as at Crested 
Butte, Colorado, and near Santa Fe, New Mex¬ 
ico. Where the heat has been very intense, 
however, the volatile matter is entirely driven 
oft and graphite is formed. 

Anthracite occurs in extensive deposits in 
many parts of the world. The most productive 
deposits are those of eastern Pennsylvania 
which occur in several detached fields, located 
as follows: The Northern field extending 
through the middle of Luzerne a~ Lackawanna 
counties; the Eastern Middle, between the Le¬ 
high River and Catawissa Creek; the Western 
Middle, between the eastern headwaters of the 
Little Schuylkill River and the Susquehanna; 
and the Southern, or Pottsville field, extending 
from the Lehigh River at Mauch Chunk south¬ 
west to near the Susquehanna River. These 
fields comprise an area of something over 
480 square miles and are classed under three 
general divisions, namely, Wyoming, Lehigh, and 
Schuylkill regions. The Bernic: field in Sullivan 
County produces a semi-anthracite coal and is 
sometimes included with the anthracite fields. 
The strata with the beds of coal have been up¬ 
turned and the outcropping edges subjected to 
long-continued erosion. The most important 
and persistent seam is the Mammoth, which in 
the Eastern Middle field has a thickness of from 
60 to 90 feet and is over 100 feet thick in parts 
of the Southern and Western Middle fields. Al¬ 
together the workable seams number 15 or more, 
with a total thickness (increasing from west to 
east) ranging from 70 to 150 feet. The anthra¬ 
cite fields of Colorado and New Mexico are of 
much less importance. In foreign countries 
anthracite is mined in South Wales, Ireland, 
Belgium, France, Westphalia, and Russia, and 
it is known to occur in very large deposits in 
the province of Shan-Si, China. In the South 
Wales field only the northern portion yields an¬ 
thracite, the rest of the output being semi-bitu¬ 
minous and bituminous coals. 

Owing to its cleanliness and freedom from 
smoke anthracite is especially suited for house¬ 
hold fuel; for steaming and metallurgical pur¬ 
poses it is inferior to bituminous coal. It ignites 
with difficulty and burns slowly with little 
flame, giving out intense heat. The amount of 
ash is small, ranging from 15 per cent to 6 or 7 
per cent. The color of the ash is sometimes 
used as a basis of classification in trade, as in 
Pennsylvania anthracites, which are denominat¬ 
ed white-ash and red-ash coals. But the color 
depends entirely upon the amount of iron present 
and is no criterion of the value. The following 
analyses show the relative proportions of fixed 
carbon, volatile matter, ash, etc., in various an¬ 
thracites : 


Fields 

Fixed 

carbon 

Volatile 

matter 

Water 

Sulphur 

Ash 

Eastern Middle, Pa.... 

Southern. Pa. 

Crested Butte, Colo.. 
South Wales. 

86.38 

83.81 

82.33 

92.42 

3 -o8 

4.27 

9.96 

5-97 

4.12 

3-09 

0.81 

1.62 

0.64 

0.81 

5-93 

8.18 

6.90 

1.60 


The preparation of anthracite for the market 
consists in freeing it from slate and dust and 






















ANTHRACNOSE — ANTHRAX 


sorting it into suitable sizes. Owing to the 
practical absence of volatile matter, anthracite 
will not burn unless the lumps are of fairly uni¬ 
form size. When hoisted from the mine it is 
first passed over a screen which allows most of 
the line coal to pass through. The lump coal 
is then sorted for the purpose of removing the 
shale and slate, and the pure material is crushed 
between rolls and screened into the market 
sizes. In the United States the sizes generally 
recognized are the following: Broken or grate, 
which passes through a screen of 4-inch mesh 
but not through 2.5-inch mesh; egg, 2.5-inch- 
1.75 inch; stove, 1.75 inch-1.25 inch; chestnut, 
i.25-inch-o.75-mch ; pea, o.75-inch-o.50-inch ; and 
buckwheat, o.5o-inch-o.25-inch. Larger sizes 
than the above are known as lump and steam¬ 
boat, and smaller sizes as rice, mustard-seed, 
etc. The sizes from broken to chestnut inclusive 
are known as the domestic prepared sizes and 
constitute at present about 60 per cent of the 
output. The waste or fine coal which commonly 
amounts to as much as 10 per cent of the ma¬ 
terial mined is known as culm. Immense heaps 
of this fine coal have accumulated at the mines, 
but with the improved processes of screening 
and separation much of it is now saved and sold 
to manufacturing plants. 

The growth of the anthracite mining indus- 
trv in the United States has been very rapid. 
There are records showing that Pennsylvania 
anthracite was used for fuel as early as 1768, 
but mining was not carried on to any extent 
until about 1820. The growth of the industry 
from this time to the close of the century is 
shown in the following table: 


1820. 

Long tons 

1870. 

Long tons 

1830. 


1880. 


1840. 


1890. 

- 36,615,459 

1850. 


1900. 


i860. 

.... 8,513,123 




The production and value of Pennsylvania 
anthracite and the number of employees engaged 
in the industry during the period 1897-1901 
were as follows: 



Production 
long tons 

Value 

Number of 
Employees 

1897. 

46,974,715 

79 , 301,954 

149,557 

1898. 

47,663,076 

75 , 414,537 

145,184 

1899. 

53,944,647 

88,142,130 

139,608 

1900. 

51,221,353 

85,757,851 

144,206 

1901. 

60,242,560 

112,504,020 

145,309 


Almost the entire output of anthracite is 
consumed as domestic fuel. A small portion is 
used for manufacturing purposes in large cities, 
but it is being gradually superseded for this 
purpose by the cheaper bituminous coal. See 
Coal. 

Anthrac'nose, a group of fungous diseases 
caused by various species of Glceosporium and 
Colletotrichum, which appear upon the green 
parts of plants as roundish spots with more 
or less sunken light centres and darker mar¬ 
gins. They often cause serious damage to 
cultivated crops, especially grape, strawberry, 
raspberry, spinach, egg-plant, cotton, and cu¬ 
cumber, under which titles they will be more 


fully discussed. For methods of control see 
Fungicide. 

An'thracother'ium, an extinct pig-like ani¬ 
mal, inhabiting Europe and North America dur¬ 
ing the Oligocene and Miocene epochs. The 
teeth are intermediate between those of pigs 
and ruminants, but it is not in the direct line 
of descent of either, forming a side branch 
which left no descendants. The name, given 
by Cuvier in 1822, means (( beast of the coal® 
(&v 9 pa% coal, 6 -qplov beast), and is derived from 
the fact that its remains were first discovered 
in the Tertiary lignite beds of France. 

Anthraquinon'e, an'thra-quin-on' (from 
anihra-cene + quinone), a substance derived 
from anthracene by the action of oxidizing 
agents, and used in the preparation of alizarin. 
It may be conveniently prepared on a small 
scale by dissolving anthracene in glacial acetic 
acid, adding potassium bichromate, and heat¬ 
ing to 212 0 F. The acetic acid is then distilled 
off, and the anthraquinone precipitated by wa¬ 
ter. On the large scale sulphuric acid is used 
in the place of the acetic acid. Anthracene has 
the formula Ci 4 Hs 0 2 , and is insoluble (or near¬ 
ly so) in water and alcohol, and but slightly 
soluble in benzene. It dissolves in hot sulphuric 
acid, separating out again, without change, upon 
cooling. 

Anthrax, the name of a disease occurring 
epidemically among herbivora, chiefly oxen and 
sheep, and occasionally affecting man. It is 
also called malignant pustule, splenic fever, 
wool-sorters’ disease, charbon, milzbrand. It is 
caused by a rod-shaped bacterium, the Bacillus 
anthracis, first seen in 1849 and isolated in 1863, 
and conclusively proved by Koch in 1876 to 
be the cause of the disease, this being one 
of the first diseases demonstrated to be caused 
by bacteria. 

In man the bacillus is usually acquired by 
handling the hide of an animal having died from 
the disease. A local lesion, the malignant pustule, 
is formed, and this may lead to wide-spread 
infection with oedema and lymphatic invasion, 
attended by fever, g-astro-enteritis, collapse, and 
death. The infection may remain localized, 
however, and the patient may recover. Less 
often the infection takes place in the respiratory 
tract, the patient having breathed the bacillus in 
the dust arising from handling hides or sort¬ 
ing wool; in such cases a rapidly fatal form of 
hemorrhagic oedema may develop. A still rarer 
form of the disease in man affects the in¬ 
testinal tract. The bacillus of anthrax is one 
of the largest of the pathogenic bacteria. It 

is 6-8 microns | ^ 0 q 0 j inches long and 1.5 

microns thick, being a short rod with square 
edges, and growing in chains. The protoplasm 
is finely granular and it forms spores about the 
centre of the bacillus. It grows very rapidly 
on all of the commonly used bacteriological 
culture media, best at a temperature of 35 0 C., 
but its multiplication ceases at temperatures 
below 12° C. or above 45 0 C. The bacilli are 
readily killed by temperatures of 6o° C., but 
the spores are very resistant, and dry heat at 
140° C. must be applied for several hours to 
kill them. In a dry condition they remain via¬ 
ble for several years and will resist boiling wa¬ 
ter for at least five minutes. The gastric juice 


























ANTHRENUS — ANTHROPOLOGY 


also does not destroy them readily. The bac¬ 
teria are found in the blood and throughout the 
organs of animals dying of anthrax. They are 
particularly numerous in the spleen and in the 
lymphatic structures. They poison the body 
by the development of a toxin or toxins which 
in turn cause degeneration of the tissues of 
the body. 

Anthrax is one of the diseases in which a 
serum therapy was instituted early. Thus far 
it has not proved of signal service, although a 
protective serum has been made by which an¬ 
imals may be immunized against the disease. 

Anthrax in animals is a comparatively com¬ 
mon disease, affecting sheep, cattle, and, more 
rarely, horses and members of the deer family. 
It is rare among the carnivora. The disease is 
not geographically confined, and animals in 
various parts of the world are affected by it. It 
is naturally less common in countries in which 
there is some legislative control, and rarer at 
present than in former times. In Britain the 
mortality is small; in France, at one time, as 
many as io per cent of the sheep died annually 
of anthrax. Since the modern method of im¬ 
munizing cattle has been introduced the mor¬ 
tality has been much lessened. The symptoms 
vary widely, but at least three marked groups 
are observable. In some instances the affected 
animal develops symptoms of extreme collapse; 
it drops to the ground; the pulse and respira¬ 
tion are quickened, there is difficulty in breath¬ 
ing, and the animal dies in convulsions within 
a comparatively short time. A commoner type 
of attack is begun by symptoms of general dis¬ 
tress, the animal is <( off its feed,® the pulse and 
respiration are quickened, chills develop, the 
temperature rises to 103 or 104° F., bloody 
diarrhoea occurs, bloody nasal catarrh. There 
then may develop convulsive movements; there 
is rapid loss of strength, and the animal may 
die in from 10 to 48 hours, sometimes at the 
end of 3 to 4 days. A third type is characterized 
by a slow onset, the lymphatic structures are in¬ 
volved, they swell and form carbuncles, which 
may ulcerate. General symptoms of infection 
may develop — the spleen may enlarge, bloody 
discharges are common, and the animal dies of 
generalized hemorrhagic oedema. The diagnosis 
is readily made in all cases by a microscopical 
examination of the blood. Different animals 
show marked variations in susceptibility. The 
sheep, save Algerian, ox, guinea-pig, and mouse, 
are all very susceptible, but the goat, horse, 
deer, and pig are less often attacked. Man 
may be placed next in the order of liability; the 
white rat, adult carnivora, birds, and amphibia 
are immune. The disease is conveyed to ani¬ 
mals largely by way of the intestinal canal. The 
bacilli are ubiquitous in the grass and hay 
about an infected area. 

Preventive inoculation .—Pasteur first evolved 
a method of inoculation by an attenuated virus, 
a sort of hardening the animal, as it were, that 
subsequently made it resistant to the virile bac¬ 
teria. Although other methods, notably the use 
of anti-anthrax serum, have been used, the at¬ 
tenuated virus method seems to give the best 
results. Surgical methods are the only mode of 
treatment for man. 

References .— Pollender, ( Vierteljahrschrift 
fur Gerichtliche Medicin, VIII . ) ; Davaine, 
( Comptes Rendus Acad, des Sciences, } 57, p. 


220 et seq.; Koch, ( Cohn’s Beitrage,* Vol. II., 
1876. For all later literature see Fliigge, ( Die 
Mikroorganismen ) ; Sternberg, ( Manual of 
Bacteriology > ; Bureau of Animal Industry 
Reports, United States Department of Agricul¬ 
ture. 

An'threnus. See Carpet Beetle. 

An'thropoid Apes, a term applied to those 
apes (family Simiidce) nearest in their organ¬ 
ization to man. See Ape. 

An'thropol'atry, the worship of man, a 
term always employed in reproach. It was ap¬ 
plied by the Apollinarians to the orthodox 
Christians of the 4th and 5th centuries, who in 
their devotion to Christ worshipped, as was de¬ 
clared, only a man in whom God dwelt. 

An'thropol'ogy (from Greek anthropos, 
man, and logos, doctrine), the science or branch 
of knowledge dealing with mankind in its most 
general aspects and characteristics, and as form¬ 
ing an organic whole. It derives its materials 
from the most varied sources, and rests upon 
other sciences, among which may be mentioned 
physiology, psychology, ethnology, archaeology, 
ethics, and the study of religion, the rise of arts 
and science, and the history of civilization. 
Anthropology takes account of the totality of 
the moral and physical characteristics of mar 
and of the different races of man; deals with 
the ethnological relationship existing betweef 
the races of former times and those now living, 
treats of man’s place in nature, the relation in 
which he stands to the animals whose structure 
most nearly approaches his own, and the theory 
of evolution and development from lower to 
higher forms as applied to man. Anthropology 
considers also the how, when, and where of 
man’s first appearance on the earth, the condi¬ 
tion in which he originally existed, and the in¬ 
fluences, means, and methods which have given 
rise to existing civilization. (See Archeology; 
Civilization; Ethnology; Man.) Consult: 
Tyler, introduction to the Study of Man and 
Civilization (1881), and see also the bibliogra¬ 
phy appended to the next article. 

Anthropology, American. Although an¬ 
thropology, or the science of man, is sometimes 
classed among the older branches of knowledge, 
it is, in its modern aspects, the youngest of all. 
Its relations to the older sciences are seen 
clearly when the object-matter or the special 
phenomena treated in the several sciences are 
compared. The special phenomena considered 
in the simplest of the sciences are cosmic bodies 
controlled by gravity,— that is, by a wholly ex¬ 
ternal force. The phenomena treated in the 
second of the objective sciences in order of 
development are elementary, and their sub¬ 
stances controlled especially by affinity, though 
incidentally by gravity,— that is, in part by 
what may be considered intrinsic forces, though 
chiefly by extrinsic factors. The phenomena 
dealt with in the next science in order of devel¬ 
opment (and also in complexity) are plants, of 
which the essential property is vitality, which 
is superadded to affinity and gravity; and the 
phenomena are controlled in considerable mea¬ 
sure by intrinsic forces maturing in heredity. 
The object-matter of the next science, or group 
of sciences, is animals, whose special property 
is motility — a property coexisting with the 
vitality, affinity, and gravity of the simpler 


ANTHROPOLOGY 


sciences; and among the self-motile organisms 
the controlling forces are largely intrinsic. In 
the remaining class of natural phenomena, or 
mankind, the special property is that of men¬ 
tality, superadded in turn to the special at¬ 
tributes of the simpler classes; and through 
the possession of this property mankind rise 
largely above environment and pass under the 
control of essentially intrinsic forces, merely 
adjusted to such external forces as those of 
gravity, affinity, etc. Viewed thus with respect 
to primary-object matter, the sciences are seen 
to fall into a natural series expressing at once 
the order of historical development and the 
degree of complexity. The series is of interest 
not merely as showing the place of anthropology 
among the sciences, but as indicating the 
breadth of the foundation on which the science 
of man is built; it may be deemed the offspring 
of all the older sciences, and borrows methods 
and principles from all; yet it occupies an. es¬ 
sentially distinct field, defined by a special at¬ 
tribute existing only in organized bodies and 
playing the leading role only in the single 
sapient species of a unique genus — Homo sa¬ 
piens. 

While anthropology treats of a single class 
of phenomena, these are of such variety and 
complexity that the field of the science is 
broad — indeed, the general science may prop¬ 
erly be regarded as made up of a number of 
special sciences of which several were cultivated 
long before the full extent of the human sci¬ 
ence was appreciated. The order of develop¬ 
ment of these special sciences is of much in¬ 
terest, and well illustrates (as does the history 
of science in general) the passage of definite 
science from the abnormal to the normal and 
from the remote to the near. Probably the first 
of the anthropologic sciences which came up in 
prehistoric times was pathology: certainly the 
least developed savages known to students are 
cognizant of pathologic conditions and possess 
systems of action and thought connected with 
those conditions. Probably, too, the second 
germ of definite knowledge related to physi¬ 
ology; for primitive folk usually display some 
notion of the normal reverse of pathologic con¬ 
ditions, and impute physiologic properties to 
animate and other bodies even before the or¬ 
gans are clearly defined. It is probable also 
that a mystical etiology followed, leading to a 
thaumaturgic or sortilegic practice which may 
be called primitive medicine and surgery; cer¬ 
tainly during prehistoric times such major 
operations as trepanning were performed in 
many widely separated regions, with greater 
frequency than in modern hospital practice, and 
with fair if not excellent success, despite the 
fact that the diagnosis was wholly irrational 
and the apparatus and processes astonishingly 
crude. Within the historical period these primi¬ 
tive systems were gradually rendered definite 
and rational chiefly through the practice of the 
healing art; and as the spirit of exploration 
and discovery advanced, thought was stimu¬ 
lated by observations on other races; yet it was 
not until after Linne, Cuvier, and others laid 
the foundations for botany (or phytology) and 
zoology that the science of man began to take 
definite form. In the centuries from Linne to 
Darwin and Huxley man was regarded either 
as entirely outside the domain of scientific re¬ 


search or else as an animal genus merely; and 
during this period most students were content 
to investigate the purely physical (and indi¬ 
vidual) characters of the genus. Through the 
researches of the times anthropology was raised 
to a place among the recognized sciences, and 
various special methods were introduced, nota¬ 
bly, anthropometry (including craniometry) ; 
the science of the time being that which is now 
commonly called physical anthropology, or 
somatology. Concurrently with the objective 
investigations, studies of the mental attributes 
of mankind were carried forward, and a fairly 
definite system of introspective psychology grew 
up. The development of physical anthropology 
and introspective psychology may be deemed 
the gift of Europe and of 17 centuries to the 
science of man. With the extension of coloni¬ 
zation in America, the pioneers were brought 
into contact with alien tribes; these were ob¬ 
jects first of curiosity and afterward of careful 
study with a view to the maintenance of 
amicable relations. The great lesson of the 
contact was the discovery that the actions and 
thoughts (or the conduct) of the alien folk 
were of immeasurably greater consequence than 
their physical characters. It was soon perceived 
that the key to primitive thought is the language 
by which it is expressed; and John Eliot, in 
Massachusetts, with scores of other students 
and missionaries, mastered the languages of the 
tribesmen with the view of promoting harmony 
and friendship. The early work was that of 
philanthropists and statesmen rather than sci¬ 
entists ; but Gallatin went so far beyond his 
predecessors as to classify the American abori¬ 
gines on the basis of language, thereby laying 
the foundation for a new anthropology, or a 
science of human activities. Morgan extended 
the study to the social organization of the 
tribes, and Brinton to their mythologic or re¬ 
ligious systems; while, still later, Powell 
brought the earlier studies together and de¬ 
veloped the science of human activities, which 
he called demology, or demonomy. It is to be 
noted that the unit of demology is not the indi¬ 
vidual, as in physical anthropology or soma¬ 
tology, but the group — the pair, family, clan, 
tribe, city, or nation. This science itself covers 
so broad a field that subdivision has been found 
convenient. Accordingly recent workers recog¬ 
nize a science of arts, or aesthetology, treating 
of the characters and the natural history (or 
development) of aesthetic syfnbols and devices; 
a science of industries, or technology, which 
treats similarly of implements, tools, machines, 
and other industrial instrumentalities; a science 
of laws, or sociology, dealing with the charac¬ 
ters and development of social organization and 
institutions ; a science of languages, or philology, 
devoted to the study of human speech and writ¬ 
ing ; and a science of philosophies, including 
myths, opinions, beliefs, and attendant customs 
and observances, which is conveniently called 
sophiology. With the progress of research and 
the definition of the special sciences it became 
clear to American students that while the 
human characters may conveniently be inter¬ 
preted in terms of physical activities, they may 
be still more conveniently and simply expressed 
in terms of psychic or mental activities. Fol¬ 
lowing this mode of interpretation it has been 
found feasible to classify mankind in four great 


ANTHROPOLOGY 


groups, each representing a fairly well-defined 
stage in intellectual, social, and moral develop¬ 
ment. The first of these stages is that com¬ 
monly called savagery, in which law is based 
on kinship traced in the female line, and in 
which language and belief, as well as the arts 
and industries, are more or less inchoate. The 
second is that of barbarism, or patriarchy, in 
which the law rests on kinship traced in the 
paternal line, and in which arts, industries, lan¬ 
guages, and faiths attain distinctive develop¬ 
ment. The third (sometimes connected with 
the second through feudal systems) is that of 
civilization, or the phase of civilization charac¬ 
terized by monarchical government, in which the 
law rests on recognition of property right, espe¬ 
cially in land; this stage is characterized by 
writing, conventional art, differentiated indus¬ 
tries, and especially by the Christian religion. 
The fourth stage is that properly called en¬ 
lightenment, in which the law rests on recogni¬ 
tion of human rights to life, liberty, and the 
pursuit of happiness, and in which arts are 
perfected, industries multiplied, languages blent 
and simplified, and faiths refined and ennobled. 
The recognition of these stages reacted on the 
primary motive of modern anthropology, and 
led to a clearer view of the significance of 
mentality not only in human affairs but in the 
economy of the universe. Accordingly an¬ 
thropology may be said to have contributed to 
human knowledge one of the five cardinal prin¬ 
ciples of science. The first of these, contributed 
chiefly by chemistry, is the indestructibility of 
matter; the second, established by the aid of 
several sciences, is the conservation of energy 
or the persistence of motion; the third, derived 
largely from biology, is the development of 
species; the fourth, obtained by comparison of 
several sciences, is the uniformity of Nature; 
while the fifth, contributed by modern an¬ 
thropology (although forecast by Bacon in his 
Novum Organum ) is the responsivity of mind. 
The applications of these principles, especially 
that last named, are innumerable and highly 
useful; in large measure they give shape to the 
anthropologic researches of recent times. 

Various instrumentalities for anthropologic 
research have grown up in America, especially 
during the last quarter of the 19th century. 
Perhaps the most efficient of these is the Bu¬ 
reau of American Ethnology, established in 
1879 through the efforts of J. W. Powell; its 
work has been directed wholly to the aborigines, 
yet the researches have been so shaped as to 
bring out the essential principles of demology, 
or the science of mankind considered in a col¬ 
lective aspect. Important investigations have 
been conducted also in various museums, 
notably, the American Museum of Natural His¬ 
tory in New York, whose work has been great¬ 
ly "enhanced through the Jesup North Pacific 
expeditions, organized as a part of the Museum 
establishment. The Peabody Museum connect¬ 
ed with Harvard University, the Field Colum¬ 
bian Museum of Chicago, the Free Museum 
attached to the University of Pennsylvania, the 
Golden Gate Park Museum of San Francisco, 
and the Carnegie Museum of Pittsburg, have 
also made rich contributions to the science of 
anthropology in America, while the United 
States National Museum has been a centre of 
richly productive activity. Various volunteer 


organizations have served to guide and co-ordi¬ 
nate the work of individual investigators. One 
of the most influential of these has been the 
Anthropological Society of Washington, a pio¬ 
neer in systemizing anthropology. It is organ¬ 
ized in sections corresponding to the principal 
divisions of the science, namely: A, somatology; 
B, psychology; C, aesthetology; D, technology; 
E, sociology; F, philology; G, sophiology. An¬ 
other efficient organization is the American 
Ethnological Society, with headquarters in New 
York; while the section of anthropology of 
the American Association for the Advancement 
of Science until recently afforded the sole op¬ 
portunity for national gatherings of anthro¬ 
pologists. The Archaeological Institute of 
America and the American Folk-Lore Society 
may be said to occupy portions of the field; 
and a number of other societies and sections 
have encouraged research. In the summer of 
1902 a national organization of anthropologists 
was created, under the title American Anthro¬ 
pological Association; its membership includes 
the leading anthropologists of America. Sev¬ 
eral universities and colleges support anthro¬ 
pology either through established chairs or 
otherwise; Columbia, California, Chicago, and 
Harvard offer excellent facilities for both in¬ 
struction and research in anthropology. 

As customarily defined in American writing, 
anthropology includes ethnology and archae¬ 
ology, but does not embrace the closely cognate 
science of psychology. This science has been 
successfully cultivated in America during re¬ 
cent years; departments of experimental 
psychology are maintained in several universi¬ 
ties, two or three excellent journals are con¬ 
ducted, and the experimental science is co-ordi¬ 
nated with the older, or introspective, psychology 
so effectively that America must be placed in the 
foremost rank, if not in the lead, of the coun¬ 
tries in which the science is undergoing devel¬ 
opment. The special instrumentalities and re¬ 
sults are indicated elsewhere. 

Ethnology, or the science of races, ranks 
among the more important aspects of anthro¬ 
pology. Until the last quarter of the 19th cen¬ 
tury it was customary to define the races of 
mankind on the basis of color, character of hair, 
form of head, stature, color and attitude of 
eyes, and various other physical characters; 
and most of the applications of anthropometry 
and craniometry were made in connection with 
the description of races (ethnography) or in the 
systematic classification and discussion to which 
the term ethnology is properly applied. The 
ethnic characters recognized by various students 
are numerous and diverse; many are of local 
or special value only; and the definitions of 
races have been nearly as numerous as the 
writers on ethnologic subjects. The number of 
human races recognized by different authors 
varies from four or five to several score; but 
the modern tendency is to recognize only four 
or five leading types as ethnic varieties, or dis¬ 
tinct races of mankind, namely, (1) the Cauca¬ 
sian or white race, (2) the Mongolian or yellow 
race, (3) the Malayan or brown race, (4) the 
American or red race, and (5) the African or 
black race. The principal American contribu¬ 
tions to the subject of ethnology have been 
made since 1875, when Powell began the classi¬ 
fication of the aboriginal tribes on the demotic 


ANTHROPOLOGY 


basis,— that is, on the basis of the human ac¬ 
tivities. As the studies progressed it was found 
that the native tribes (and other primitive peo¬ 
ples as well) might be classified on the basis of 
sesthetic or industrial character, on the basis 
of belief, or mythology, and still more satisfac¬ 
torily on the basis of social organization, or 
law; but that the most convenient classification 
was that on the basis of language. Accordingly 
Gallatin’s classification was revived and ex¬ 
tended to the aborigines of North America 
(chiefly north of Mexico) ; and the thousand 
or more tribes known through current research 
and early record were grouped in some 60 lin¬ 
guistic stocks. These are as follows, in alpha¬ 
betic but not geographical order: 


Algonquian .... 

Tribes 

Natchesan .... 

Tribes 

Athapascan .... 

.53 

Palaihnihan ... 


Attacapan . 


Piman. 

. 7 

Beothukan . 


Pujunan . 


Caddoan . 


Quoratean . . .. 


Chimakuan. 


Salinan . 


Chimarikan .. . . 


Salishan . 


Chimmesyan .. . . 

. 8 

Sastean . 


Chinookan . 


Serian. 

. 3 

Chitimachan ... 


Shahaptian .. . . 


Chumashan . . . . 

. 6 

Shoshonean ... 


Coahuiltecan . . . 


Siouan . 

.68 

Copehan . 


Skittagetan ... 

. 17 

Costanoan . 

. 5 

Takilman . 


Eskimauan . 


Tanoan . 


Esselenian . 


Timuquanan . . 


Xroquoian . 

.13 

Tonikan . 

. 3 

Kalapooian . ... 

. 8 

Tonkawan . . .. 


Karankawan . . . 

. I 

TJr.hean . 

. I 

Keresan . 

. 1 7 

Waiilatpuan . . 


Kiowan. 


Wakashan .... 


Ivitunahan . 

. 4 

Washoan . 


Koluschan . 


Weitspekan ... 

. 6 

Kulanapan . 

.30 

Wishoskan . .. . 

. 3 

Kusan . 


Yakoan . 


Latuamian . 

. A 

Yanan . 

. I 

Mariposan . 

. 24 

Yukian . 


Moquelumnan . . 

.35 

Yuman . 

. 9 

Muskhogean . . . 


Zunian . 


Nahuatlan . 





In connection with the classification of the 
tribes much information has been gained as to 
the migrations and other movements of the 
aborigines. As indicated by the linguistic 
diversity, the red race is by no means to be 
considered a unit; it comprises, on the con¬ 
trary, an assemblage of distinct or slightly re¬ 
lated peoples, whose movements must have been 
largely independent during many centuries of 
prehistoric time. There was, indeed, a strong 
tendency toward the absorption of weaker tribes 
by stronger, and toward the enlargement of 
groups by confederation; the most important 
confederacies of North America being the Iro- 
quoian confederacy or (( Six Nations,® the Da¬ 
kota or Sioux confederacy or <( Seven Peoples,® 
the Muskhogean confederacy of the eastern 
Gulf slope, and the indefinitely known Nahuat- 
lan or Aztec confederacy of Mexico. The 
courses of migration of typical groups have 
been traced. The best known example is that 
of the Siouan Indians, who apparently pushed 
up the Atlantic coast, perhaps under pressure 
from a southern competitor, to Chesapeake Bay, 
by which they were diverted inland; reaching 
the habitat of the buffalo, which crossed the 
Appalachian Mountains in the neighborhood of 
the Potomac River, they followed this easy food 
source westward, across the mountains, down 
the Ohio to the Mississippi, and thence in 
northern and southern columns (the (( up- 
stream® and the <( down-stream® people) far out 


on the great plains, where most of the Siouan 
tribes were found by Caucasian explorers. 
There are clear indications that many of the 
Algonquian tribes also pushed inland from the 
northern Atlantic coast, spreading over the Lake 
region largely through the effective aid of the 
birch-bark canoe; and there are similar indica¬ 
tions that the Athapascan tribes of the northern 
portion of the continent likewise pushed from 
the coast toward the interior and southward 
into the Pueblo region by means of the same 
simple transportation device; while the Eskimo 
clung to the coasts, pushing east to northern 
Greenland and west to and across Bering Strait 
into northeastern Asia. The intertribal rela¬ 
tions farther south on the Pacific coast were 
such as to force maritime peoples into the arid 
interior, along the canons and upon the pla¬ 
teaus — where some of the Pueblo tribes, like 
the desert peoples of the Gila Valley, still re¬ 
tain clear vestiges of a cult of the sea. On 
the whole, the traces of tribal migrations clearly 
indicate a tendency to move inland from the 
coasts and substitute agricultural habits for the 
simpler customs of fishery and chase. Natural¬ 
ly all inquiries bear on the question of the 
peopling of America; but it is significant that 
the careful researches of a quarter-century have 
added practically no evidence of the peopling 
of the New World from the Old — the only 
known aboriginal crossing of Bering Strait 
being that by the Eskimo migrating west. The 
records of the Jesup expedition tend to indicate 
that traditions were carried from America to 
Asia during prehistoric times, but not in the 
other direction; while certain studies of culti¬ 
vated plants suggest a westerly migration from 
South America to Polynesia, and no trust¬ 
worthy indication of aboriginal immigration has 
been found. A few ethnologists incline to the 
opinion that mankind developed in America 
earlier than in Asia, and passed westward per¬ 
haps during the Pliocene or the early Pleisto¬ 
cene ; but the dearth of human relics of geologic 
antiquity tends against this opinion. Some of 
the most competent students favor the view 
that howsoever the human prototype may have 
been introduced in America, the tribes originat¬ 
ed independently before speech was developed, 
and that since this early time the lines of 
development have converged; so that the pre- 
scriptorial history of America may be likened 
to the written history of Europe, in which 
tribes, peoples, languages, and customs have 
progressively blent and united throughout the 
last two millenniums. On the whole it must 
be said that ethnologic researches have thus far 
failed to answer many of the mooted questions 
concerning the origin and early movements of 
the American aborigines; yet it is not to be for¬ 
gotten that they have resulted in the fullest and 
most faithful descriptions of primitive men ever 
given to the world. 

The ethnologic inquiries in America have 
constantly stimulated archaeologic research — 
indeed, the special merit of American archaeology 
grows out of the fact that the American inter¬ 
pretations of relics are based on actual observa¬ 
tion of primitive peoples rather than on infer¬ 
ences peculiar to an entirely distinct culture 
stage. In general, archaeology, as the term is 
employed in this country, may be defined as a 
special aspect of anthropology; more strictly, it 





























































ANTHROPOMETRY 


represents the archaic or prehistoric division of 
technology and sesthetology. In many respects 
America has been found to afford a peculiarly 
instructive field for the archaeologist: relics of 
the Stone Age abound in unequaled profusion; 
the great mounds and earthworks of the Mis¬ 
sissippi Valley are practically unique; the 
cemeteries, filled with fictile ware in North 
America, and the rich huacas of the Andes, are 
without parallel elsewhere; the ruined cities of 
Yucatan, Mexico, and Peru have awakened the 
interest of the world; and all of these monu¬ 
ments of the past may be, and most of them 
have been, studied in the light of surviving 
customs of the descendants of their makers. 
The investigation of relics pertaining to the 
arts has supplemented the studies among living 
tribes, and has shown that aesthetic concepts 
arise in symbolism and pass through a crude 
conventionalism before they mature in faithful 
representations; and in like manner the pre¬ 
historic industrial devices fall into a series coin¬ 
ciding with that found among living tribes, 
which passes from the symbolic first to the 
conventional and only long afterward to the 
simply useful. Thus, the earliest weapons were 
teeth, claws, beaks, or shells of animal tutela- 
ries; in the next stage they were imitations of 
the natural weapons; the devices next under¬ 
went slow modification, determined by the char¬ 
acter of the material; and in a relatively 
advanced stage of thought the germ of inven¬ 
tion was introduced. The tracing of the devel¬ 
opment of industrial devices of primitive men 
is one of America’s chief contributions to the 
science of archaeology; and it is especially sig¬ 
nificant by reason of its conformity with the 
course of social development established through 
ethnologic researches. The sequence is a direct 
record of growing mentality; and it runs from 
the stage in which men thought as beasts up to 
that in which some of the aboriginal tribesmen 
were able to meet Caucasian invaders on terms 
of approximately equal psychic development. 
The record indicates that perhaps the longest 
step in industrial development was that leading 
to the use of the edged implement of stone or 
other material; and that next to this the hardest 
step was that leading to the smelting of metals, 
which some of the aborigines had j ust approached 
at the time of the Columbian discovery. The 
principal stages in industrial development, at¬ 
tested alike by the prehistoric relics of America 
and the customs of the lowest living tribes, are 
as follows: 


Some of the more interesting archseologic 
investigations of the western hemisphere relate 
to the antiquity of man. From time to time 
discoveries of human relics in deposits of ge¬ 
ologic antiquity are reported, and it has become 
customary for archaeologists and geologists to 
visit the localities and investigate the associa¬ 
tions critically. In most cases the examina¬ 
tions have led to the rejection of the evidence 
on one ground or another, so that very few 
cases can be regarded as indicating extreme 
human antiquity in the western hemisphere. 
There is, indeed, a strong presumption that man 
has lived in the western world many thousands 
of years; almost certainly he was there before 
the last ice invasion, possibly before the first 
advent of Pleistocene ice; for otherwise it 
would be difficult to account for the differentia¬ 
tion of the Eskimauan from the Athapascan 
and other peoples, to explain the development 
of complex social organization by the slow 
processes of primitive life, or to understand va¬ 
rious other lines of development — yet the 
tangible evidence remains meagre. Probably 
the most trustworthy indication is that afforded 
by an apparently wrought human femur, re¬ 
ported by Putnam, from the glacial gravel at 
Trenton. 

The finding of a human skull at a con¬ 
siderable depth in apparently undisturbed 
deposits near Lansing, Kansas, has attracted 
much attention, but the modern aspect of the 
cranium and the uncertainty as to the age of 
the deposits greatly weaken its testimony. On 
the whole, the conservative American archaeolo¬ 
gist is compelled to rest the case for the higher 
antiquity of man on the western hemisphere 
rather on a strong presumption than on decisive 
evidence of relics in deposits of known geolog¬ 
ical age. See Archaeology ( American) ; In¬ 
dians; Mound Builders. 

Bibliography .— Abbott, ( Primitive Industry ) 
(Salem 1881) ; Baldwin, ( Ancient America ) 
(1872) ; Dellenbaugh, ( The North Americans 
of Yesterday ) (1901) ; and Reports 5 of the 
Bureau of American Ethnology (Washington), 
since 1880. 


W J McGee, 
Smithsonian Institution. 


An'thropom'etry (from the Greek an- 

thropos, man, and metron, measure), a term 
denoting the science having for its object the 
systematic examination of the height, weight, 
and other physical characteristics of the human 
body. In 1875 the British Association appoint¬ 
ed a committee to collect observations in con- 


STAGES IN INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT. 


STAGES 

TYPICAL MATERIALS 

TYPICAL PRODUCTS 

ESSENTIAL IDEAS 

1 . Zoomimic 

A. Transitional 

2 . Protolithic 

B. Transitional 

Bestial organs 

Symbolized organs 

Natural stones 

Cleft stones 

Awls, spears, harpoons, 

arrows 

Piercing and tearing imple¬ 
ments 

Hammers and grinders— 

hupfs and ahsts 

Grinders and cutters 

Zootheistic faith 

Faith T 
craft 

Mechanical chance 

Chance + craft 

3. Technolithic 

C. Transitional 

Artificialized stones 

Malleable native 
metals 

Chipped, battered and pol¬ 
ished implements 

Copper celts, gold orna¬ 
ments, etc. 

Designed shapement by mo¬ 
lar action 

Designed shapement by mo¬ 
lar action + chance heat- 

4. Metallurgic 

Smelted ores 

Steel tools, etc. 

ing 

Shapement by molar and 
molecular action 












ANTHROPOMETRY 


nection with this department, and in 1883 they 
submitted to the association their final report, 
from which is derived the following informa¬ 
tion. The variations in stature, weight, and 
complexion existing in different districts of the 
British isles appear to be chiefly due to differ¬ 
ences of racial origin, and this influence pre¬ 
dominates over all others. We have reason to 
believe, from historical and antiquarian re¬ 
searches, that the ancient Caledonii, the Belgae, 
and Cimbri, and the Saxons and Frisians, as 
well as the Danes and Normans, were all people 
of great stature. On the other hand, the pre¬ 
historic (neolithic) race or races of Great Brit¬ 
ain appear to have been of low or moderate 
stature. Accordingly the higher statures are 
found in the Pictish and Cimbro-British dis¬ 
tricts of Galloway ; in the Anglo-Danish districts 
of North and East Yorkshire, Westmoreland, 
and Lincolnshire, and in Cumberland, whose 
people are ethnologically intermediate between 
the two. Lothian and Berwickshire are mainly 
Anglian, whiie the Perthshire Highlanders are 
the most clearly identified as the descendants of 
the Caledonii. Norfolk holds a high position in 
regard to stature, owing to a large admixture of 
Danish blood on the coast. There is a fringe 
of moderately high stature all round the coast 
from Norfolk to Cornwall, while the inland peo¬ 
ple, retaining more of the ancient British blood, 
yield lower averages. Middlesex and Hertford¬ 
shire, which stand very low, were later and less 
perfectly colonized by the Anglo-Saxons than 
the surrounding counties, and nearly the same 
may be said of the counties surrounding the 
Severn estuary and the Welsh border. Corn¬ 
wall stands higher than the surrounding coun¬ 
ties, and this is probably due to its having 
become the refuge of the military class of south 
Britain, in the main of Belgic origin. Flint and 
Denbigh owe their superiority to the other 
Welsh counties to the immigration of the Cum¬ 
brian and Strathclyde Britons. The inhabitants 
of the western provinces of Ireland possess a 
high stature similar to that found in the Scotch 
Highlands, with which they may have a common 
racial origin, while the lower stature of the 
eastern provinces is probably traceable to the 
comparatively recent Scotch and English immi¬ 
grations. As to geographical distribution, the 
inhabitants of the more elevated districts pos¬ 
sess a greater stature than those of alluvial 
plains. The counties forming the river valleys 
of the Severn and Wye, the Thames, the Dee, 
and Mersey, the Clyde, the Trent, and the fen 
district of Cambridge and Huntingdon, show a 
lower stature than the surrounding counties in¬ 
habited by persons of a similar racial origin. 
With respect to latitude and climate, the 
inhabitants of the northern and colder districts 
possess greater stature than those of the south¬ 
ern and warmer parts of the island; those of 
the northeastern and drier regions are taller 
than those of the southwestern and damper 
climates. A similar disposition of stature has 
been found to exist in France and Italy, the 
inhabitants of both these countries being taller 
in the northern than in the southern provinces. 
The same rule applies to the whole of the coun¬ 
tries of Europe with respect to each other. 
Grouping the observations according to the 
place of birth in England, Wales, Scotland, 
and Ireland the general results may be sum¬ 


marized as follows: The Scotch male adults 
stand first in height (68.71 inches), the Irish 
second (67.90 inches), the English third (07.68 
inches), and the Welsh last (66.66 inches). In 
weight the Scotch take the first place (165.3 
pounds), the Welsh the second (158.3 pounds), 
the English the third (155.0 pounds), and the 
Irish the last (154.1 pounds). For each inch 
of stature a Scotchman weighs 2.406 pounds, a 
Welshman 2.375 pounds, an Englishman 2.301 
pounds, and an Irishman 2.270 pounds. The 
chest-girth of the adult British male (the mea¬ 
surements being, however, mainly those of Eng¬ 
lishmen) varies from 45 to 27 inches, the mean 
being 36 inches. The strength of the arms ex¬ 
erted as in drawing a bow ranges from 150 to 
30 pounds, the mean being 70 pounds. The 
average height of adult females in England is 
62.65 inches, being 4.71 inches less than the 
male average; the average weight of females 
is 122.8 pounds, being 32.2 pounds under that 
of the males. The females are stated to aver¬ 
age little more than half the strength of males 
measured by straining the arms, but the ob¬ 
servations were obtained from pupils in training 
schools for mistresses, and from shop assistants, 
so that the average is no doubt much lower 
than if the laboring classes had been included. 
The average height of the adult males of the 
principal races or nationalities of the world may 
be given as under; but more numerous measure¬ 
ments might alter some of the figures consider¬ 
ably : Polynesians, 69.33 inches; Patagonians, 
69 inches; Negroes of the Congo, 69 inches; 
Scotch 68.71 inches; Iroquois Indians, 68.28 
inches: Irish, 67.90 inches; United States 

(whites) 67.67 inches; English, 67.68 inches; 
Norwegians, 67.66 inches; Zulus, 67.19 inches; 
Welsh, 66.66 inches; Danes, 66.65 inches; 

Dutch, 66.62 inches; American negroes, 66.62 
inches; Hungarians, 66.58 inches; Germans, 
66.54 inches; Swiss, 66.43 inches; Belgians, 66.38 
inches; French, 66.23 inches; Berbers, 66.10 

inches; Arabs, 66.08 inches; Russians, 66.04 

inches; Italians, 66 inches; Spaniards, 65.66 
inches; Esquimaux, 65.10 inches; Papuans, 
64.78 inches; Hindus, 64.76 inches; Chinese, 
64.17 inches; Poles, 63.87 inches; Finns, 63.60 
inches; Japanese, 63.11 inches; Peruvians, 63 
inches; Malays, 62.34 inches ; Lapps, 59.2 inches; 
Bosjesmans, 52.78 inches. The average stature of 
man is thus about 65.25 inches. With respect to 
the measurement of children at birth it is found 
that the average length of a British male infant 
is 19.52 inches, and of females 19.32 inches. 
The average naked weight of male infants is 
7.12 pounds, of females 6.94 pounds. Growth 
is most rapid during the first five years of life, 
and during that period the rate of increase is 
about the same in both sexes, the gain being 
21.51 inches. From 5 to 10 years boys grow a 
little more rapidly than girls, the male increase 
being 10.81 inches, the female 10.50 inches. 
From 10 to 15 years girls grow more rapidly 
than boys, and at the ages of 11 y 2 to 14^4 are 
actually taller, and from 1214 to 15*4 actually 
heavier than boys. From 15 to 20 years boys 
again take the lead, and grow at first rapidly, 
then gradually slower, and complete their 
growth at about 23 years. After 15 girls grow 
very slowly, and attain their full stature about 
the 20th year. The strength of males increases 
rapidly from 12 to 19 years and at a rate simi- 


ANTHROPOMORPHISM — ANTICHRIST 


3 ar to the weight; more slowly and regularly up 
to 30 years, after which it declines at an increas¬ 
ing rate to the age of 60. The strength of 
females increases at a more uniform rate from 
9 to 19 years, more slowly to 30, after which 
it decreases in a manner similar to that of 
males. 

An'thropomor'phism, a term expressing 
the representation or conception of Deity under 
a human form, or with human attributes and 
affections. Such a conception springs from the 
natural inaptitude of the human mind for con¬ 
ceiving spiritual things except through sensuous 
images, and in its consequent tendency to ac¬ 
cept such expressions as those of Scripture 
when it speaks of the eye, the ear, and the hand 
of God, of his seeing and hearing, of his re¬ 
membering and forgetting, of his making man 
in his own image, etc., in a too literal sense. 
The term is also applied to that doctrine which 
attributes to animals mental faculties of the 
same nature as those of man, though much 
lower in degree: strictly called biological an¬ 
thropomorphism, to distinguish it from anthro¬ 
pomorphism proper, or theological anthropomor¬ 
phism. 

An'thropoph'agi, the name given to indi¬ 
viduals or tribes by whom human flesh is eaten: 
m-an-eaters, cannibals. The Caribs are said to 
have been cannibals at the time of the Spanish 
■conquest of America, and the word ^cannibal® 
is derived from their name. 

An'ti, or Campa, a warlike tribe of south¬ 
ern Peru on the eastern slope of the Andes. 
Their principal garment is a poncho belted at 
the waist. The men are workers in metal to a 
considerable extent, and the women are skilful 
weavers. They cultivate the ground, wild ani¬ 
mals, tamed, serving as beasts of burden. 

An'tia'rin, the poisonous principle found 
in the milky juice of the upas tree ( Antiaris 
toxic aria) in Java. It has the probable formula 
C14H20O5+ 2H2O. The gum prepared from the 
upas juice is used by the natives of Java for 
poisoning arrows. Antiarin, when taken into 
the stomach or introduced into the circulation 
through a wound, causes great prostration, and, 
in sufficient quantity, paralysis of the heart. 

Antibes, aii-teb, a fortified town and sea¬ 
port of France, on the Mediterranean, 11 miles 
south-southwest of Nice; founded about 340 
e.c. by a colony of Greeks, who named it An- 
tipolis. It has a naval school, and exports olives, 
anchovies, perfumery, etc. Pop. (1901), town, 
5,512; commune, 10,947. 

An'tibo'dy. See Immunity. 

Anti-Catholic Riots. See Orangemen. 

An'tichlor, an'ti-klor (from chlorine and 
anti). In bleaching, any substance used to 
eliminate, by chemical means, the last traces of 
chlorine from a material that has been bleached 
by the action of a chlorine compound. The 
free chlorine can be largely removed by mere 
washing, but it cannot be entirely eliminated 
in this manner, and the residuum, if not re¬ 
moved by chemical means, is injurious to the 
material and causes it to disintegrate slowly. 
Sulphur dioxid was long used as an antichlor, 
its action being indicated by the following 
formula : SO2 + 2H2O + 2CI — H2SO4 + 2HCI; 

Vol. 1—37 


that is, it combines with the chlorine to form 
sulphuric and hydrochloric acids. Sulphite of 
soda, Na 2 S 0 3 , is equally effective, its action be¬ 
ing as follows: Na 2 S 0 3 + H 2 0 + 2CI = Na2SO< 
4-2HCI. Sodium thiosulphate (better known 
in the arts as hyposulphite of soda, or ^hypo,®) 
is now more commonly used as an antichlor, 
since it is both cheaper and more efficacious. 
Its formula is Na 2 S 20 3 , and its action is as 
follows : Na,S 2 Os+ 5H2O + 8 C 1 = Na 2 S 0 4 + 8H 
Cl + H2SO4. (Sodium thiosulphate, water, and 
chlorine yield sodium sulphate, hydrochloric 
acid, and sulphuric acid.) In practice carbonate 
of soda is often added to the antichlor to neu¬ 
tralize the acids formed by the absorption of the 
chlorine. The resulting salts of soda are easily 
washed out of the material treated; and no 
damage results even if they are not entirely 
removed. 

An'tichrist, a term of Biblical origin, but 
occurring only in the Epistles of John, where 
it signifies a person or persons who deny the 
Father and the Son and disown the incarna¬ 
tion and messiahship of Jesus. They are de¬ 
ceivers whose presence in the world betokens 
the last time. This writer seems to have in 
mind numerous false human teachers, originally 
members of, but always alien to the followers 
of Christ. He seems also to refer to some 
single arch-deceiver of whom all false teachers 
are exponents, and in whom is concentrated 
»11 antagonism of error and ill will to Christ 
and his kingdom of truth and grace. There 
are, however, other Biblical passages in which 
such antagonisms find acute and culminating 
expression, and it has been the custom of 
students to handle all these sections under the 
study of the Antichrist. Such passages are 
Matt, xxiv., with its allusions to false prophets 
and false Christs; 2 Thess. ii., with its (( man 
of sin®; Rev. xi., xii., and xiii., with its dragon 
and beast; and Daniel vii. and viii., with its fig¬ 
ures of the terrible beast and the he-goat. In 
all these passages a central feature is the mighty 
opponent and assailant of the people and pur¬ 
poses of God. Clustered about this central per¬ 
sonified or personal antagonist of all wor¬ 
shippers of the true God numerous significant 
features continually recur. Such are names, 
times, places, forms. These features, variant 
in themselves, when differently combined by 
would-be interpreters, yield perplexingly mani¬ 
fold and divergent schemes, as the history of 
the theme abundantly displays. 

The history of interpretation shows four 
names to have special eminence alongside the 
name Antichrist, thus: Dragon, Satan, Demon, 
Belial. The efforts to identify him cluster 
around typical views. Some deem him to be a 
form of Jewish antagonism to the Christian 
faith. Here he is traced to Capernaum, Chora- 
zin, Bethsaida, or to Jerusalem. Frequently he 
is described as hostile to the Jews, being the 
counterfeit and foe of the Jewish Messiah. 
Very many identify him in some way with 
Rome, naming pre-eminently Nero, or a Nero 
redivivus, or Titus, or Caligula. Quite com¬ 
monly in the Middle Ages he was seen in Mo¬ 
hammed or in the Turks. Still later some 
Catholics identified him with Luther. Many 
emphasized in the Antichrist, whatever his 
form, the energy or wisdom or very being of 
Satan or the Dragon. As to times, the diver- 


ANTICLINE — ANTIETAM 


sity of views falls into three classes. Many 
writers refer all the Biblical allusions to events 
current at the time of writing. Many others 
deem the reference to events still future. Still 
others hold the Biblical teachings to be pre¬ 
eminently predictive, but find their fulfilment 
partial ana manifold throughout all Christian 
history, until their final consummation will mark 
the end. As to the place of his appearance or 
activity mention may be found of the Jewish 
Temple, Jerusalem, Mount of Olives, heaven it¬ 
self. Closely connected with these central fea¬ 
tures are various attendant elements such as Mi¬ 
chael, his great antagonist and victor; Gog and 
Magog and the nations which are his minions; 
the miracles which he works; the two witnesses, 
Enoch and Elijah, whom he slays; the sign of 
the Antichrist and the Son of Man; his world 
dominion; and his final doom. It is manifest 
that this theme presents a programme of 
thought and activity of most profound signifi¬ 
cance, however perplexing its solution. The 
persistence ol its main elements through such a 
long train of history attests something vital in 
human life. But its outline is nowhere com¬ 
plete. In recent years the effort to solve its 
mystery and find its meaning has taken new 
form and course. Scholars are trying to trace 
every element of the Antichrist tradition to its 
historical source. The leaders here are Dieter- 
ich, who, in his < Abraxa& ) and < Nekyia, ) traces 
parallelisms in Greek myths; Gunkel, who, in 
his ( Schopfung und Chaos, } attempts the same 
task in old Babylonian mythology; Bousset, 
who, in his ( Der Antichrist^ explores post- 
Christian literature of all types for echoes of 
the tradition; and Friedlander, who, in his ( Der 
Antichrist in den Vorchristlichen Jiidischen 
Zuellen/ tries to show that every essential trait 
of the Antichrist is traceable in Jewish circles 
before the destruction of the temple. The 
writer last named conceives the Babylonian 
dragon, myth, the Hebrew sons of Belial, the 
foes of God and his Messiah in Ps. ii., the 
Zedim of Ps. cxix., the minim of various Jew¬ 
ish writings, the Belial of the Sybilline oracle, 
the Gnostics, the great antagonist of Daniel, the 
man of sin in 2 Thess. ii., the false Christ of 
Matt, xxiv., the Antichrist of John’s Epistles, and 
the dragon of Rev. xi., to be all and severally 
various phases in one consistent development 
of the Antichrist idea. These studies, though 
but the early stages of a mighty task, disclose a 
commanding theme. For a history of the ex¬ 
position of 2 Thess. ii. see Bornemann’s ( Com- 
mentary* in the Meyer series. For a thorough 
statement of the Nero speculations see De 
Wette’s < Excursus :> in his Commentary on 
Rev. xvii.* ; also R. H. Charles, ( The Ascension 
of Isaiah,* § 17. 

An'ticline, a geological term applied to an 
up-arching of strata into a fold from whose 
summit the beds dip outward on both sides. 
Such a fold resembles an ordinary roof whose 
sides correspond to the limbs of the fold, while 
the ridge represents the anticlinal axis. An 
anticline may be broad with its limbs lying al¬ 
most flat, or it may be compressed and sharp,— 
sometimes the strata stand in vertical positions. 
The anticlinal axis is never perfectly horizontal, 
and while the fold frequently persists for a 
distance of several miles, it eventually dies out. 
The inclination of the axis is called the pitch of 


the fold. A complex anticline composed of 
several parallel folds is known as an anticlino- 
rium. The anticline is the complement of the 
syncline (q.v.), in which the strata are bent 
into a trough with the axis at the bottom. Both 
types of folds are the characteristic features of 
mountain regions. See Geology; Mountains; 
Strata. 

An'ticos'ti, a barren island in the Gulf of 
St. Lawrence, 135 miles long and 40 miles 
at its greatest width. The hills in the interior 
rise to about 600 feet. The climate is severe; 
while the surface is an alternation of rocks and 
swamps. It is visited by fishermen in the sum¬ 
mer, but there are few inhabitants save light¬ 
house keepers and official residents. The 
island, which is attached to the Canadian prov¬ 
ince of Quebec, has considerable salmon, trout, 
cod, and herring fisheries, and is a resort for 
seal- and bear-hunting. In 1895 the island was 
purchased by M. Henri Menier of France, who 
had much litigation over the rights of some 
settlers. A decision in his favor was made in 
1900. Pop. 250. 

An'ticy'clone, an atmospheric condition 
characterized by high barometric pressure and 
outblowing winds,— the opposite of cyclone. 
An anticyclone extends over a wide area and 
in the temperate zones usually appears in the 
west and moves eastward with slow velocity. 
At the centre of the area the winds move down¬ 
ward, thus bringing the cool, dry air of the 
upper regions into contact with the earth’s sur¬ 
face. Anticyclones are generally accompanied 
by clear, pleasant weather, but when following a 
storm in winter they may result in cold waves. 
See Meteorology. 

Anticyra, an-tis'i-ra, the name of three 
Grecian towns in Thessaly, Phocis, and Locris, 
famous for the hellebore which grew in their 
neighborhood. This plant was in high repute 
as a medicine, and was thought to have the 
effect of clearing the brain and curing stupidity; 
hence the expression of Horace, ®Naviget An- 
ticyram ,® <( Let him sail to Anticyra.® 

An'tidotes. See Poisons. 

An'tiemet'ic, a remedy employed to re¬ 
lieve nausea and vomiting. The choice of an 
antiemetic depends very largely on the nature 
of the cause of the nausea and vomiting. There 
are local antiemetics, acting solely on the mu¬ 
cous membrane of the pharynx, oesophagus, or 
stomach, and central antiemetics, acting on the 
nervous system. Among the best local remedies 
are cracked ice, cold beer, cold carbonated 
waters, cold champagne, small doses of tincture 
of iodine, chloroform, belladonna, cocaine, bro¬ 
mides, or chloral. The most reliable general 
antiemetics are ipecac, opium, and its alkaloids. 
See Emetics. 

Antietam, an-te'tam, The Battle of, fought 
on 17 Sept. 1862, in Maryland; sometimes called 
the battle of Sharpsburg. It was one of the de¬ 
cisive engagements of the Civil War, as it end¬ 
ed the first Confederate attempt at invasion of 
the North, though tactically a drawn battle. 
Lee’s army of about 50,000 crossed the Poto¬ 
mac near Leesburg, some 30 miles above Wash¬ 
ington, and concentrated . around Frederick, 
about 40 miles from Washington and 20 from 
the Pennsylvania line. When it became known 


ANTIETAM 


that Lee had crossed into Maryland Gen. Mc¬ 
Clellan, in command of the Army of the Poto¬ 
mac, pushed forward several corps with the left 
on the Potomac. 

Meanwhile Lee had ordered a movement on 
Harper’s Ferry (q.v.), in his rear at the junc¬ 
tion of the Potomac and Shenandoah. It was a 
valuable defense against invasion through the 
Valley of Virginia, but once the Confederates 
were across it became not only worthless but a 
trap. Nevertheless Gen. Halleck ordered it 
held; and Lee grasped the chance of capturing 
its defenders (with the Martinsburg outpost) 
and opening up his communications at once. 
This involved dividing his army for days, with 
a much superior force two or three days’ march 
off, but he gauged his foes justly enough to take 
the risk. The operation was effected with great 
skill and success and accurate co-ordination; 
but it took longer than Lee expected, and a mis¬ 
chance befell which should have undone him. A 
copy of his order fell into McClellan’s hands on 
the 13th, telling him of the dividing of that army 
not far off, its object, the position of the sepa¬ 
rate detachments, and the premium on ex¬ 
pedition ; but the opportunity was lost to the 
Federals through McClellan’s unexplained de¬ 
lay in giving orders for an advance. 

Lee, advised by the night of the 13th at 
Hagerstown that McClellan was advancing on 
South Mountain, marched back to resist his ad¬ 
vance but was defeated and on night of 14th 
fell back to Sharpsburg, a few miles southwest 
of Boonsboro, as the nearest strong position for 
his Harper’s Ferry detachments to rejoin him, 
as on the flank and rear of any force menacing 
Maryland Heights which they occupied, and a 
very defensible position in itself. Six or seven 
miles above the Heights the Potomac receives 
Antietam Creek, flowing through a ravine, with 
banks rising on the west to a low ridge having 
wooded patches, ledges, stone and wooden 
fences, cornfields, etc., as natural bulwarks, and 
sloping on the western side to the Potomac. 
Two and a half miles above the confluence a. 
sharp eastern bend of the Potomac brings it 
within 2^2 miles of the > Antietam; and at about 
the centre of the peninsula thus formed lies 
Sharpsburg, in a hollow on the western slope. 
Lee’s line, about three miles along the crest, 
was to rest one flank on an elevation near the 
Potomac, with the village in the rear centre, and 
a secure retreat by the Shepherdstown ford of 
the Potomac in the rear. 

The Union troops having forced South 
Mountain (q.v.) by two sharp battles on the 
14th, the main body issued therefrom next morn¬ 
ing, marched the eight miles to Antietam Creek, 
and formed in line along the east ridge. By 
afternoon some 50,000 troops were opposed to 
about 30,000 under Lee, with Longstreet and D. 
H. Hill. Late in the afternoon McClellan came 
up, was received with immense enthusiasm, and 
decided that it was too late to attack that day. 
On the 16th Jackson and Walker had joined 
Lee with fully 10,000 more. The chance of 
splitting the Confederate army being now lost, 
McClellan waited for his ammunition and supply 
trains to arrive and ordered no attack save of 
Hooker’s corps on the right late in the after¬ 
noon. A list of divisions and commanders now 
becomes requisite for brevity and intelligibility 
in describing the battle. 


Union Army. 

Right Wing. — Jos. Hooker. First Corps: 
Jos. Hooker; three divisions; commanders, 
Abner Doubleday, J. B. Ricketts, G. G. Meade. 

Centre. — E. V. Sumner. Second Corps : E. 
V. Sumner; three divisions; commanders, I. B. 
Richardson, .John Sedgwick, W. H. French. 
Twelfth Corps: J. K. F. Mansfield; two divi¬ 
sions ; commanders, A. S. Williams, G. S. 
Greene. 

Left Wing. — A. E. Burnside. Ninth Corps: 
J.. D. Cox; four divisions; commanders, O. B.. 
Willcox, S. D. Sturgis, I. P. Rodman, J. D. 
Cox (in the battle, E. P. Scammon). But 
Burnside refused to take personal command of 
the corps because, while he had previously com¬ 
manded the right wing with the First and Ninth 
under him on the day previous, the former 
(Hooker’s) had been taken from him and made 
an independent command; he feared that ac¬ 
quiescence would lose it to him permanently, and 
merely transmitted orders through Cox. The 
corps therefore had a technical commander who 
would not exercise initiative and a real one 
who could not. 

Reserve. — Fifth Corps: Fitz-John Porter; 
two divisions; commanders, Geo. Morell, Geo. 
Sykes. Sixth Corps: Wm. B. Franklin; two di¬ 
visions; commanders, H. W. Slocum, W. F. 
Smith. Temporarily attached, D. N. Couch’s di¬ 
vision from the Fourth Corps. This came from 
Pleasant Valley during the forenoon, and por¬ 
tions were used as reserves. Couch’s division 
did not reach the field until after dark of 17th. 

Cavalry. — Alfred Pleasonton. 

Confederate Army. 

First Corps. — Jas. Longstreet. Five divi¬ 
sions ; commanders, Lafayette McLaws, R. H. 
Anderson, D. R. Jones, J. G. Walker, J. B. 
Hood. 

Second Corps. —T. J. ( <( Stonewall 8 ) Jack- 
son; four divisions; commanders, I. R. Jones 
A. R. Lawton, A. P. Hill, D. H. Hill. 

Some crucial points of the battle-ground 
must be noted. The heart of the fighting was 
north and east of a Dunkard chapel of red 
brick, a mile north of Sharpsburg, on the west 
side of the Hagerstown turnpike, with tall 
woods free from underbrush to the west and 
north (the <( west woods 8 ), and elevated ground 
with ledges, hollows, etc., to the north (Nico- 
demus’ Hill) and west. Next to and across the 
road was open ground, with a field of high 
strong corn opposite the north end of the west 
woods, and then the (< east woods, 8 also inter¬ 
spersed with rocks, with a commanding ridge 
running south, cut by a sunken road (the 
“Bloody Lane 8 ) running east from the turn¬ 
pike. 

On the morning of the 17th Fitzhugh Lee’s 
cavalry brigade and some artillery formed the 
extreme Confederate left, holding Nicodemus’ 
Hill; next Jackson, Jones’ division, in and in 
front of the west woods, and the bulk of 
Ewell’s division on Jones’ right, in the open 
ground east of the Hagerstown turnpike; D. H. 
Hill on the left centre. Longstreet formed the 
centre and right, and A. P. Hill on the extreme 
right came up in the afternoon. Hood on the 
left was relieved by Ewell the night before, and 
formed a reserve near the Dunkard church. 
McLaws withdrew from Maryland Heights on 
the 15th and 16th, crossed and recrossed the 


ANTIETAM 


Potomac, and rejoined Lee early on the morn¬ 
ing of the 17th, also taking post on the left. 

On the Union side, Hooker having crossed 
the Antietam, Mansfield also crossed in the 
night and took position in the rear. Sumner 
and Burnside remained east of the stream. The 
Confederates rightly inferred from the Union 
dispositions that the force of the attack was to 
be on their left, and strengthened it accordingly: 
10 of the best brigades in their army were placed 
in the west and east woods and south of the 
cornfield. They had nearly 40,000 men in the 
battle; the Union troops engaged numbered 
about 55,ooo. This superiority was little enough 
against the immense advantages of the Confed¬ 
erate position; and even so, it was frittered away 
in a series of disconnected attacks, which left a 
large part of the Confederate force usable at 
one time against 15,000 Federal troops at most. 

1. Hooker, lying nearly a mile north of the 
Dunkard church, moved down against Jackson 
early in the morning; reported strength 14,856; 
actual, under 10,000. The objective point was 
the elevated ground about the church. The 
march had its right on the turnpike and its left 
along the west edge of the east woods, from 
which a withering fire checked it a little; the 
right was raked by a flanking fire from the west 
woods. At length the line gained the southern 
edge of the cornfield and engaged the Confeder¬ 
ates in the open ground about 220 yards distant. 
Under the storm of bullets, shot, and shell that 
rained upon them, they broke and fled through 
the corn, to re-form in a hollow beyond; the 
Confederates assailed the Union lines in turn, 
and in turn were riddled by a concentrated fire 
that drove them back. Again the Union troops 
advanced, to be forced back in disorder; and 
again the Confederates followed, to break and 
fly. This was one of the most frightful car¬ 
nages of the Civil War: Jackson’s famous 
^Stonewall® division was nearly annihilated, 
more than half of two brigades killed or 
wounded and more than a third of another, and 
all the regimental commanders but two. On 
the Union side 1,051 in Rickett’s division were 
cut down, a third of its whole number, and two 
brigades lost over 40 per cent; Hooker was 
wounded and was succeeded by Meade. Hood 
and D. H. Hill now came up to replace Jack¬ 
son’s losses; and Hooker’s remnants slowly 
withdrew northward just as the advance of the 
Twelfth came up, though Ricketts still held the 
edge of the east wood. 

2. Mansfield was mortally wounded while 
deploying his troops about 7 a.m., and A. S. 
Williams took command: reported strength, 
10,126; actual, about 7,000. Marching more 
obliquely to the road, facing southwest, they 
cleared the cornfield, and about 8.40 a.m. drove 
the Confederates across the turnpike and into 
the west woods. 

3. The Second Corps, under Sumner, had 
not received orders to march till 7.20, after the 
First was crippled and the Twelfth in the 
thick of action; and Richardson’s waiting for 
Morell’s division of the Fifth corps to occupy 
the ground he vacated caused him to be an hour 
later still. Sedgwick’s division, with Sumner at 
the head, went first, French following; each with 
perhaps 5,000 men; they crossed the Antietam, 
moving west by north, till the centre was nearly 
opposite the Dunkard church; then deploying, 
faced west, French forming on Greene’s left. 


Sedgwick passed through the east woods and 
the cornfield; advanced swiftly in three lines, no 
regiments in column or ready to face to either 
flank if attacked, swept by Greene’s right and 
pressed through the west woods with left on 
the church, to the western edge and a wood 
road along it. Meantime McLaws and Walker 
with six brigades had come up, one brigade had 
been drawn from the right to reinforce Early’s 
forces of Ewell’s division; and all fell upon 
Sedgwick’s left flank and rear. Nearly 2,000 
Union soldiers were struck down at a blow 
without a chance to retaliate; this division lost 
2,255 men all, more than 40 per cent of its 
entire number, including Sedgwick severely 
wounded. Sumner tried to change front, but 
the lines broke and scattered northward, sweep¬ 
ing away everything in their rush, and only re¬ 
formed on the north hill where Meade and the 
First corps had taken refuge. A brigade of the 
Twelfth came up to help, but lost a third of its 
number, one regiment losing 60 per cent. The 
right of the Confederate attacking line crossed 
the turnpike at the Dunkard church and made 
two assaults upon Greene’s position east of the 
church, and were repulsed with great slaughter, 
and Greene, making a counter charge, entered the 
woods beyond the church. Greene held this posi¬ 
tion until noon, when the Confederates attacked 
both his flanks and drove him from the church. 

Meantime W. F. Smith of Franklin’s corps 
had come on the field. Hancock (then one of 
his brigadiers) obtained a regiment from Sum¬ 
ner, took position opposite the woods, drove 
away the approaching Confederate skirmishers, 
and silenced their batteries. A second brigade 
was placed on his left, and with heavy loss ad¬ 
vanced to near the church; but on sending for 
his reserve brigade to support it he found it had 
been ordered away to support French. The lat¬ 
ter moving to the left south of the east woods, 
over the farm lands, drove back D. H. Hill’s 
skirmishers to his main line in the sunken 
road, where he engaged him over an hour, when 
he was joined by Richardson. Here a long and 
sanguinary conflict ensued: the Confederates 
turned the <( Bloody Lane® into a rough fortress 
with fence rails, and before carrying it the 
Union divisions had lost near a third of their 
total, one regiment losing 60 per cent. They had 
won the position by perhaps 1 p.m., and shortly 
afterward French’s troops were relieved by a 
brigade of Smith’s division.' Richardson with¬ 
drew his men to the ridge, and about that time 
was mortally wounded and succeeded by Han¬ 
cock. This practically ended the operations on 
the Federal right, and indeed the battle of An¬ 
tietam so far as it had any tendency to change 
the status quo. When Richardson’s line had 
been withdrawn, there was a vigorous contest of 
artillery. Meagher’s brigade took the centre, 
and somewhat less than two regiments came 
from French to aid Richardson’s division. De¬ 
spite the application for artillery for the division, 
none had been obtained. The length of the 
Union line made it impossible that more than 
one line of troops be formed; and so far ad¬ 
vanced was this line that a part of it was con¬ 
tinually swept by the fire of the batteries on 
the Confederate left, these batteries being pro¬ 
tected by the west woods. An attack on the 
Union left was successfully repulsed by Hex- 
amer’s battery (obtained from Franklin) and 
Battery I, First artillery. 


ANTIFEBRIN — ANTI-FEDERALISTS 


4. Between 4 and 5 p.m. a regiment of Frank¬ 
lin's corps was ordered to drive away some 
skirmishers of Hill’s division south of the 
Bloody Lane and succeeded at the cost of half 
its force. 

5. 1 he battle which Franklin was not al¬ 
lowed to fight must be mentioned. It has been 
noted that Smith’s action was paralyzed by tak¬ 
ing away a third of his force for service else¬ 
where. About noon Slocum, with the other di¬ 
vision, reached the field, and two brigades were 
at once formed in line to carry the woods around 
the church; but again the reserve brigade was 
ordered off. Franklin urged with all his 
strength to have a grand assault made with his 
whole corps on Lee’s centre, crippled and worn 
out with half a day’s fighting and slaughter. 
With relatively fresh troops, and French and 
Richardson to aid, it is most probable that few 
Confederates would have crossed into Shep- 
herdstown. But Sumner refused to permit the 
movement; still, Franklin was so urgent that 
he referred the decision to McClellan, but with 
so strong a veto that McClellan deferred to him 
and sanctioned the refusal. Both credited Lee 
with double or treble his actual numbers, and 
considered the terrible resistance, not as a proof 
that it could not be continued, but that any 
force which assailed him went to destruction. 
This refusal forms another of the might-have- 
beens of the battle, with some peculiarly poig¬ 
nant personal tragedy involved. 

6. The action of the left under Burnside is 
an even more acute personal question. His pe¬ 
culiar position has already been noted. About 
7 a.m. he received an order to hold himself in 
readiness to carry by assault a stone ridge across 
the Antietam about a mile southeast of Sharps- 
burg. About 10, when the First and Twelfth 
Corps and Sedgwick’s division were out of the 
fight, he received another order to carry the 
bridge and the heights beyond, and advance on 
the rear of Sharpsburg. He turned it over to 
Cox, who ordered a brigade to storm the bridge, 
Rodman to cross by a ford one third of a mile 
below, and the two to carry the heights and 
unite there. At best this could not be done in a 
moment, and the movement seems a covering 
rather than an aggressive one. But Crook 
missed the bridge and could not get back to it 
under fire: Rodman missed the ford and was 
two hours or so crossing under fire; a fresh 
storming party finally carried the bridge, Crook 
crossed some companies above and others at the 
bridge, and Rodman and the rest united about 
1 p.m., when the battle on the right was virtu¬ 
ally over. Meantime Sturgis’ division had run 
out of ammunition and was reported unfit for 
duty; it was replaced by Willcox’s (Burnside 
assisted in this), and at 3 p.m. the corps was 
again ready to move, though much damaged by 
the constant Confederate artillery fire. The 
right wing broke Jones’ division and gained 
the suburbs of Sharpsburg; but the left was 
strongly checked, and the two wings grew 
widely separated. Meantime A. P. Hill came 
upon the field, having marched 17 miles in 
seven hours. He took Rodman’s division in its 
undefended flank (the second misadventure of 
the sort that day), and Rodman was. killed, 
while a concentric fire mowed down his men. 
The losses of the corps were 2,349;. a fearful 
total, almost exactly those of Sedgwick’s divi¬ 
sion. A panic was averted by Scammon, who 


changed front and checked Hill for a little; 
Cox called up Sturgis and made head for a 
while: but at length the corps was obliged to 
withdraw to the cover of the hills that border 
the Antietam. 

The Union losses were 12,410: 2,108 killed. 
9>549 wounded, and 753 missing. More men 
were killed on this one day than on any other 
of the Civil War. The Confederate losses were 
never known with exactness; but as 2,700 of 
their dead were counted and buried by the 
Union forces, and many had previously been 
buried by their comrades, the total cannot have 
been less than the Federal. The next day Lee 
retreated across the Potomac unopposed: the 
failure to pursue him was one of the griev¬ 
ances against McClellan later, but most of his 
generals concurred with him. Although Lee 
had escaped destruction, he had none the less 
failed in his campaign. 

(The Count of Paris’ ( History of the Civil 
War,* Vol. II., 1876, is from the standpoint of a 
strong admirer of McClellan, whose staff he 
was on; F. W. Palfrey’s ( The Antietam and 
Fredericksburg,* 1882, from a lieutenant-colonel 
of Sedgwick’s division, is sharply critical of 
nearly all the Union generals; John C. Ropes’ 
( Story of the Civil War,* Vol. I., 1894, is from 
a noted military critic; Michie’s ( General Mc¬ 
Clellan^ 1901, is from a distinguished engineer 
officer and professor at West Point; the account 
in ( Battles and Leaders of the Civil War* (N. 
Y. 1884-8), is by Gen. J. D. Cox. Consult also, 
( McClellan’s Own Story* (1866), and Lives of 
Gen. McClellan and the general officers.) 

Forrest Morgan, 
Connecticut Historical Society. 

An'tifeb'rin, a trade name for the sub¬ 
stance known to chemists as acetanilide (q.v.). 

An'ti-Fed'eralists, the first political party 
in the United States after the separation from 
Great Britain. The loyalists having been ex¬ 
pelled, there was no issue to divide upon till 
the question of replacing the loose Confedera¬ 
tion with a stronger bond came up. The repre¬ 
sentatives of commerce and capital, and the 
mass of the educated classes, favored ratifying 
the Constitution; those who feared that a strong 
government meant a disguised new kingship, the 
local leaders who wished to retain pre-emi¬ 
nence, and the conservatives who thought no 
evils comparable to those of change, opposed 
it. The names were in direct opposition to the 
facts, the Federalists striving to turn the fed¬ 
eration into a unified nation, the Anti-Federal¬ 
ists endeavoring to preserve a loose disinte¬ 
grated federation. The victory of the superior 
classes was overwhelming, one great cause 
being that the men who were later the leaders 
of the Anti-Federal opposition were Federal¬ 
ists (q.v.) for the time being, as they felt that 
the existing condition of affairs was intolerable. 
In the organization of the first Congress and 
executive under the Constitution, the Federal¬ 
ists proper held every post but three, and even 
those were not technically ^anti** till later. In 
this Congress, though there was much individ¬ 
ual opposition to the Federalist measures, it 
was unorganized, and the Anti-Federal spirit 
could hardly be said to animate a body. Ham¬ 
ilton’s scheme for clearing up the public debt 
was the first point of division. The payment of 
foreign debts was carried unanimously; that 


ANTIGO — ANTILLES 


for paying the Continental debt at par was op¬ 
posed by Madison and others except as to ori¬ 
ginal holders; that for assuming the State debts 
was bitterly fought as defaming the States’ 
solvency and as buying the support of capital 
for the Federal government, was carried by only 
five votes, reconsidered and beaten by the seven 
votes of the new North Carolina just admitted, 
again reconsidered and carried by Jefferson’s 
log-roll of establishing the new capital on the 
Potomac. His national-bank scheme (1791, op¬ 
posed by Madison in the House and Jefferson 
and Randolph in the Cabinet) and his tariff 
and excise schemes also excited a growing hos¬ 
tility from this element, which by the time of 
the 2d Congress (1 Oct. 1791) was becoming a 
new strict-construction party; no longer opposed 
to the Constitution as such, but opposed to ex¬ 
tending its powers beyond the most literal in¬ 
terpretation of its terms. Jefferson, Madisou, 
and Randolph were now the chiefs of the new 
party in public office; but Jefferson disclaimed 
being an Anti-Federalist, based his policy on 
love of ^republicanism,® as sympathizing with 
the French revolution, and called the Hamil¬ 
tonians ^monarchists.® The Republicans and 
Anti-Federalists comprised the same elements, 
however, and were based on the same natural 
division, and Washington’s proclamation of neu¬ 
trality in the European conflict in 1793 fused 
them into one as the Republicans, later into the 
Democratic-Republican party. 

Antigo, Wis., county-seat of Langlade 
County, a northern county of the State. It is 
situated in the southwestern portion of the 
county, 96 miles north-northwest of Oshkosh 
and 207 miles northwest of Milwaukee; and it is 
on the Spring Brook River and the Chicago 
and Northwestern railway. It is the commer¬ 
cial centre of an agricultural section of consid¬ 
erable importance, and of a timber region which 
has contributed largely to Wisconsin’s position 
in marketed forest products. There are located 
several extensive manufactures of various sorts, 
including chair, hub, broom-handle, excelsior, 
veneer, and other factories; also foundries, 
breweries, railway-shops, and flour, planing, and 
saw mills. Antigo was settled about 1878, and 
in 1884 was incorporated. Under the provisions 
of a general law of Wisconsin, its government 
is administered by a mayor, elected for a two- 
years’ term, and a municipal council. Pop. 
(1890) 4,424; (1900) 5,145. 

Antigua, ante'gwa, one of the British 
West Indian islands, situated lat. 17 0 6' N. and 
Ion. 61 0 45' W., about 50 miles east of Saint 
Kitts and the same distance north of Guade¬ 
loupe ; area 108 square miles; dependencies 
Barbuda and Redonda, which have an area of 
62 square miles; population including those de¬ 
pendencies 34,971 (mainly negroes) in 1901, as 
compared with 36,819 in 1891; the principal 
island of the Leeward group; residence of gov¬ 
ernor and his staff; port and chief town, Saint 
John; the chief products, sugar and pineapples. 
See Antilles; West Indies. 

Antilles, an-til'lez, the name given both to 
the group of large islands forming the northern 
limit and the chain of small islands forming 
the eastern border of the Caribbean Sea. Prac¬ 
tically all of the West Indian Islands except 


the Bahamas are thus included. The Greater 
Antilles (Cuba, Jamaica, Haiti, and Porto Rico) 
have about 3,700,000 inhabitants, or nearly three 
fourths of the entire population of the West 
Indies. The Lesser Antilles extend toward 
the southeast in a curved line from Porto Rico 
to the coast of Venezuela and follow the line to 
that coast from the Orinoco delta westward 
to the Gulf of Maracaibo. Their total area is 
5,557 square miles, and their population is ap¬ 
proximately 1,230,000. 

The following classification shows the nat¬ 
ural grouping of the Lesser Antilles, with the 
area (in square miles) and the population of 
the islands in each of the groups: 

1. Virgin Islands. — St. Croix (A. 74, pop. 
18,430) ; St. John (A. 21, pop. 950) ; St. Thomas 
(A. 23, pop. 32,786) ; Tortola (A. 58, pop. 
5,000) ; Anegada (A. 20) ; Virgin Gorda (A. 
176). 2. Outer Chain of Caribbee Islands. — 
Anguilla (A. 35, pop. 3,699) ; St. Martin (A. 38, 
pop. 3,724) ; St. Bartholomew (A. 5, pop. 2,650) ; 
Barbuda (A. 62, pop. 639) ; Antigua (A. 108, 
pop. 34,971) ; Desirade (A. 10, pop. 1,400) ; 
Maria Calante (A. 65, pop. 13,850). 3. Inner 

Chain of Caribbee Islands. — Santa Cruz (A. 74, 
pop. 18,430) ; Saba (A. 5, pop. 2,065) 5 St. Eu- 
statius (A. 8, pop. 1,613) ; St. Christopher (A. 
65, pop. 30,867) ; Nevis (A. 70, pop. 13,087) ; 
Montserrat (A. 32, pop. 11,762); Guadeloupe 
and dependencies (A. 600, pop. 167,000) ; Do¬ 
minica (A. 290, pop. 26,841); Martinique (A. 
400, pop. before volcanic eruption of 1902, about 
187,000) ; St. Lucia (A. 245, pop. 46,671) ; St.Vin- 
cent (A. 131, pop. 41,054) ; Grenada (A. 133, pop. 
54,000). 4. Barbados. — (A. 166, pop. 189,000). 

5. South American Islands. — Tobago (A. 114, 
pop. 20,463) ; Trinidad (A. 1,754, pop. 248,804) ; 
Buen Ayre (A. 95, pop. 4,399) ; Curasao (A. 
210, pop. 28,187) ; smaller islands (A. 470, pop. 
40,000). 

English geographers call the northern part 
of the chain of Lesser Antilles (< The Leeward 
Islands,® the capital of the Leeward govern¬ 
ment being on Antigua, and the southern half 
(( The Windward Islands,® Grenada being 
headquarters of the Windward government. 
The present holdings of England, France, Den¬ 
mark, and Holland in the Lesser Antilles are re¬ 
minders of the early struggles of the European 
nations to win supremacy in the New World; 
for the West Indies were commonly regarded 
up to the end of the eighteenth century as the 
most valuable part of America, and these is¬ 
lands were the chief battle-ground of the rival 
powers. Admiral Rodney’s victory over the 
French admiral De Grasse, 12 April 1782, gave 
England her commanding position in this re¬ 
gion. Her possessions constituting several dis¬ 
tinct colonial governments, include the Virgin 
group (except the Danish Islands, St. Thomas, 
St. Croix, and St. John) ; all below the cen¬ 
tre of the chain, namely, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, 
Barbados, Grenada, Tobago, and Trinidad; the 
important island of Dominica, etc. The Vir¬ 
gin Islands are important because they command 
the deep-water Anegada passage between the 
Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea; and 
the only deep harbors (except St. Thomas) in 
the Lesser Antilles are in Trinidad and St. Lucia. 
The French retain among their possessions the 
somewhat larger islands of Guadeloupe and 
Martinique in the centre of the chain. The 
Dutch, in addition to Curaqao and Buen Ayre, 


ANTI-MASONRY 


have a few small islands below the Anegada 
Passage, the whole width of the Caribbean Sea 
intervening. The economic history of the is¬ 
lands of the Lesser Antilles is simple. Nearly 
all of them derived their wealth in the past from 
sugar culture, and with the decline in the price 
of sugar have sunk into poverty. Meanwhile, 
the. black population has crowded out the Cau¬ 
casians. Marrion Wilcox, 

Authority on Latin-America. 

An'ti-ma'sonry, in United States history, 
(i) the widespread hostility to the Freemasons, 
as an order whose oaths were contrary and 
superior to public duty and private morality, 
excited by the fate of William Morgan (q.v.) 
in 1826. He was a broken Virginian, who had 
settled in Batavia, N. Y., about 1824, as a ma¬ 
son by trade, and professing to be a Royal Arch 
Mason,* and in the summer of 1826 was re¬ 
ported to be writing a book to expose the secrets 
of Freemasonry, to be printed at a local news¬ 
paper office. Though the Masons were natural¬ 
ly indignant and distressed, the other citizens 
regarded it as a catchpenny scheme, and had 
Morgan remained in view probably Masonry 
would have suffered little damage,— certainly 
none if the Masons had merely denied his state¬ 
ments, for his word would have carried no 
weight. But, unluckily, just at this time suits 
against him for debt began suddenly to multi¬ 
ply, and bail was either refused or disregarded. 
Finally on 11 August he was taken to Canan¬ 
daigua, 50 miles away, on a charge of theft; was 
released, but at once rearrested for debt; and 
on the next night, being again released, he was 
at once seized and never reappeared. The pub¬ 
lic at once connected this with the Masonic ex¬ 
posure and threats, and vigilance committees 
were shortly organized which traced him beyond 
question, in the hands of abducting parties, to 
Fort Niagara, an unoccupied United States post 
at the mouth of the Niagara River; the last ever 
certainly known of him, though other statements 
made it seem probable that he had been mur¬ 
dered and thrown into Lake Ontario. The ex¬ 
citement, increased by the belief that prominent 
Masons obstructed the investigations, was 
fanned into flame by the appearance, a few 
weeks later, of the first part of Morgan’s book, 
the other parts ultimately being published also; 
entitled ( Illustrations of Freemasonry, by One 
of the Fraternity Who Has Devoted Thirty 
Years to the Subject* ; reprinted under various 
titles, as < Light on Masonry, 5 ( Freemasonry 

Exposed and Explained,* etc. Along with a 
mass of dreary (( ritual** for <( working the de¬ 
grees,of no moment even if true, and its 
betrayal a scandalous violation of good faith, it 
included some passages which if true would have 
obligated him to make them known at once 
on joining: such as an oath requiring Masons 
to place their duty to a brother Mason before 
their oaths in court; and others pronouncing 
dire vengeance (graduated according to the 
degree thus betrayed) on Masons who should re¬ 
veal the secrets of the order, and obligating every 
(( brother** to make it his business to execute the 
threat. The denials of the Masons were not 
thought categorical enough. The alleged agents 
in the abduction were put on trial between 
January 1827 and 1830, and several were con¬ 
victed and sentenced, some pleading guilty to 
save examination as to conspiracy. 1 hey could 


not be held for murder, but popular judgment 
charged that crime to the fraternity if not to 
the individuals. Very soon Anti-Masonry had 
become the one issue of the day. Candidates 
for local office who refused to withdraw from the 
order were heavily ^scratched’* at elections, and 
great numbers of lodges had to give up their 
charters and dissolve. From New York the feel¬ 
ing spread through the Union, and more than 
3,000 lodges surrendered their charters before 
the storm blew over. The governor of New York 
and a large number of the leading officials and 
prominent public men were Masons, as now; 
but in the campaign of 1828 the National Re¬ 
publicans dared not nominate any who belonged 
to the order. None the less the Anti-Masons 
formed a regular party, holding a convention at 
Utica and nominating Solomon Southwick for 
governor. Wm. H. Seward, Millard Fillmore, 
and Thurlow Weed first came forward as Anti- 
Masonic candidates. A body was conveniently 
found in Niagara River and said to be Mor¬ 
gan’s, though of course unrecognizable; and 
Weed is credited with having replied, when ques¬ 
tioned as to its authenticity, that it was (( a good 
enough Morgan till after election.** The ticket 
polled 33,345 votes out of 276,583; but it polled 
some 70,000 in 1829 and 128,000 in 1830, 
gradually absorbed the National Republican 
party in the State, and became the chief anti- 
Democratic organization. This is the most 
singular feature of the whole movement; for 
the National Republicans, like the Whigs and 
Republicans later, were distinctly the party of 
the upper business and professional classes, 
which were the very ones who formed the 
strength of the Masons. Yet the same result 
obtained everywhere: doubtless it was due to 
the accidental fact that Jackson, the idol of the 
Democracy and then President, was a Mason. 
A national convention was held in 1830 to or¬ 
ganize a national party; and in September 1831, 
in order to force Clay, who was a Mason, out 
of the field, it held a convention (in Baltimore) 
before any of the other parties, and nominated 
William Wirt of Maryland and Amos Ellmaker 
of Pennsylvania for the Presidency. The Na¬ 
tional Republicans, however, supported Clay, 
and in the election of 1832 Wirt received only 
the electoral vote of Vermont. The party took 
no further national action, and with the Na¬ 
tional Republicans was soon absorbed in the- 
new Whig party, though it retained force 
enough to compel the Whigs to discard Clay 
for Harrison in 1833 and 1839. In Pennsyl¬ 
vania, however, allied with the Whigs, it sur¬ 
vived till about 1840 and elected a governor, 
Joseph Ritner. (2) Another Anti-Masonic 
body was formed in 1868 as the National Chris¬ 
tian Association, at Pittsburg, Pa., though hos¬ 
tility to Masonry was only one of its tenets; it 
renamed itself in 1875 the American Party (q.v.. 
No. 2), and entered politics. It opposed Free¬ 
masonry as <( false religion and false politics,*' 
and urged the prohibition of oath-bound lodges 
as acknowledging another government than that 
of the United States. 

Bibliography .— For Morgan, see Morris, 
( History of the Morgan Affair* (1852) ; Greene, 
( The Broken Seal, or the Morgan Abduction 
and Murder* (1870). For political results see 
Hammond. ( Political History of New York ) ; 
Hopkins, ( Political Parties ) (1900). 


ANTI-MISSION BAPTISTS —ANTINOMIANISM 


An'ti-Mission Baptists (their own title is 
<( 01 d School Baptists®), an American sect 
founded about 1835, who do not believe in Sun¬ 
day-schools or theological seminaries, holding 
that salvation does not depend upon human in¬ 
strumentalities, but upon divine grace alone. 

Antimonan, an'te-m 5 -nan', a seaport town 
of Luzon, Philippine Islands, province of Tay- 
abas. It is situated on Lamon Bay, about 100 
miles southeast of Manila. Pop. about 11,000. 

An'ti-Monop'oly Party, an American polit¬ 
ical organization which in 1884 nominated for 
the Presidency Benjamin F. Butler (q.v.), on 
a platform advocating election of United States 
senators by popular vote, an income tax, the 
repeal of all tariffs, and the prohibition of land 
grants to corporations. It united with the 
Greenback Labor party, the combined vote 
reaching 130,000 votes in the November election 
of 1884. 

An'timony, the name of one of the metal¬ 
lic elements. It is found in nature in the metal¬ 
lic state, but its chief commercial source is the 
mineral stibnite, which is a sulphide of anti¬ 
mony (Sb 2 S 3 ). Stibnite was known in very 
early times. It has been used by the women of 
the East for many centuries for painting the 
eyebrows and eyelashes and giving lustre to 
the eyes. Before the discovery of the metal 
itself, stibnite was called ^antimony,® and it ap¬ 
pears that the paint used by Jezebel (2 Kings 
ix. 30) was finely ground stibnite. The Arabs 
called this face-paint al-Koh’l (compare Alco¬ 
hol). The origin of the word ^antimony® is 
not known. There is a legend that certain 
monks were once poisoned by it, and that the 
name is derived from anti, “against,® and moine, 
<( a monk®; so that antimoine, or antimony, 
would mean “monk’s bane,® or something of 
that sort. This derivation, however, is entirely 
fanciful. The first distinct mention of the 
metal itself is made by Basil Valentine, who 
gives a process for extracting it from stibnite, 
though he does not claim to have discovered it. 
Several methods for extracting it are now in 
use, chief of which is the following: Two parts 
of stibnite are melted with one part of thin 
scrap iron, in plumbago crucibles. Leaving the 
antimony the sulphur combines with the iron, 
so that sulphide of iron and metallic antimony 
result, the iron sulphide floating as a slag. The 
crude antimony so obtained is next melted with 
a small amount of sulphate of soda and a little 
of the slag obtained from the operation next to 
be described. By this means the metal is puri¬ 
fied somewhat. It is then cast into molds, and 
when cold is broken up into small pieces, to pre¬ 
pare it for the third operation, which is called 
“melting for star metal.® This last-named pro¬ 
cess consists in melting 60 parts of the broken 
metal with two parts of pearlash and five parts 
of slag from a previous operation of the same 
kind. The resulting metal or regulus is poured 
into square molds, into which some slag has first 
been allowed to run, and is cooled slowly while 
still covered with slag. If the metal is of good 
quality, the resulting blocks will have a stellated 
or crystalline > surface. The total consumption 
of the metal is probably as much as 4,000 tons 
per annum, nearly all of which is smelted and 
refined in England. Ores of antimony occur in 
Mexico, California, Nevada, New Brunswick, 


France, Australia, Japan, China, Italy, Spain,, 
Portugal, Corsica, and many other parts of the 
world. 

Antimony is a brilliant, bluish-white, brittle, 
crystalline metal, with a specific gravity vary¬ 
ing from 6.72 to 6.86. It melts at about 8oo° F. r 
and if protected from the air boils at a white 
heat. At ordinary temperatures it is not acted 
upon by air or water, but it oxidizes quickly 
when melted, and at a red heat burns at a bril¬ 
liant white flame, and can decompose water. It 
expands upon solidifying, and imparts this 
property to its commoner alloys. Its co-efficient 
of expansion is about .0000064 per degree 
F. The tensile strength of cast antimony is 
about 1,000 pounds per square inch of sectional 
area. It is a comparatively poor conductor of 
heat and electricity, its thermal conductivity 
being only about one twenty-fifth of that of 
silver; its electrical resistance is 0.488 of that 
of mercury at 32 0 F., and 0.704 that of 
mercury at 212 0 F. Its chemical symbol is. 
Sb (from_ the Latin word stibium), and its 
atomic weight is sensibly 120. It is diamag¬ 
netic ; that is, a sphere made from it is repelled 
by a magnet, though the repulsion is hardly 
comparable in magnitude with the force of at¬ 
traction that a magnet exerts upon iron. It also 
has marked thermo-electric properties, and is 
used in the laboratory in the construction of 
thermopiles. Antimony forms valuable alloys- 
with other metals, and this is its most impor¬ 
tant use in the arts. Type metal is an alloy of 
lead, antimony,_ and tin, with sometimes a little 
copper. The tin adds toughness, while the an¬ 
timony gives hardness and causes the alloy to- 
expand upon solidifying, giving an accurate 
cast of the letter. 

An'timony-pois'oning, a variety of poison¬ 
ing formerly more common than at present. 
The mortality is about 40 per cent. The symp¬ 
toms of acute poisoning resemble closely those 
of arsenic-poisoning. There is sudden acute 
gastric pain, with nausea and vomiting, pressure 
in the breast, and intense sense of anxiety. 
This is followed by colicky pains and diarrhoea. 
The pulse becomes small and frequent, later 
retardedthe respirations diminish in number,, 
the skin is cyanotic, the temperature sinks, and 
coma and convulsions lead to death. If vomit¬ 
ing develops early, before time has elapsed to- 
permit of the absorption of a large amount of the 
antimony salt, death is less likely to occur. 

1 he treatment should include washing out the 
stomach, inducing of vomiting, and the use of 
tannic acid compounds. 

Anti-Nebraska Party. See Kansas- 
Nebraska Bill. 

An'tino'mianism, the name applied to the 
doctrine that the dispensation of grace as set 
forth in the New Testament frees the Christian 
from the claims and obligations of the moral 
law as presented in the Old Testament. In the 
early Church there were antinomian tendencies 
due to an over-emphasis of faith in opposition 
to works. This is especially so in some of the 
Gnostic systems, where faith and love are so 
emphasized that moral matters appear indif¬ 
ferent, and the contradictions between the lay 
and. the gospel are regarded as irreconcilable 
Antinomianism marked many of the mediaeval 
sects, but reached its fullest development in the - 


ANTIOCH — ANTIPHONY 


Reformation period. In Luther's emphasis on 
the doctrine of justification by faith he had 
used expressions which might be understood to 
indicate opposition between the law of Moses 
and the gospel, as though with the establish¬ 
ment of the gospel the law of Moses was no 
longer of any value. But when Luther careful¬ 
ly expressed himself on this point, as he did 
in his instruction to the Saxon preachers in 
1527, he gave to the teachings of the Old Testa¬ 
ment their proper place in the Christian life. 
This was disputed by Agricola, and a contro¬ 
versy broke out between him and Luther, in 
which he treated Luther’s most extreme state¬ 
ments in regard to faith as though they were 
to be taken literally. His follower Amsdorf 
went as far as to say that good works were det¬ 
rimental to salvation. In England there were 
Antinomians in the various sects in the time of 
Cromwell. They were high Calvinists and 
claimed that, as the elect cannot fall from grace, 
any act performed by them, however sinful it 
may seem to men, is not in reality sinful. 

An'tioch (Latin, Aniiochia ), the ancient 
capital of the Greek kings of Syria; on the 
Orontes; about 21 miles from the sea. It was 
founded by Seleucus Nicator in 300 b.c., and 
named after his father Antiochus. The first in¬ 
habitants were brought from Antigonia, found¬ 
ed by Antigonus in 307. It was famed for the 
splendor of its public buildings, the Seleucid 
monarchs having vied with each other in em¬ 
bellishing their metropolis, and the Roman em¬ 
perors having also done much to adorn it. It 
was called the (( Queen of the East® and c< The 
Beautiful,® and was advantageously situated for 
trade, being easily approached by the caravans 
of the East, and through its port Seleucia hav¬ 
ing maritime communication with the West. 
The city is frequently mentioned in the New 
Testament, and it was here that the disciples of 
our Saviour were first called Christians (Acts 
xi. 26). In 64 b.c., on the breaking up of 
the kingdom of Syria, it was captured by Pom- 
pey; in 266 was captured by the Persians un¬ 
der Sapor; and in 538 was thrown into a heap 
of ruins by Persians under Chosroes. It 
was restored by the emperor Justinian, but 
never quite recovered from this last blow. In 
the first half of the 7th century it was taken 
by the Saracens and remained in their posses¬ 
sion for upward of 300 years, when it was re¬ 
covered by the Greek emperor Nicephorus Pho- 
cas. In 1098 it was taken by the Crusaders. 
They established the principality of Antioch, 
which lasted till 1268, when it was taken by the 
Mameluke sultan of Egypt. In 1516 it passed 
into the hands of the Turks. The modern An¬ 
tioch or Antakieh is a poor place. It has some 
manufactures of silk stuffs, leather, and car¬ 
pets, and has some trade in these articles and 
in goat’s wool, beeswax, etc. The population is 
not far from 20,000. 

Antioch College, an American coeduca¬ 
tional institution in Yellow Springs, Ohio, 
founded in 1852 with Horace Mann as its 
first president. It has an endowment of over 
$100,000; its grounds and buildings are valued 
at $250.000; and its library contains 7,000 vol¬ 
umes. In 1901 it had 16 instructors and 177 stu¬ 
dents, its graduates numbering 2,260. 

Anti'ochus, the name of 13 kings of Syria: 
1. Antiochus I., or Antiochus Soter, son of 


Seleucus: b. about 324 b.c. ; d. 261 b.c. He suc¬ 
ceeded his father in 280 b.c. and disputed Mace¬ 
donia with Antigonus Gonatas, but finally re¬ 
linquished it to him. During the greater part 
of his reign he was engaged in a protracted 
struggle with the Gauls, by whom he was killed 
in battle. 2. Antiochus II., or Antiochus 
Theos, who succeeded his father Antiochus I. 
Weakened by war with Egypt, he lost Parthia 
and Bactria by revolt. He was murdered in 
246 b.c. by Laodice, his wife, whom he had put 
away to marry Berenice, daughter of Ptolemy. 
3. Antiochus III., The Gr£at, grandson of 
Antiochus II., who succeeded his father Seleu¬ 
cus Callinicus in 223 b.c. at the age of 15. He 
made war on Parthia and Bactria, but was com¬ 
pelled, after a long war, to recognize the inde¬ 
pendence of these kingdoms. He next invaded 
India, where he remained for seven years (212- 
205 b.c.) . Invading Asia Minor and crossing 
to Europe he took possession of the Thracian 
Chersonese. Antiochus gained an important 
ally in Hannibal, who had fled for refuge 
to his court; but lost the opportunity of 
an invasion of Italy while the Romans were en¬ 
gaged in war with the Gauls, of which the 
Carthaginian urged him to avail himself. In 
192, at the request of the Aitolians, he crossed 
to Greece, but was defeated by the consul Acilius 
Glabrio and returned to Asia. He was de¬ 
feated by Scipio near Magnesia, 190 b.c. Peace 
was granted him in 188 b.c. on the cession of all 
his dominions west of Mount Taurus, with a 
heavy indemnity. He also engaged to surrender 
refugees of his court, but he allowed Hannibal 
to escape. He was killed while plundering a 
temple in Elymais. 4. Antiochus IV., Epi- 
phanes, son .of Antiochus the Great; d. 164 b.c. 
He is chiefly remarkable for his attempt to ex¬ 
tirpate the Jewish religion. 5. Antiochus V., 
Eupator, son of Antiochus IV., who reigned 
from 164 b.c. to 162 b.c. 6. Antiochus VI., 
Theos, ruled for three years, 145-142 b.c. 7. 
Antiochus VII., Sidetes, the son of Demetrius 
I.: b. about 164 b.c.; d. 129 b.c. He defeated the 
Parthians in several battles. 8. Antiochus 
VIII., Grypus, son of Demetrius II. He ruled 
125-113 b.c. and 111-96 b.c. and was slain by 
Heracleon in the last named year. 9. Anti¬ 
ochus IX., Cyzicenus, son of Antiochus VII. 
Defeated in battle against Seleucus V., he com¬ 
mitted suicide in 95 b.c. 10. Antiochus X., 
Eusebes, son of Antiochus IX. He reigned but 
three years and was obliged to flee to Parthia in 
92 b.c. 11. Antiochus XI., Epiphanes, son of 
Antiochus Grypus. He reigned 95-93 B -C. an( l 
was drowned in the Orontes. 12. Antiochus 
XII., Dionysus, 85 b.c. He was killed in battle 
with the Nabatoreans. 13. Antiochus XIII., 
Asiaticus, the son of Antiochus X., and the 
twentieth of the Seleucidian dynasty. Beginning 
his reign in 69 b.c. he was deposed by Pompey 
in 65 b.c. 

Antiphlogis'tic, a term applied to medi¬ 
cines or methods of treatment that are intended 
to counteract inflammation, such as bloodletting, 
purgatives, diaphoretics, etc. 

Antiph'ony ( <( alternate song®), a term de¬ 
noting in the services of the Christian Church, 
a psalm, chant, or other composition, sung by 


ANTIPODES — ANTIPYRETICS 


two parties in alternation, as by two choirs or 
parts of a choir, or first by a single voice and 
then repeated by the whole choir. The Roman 
Church applies the term antiphony in a restrict¬ 
ed sense to a series of <( words or verses prefixed 
to and following a psalm or psalms, to express 
in brief the mystery which the Church is con¬ 
templating in that part of her office.® The prac¬ 
tice of alternate singing formed a part of the 
•old Jewish worship. Its introduction into the 
Christian Church is ascribed to Ignatius in 
the first century after Christ. The Western 
Church is said to have received it more par¬ 
ticularly from St. Ambrose. 

Antipodes, an-tip'6-dez (from the Greek 
•anti, against, and pous, a foot), the name given 
to inhabitants of the earth diametrically oppo¬ 
site to each other, and of course literally ap¬ 
plied to those who turn their feet toward each 
other; or to any part of the earth’s surface sit¬ 
uated diametrically opposite any given part. The 
antipodes live in similar and, except at the equa¬ 
tor, opposite latitudes, and their longitudes differ 
by i8o°. Hence the difference in their time is 
about 12 hours, and their seasons are reversed. 
The spherical form of the earth naturally leads 
us to the idea of the antipodes, of whose exist¬ 
ence some idea was entertained even before the 
age of Cicero. 

Antipodes Island, an-tip'6-dez is'land, 
a small uninhabited island in the South Pacific 
Ocean, about 460 miles southeast-by-east of 
New Zealand; so called from being nearly an¬ 
tipodal to Greenwich, England. Its area is 
about 11 square miles. 

An'tipope, a pontiff elected in opposition 
to one canonically chosen. The first antipopes 
were: Felix, during the pontificate of Liberius 
(35^—366) and recognized during the absence 
of Liberius; Ursinus, against Damasus (366— 
384) ; Eulalius, against Boniface I. (418-422) ; 
Laurentius, against Symmachus (498-514) ; 
Dioscurus, against Boniface II. (530-532) ; Vigi- 
lius, against Sylverius, until 540, then canonical; 
Constantine, against Paul (767) ; Anastasius, 
against Benedict III. (855) ; John XVI., Phi- 
logathus, against Gregory V. (996-999) ; Greg¬ 
ory, against Benedict VIII. (1012-24). During 
the Middle Ages several emperors of Germany 
set up Popes against those whom the Romans 
had elected without consulting them. Otho the 
Great displaced successively two Bishops of 
Rome; and when the rival Pope, Sylvester III., 
had expelled the simoniacal and profligate Bene¬ 
dict IX. (1033-45), the latter was brought back 
by the German king, and soon afterward relin¬ 
quished his dignity in consideration of a large 
tribute. Gratianus, who had persuaded him to 
yield, was now named Pope by the Romans as 
Gregory VI. There were, consequently, three 
Popes, but their claims were all set aside at a 
council convened at Sutri by the emperor, 
Henry III., and a new Pope elected as Clement 

II. in 1046. Shortly after, Pope Alexander II. 
found a rival in Honorius II., the nominee of 
the emperor; but his claim was ratified by a 
council convened at Mantua. In 1080 the same 
unseemly spectacle was witnessed, when the em¬ 
peror Henry IV. elevated to the papal chair 
Guibert of Ravenna, under the title of Clement 

III. , in opposition to his own implacable adver¬ 
sary, Gregory VII. After the death of Gregory 


(1085), Clement was antipope successively to 
Victor III. (1087-88) and Urban II. (1088-99). 
Other antipopes at this period were Albert, 
Theodoric, Maginulf, all in one year (1100-01) ; 
Maurice Burdin, against Gelasius II. (1118-19) 
and Calixtus II. (1124-30) Innocent II. 
(1130-43) triumphed over the antipope Anacle- 
tus II. by the help of St. Bernard; and Alexan¬ 
der III., during his pontificate (1159-81), had to 
contend with three successive antipopes, the elec¬ 
tion of only one of whom, however, Victor IV., 
in 1159, has any appearance of canonical valid¬ 
ity. The others were named Pascal III. (1168) 
and Calixtus III., the same year. After a long 
contest Clement V. was elected in 1305, and 
four years later transferred his seat to Avignon, 
where his successors reigned for nearly 70 
years, losing the while, by their subjection to 
French influences, the sympathies of Germany 
and England. Nicholas V. (1328-30) was anti¬ 
pope against John XXII. The election of Ur¬ 
ban VI. in 1378 occasioned (( the great schism of 
the West,® which divided the Church for 50 
years. He was elected by the Romans, who 
demanded an Italian Pope after the death of 
Gregory XI. The French cardinals, then a ma¬ 
jority in the curia, on the plea that they had 
elected the Pope only under intimidation, with¬ 
drew to Provence, and elected an antipope under 
the name of Clement VII., who was recognized 
by France, Spain, Savoy, and Scotland; while 
Italy, Germany, England, and the whole North 
of Europe supported Urban VI. For 38 years 
Christian Europe was scandalized by the spec¬ 
tacle of two Popes, one at Geneva, another at 
Rome, in turn hurling the most awful anathemas 
of the Church at each other. At the beginning 
of the 15th century an attempt was made to 
prevail on both the rivals, Gregory XII. at Rome, 
and Benedict XIII. at Avignon, to renounce 
their claims with a view to promote union, but 
both evaded this as long as possible. At length, 
however, the cardinals attached to either court 
agreed to summon a general council, which met 
accordingly at Pisa in 1409. The council de¬ 
posed both Popes and constituted the separate 
bodies of cardinals into one conclave which 
elected Alexander V. to the papal chair. The 
schism was finally healed when the council of 
Constance deposed John XXIII., and Gregory 
XII. and Benedict XIII. agreed to abdicate and 
recognize as Pope Martin V., against whom 
Peter de Luna and Munoz of Barcelona were 
antipopes. The council of Basel (1431-47), in 
its struggle with Pope Eugenius IV. (1431-47) 
for supremacy, attempted to arrogate to itself 
the papal functions and proceeded to elect 
Amadeus of Savoy Pope as Felix V. The 
attempt, however, failed; the Popes Eugenius 

IV. and Nicholas V. (1447-1455) secured their 
authority, the ambitious council finally dissolved 
itself, and Felix V. resigned his empty dignity, 
and was raised to the rank of cardinal by the 
magnanimous Pope himself. This was the last 
occasion on which the faithful were distracted 
by the sight of a rival pontiff within Christen¬ 
dom. 

An'tipyret'ics, the name given to remedies 
employed to reduce temperature in diseased con¬ 
ditions. Direct application of cold in the form 
of baths, packs, ice-cloths, etc., are the most 
valuable and efficient antipyretics. In some def¬ 
inite affections, notably in malaria, quinine, by 


ANTIPYRIN—ANTI-RENT AGITATION 


destroying the parasite that causes the disease, 
reduces the temperature. Of late years a large 
number of synthetic drugs have been introduced 
to be used for the purpose of reducing tempera¬ 
ture in disease. These are more technically the 
antipyretics. The field of their usefulness in 
this particular function, however, is constantly 
narrowing, since it is being recognized that 
fever is only a symptom and often not a dan¬ 
gerous one at that. Rational therapeutics would 
first eliminate the cause of fever, and drugs 
are then rarely necessary. The more important 
drug antipyretics are antipyrin, opium, quinine 
and its allies, salicylic acid and its compounds, 
alcohol, chloral, squills, phenacetin, and others 
of the modern analgesics (q.v.). The most im¬ 
portant of the functions of most of these drugs 
is their power to relieve pain. Their antipy¬ 
retic action is often extremely complex — in 
general they diminish oxidation, increase per¬ 
spiration, or diminish the force and frequency of 
the heart-muscle contractions. See Analgesics ; 
Animal Heat; Fever. 

An tipy'rin, the trade name of an artificial 
alkaloidal substance known to the chemist as 
oxydimethyl-quinizin, or, more accurately, as 
oxy-phenyl-di-methyl-pyrazole. It is a crystal¬ 
line substance melting at 235 0 F. and soluble 
in water, alcohol, and ether. Antipyrin is a de¬ 
rivative of coal-tar, an organic nitrogenous ba¬ 
sic compound (synthetic alkaloid?) with the 
composition CeHsCCHs^CsHNoO. It forms col¬ 
orless scaly crystals devoid of odor and with a 
slightly bitter taste. It is soluble in water, al¬ 
cohol, and chloroform. It is one of the first of 
the modern army of synthetic drugs, and is still 
one of the most valuable, though not so exten¬ 
sively lauded as formerly, the patent on its ex¬ 
clusive production by one manufacturer having 
expired in 1899. Its action locally is somewhat 
antiseptic, and solutions applied to mucous mem¬ 
branes render them slightly anaesthetic and con¬ 
tract the blood-vessels. It therefore makes a 
good local application to catarrhal membranes. 
"Taken internally it is readily absorbed, reduces 
the force and frequency of the heart action, 
causes a dilatation of the blood-vessels of the 
periphery of the body, thus bringing about 
sweating and increased heat elimination (see 
Animal Heat). Its chief antipyretic action is 
due to the co-ordinating mechanism which low¬ 
ers the heat at the point where the temperature 
is maintained and accumulated (the skin) ; the 
dilatation of the capillaries brings about the 
dissipation of this accumulation, which vascular 
dilatation is caused by the action of the heat¬ 
regulating mechanism possibly situated at the 
base of the cerebrum. Antipyrin is also an 
efficient and valuable analgesic, particularly ser¬ 
viceable in headache, neuralgias, in dysmenor¬ 
rhea, in rheumatism, and in affections of the 
peripheral nerves and joints generally. By its 
pain-relieving qualities it makes a valuable ad¬ 
junct in hypnotic mixtures. It is also a good 
antispasmodic (q.v.). 

Antipyrin is mainly eliminated by the kid¬ 
neys. It may cause symptoms of poisoning. 
These are collapse, cold extremities, and some 
degree of cyanosis and heart weakness. It is 
not one of the anilin (q.v.), analgesic antipyret¬ 
ics and hence has not the characteristic blood- 
poisoning properties of the anilins (acetanilid, 
exalgen, methacetin, and similar bodies). It also 


produces a number of untoward symptoms, not¬ 
ably skin eruptions, cramps of the intestine and 
of the bladder. It also may cause disturbances 
of sensation in the extremities. Doses of from 
to to 15 grains have caused serious symptoms of 
poisoning, particularly in children. See Anal¬ 
gesics; Antipyretics. 

An'tiquaries, persons devoted to the study 
or collection of antiquities. In most of the 
countries of Europe and America there are im¬ 
portant associations of antiquaries. The object 
of these societies is the collection and preserva¬ 
tion of ancient manuscripts, inscriptions, coins, 
sculptures, etc.; the examination of ancient edi¬ 
fices and other remains; in short, the investiga¬ 
tion of everything likely to throw light on the 
manners, customs, and history of the past. The 
chief antiquarian society of Great Britain is the 
Society of Antiquaries of London, founded in 
1572, revived in 1707, and incorporated in 1751. 
The president for the time being is an official 
trustee of the British Museum. It has pub¬ 
lished ( Archaeology (1770, etc.), ( Vetusta 
Monumenta ) (1747), and Proceedings 5 from 
1849. The Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 
was founded in 1780 and incorporated in 1783. 
The Archaeological Institute of Great Britain 
and Ireland, established in 1843, is a society of 
similar character. The American Antiquarian 
Society (q.v.) was organized in 1812. 

An'tiquary, The, a romance by Sir Walter 
Scott (1816). It is weak in its supernatural 
machinery, but strong in dialogue and humor. 
The plot centres about the fortunes and mis¬ 
fortunes of the Wardour and Glenallan families, 
and the chief character is Mr. Jonathan Old- 
buck, the Antiquary, whose odd sayings and 
garrulous knowledge are inimitably reported. 

Antiques', a term specifically applied to 
remains of ancient art, such as statues, paint¬ 
ings, vases, cameos, and the like, and more 
especially to works of Grecian and Roman an¬ 
tiquity. 

Antiq'uities of the Jews, The, a famous 
work by the historian Flavius Josephus, con¬ 
cluded in the 13th year of the reign of Do- 
mitian. It was addressed especially to the 
Greeks and the Gentiles. 

Antiquity, a term generally denoting the 
time prior to the irruption of the barbarians 
into the Roman empire in the middle of the 5th 
century, or previous to our era. In a narrower 
sense it is applied to the period over which the 
ancient history of the two principal nations of 
former times, the Greeks and Romans, extends. 
The name antiquities is commonly given to the 
remains of ancient art and industry, such as 
•tools, weapons, sculptures, inscriptions, etc. It 
is also used in a wider sense to signify any¬ 
thing appertaining to a knowledge of the poli¬ 
tics, manners, religion, literature, and arts of 
the nations of antiquity, or of the modern na¬ 
tions, until the existing order of things com¬ 
menced. See Archaeology. 

Anti-Rent Agitation, in New York State. 
Although the manorial system of large landed 
estates with leasehold tenants disappeared early 
in all other parts of the northern States of the 
Union, it flourished vigorously along the Hud¬ 
son and Mohawk until well into the 19th cen¬ 
tury. This was due probably to the high per- 


ANTI-RENT AGITATION 


sonal qualities and tenacious landlordship of the 
Van Rensselaer (q.v.) and Livingston (q.v.) 
families, and the desire they inspired in others 
to become semi-feudal country gentlemen of 
the same stamp. The greatest of these holdings 
was the Van Rensselaer patroonship, called 
Rensselaerswick, derived from a Dutch grant 
confirmed by James II.; originally comprising 
the entire counties of Albany, Rensselaer, and 
Columbia,— 20 miles on each side of the Hud¬ 
son,— and to the last retaining many hun¬ 
dreds of large farms in them. Almost as large 
was the (< Livingston Manor,» at one time holding 
162,000 acres in Dutchess and Columbia coun¬ 
ties. The extensive Hardenburgh Patent, dat¬ 
ing from 1749, occupied large sections in Greene 
and Delaware counties; and there were many 
other considerable estates. The tendency in the 
vicinity of these great manors was not to sell 
farms, but lease them with feudal incidents, in 
imitation of their great neighbors; so that in 
eight or ten of the east-central counties a large 
part of the land was in tenant farms, mingled 
with and surrounded by properties in fee. There 
were some very annoying provisions in some 
leases; one for giving the landlord a quarter of 
the proceeds of the sales of produce in case of 
alienation of the fee, making the landlord a part¬ 
ner with a one-fourth interest. In practice this 
provision was either not enforced or was com¬ 
muted for a fraction of the value, and in the 
Hardenburgh Patent, where was the fiercest re¬ 
sistance and the most bloodshed, there was no 
such provision at all; but it served as a common 
grievance whether present or absent. Also 
rents were often in kind, fixed or shares, which is 
always fertile in heartburnings; many, however, 
had been commuted to money. But the actual 
grievances were slight, and the tenants were 
probably better off in income than the owners 
in fee. In Rensselaerswick the first seven 
years of a lease were usually rent-free; on the 
Hardenburgh Patent five years, with the next 
five at half rent; and arrears and reservations 
were very laxly enforced, often not at all for 
years,— which was injudicious charity and pro¬ 
duced the crisis, as enforcement of back dues 
meant being sold out and evicted, and agricul¬ 
ture is the one employment that will not en¬ 
dure that from private owners. The insecurity 
of the old feudal tenures had been removed by 
the legislation of 1779 and 1789, which abolished 
them; and the new leases, though having the 
same rentals and services, were in fee, so that 
raising of rent and confiscation of improvemnts 
were impossible. Further legislative regula¬ 
tion was attempted in 1812 to settle the 
respective rights of patroons and tenants; but 
the friction continued, and naturally involved 
all other land dealings,— contracts, mortgages, 
etc., having as ill an odor as leases. In 1836 
a mob in Chautauqua County destroyed a land 
office with its records, on a rumor that the 
mortgages were to be foreclosed; and the same 
thing was only prevented at Batavia by an 
armed gathering of the townsmen. The mat¬ 
ter was brought to a head by the death of Gen. 
Stephen Van Rensselaer, the eighth patroon of 
Rensselaerswick. This fine old gentleman, who 
commanded at Queenston Heights and found¬ 
ed Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (q.v.), died 
early in 1839, leaving over $200,000 of uncol¬ 
lected rents and any number of unenforced 


quarter-sales, and two heirs to whom he left 
his estates on the respective sides of the Hud¬ 
son. These heirs undertook to collect the ar¬ 
rears and enforce the rights left in abeyance; 
and the tenants formed associations to resist. 
The first to do so were those in the Helderberg 
Mountains, west of Albany (whence the dis¬ 
turbance is sometimes called the Helderberg 
war) ; but those east of the Hudson in Rensse¬ 
laer County outdid them by forming a mob in 
disguise and murdering a man. The counties 
were in open rebellion, and in December Gov. 
Wm. H. Seward issued a proclamation against 
the rioters. The sheriff of Albany County with 
a posse several hundred strong was stopped by 
1,500 armed men; a company of militia was 
called out, but was forced back by a gathering of 
nearly 1,000, and at last a body of about 1,000 
militia had to be sent to Albany. The execu¬ 
tions were finally levied, and on the 12th the 
soldiers were sent home. On the governor's 
recommendation the legislature appointed a 
commission to report on a plan of adjustment; 
but as the only parties who wished the legal 
status quo changed were the tenants, the land¬ 
lords considered the concessions to be all on 
their side and refused to listen to its recom¬ 
mendations. A stubborn resistance practically 
nullified the collection of rents year after year. 
At length in 1844 the rebellion broke out with 
tenfold violence, in a general organization 
through Rensselaer, Schenectady, Columbia, Ot¬ 
sego, Delaware, Ulster, Greene, Dutchess, and 
other counties, against the payment of any rent 
whatever, and to compel the lords of the manor 
to sell their lands to the persons occupying them 
as tenants. The justifications legal and equi¬ 
table may be surmised: that the landlords had 
no title, that the rent had been waived, that 
the payment of rent was against republican in- 
situtions, etc. A regular agrarian war was in¬ 
stituted: the tenants, plus all the rabble who 
liked to commit outrage on any side, disguised 
themselves as Indians in defiance of laws against 
it, and began a reign of terror, flogging, tar¬ 
ring and feathering, boycotting- and generally 
ill-using all who took leases, dealt with land¬ 
lords, or obstructed obstruction in any way. 
One laborer who had bought lumber from a 
leased farm and was taking it to market was 
shot dead by a mob in a struggle to take it from 
him. At length, on 7 Aug. 1845, a deputy sheriff 
of Delaware County was fatally shot by such a 
mob while serving a process; the extortion 
which called for this bloodshed was two years’ 
back rent at $32 a year. These performances 
went on for months; Gov. Silas Wright, who in 
his message of 1845 had favored commutation 
of rents and ownership in fee though calling for 
sharp laws to punish outrages, now summoned 
a military force and sternly put down the re¬ 
bellion. More than 50 convictions were ob¬ 
tained, two of murder with sentence of death, 
which the governor commuted to imprisonment 
for life; but in his next year’s message (1846) 
he recommended the abolition of distress for 
rent and the limitation of leases to five or ten 
years. The constitutional convention of 1846 
abolished feudal tenures and limited leases to 
twelve years. This "was not at all what the 
Anti-Renters wanted, however, but abolition of 
rent altogether and proclamation of the lease¬ 
holders as owners. Their cause had been an 


ANTIRRHINUM — ANTISEPTIC 


issue in State politics for years, fomented by 
agitators and newspapers; and the Whigs, see¬ 
ing that they controlled the legislative delega¬ 
tions of eleven counties, nominated for governor 
in 1846 their chief legislative champion, John 
Young, against Silas Wright, elected him by 
their aid, and he promptly pardoned all those 
who had been sentenced, pronouncing their of¬ 
fenses Apolitical.® He also recommended State 
suits against landlords to try titles. The Anti- 
Renters had ^adopted® a part of the State ticket 
and not the rest, to show their strength, and 
polled about 5,000 votes; the next election (of 
1848) they did the same: and the legislature, 
alive to the value of this body of votes, directed 
the attorney-general to bring a test suit against 
Harmon Livingston. The decision in Novem¬ 
ber 1850 was for Livingston; but the nearly 
twelve-years struggle and ruin of property val¬ 
ues had wearied the landlords, and the decent 
tenants were perhaps ashamed of their breach 
of contract. The former offered to sell the 
farms, and the latter -were willing to buy; and 
the great patroonship and patents were rapidly 
broken up. Meantime there was a mass of 
private litigation, and several cases went up to 
the Court of Appeals; which in October 1852 
declared that without reference to the Consti¬ 
tution of 1846, agreements in restraint of alien¬ 
ation of titles in fee, and therefore reservations 
of quarter-sales, were void. As this left the 
landlords no- right which could oppress the ten¬ 
ants, and the latter nothing to oppose except a 
payment of honest debts, the Anti-Rent agita¬ 
tion passed out of sight as a dignified political 
entity. But the spirit was not quite dead. As 
late as July 1866 an anti-rent riot broke out 
in Knox, Albany County, which had to be sup¬ 
pressed by the militia. The next month a land¬ 
owner’s agent in Berne was fired at and his 
horses were shot. These, however, were be¬ 
lated estrays: for a generation land contracts 
have been on a footing with all others. Con¬ 
sult Jay Gould, < History of Delaware County > 
(1856); Roberts, ( History of New_ York > 
(1887); Cheyney, < Anti-Rent Agitation > 
(1887). 

An'tirrhi'num, the designation of a genus 
of annual or perennial plants of the natural or¬ 
der Scrophulariacece, commonly known as snap¬ 
dragon, on account of the peculiarity of the 
blossoms, which resemble a face or a mask. 
They all produce showy flowers and are much 
cultivated in gardens. Many varieties of some 
of them, such as the great or common snap¬ 
dragon (A. majus), have been produced by 
gardeners. The plant is not native in America, 
such specimens as are seen growing wild having 
escaped from gardens. 

Antisana, an'te-sa'na, a volcano in the 
Andes of Ecuador, 35 miles southeast-by-east 
of Quito. Whymper, who ascended it in 18S0, 
makes its height 19,260 feet. 

An'tisci'an (Greek anti, over against; skia, 
a shadow), a name applied to those who live un¬ 
der the same meridian, at the same distance 
north and south of the equator, and whose 
shadows at noon consequently are thrown in 
contrary directions. 

An'tiscorbu'tics. See Scurvy. 


An'ti-Sem'itism, a name applied to a 
movement against Jews as such, the modern 
opponents of the Jews in Russia, France, and 
Germany. It is founded on race hatred and 
arises from social, economic, and political 
causes. In Berlin an Anti-Semitic League was 
formed in 1879 to restrict the liberty of Jews 
in Germany. Since then similar organizations 
have been formed in Russia, Austria, Greece, 
and Holland. The movement in Russia as¬ 
sumed a more brutal character than in Ger¬ 
many, and thousands of Jews fled to the Unit¬ 
ed States, Spain, and elsewhere. In Hungary 
violent anti-Jewish riots occurred at Pesth, Zala, 
and elsewhere, which were not brought to an 
end until martial law was proclaimed. The 
second trial of Capt. Albert Dreyfus, in 1899, 
aroused an intense anti-semitic feeling in 
France. See Judaism — Anti-Semitism. 

An'tisep'tic, a term denoting that which 
arrests decay. The development of the know¬ 
ledge that organic bodies are broken down or 
decayed by minute plants, fungi, bacteria, etc., 
led to the idea of preventing the action of these 
bodies by the employment of some appropriate 
substances. In medicine it had been found that 
many of these bacteria produced a condition 
known as sepsis, or poisoning, and when Lister 
first used the carbolic spray to prevent the de¬ 
velopment of these bacteria the word antiseptic 
came into use. Used originally to apply to sep¬ 
tic organisms it has come to be applied to any 
substance that would inhibit the growth or de¬ 
stroy these agents of putrefaction or of disease. 
A germicide is any agent that kills these low 
forms of plant life; fungicides are used on the 
large fungi; bactericides on the bacteria. The 
word disinfectant should properly apply to a 
substance used for the destruction of a definite 
infecting agent, such as phthisical sputum, or 
typhoid urine or stools, but it too often is em¬ 
ployed for some remedy that destroys a dis¬ 
agreeable odor — a deodorant. Thus most so- 
called disinfectants, manufactured to place in 
closets or urinals, are really nothing but foul¬ 
smelling deodorants. As disinfectants they are 
delusions and snares. Germicides, bactericides, 
antisepticides, may be divided into two groups, 
physical and chemical. In the former group is 
heat, the most important of all germicides. 
Burning is the best means for the disinfection 
of the non-valuable surroundings of patients 
who have had any severe contagious disease 
such as diphtheria, typhoid fever, plague, scar¬ 
let fever, etc. It is the best agent for the de¬ 
struction of all tuberculous sputum. Boiling 
is another efficient means of disinfecting, or 
sterilizing. The boiling of water or milk sus¬ 
pected to contain the bacteria of typhoid or 
diphtheria is efficient. Boiling all bed linen in 
contact with contagious diseases is advisable. 

The boiling of preserves and then hermeti¬ 
cally sealing the cans to prevent the entrance 
of molds is practised by all housewives. When 
the fruit <( f ermen t Sj » it has either not been 
boiled long enough, the cans were not thor¬ 
oughly cleansed by boiling water, the rubbers 
and tops not sterilized, or a hole has been left 
whereby the spores of molds have entered. 
Cold is a preservative only: it prevents the 
multiplication of these low forms of plant life, 
but does not destroy them. 


ANTI-SLAVERY SOCIETY — ANTLERS 


Chemical antiseptics have been in vogue ever 
since the work of Tyndall, Pasteur, Koch, and 
Lister showed the role of lower plant forms in 
Hie causation of putrefaction and sepsis. In the 
aits many antiseptics are used to preserve 
foods. The smoking of hams, etc., is the old 
empirical method, antedating modern means 
probably by hundreds of years, the smoke con¬ 
taining creosote and bodies related to carbolic 
acid. Boracic acid, alum, salicylic acid, forma¬ 
lin, nitre, common salt, sugar, etc., are all ex¬ 
tensively used as food preservatives. Wood is 
protected from rotting by the injection of creo¬ 
sote, tar, and related fungicides. In modern 
antiseptic surgery it is not the destruction of 
bacteria, but rather their prevention, that is 
desired, and asepsis' is the modern method, not 
antisepsis. By thorough sterilization of every¬ 
thing that comes in contact with a patient’s 
body the modern surgeon prevents infection by 
keeping bacteria out. Should the nature of a 
wound be such that it is already infected, then 
antiseptics are of service. The most valuable 
surgical antiseptics are the phenols and their de¬ 
rivatives (carbolic acid, salicylates, etc.), salts 
of mercury, silver, lead, aluminum, copper, and 
zinc, preparations of chlorin, iodin, bromin, 
organic aldehydes, formaldehyde, benzaldehyde, 
and the oxygen-producing compounds, hydrogen 
peroxide and other peroxides. For the com¬ 
parative strength of the antiseptics see under 
their respective heads. Also Sternberg, ( Bac 
teriology ) ; Fliigge, ( Die Mikroorganismen.* See 
Bacteria; Fungi; Infection; Koch; Pasteur; 
Putrefaction ; Spontaneous Generation. 

Anti-Slavery Society, the American, was 
organized in Philadelphia, Dec. 1833, by dele¬ 
gates from similar local and state societies. 
The first of these societies was formed in Bos¬ 
ton in Jan. 1832, by William Lloyd Garrison 
and others. The American society took a rad¬ 
ical stand for the abolition of slavery. A dif¬ 
ference of opinion among the members caused 
a split in the society in 1840, and eventually 
both factions joined the Liberty Party (q.v.). 
A small coterie of the original society con¬ 
tinued to exist however until the adoption of 
the 15th Amendment in 1870. See Liberal 
Party; Slavery. 

An'tispasmod'ic, a medicine proper for the 
cure of spasms and convulsions. Opium, bal¬ 
sam of Peru, and the essential oils of many 
vegetables are the most useful of this class of 
medicines. 

Antis'thenes of Athens, a Greek philoso¬ 
pher who founded the sect of Cynic phi¬ 
losophers ; b. in Athens 444 b.c. He was a dis¬ 
ciple of Socrates, and is said to have aided in 
bringing some of his persecutors to justice. 
He taught at the Cynosarges, a gymnasium ap¬ 
propriated to Athenians who had foreign moth¬ 
ers. His philosophy was a one-sided develop¬ 
ment of the Socratic method. According to his 
teaching virtue should render man independent 
of the ordinary events of life. He himself lived 
in a very austere, self-denying fashion. 

Antis'trophe, (Gr. anti+strophe, from 
strepho, I turn), the name of one of the divi¬ 
sions of a Greek choral ode, corresponding to 
the strdphe and following it. The singing of 
the strophes on the stage was accompanied with 
a motion or turn from right to left. 


An'titox'ins, the name given to peculiar 
bodies developed in the human body or in the 
body of an animal, supposed to be antagonistic to 
the poisons, or toxins, of disease. These anti¬ 
toxins are specific for definite diseases and con¬ 
stitute one of the protective agents in the body’s 
battle with disease. For the full consideration 
of these and other similar bodies see Immunity. 

An'ti-trade, a name given to any of the 
upper tropical winds which move northward or 
southward in the same manner as the trade- 
winds which blow beneath them in the opposite 
direction. These great aerial currents, descend¬ 
ing to the surface after having passed the limits 
of the trade-winds, form the southwest or west- 
southwest winds of the north temperate, and the 
northwest or west-northwest winds of the 
south temperate zones. 

An'titrin'ita'rian, a name applied to one 
who does not receive the doctrine of the divine 
Trinity as it is represented by the Nicene and 
Athanasian creeds, and either puts the Son 
and the Holy Spirit in the Godhead below the 
Father, or considers Christ as merely a man, 
and the Holy Spirit an arbitrary personification 
of the divine mind. Antitrinitarians of the lat¬ 
ter class are Unitarians (q.v.), while those of 
the former class are relatively Trinitarians. 

Anti-Trust Laws, in the United States. 

(See also Trusts.) The first of these on the 
statute books was an ordinance of Alabama in 
1883 against the pooling of freights by rail¬ 
roads. The first general law against business 
combinations was enacted by Kansas in 1889. 
But the general movement against trusts which 
took shape in legislation was in 1889, when 
five States and Territories passed laws to render 
combinations in restraint of trade illegal and 
punishable, and two more (Washington and 
North Dakota) incorporated similar provisions 
into the constitutions with which they were 
admitted to the Union. In the first half of 1890 
three more States joined the movement with 
legislation; and on 2 July the Federal Con¬ 
gress enacted the (( Sherman Law® against trusts. 
Since then over as many more States and Ter¬ 
ritories, toward 30 in all, have placed like 
statutes on their books. The provisions are 
substantially alike in all, making the persons 
engaged in such combinations liable to fine and 
imprisonment, and the corporations or firms 
punishable by loss of charter or of right to 
carry on business within the State where the 
offense is committed. The decisions of the cir¬ 
cuit courts at first were so narrowed as prac¬ 
tically to nullify the provisions of the laws ; 
it being held that the combinations, as at com¬ 
mon law, must be proved inequitable and in¬ 
jurious to the public, and calculated not merely 
to abate competition, but absolutely to monopo¬ 
lize the business for the purpose of extortion. 
But these decisions were reversed by the United 
States supreme court, which held that the laws 
made no distinction between partial and com¬ 
plete monopoly, or equitable and inequitable. It 
had been claimed also that the laws were uncon¬ 
stitutional, as violating the Fifth and Four¬ 
teenth Amendments, that no person shall be de¬ 
prived of liberty without due process of law, 
and that the liberty of making contracts is an 
essential portion of this; but the supreme court 
interprets them to mean legal contracts, and 


ANTITYPE — ANTLERS 


that under its power to regulate commerce 
Congress can decide what contracts are legal; 
while the State courts hold that such regula¬ 
tion is competent to the States under their 
police power. 

The Sherman Act is as follows: 

1. Every contract, combination in the form 
of trust or otherwise, or conspiracy, in restraint 
of trade or commerce among the several States, 
or with foreign nations is hereby declared to be 
illegal. Every person who shall make any such 
contract or engage in any such combination or 
conspiracy shall be deemed guilty of a mis¬ 
demeanor, and, on conviction thereof, shall be 
punished by a fine not exceeding $5,000, or by 
imprisonment not exceeding one year, or by both 
said punishments, in the discretion of the court. 

2. Every person. who shall monopolize, or 
attempt to monopolize, or combine or conspire 
with any other person or persons to monopolize 
any part of the trade or commerce among the 
several States, or with foreign nations, shall be 
deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and on convic¬ 
tion thereof shall be punished by fine not ex¬ 
ceeding $5,000, or by imprisonment not exceed¬ 
ing one year, or by both said punishments, in 
the discretion of the court. 

3. Every contract, combination in the form 
of trust or otherwise, or conspiracy in restraint 
of trade or commerce in any Territory of the 
United States or of the District of Columbia, or 
in restraint of trade or commerce between any 
such Territory and another, or between any 
such Territory or Territories and any State or 
States or the District of Columbia, or with for¬ 
eign nations, or between the District of Colum¬ 
bia and any State or States or foreign nations, 
is hereby declared illegal. Every person who 
shall make any such contract or engage in any 
such combination or conspiracy shall be 
deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and, on con¬ 
viction thereof, shall be punished by fine not 
exceeding $5,000, or by imprisonment not ex¬ 
ceeding one year, or by both said punishments, 
in the discretion of the court. 

4. The several circuit courts of the United 
States are hereby invested with jurisdiction to 
prevent and restrain violations of this act, and it 
shall be the duty of the several district attor¬ 
neys of the United States in their respective 
districts, under the direction of the attorney- 
general, to institute proceedings in equity to 
prevent and restrain such violations. Such pro¬ 
ceedings may be by way of petition setting forth 
the case and praying that such violation shall 
be enjoined or otherwise prohibited. When 
the parties complained of shall have been duly 
notified of such petition the court shall pro¬ 
ceed, as soon as may be, to the hearing and de¬ 
termination of the case; and pending such peti¬ 
tion, and before final decree, the court may at 
any time make such temporary restraining order 
or prohibition as shall be deemed just in the 
premises. 

5. Whenever it shall appear to the court be¬ 
fore which any proceedings under section four 
of this act may be pending, that the ends of 
justice require that other parties should be 
brought before the court, the court may cause 
them to be summoned, whether they reside in 
the district in which the court is held or not; 
and subpoenas to that end may be served in any 
district by the marshal thereof. 


6. Any property owned under any contract 
or by any combination, or purchased to any con¬ 
spiracy (and being the subject thereof) men¬ 
tioned in section one of this act, and being in 
the course of transportation from one State to 
another, or to a foreign country, shall be for¬ 
feited to the United States, and may be seized 
and condemned by like proceedings as those 
provided by law for the forfeiture, seizure, and 
condemnation of property imported into the 
United States contrary to law. 

7. Any person who shall be injured in his 
business or property by any person or corpora¬ 
tion by reason of anything forbidden or declared 
to be unlawful by this act, may sue therefor in 
any circuit court of the United States in the 
district in which the defendant resides or is. 
found, without respect to the amount in con¬ 
spiracy, and shall recover threefold the dam¬ 
ages by him sustained, and the cost of suit, in¬ 
cluding a reasonable attorney’s fee. 

8. That the word <( person® or ^persons,® 
wherever used in this act, shall be deemed to 
include corporations and associations existing 
under or authorized by the laws of either the 
United States, the laws of any of the Territories, 
the laws of any State, or the laws of any for¬ 
eign country. 

An'titype, a word denoting a type or fig¬ 
ure corresponding to some other type. It is in 
the sense of copy or likeness that the word 
occurs in the New Testament (Heb. ix. 24; 
i Peter iii. 21). By the fathers of the Greek 
Church antitype is employed as a designation of 
the bread and wine in the sacrament of the 
Lord’s supper. 

Antium, an'shi-um, one of the most an¬ 
cient and powerful cities of Latium, the chief 
city of the Volsci. It was situated on a promon¬ 
tory, and was a flourishing seaport. It was- 
taken by the Romans in 468 b.c., but soon re¬ 
volted, and maintained its independence till 
finally taken by Rome in 338 b.c., and after this 
it appears as one of the maritime colonies of 
Rome. Toward the close of the republic and 
during the empire it was a favorite residence of 
the wealthy Romans, and both the town and its 
neighborhood were adorned with temples and 
splendid villas. Nero and Caligula were born 
at Antium. It was entirely destroyed by the 
Saracens; but vestiges of it still remain at 
Porto d’Anzo, its modern successor, near which 
many works of art, including the Apollo Belvi- 
dere and the Borghese Gladiator, have been 
found. 

Ant'lers, the weapons borne upon the head 
of a male deer during the breeding season. They 
are an outgrowth of true bone supported upon 
protuberances from the crown of the skull, called 
pedicels. As the spring approaches, the hairy 
skin with which these are covered becomes 
highly vascular and swollen with blood and 
serum carrying lime salts. This grows outward 
and gradually assumes the form of the antler, 
characteristic of the species, which for a time 
is in a soft and vascular state, and covered with 
what hunters call “velvet.® There is continually 
deposited within this growth the substance of 
bone, which fills and solidifies the structure 
from the centre outward, until in the 
course of four or five months all has become 
solid, the outer skin shrinks and dries and 


ANTLIA — ANTONELLI 


presently falls or is rubbed off. These antlers 
remain firm upon the head and useful as wea¬ 
pons until the middle of the following winter, 
when they become loosened and fall off. The 
process is repeated the following spring, and 
the antlers are thus lost and replaced annually 
as long as the stag lives. In the deer, with the 
single exception of the reindeer, antlers are 
worn only by the males and are a secondary 
sexual character. That they are associated with 
the reproductive function, says Beddard, is 
shown by their being shed after the period of 
rut; and also by the stunting effect upon the 
horns which any injury to the reproductive 
glands produces. Various degrees of degenera¬ 
tion are to be seen in the antlers of captive deer 
resulting from varying degrees and periods of 
gelding. 

The sport of stag-hunting has preserved a set 
of ancient terms, mostly of French origin in the 
Middle Ages, designating the different parts of 
the antler and the successive stages of growth, 
and these have come to stand for a deer of a 
certain age or condition. They were all de¬ 
rived from and particularly applicable to the 
European red deer (Cervus elephas ), which 
more than any other species is preserved for 
hunting in Europe. This nomenclature is sum¬ 
marized as follows in ( Cassell’s Natural His¬ 
tory^ Vol. III.— <( In the common red deer, in the 
spring of the year following its birth, the antlers 
are nothing more than straight, conical, and 
unbranched ( beams, ) the animal being then 
known as a ^rooket.* In the following spring 
the antler has, besides the ( beam, ) a small 
branch from its base, directed forward, known 
as the ( brow antler } ; it is then termed ^payad. 5 
In the third year an extra front branch is 
formed, known as the Tres,* and the whole ant¬ 
ler is larger. The tres is sometimes seen in 
the smaller antler of the spayad. In the fourth 
year the brow antler is doubled to form the 
( brow ) and the ^ez-tine,-* at the same time 
that the top of the main beam divides into the 
< sur-royals ) of the ( staggard, } or four-year-old 
male. In the fifth year the sur-royals become 
more numerous, the whole antler of the ( stag ) 
being heavier than previously, only to be ex¬ 
ceeded in weight by those of the fully adult 
( great hart ) with ten or more ^oints^ each 
being larger and longer than the year before.® 
A deer of 12 points is known in Scotland as a 
<( royal stag,® but although sometimes antlers 
have more than 12 points, no recent antlers 
quite equal those which have been preserved 
from old times before all the best deer were so 
systematically shot each year. Where the num¬ 
ber of points is exceedingly large, as it is in 
some curious specimens whch show fifty or sev¬ 
enty-five, they are no longer a record of the 
years of the animal’s life, but of injuries to the 
horns, causing unnatural branchings. The horn 
of antlers is of commercial value, being much 
used for the handles of knives and similar 
articles. 

Ant'lia, or Antlia Pneumatica, the name 
of one of the 14 southern constellations placed 
in the heavens by Lacaille in connection with 
his work at the Cape of Good Hope in 1751-2. 
It is situated between Vela, Pyxis, Hydra, and 
Centaurus. 


Ant'-li'on, a term applied to the larva of 
Myrmcleon, a neuropterous insect of the family 
Myrmclconidce. It is a singular-looking crea¬ 
ture, the body somewhat broad and flattened 
behind, the head provided with enormous jaws 
which have a groove beneath, in which the max¬ 
illae slide back and forth. It can thus pierce 
the bodies of small soft-bodied insects, flies, etc., 
and suck their blood without moving the jaws 
on which the victim, is impaled. It makes a pit 
in fine sand, at the bottom of which it lies with 
its body buried and its jaws wide open, ready 
to seize any luckless insect which may fall in. 
When an insect comes near the edge of the pit, 
the ant-lion, by a toss of its head, hurls at it a 
shower of sand, which knocks it down, so that 
it slides into the pit and is seized. Ant-lions 
are known in confinement to spend the winter 
in the larval state if fed with flies, caterpillars, 
and spiders. In the spring the larva spins a 
rather large, round, silken cocoon covered with 
grains of sand, within which it changes to a 
pupa, and the winged insect emerges early in 
June. The imago has long gauzy wings, both 
pairs alike, and is rarely seen in the northern 
and eastern States. The conical, crater-like pits 
of the ant-lion may be seen in sheltered places 
in loose sand to thei number of from 50 to 75. 
It occurs from Maine to Florida. 

Antofagasta, an'to-fa-gas'ta, a province in 
northern Chile, extending the whole width of 
the country and covering an area of 60,968 
square miles. It was ceded by Bolivia to Chile 
in 1884. Much of its territory lies in the rocky 
desert of Atasama, a feature which makes it 
generally unsuitable for agriculture. It is, 
however, one of the richest sections of the 
world in the ores of precious metals. Pop. 
50,000. Antofagasta, its capital and principal 
seaport, is the terminus of a railroad that ex¬ 
tends to the rich mining sections in the north¬ 
east. It also ships much ore, nitrate of soda, 
and bullion, and contains silver-smelting works. 
Pop. (1901) 19,482. 

Antommarchi, an'tom-mar'ke, Carlo Fran¬ 
cesco, an Italian physician: b. in Corsica in 
1780; d. in St. Antonio, Cuba, 3 April 1838. He 
was professor of anatomy at Florence when he 
offered himself as physician of Napoleon at St. 
Helena. Napoleon at first received him with 
reserve, but soon admitted him to his confidence, 
and testified his satisfaction with him by leaving 
him a legacy of 100,000 francs. On his return 
to Europe he published the ( Derniers Moments 
de Napoleon > (1823). He also wrote the text 
for a folio series of anatomical plates published 
in 1823-6, and in 1830 exhibited what he asserted 
to be a death mask of Napoleon. In 1836 he 
went to New Orleans, where he practised ho¬ 
moeopathy. 

Antonelli, a'to-nel'le, Giacomo, Cardinal, 

an Italian ecclesiastic: b. 1806: d. 1876. He 
was educated at the Grand Seminary of Rome, 
where he attracted the attention of Pope Greg¬ 
ory XVI., who appointed him to several im¬ 
portant offices, and on the accession of Pius IX., 
in 1846, Antonelli was raised to the dignity of 
cardinal-deacon. Two years later he became 
president and minister of foreign affairs, and 
in 1850 was appointed secretary of state. Dur¬ 
ing the sitting of the CEcumenical Council 
(1869-70) he was a prominent champion of 


ANTONINE COLUMN —ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA 


the papal interest. He strongly opposed the as¬ 
sumption of the united Italian crown by Victor 
Emmanuel. 

An'tonine Column, the name given to the 
sculptured pillar erected by Marcus Aurelius 
to the memory of his father-in-law, Antoninus 
Pius. _ lhe splendid staircase, with 190 steps 
hewn in the 19 blocks of marble of which the 
column is composed — the statue of St. Paul 
crowning its top — and the bas-reliefs around 
the column illustrating the victories of Marcus 
Aurelius over the Marcomans, present an ap¬ 
pearance of singular magnificence. The Doric 
and Corinthian styles are blended in the archi¬ 
tecture of the column in a remarkable manner. 
The pedestal and top are Doric, while the pro¬ 
portions of the column are Corinthian. The 
bas-reliefs, in imitation of those of the column 
of Trajan, are in beauty and purity of execution 
rather inferior to the original. The column 
was restored to its present condition in the 
latter part of the 16th century by Domenico 
Fontana, the architect of Sixtus V., and still 
stands in the Piazza Colonna as one of the chief 
ornaments of Rome. 

Antonius Gaius, a Roman consul, the 
•colleague of Cicero, who defended him when 
accused of participation in the Catiline con¬ 
spiracy. He was the son of Marcus Antonius 
the orator, and an uncle of Mark Antony. 

Antonius, Marcus, commonly known as 
Mark Antony, a Roman triumvir: b. 86 b.c. ; 
•d. 30 b.c. He was the grandson of Marcus An¬ 
tonius, the greatest orator and one of the great¬ 
est men of his day. His father, also Marcus 
Antonius, was surnamed Creticus in derision, 
from a disgraceful defeat which he suffered 
in an unprovoked invasion of the isle of Crete. 
He went abroad early, served with Gabinius in 
Syria, and distinguished himself greatly, both 
there and in Egypt, where he already gave to¬ 
kens of consummate soldiership. He next 
joined Caesar in Gaul, where he passed several 
•campaigns with increasing honor as one of his 
legates, and deserved much of the credit, usual¬ 
ly given to his leader, for the total defeat of 
Vercingetorix at the terrible siege of Alesia. 
Being elected one of the tribunes of the people, 
when the senate ordered Caesar to disband his 
forces, he, with Quintus Cassius, vetoed the bill; 
and, on the senate proceeding to arm the con¬ 
suls with dictatorial power by the vote ne quid 
respublica detrimenti capiat, they fled together, 
disguised as slaves, to Caesar’s camp, feigning 
to believe that their lives were in danger, thus 
giving that ambitious general the deserved oc¬ 
casion for crossing the Rubicon and marching 
upon Rome. In reward for this service, when 
Caesar went to follow up his fortunes by crush¬ 
ing out the Pompeian party in Spain, he left 
Antony governor of Italy and lieutenant-general 
of his forces. He astounded all Italy by the 
ostentation and cynicism of his vices, but when 
the last struggle took place between Pompey 
and his own commander, he at once laid aside 
the debauchee and resumed the soldier. His 
skill preserved the fleet and intrenchments at 
Dyrrachium; it was he who commanded the 
victorious left wing in the crowning conflict 
at Pharsalia, and turned the wavering tide of 
success to the standards of Caesar. When the 
Ides of March had come, and great Csesar fell 
at the base of Pompey’s statue, it was the mascu- 

Vol. 1—38 


line and sonorous eloquence of Antony — for he 
was an orator second to Cicero and Csesar 
only — that did actually raise the stones of 
Rome to mutiny and forced the discomfited 
murderers to fly from their half-finished task. 
It was Antony’s soldiership and Antony’s sword 
that defeated Cassius and drove Brutus to sui¬ 
cide, while the cold, cowardly, crafty Octavius 
was sleeping in his secure tent. In the pro¬ 
scriptions which followed it is characteristic of 
Antony that he was by so much the more 
insolent, as he was the less cruel, of the trium¬ 
virs. But the third triumvir, the imbecile 
Lepidus, was soon disposed of, and Octavius 
and Antony divided the Roman world, as mas¬ 
ters. Antony took the East; Octavius, the cold 
formalist, betook himself to the West. Thence¬ 
forth the life of Antony was one wild dream. 
Once he broke from his luxurious lethargy, in¬ 
vaded central Armenia and penetrated Parthia; 
and then, forced to retreat at length by the 
circumstances of the country, the climate, the 
innumerable hordes of Oriental horse, brought 
off his army by a most extraordinary retreat. 
In 21 days he fought 18 pitched battles, marched 
300 miles, through one continuous skirmish, 
and when he reached the boundary stream his 
Parthian pursuers unstrung their bows and bade 
him go his way unharmed. He returned to his 
life of luxury and to Cleopatra, but his career 
was run. Rome took arms against him; his 
troops, his mistress, his fortune deserted him; 
and Actium saw him, for the first time, with 
his back to his foes. Deceived to the last by 
the Egyptian queen, who imposed upon him by a 
false rumor of her death, he died by his own 
hand. Most like he was to Mirabeau in that he 
was everything at times, and everything almost 
the greatest, but nothing long — orator, soldier, 
statesman; trifler, buffoon; tribune, triumvir, 
conqueror; faithful lover, false husband, fran¬ 
tic debauchee; and, when the wine of life 
was quaffed to the lees, a fearless suicide at 
last. 

Antonius, Marcus, a famous Roman law¬ 
yer surnamed the Orator: b. 143 b.c. ; d. 87 b.c. 
He was prsetor in 104, when he fought against 
the pirates in Cilicia; consul in 99, when he dis¬ 
tinguished himself by his resistance to the party 
of Saturninus; and censor in 97. He was famed 
for his eloquence in the forum, rendering, ac¬ 
cording to Cicero, Italy the rival of Greece, and 
for his integrity in public life. As an aristocrat 
he adopted the party of Sylla, and was put to 
death by Marius and Cinna, when they tri¬ 
umphed. He is one of the interlocutors in 
Cicero’s ( De OratoreP 

An'tony and Cle'opa'tra, the second of 
Shakespeare’s Roman plays. In Cleopatra the 
gorgeous Oriental voluptuousness is embodied 
in the strong-thewed Antony, the stern soldier- 
power of Rome weakened by indulgence in lust. 
The poet follows Plutarch in his narrative. The 
rulers of the Roman world are Mark Antony, 
Octavius Caesar, and their weak tool, Lepidus. 
While Antony is idling away the days in Alex¬ 
andria with Cleopatra, in Italy things are all 
going wrong. At last Antony is shamed heme 
to Rome. Lepidus and other friends patch up 
a truce between him and Caesar, which is ce¬ 
mented by the marriage of Antony to Caesar’s 
sister Octavia. After the great defeat at Ac¬ 
tium, Enobarbus and other intimate followers 


ANT PLANTS —ANTWERP 


deserted the waning fortunes of Antony. Being 
falsely told that Cleopatra is dead, Antony falls 
on his sword. 

Ant Plants. See Myrmecophily. 

Antraigues, an'trag, Emanuel Delaunay, 
Comte d’, a French politician: b. at Ville- 
neuve de Berg, 1755; d. 22 July 1812. His 
talents first appeared in his ( Memoirs sur les 
Etats-generaux ) (1788), full of daring asser¬ 
tions of liberty, and one of the first sparks of 
the fire which afterward rose to such height in 
the French Revolution. When chosen, in 1789, 
as a deputy, he defended the privileges of the 
hereditary aristocracy, ranked himself with 
those who opposed the union of the three 
estates, and maintained that the royal veto was 
an indispensable part of good government. Af¬ 
ter leaving the Assembly in 1790, he was em¬ 
ployed in diplomacy at St. Petersburg and 
Vienna, where he defended the cause of the 
Bourbons. In 1803 he was employed under 
Alexander of Russia in an embassy to Dresden, 
where he wrote against Bonaparte a brochure 
entitled ( Fragment du XVIII. Livre de Polybe, 
trouve sur le Mont Athos. 5 He afterward came 
to England and acquired great influence with 
Canning. He was murdered, with his wife, at 
his residence near London, by an Italian ser¬ 
vant. 

An'trim, a county in northeastern Ireland, 
bounded on the north by the Atlantic Ocean, 
east by the North Channel; south by the river 
Lagau and Lough Neaghand; west by the river 
Bann. It has an area of about 1,237 square 
miles, nearly all of which is under cultivation. 
There are rich beds of iron ore at Glenravel, 
and extensive mines of fine salt are being 
worked at Dunerul and Carrickfergus. The 
chief occupations of the people are the raising 
of flax, fishing, and the manufacture of linen, 
cotton, and heavy woolen goods. The capital 
is Belfast, and other places of note are Larne 
and Carrickfergus. Pop. (1901) 461,250. 

The town of Antrim, situated at the north 
end of Lough Neagh, on the Six-Mile Water, 
is not a place of much consequence, though 
bleaching and malting and the linen and paper 
manufacture are carried on here. There is a 
very perfect round tower near it. 

Ant'werp (Dutch, Antwerpen; French, An¬ 
vers; Spanish, Amberes; Old German, Antorff; 
from <( aent werf,® <( on the wharf®), a province 
of Belgium, south of Holland, consisting for 
the most part of an extensive plain of 1,096 
square miles, scarcely diversified by a single 
elevation. It is sandy but fertile, producing 
grain, flax, hemp, fruit, and tobacco, as well 
as cattle, sheep, and horses; on the north and 
northeast, however, there are considerable tracts 
of morass and heath. The principal rivers, the 
Scheldt and its tributaries, the Rupel, Nethe, 
and Dyle, are navigable; while railways inter¬ 
sect the country in various directions, and there 
are also several canals. The chief towns are 
Antwerp, Mechlin (Malines) Turnhout, Lierre, 
and Boom. Pop. (1901) 819,000. 

Ant'werp, the capital of the Belgian prov¬ 
ince of the same name, situated about 50 miles 
from the open sea, and 25 miles north of Brus¬ 
sels, in a level tract on the right bank of the 
Scheldt, which is there about 2,200 feet broad 
and has a depth at ebb-tide of from 30 to 40 


feet, with a rise at spring-tides of 12 or 14,. 
Antwerp was probably founded some time be¬ 
fore the 8th century, when the Antwerpians or 
Ganerbians, as they began to be called, were 
converted to Christianity. In 837 the town fell 
into the hands of the Northmen, who kept 
possession of it for about 60 years. It was 
erected into a marquisate of the Holy Roman 
Empire by Henry II. in 1008, and as such was 
bestowed by Henry IV., in 1076, on Godfrey of 
Bouillon. About the beginning of the 12th 
century it had considerable commercial prosper¬ 
ity; and in the 13th its municipal institutions 
took definite shape. It is worthy of notice that 
the law of 1290 contained provisions identical 
with those of the Habeas Corpus Act in Eng¬ 
land, maintaining the inviolability of the citi¬ 
zen’s dwelling, and acknowledging the right of 
every man to be judged by his peers and to 
have a voice in the imposition of taxes. As the 
result of such security and freedom the com¬ 
merce of the city rapidly increased. English 
wools for the great manufactories at Louvain, 
Brussels, Tirlemont, Diest, and Leau, were im¬ 
ported through Antwerp; and English mer¬ 
chants, who formed a ^factory® there in 1296, 
received special protection by charters (1305, 
1341, 1346, 1349) from the Dukes of Brabant. 
Between 1488 and 1570 was the time of the 
greatest prosperity which Antwerp was destined 
to attain for several centuries. The discovery 
of America in 1492, and of the passage to India 
in 1497, produced a great change in all European 
navigation, permanently altering the old courses 
of commerce. While in consequence of this the 
cities of the Hanseatic League had withered, 
and Venice, Nuremberg, and Bruges were sink¬ 
ing into decay, Antwerp was rapidly growing 
wealthy, but in 1576 it was taken by the Span¬ 
iards and given up to a three-days pillage. It 
was vainly besieged by the Duke of Alengon 
in 1583; and after a very obstinate defense it 
fell before the assaults of the Duke of Parma, 
whose triumphal entry took place 17 Aug. 1585. 
Its glory departed; its commerce was ruined; 
its inhabitants were scattered. The Dutch in 
their jealousy endeavored to complete its ruin 
by building forts on the river to intercept the 
passage of ships; and finally, by the peace of 
Westphalia in 1648, the Scheldt was definitely 
closed. In 1794 the city fell into the hands of 
the French, who opened the river and made 
Antwerp the capital of the department of Deux 
Nethes. It continued in French possession till 
1814. Matters of dispute between Belgium and 
Holland being settled by the treaty of 1839, 
Antwerp has continued peacefully to advance in 
prosperity ever since. 

Antwerp is the birthplace of a number of 
distinguished men in various departments, as the 
painters Vandyck (b. 1599), Teniers the elder 
(1582), Teniers the younger (1610), Jordaens 
(1594), Frans Floris (1520), Gonzales Cocques 
(1618); the philologist Gruter (1560), the ge¬ 
ographer Ortelius (1527), the engraver Ede- 
linck (1649), and, among more modern celeb¬ 
rities, Van Meteren the historian, Ogier the 
dramatist, and Henri Conscience the novelist. 
Reubens was born at Cologne, but his family 
belonged to Antwerp, and he was educated, 
resided, and died in the latter city. 

The cathedral of Notre Dame is its most 
noteworthy edifice, the largest and most beauti- 


AONIA —APACHE 


fill Gothic structure in the Low Countries. Its 
area^ is 70,060 square feet ancl it contains Ru¬ 
bens’ paintings, ( The Descent from the Cross, > 
Elevation of the Cross,> and <The Assump- 
tion Other important buildings are the church 
of St. Jacques, begun in 1491, the Bourse, and 
the Museum. Pop., exclusive of suburbs (1891) 
285,600. 

A'orist (Greek, aoristos, ^indefinite® ), the 
name given to one of the tenses of the Greek 
verb, expressive of indefinite past time. The 
Greek verb is very rich in past tenses, possess¬ 
ing besides the aorist the imperfect, perfect, and 
pluperfect. While these express repetition, con¬ 
tinuance, or the relation between one time and 
another, no such shade of meaning attaches to 
the aorist. The difference between the first and 
the second aorist is in form only and not in 
meaning. 

.Aor'ta, the name given to the great 
arterial trunk of the body. It springs from the 
left ventricle of the heart, arches backward to 
the vertebral column, and, descending in the 
back portion of the thorax, passes through the 
diaphragm into the posterior part of the abdo¬ 
men, at the lower portion of which, opposite 
the fourth lumbar segment of the spinal col¬ 
umn, it divides into the two common iliac 
arteries. Throughout its course it becomes 
smaller and smaller, and gives off a large num¬ 
ber of branches, that send blood to all parts 
of the body. It is not divided into any distinct 
divisions, but for conventional purposes of de¬ 
scription anatomists describe three parts, the 
arch, the thoracic aorta, and the abdominal 
aorta. The arch reaches to the lower border 
of the fifth thoracic vertebra; from this point to 
the opening in the diaphragm it is known as the 
thoracic aorta; from the diaphragm to its bifur¬ 
cation into the iliacs, the abdominal aorta. 
At its very beginning at the top of the heart 
it gives off the coronary arteries that supply 
the walls of the heart with blood. The arch 
is then conventionally divided into three parts, 
the ascending, transverse, and descending por¬ 
tions. From the transverse portion of the arch 
the great vessels of the neck, head, and arms 
are given off,— the innominate or brachio¬ 
cephalic artery, that goes to the head and upper 
extremity of the right side, the left common 
carotid, to the head on the left side, and the 
subclavian that supplies the upper extremity 
of the left side. There are really two large 
arteries supplying each side, but on the right 
they arise from the one branch from the aorta, 
while on the left side the arteries going to the 
head and to the upper extremities are separate. 
The thoracic aorta lies close to the spinal 
column in the chest. It supplies arteries ex¬ 
tending to the walls of the chest and to all the 
viscera in the thorax, lungs, etc., save the heart. 
The abdominal aorta supplies the diaphragm, 
the muscles of the walls of the abdomen, the 
liver, kidneys, spleen, stomach, pancreas, su- 
prarenals, the small and large intestines, the 
spermatic vesicles, and a part of the pelvis. 
The two great branches into which it finally 
divides supply the pelvic walls, the organs in 
the pelvis, the external genitals, and finally the 
lower limbs. There are a number of variations 
\n the details of the distribution of the differ¬ 
ent large vesse/s of die aorta, hut these concern 
the anatomist. The walls of the aorta resemble 


in their microscopical structure those of the 
arteries of the body save in possessing more 
elastic fibrous tissues. This is necessitated be¬ 
cause of the greater pressure on this part of 
the circulatory apparatus. See Artery; Circu¬ 
lation ; Heart. 

Aosta, a-os'ta, a town of Italy, in Pied¬ 
mont, 50 miles northwest of Turin. It is the 
seat of a bishop, and possesses a collegiate and 
three parish churches, two colleges, and two 
hospitals. Among its antiquities are a triumphal 
arch, erected to the memory of Augustus, who 
rebuilt the town and gave it the name of Au¬ 
gusta Pretoria; a gate with three arches, and 
the remains of an amphitheatre, and the old 
Roman walls which still surround the town. 
It has some trade in wine, cheese, hemp, and 
leather. Pop. (1901) 7,875. 

Aoudad, a'oo-dad, or Arui, a somewhat 
goat-like wild sheep (Ovis tragelaplius ), in¬ 
habiting the Atlas Mountains of northern Afri¬ 
ca. It is about three feet in height, and its 
horns, which resemble those of the bharal 
(q.v.), are about two feet long. It is especially 
characterized by the long whitish hair depend¬ 
ing from the throat, chest, and forelegs, but 

elsewhere its coat is short and light brown, 

enabling it to hide easily among the rocks of 
its mountain home. Many other names are 

given to it, as (( ruffed moufflon,® (( bearded ar¬ 
gali,® <( kebsh® (Egypt), <( tidal® or (( teybal,® and 
(< beden® (Nubia). It is a common resident in 
menageries, where it breeds readily. 

A'oul, the finest of the Somaliland gazelles 
(Gasella scemmerringi), with massive lyrate 
horns. Its height is about 30 inches, and the 
borders of the ears and face are strikingly 
marked with black. 

Apache, a-pa'che (Pima, ^enemy®), the 
name of a large Indian tribe of the Athapascan 
stock, kindred to the Navajos, and originally 
occupying the region from central Texas to the 
Colorado River in Arizona. The Spaniards ap¬ 
plied the name, borrowed from the Pimas, to 
all the races just north of Mexico, whom they 
classed as Apaches de Xila, Apaches de Navajo, 
and Apaches Vaqueros, the first-named being 
our Apaches. When the United States by the 
Gadsden Purchase (q.v.) first came in contact 
with them they numbered about 10,000 and had 
long been at mortal feud with the Mexicans. 
For a few years they gave the Americans rela¬ 
tively little trouble of an acute kind, but after 
a serious raid in 1857 it was urged by those 
with knowledge that they should be settled 
north of the Gila, taught industries, and 
watched. This was not done, however, and in 
i860 the whole tribe went on the warpath. The 
next year the Civil War caused the troops to 
be withdrawn, and in a short time the Apaches 
had murdered or driven out every white in¬ 
habitant of the Arizona Territory except a few 
hundred who took refuge in Tucson. For 
nearly 10 years the Territory was the scene of 
one of the most awful Indian wars in history, 
which practically stopped all progress there. 
On the Indian side it was entirely an affair of 
ambushes or of sudden raids from mountain 
strongholds, with burning and slaughtering, 
and carrying off of captives to be mutilated or 
outraged and then tortured to death. About 
a thousand men, women, and children perished. 


APALACHEE —APARTMENT HOUSE 


Military operations were repeatedly stopped for 
a considerable period by the government com¬ 
missioners, who wished to institute a policy of 
kindness, but finally Gen. George H. Crook was 
allowed to proceed without interruption in 
1872-4, and put an end to the operations of 
the bands as a whole in 1874. But the govern¬ 
ment policy of concentrating them all on one 
reservation at San Carlos, Arizona, had unfor¬ 
tunate results. They objected to live with other 
bands with whom they were as much at feud 
as with the whites, and also to leave their 
chosen districts once given them by the govern¬ 
ment ; but both Gen. Crook and his successor, 
who opposed the transfers, were removed to 
other departments. Again and again the bands 
escaped while being removed, and renewed their 
outrages; and for six years more there was a 
succession of bloody raids which swelled the 
total of horrors in the unfortunate Territory 
and New Mexico. In 1882 Crook was restored, 
and by tact and their confidence in him in¬ 
duced about 1,500, or over a fourth of them, 
to live on the reservation without rations. 
But the rest liked their life much too well to 
give it up; repeatedly they surrendered and re¬ 
turned with Crook only to break their promise 
and return to the warpath. The last time was 
in March 1886, when they escaped before en¬ 
tering Arizona and continued their outrages 
along the border for five months. The uproar 
against Crook for being duped (he had upheld 
the essential justice of their cause, and his be¬ 
lief in their willingness to behave, against the 
people) caused his replacement by Gen. Nelson 
A. Miles, who finally cornered the band and 
forced it to surrender. But the attempt to set¬ 
tle the Chirichuas and Hot Springs bands — 
the fiercest Indians on the continent, according 
to Gen. Crook — on a reservation in Arizona 
roused such a storm of protest from Arizonians 
that they were removed to Florida instead, then 
to Alabama, and finally to Fort Sill, Oklahoma, 
where they still remain, to the number of some 
300. In all there are now about 5,200 Apaches. 
The name is sometimes applied to the Jicarillas, 
Mescaleros, and Lipans by reason of linguistic 
affinities; but incorrectly. See Bancroft, Na¬ 
tive Races of the Pacific States,> Vol. XVII., 
1880. 

Apalachee, ap-a-la'che, or Apalachi, a tribe 

of Indians of the Muskhogean stock, first men¬ 
tioned in 1526 as occupying the territory about 
Apalachee Bay and St. Mark’s River in north¬ 
western Florida and northward to the moun¬ 
tains to which they have given their name. 
Near the end of the 16th century Spanish Fran¬ 
ciscan friars founded missions among them, 
till the war of the Spanish Succession, a century 
later, when the Spanish attempted to use the 
Indians as allies against the English Carolinas. 
Twice before the Spaniards had invaded Caro¬ 
lina from St. Augustine; and now, in 1702, they 
headed a party of 900 Apalachees and marched 
into Georgia. The Creeks, who were friendly 
to the English, not only warned them, but a 
party of 500 ambushed the Apalachees and 
routed them with great slaughter. The Caro¬ 
linians determined to take the offensive; and 
after a fruitless expedition to St. Augustine in 
December 1703 one was undertaken into the 
Apalachian territory, which supplied that city 
with provisions and contained many Spanish 


forts. With 50 white men and 1,000 Creeks its 
leader stormed one fortified town and won a 
sharp battle, capturing several hundred Indians 
with women and children. Five other towns 
surrendered unconditionally, while a powerful 
cacique capitulated for his own safety. The 
expedition returned in March 1704 with 100 
Indian slaves and 1,300 free Indians, who were 
settled among the Creeks. Twice more within 
the next four years Carolina invaded this ter¬ 
ritory with such results that in 1708 it held 850 
Indian slaves in addition to what had been given 
to the Creeks. The Apalachees were thus prac¬ 
tically obliterated; and though for a time they 
maintained their individual existence they 
finally became merged with the Creeks. See 
McCready, ( History of South Carolina Under 
the Proprietary Government-* (1897). 

Apalachee (a'pa-la'che) Bay, a large arm 
on the south coast of Florida, in the Gulf of 
Mexico, having a breadth of about 90 miles 

and an extent inland of 50 miles. At the 

mouth of the St. Mark’s River, which flows into 
the bay, is the town of St. Mark’s. 

Apalachicola, a'pa-lach-i-ko-la, Fla., city, 
port of entry and county-seat of Franklin County, 
on Saint George Sound, Gulf of Mexico, at the 
mouth of the Apalachicola River ; 85 miles south¬ 
west of Tallahassee; on the Carrabelle, Tallahas¬ 
see & Georgia Railroad, and the following lines 
of steamships: Plant; People’s; Merchants 
and Planters’; Gulf Navigation Co.; Cen¬ 
tral Gulf Coast Co.; and the Apalachicola and 
Chipola River line. The city has an im¬ 
portant trade in timber and naval stores. 

The value of its foreign commerce in 
1901 amounted to $370,000, the most of which 
was in export trade. The city has one national 
and several private banks. Pop. (1890) 2,727; 
(1900) 3,077. 

Apalachicola, a river flowing from south¬ 
eastern Georgia across Florida, and entering the 
Gulf of Mexico through Apalachicola Bay. It 
is navigable throughout its length of 90 miles 
and is formed by the union of the Flint and 
Chattahoochee Rivers. 

Ap'anage, or Ap'panage, an allowance 
formerly received by the younger princes of a 
reigning house in which the right of primo¬ 
geniture prevailed, from the revenues of the 
country. It consisted mostly in money, with 
the use of a residence and hunting grounds, at¬ 
tended frequently with the right of jurisdiction 
over these domains. 

Apar, a'par, the three-banded armadillo 
(Tolypeutes tricinctus ), which has three mova¬ 
ble bands and is one of the small species able 
to roll itself into a ball. See Armadillo. 

Aparri, a-par're, Philippines, a town of 
the Cagayan province, on the river Cagayan, 
near its mouth. Pop. 11,265. 

Apart'ment House, the term used in the 
United States to designate a structure intended 
to accommodate several families, each in its 
own set of rooms, which form a separate dwell¬ 
ing. Such structures are of comparatively re¬ 
cent introduction, but houses of this kind have 
long been built in Europe. In New York and 
other American cities there are now great blocks 
of such houses, which provide excellent and 
commodious dwellings at a lower rent than if 



CHIMPANZEE (Anthropopithccus nigcr) 










APES AND MONKEYS 



(jteyH'HM., H' 




Fig. 1 Skeleton of young Orang-outang. 2 Chimpanzee. ’ Skull of young Chimpanzee. < Skull of old Gorilla. 6 Skull of young Gorilla, « Kahau or Proboscis Monkey. ’ Mona Monkey * Magot or Barbarv Ane » Mandrill 

” Black Howler. i= Coaita. >* Capucin Moi.key. » Night Monkey. is Marmoset. 


10 Head of Baboon. 































HANDS AND FEET OF APES 



1-2. Gorilla. 

3-9. Chimpanzee. 
10. Orang-Utan. 
11-13. Gibbon. 


14-15. Guereza. 

16-18, Barbary Ape. 

19-20. Dog-faced Baboon. 
21-22. Night Ape. 














































APATELITE — APENNINES 


i 


«ach were a separate building. See Architec¬ 
ture ( American ). 

Apat'elite (from the Greek apatelos, “deceit¬ 
ful®), a mineral related to raimondite, occur¬ 
ring in small yellow, friable nodules in the im¬ 
mediate vicinity of Paris, France. It has the 
probable composition 4Fe2O3.6SO3.3H2O. 

Apatite (from the Greek word apate, 
“deceit,® in allusion to the fact that apatite is 
often confused with other minerals), a native 
phosphate of calcium, combined with fluorine 
or chlorine, and crystallizing in the hexagonal 
system, though also occurring massive. The 
crystals have a specific gravity of about 3.2 and 
a hardness of 5. Apatite is usually green, but it 
may occur white, or strongly red, yellow, 
brown, or blue. The common variety has the 
formula (CaF) Ca^PCh)^ and is known as 
“fluor-apatite®; but the fluorine is sometimes re¬ 
placed to a considerable extent, or even wholly, 
by chlorine. In such cases the mineral is known 
as “chlor-apatite.® A variety called “mangan- 
apatite® is also known, in which the calcium of 
the typical mineral is partially replaced by man¬ 
ganese. Apatite is widely distributed, and in 
many places occurs in vast deposits which are 
worked on a commercial scale on account of 
the value of the mineral as a phosphatic fertil¬ 
izer. The Canadian apatite occurs massive or 
in large crystals. It was formerly extensively 
mined as a fertilizer, but its use has now been 
almost entirely supplanted by the (( rock phos¬ 
phate® of Florida, 'South Carolina, and Tennes¬ 
see. See Fertilizers. 

Apatite Group.— In mineralogy, a group of 
minerals crystallizing in the hexagonal system, 
and consisting of arsenates, phosphates, and 
vanadates of calcium and lead, associated with 
chlorine or fluorine. It contains apatite, pyro- 
morphite, mimetite, vanadinite, hedyphane, ple- 
onectite and svabite. 

Ape (A. S. apa, Ger. Affe), in modern us¬ 
age, a term describing an Old-World tailless 
monkey, such as the gorilla, orang-utan, chim¬ 
panzee, or gibbon, but originally an exact 
synonym for monkey and applied to any quadru- 
manous animal except the lemurs. For exam¬ 
ples of this older usage see Baboon; Macaque; 
Monkey. In its modern sense it applies partic¬ 
ularly to the family Simiidce, or anthropoid 
apes, found in the forests of the equatorial re¬ 
gions of the Old World and called “anthropoid® 
on account of their great resemblance to man. 
This likeness is especially marked in young in¬ 
dividuals before the face has attained its full 
brutality of expression, the canine teeth their 
great size, and the skull its final thickening 
and growth into crests and ridges. Except for 
the shape of the jaw (which, instead of being 
curved, comes to a noticeable angle on each side 
with a canine tooth at the apex of each angle), 
and for the development of the skull already 
mentioned, as well as for the relative length of 
the arms and shortness of the legs, and the fact 
that the great toe is short and more or less op¬ 
posable to the other fingers, an ape’s skeleton is 
practically the same as man’s, though larger and 
heavier in proportion to the body, and lacking 
certain curvatures of the spine which adapt the 
human frame to ease in an erect position. The 
brain-case, and the brain, itself are much smaller 
than in man, yet similar in development, and the 
brain is much convoluted. The teeth are of the 


same number as man’s and of like character. 
In certain divergences of structure exhibited 
between the inferior families of monkeys and 
man, the ape resembles man and differs from the 
monkeys. 

The gibbons (noticeable for standing erect 
with less difficulty than any other apes), the 
chimpanzee (which has the largest brain), the 
gorilla, and the orang-utan, together with sev¬ 
eral extinct and fossil species, make up the an¬ 
thropoid apes. All are clothed with hair on all 
parts of the body except the face and palms; 
they have no cheek-pouches, no tail, and either 
no trace or but very slight traces of the naked 
spots or callosities seen upon the buttocks of 
the lower apes. All are as large or larger than 
man, and all can walk upright, though they are 
more at ease in climbing than in walking. When 
on the ground they make their way slowly, 
sometimes closing the hands in order to walk 
on the knuckles instead of the palm, and either 
similarly closing the foot or walking on its side. 
Their food is mainly vegetable, yet their great 
strength, their intelligence, and their savage na¬ 
ture, place them among the most dangerous of 
wild animals. See Chimpanzee; Gibbon; Go¬ 
rilla; Orang-Utan; Pithecanthropus. 

Ape'ga, the wife of Nabis, a tyrant of 
Sparta, who invented an infernal* machine which 
he called after his wife, “Apega.® It was a box 
exactly resembling his wife in her royal apparel, 
but the interior was full of spikes which wound¬ 
ed the victim enclosed in almost every part of 
the body. The “Iron Virgin® was a similar in¬ 
strument employed by the Inquisition. It rep¬ 
resented a woman of Bavaria, and the spikes 
were so arranged as to pierce the least vital parts 
in order to prolong the sufferings of the victim 
enclosed. 

Apel, a/pel, Johann August, a German 
author: b. in Leipsic, 1771; d. 1816. His ( Ge- 
spensterbuch ) and ( WunderbuclP were both pop¬ 
ular, the former containing the bases for the 
text of Weber’s opera of ( Der Freischiitz. His 
^etrik,* which includes a survey of ancient 
prosody, is his best-known work. 

Apeldorn, a'pel-dorn, or A'peldoorn, a 
notably attractive town of Holland, province of 
Guelderland, 17 miles north of Arnhem; with 
manufactures of paper, morocco leather, and 
copper-plates. The Loo, a favorite palace of the 
late king of Holland, is at Apeldorn. Pop. 
(1900) 25,761. 

Apelles, the most famous painter of an¬ 
cient Greece and of antiquity: b. in the 4th cen¬ 
tury B.c., probably at Colophon. Attracted by 
the renown of the Sicyonian school, he studied 
at Sicyon. In the time of Philip he went to 
Macedonia, and there a close friendship between 
him and Alexander the Great was established. 
The most admired of his pictures w r as that of 
Venus rising from the sea and wringing the 
water from her dripping locks. His portrait 
of Alexander with a thunderbolt in his hand was 
no less celebrated. His renown was at its height 
about B.c. 330, and he died near the end of the 
century. See Houssaye, ( Histoire d’Appelles > 
(1867) ; Wustman, Apelles’ Leben und Werke > 
(1870). 

Apennines, the chief mountain range of 
Italy, about 800 miles long and 25 to 85 mile^ 
wide, extending from Savona to Reggio in the 


APENNINES 


form of a bow. Geologically the Apennines re¬ 
semble the Alps, and connect them with, the 
north Sicilian and north African mountain 
ranges. Granite and crystalline schist (gneiss 
and mica-schist) are found in the Ligurian 
Apennines, especially in Calabria, south of the 
Gulf of Policastro. In the Apennines proper 
these older crystalline formations are entirely 
lacking. They consist principally of limestone, 
dolomite, sandstone, and marl, of the Chalk and 
Tertiary formations, in which occur strata of ser¬ 
pentine in the north, and sometimes trachyte and 
basalt, especially on Mount Vulture. In the 
northern Apennines, and also in the Tuscan 
highlands, there are large quantities of marl, 
shale, an-d blue-gray sandstone, which belong in 
part to the Chalk formation and in part to the 
early Tertiary. Limestone is found in large quan¬ 
tities in the composition of the whole mountain 
range. Carboniferous, Permian, Triassic, and 
Liassic deposits occur in the Apuan Alps, the fa¬ 
mous marble of Carrara belonging to the Lias¬ 
sic or Triassic period. The Apennines are di¬ 
vided into six parts, according to the regions 
through which they pass, and these fall into 
three groups, the northern Apennines (includ¬ 
ing the Ligurian and Etruscan) ; the middle 
Apennines (the Roman Apennines and the 
Abruzzi) ; the southern Apennines (the Nea¬ 
politan and Calabrian). The Ligurian Apen¬ 
nines reach from the Col de Tenda, the geologi- 
-cal boundary of the Alps, to the Pass of Cisa 
ifabout 700 miles). The southern slope falls 
abruptly to the sea, the northern slope gradually, 
with many valleys, toward the river Po. Nu¬ 
merous passes lead from the coast towns over 
the range, among them the Bochetta Pass, and 
the Giovi Pass from Genoa; and the Genoa-Ales- 
sandria. Railroad has cut a tunnel through near 
the last-named pass. From there to the east 
the range almost doubles its width and in¬ 
creases in height. The eastern half, consisting 
of several parallel chains, is difficult to cross, 
and a serious hindrance to transportation. In 
this portion there are practically no thorough¬ 
fares except the railroad from Parma to Spezia. 

The Etruscan Apennines, extending to the 
valley of the Metauro, have a southeasterly di¬ 
rection throughout and consist of several ranges, 
one in front of the other, like the links of a 
chain. The most noted peaks are in the north¬ 
ern part, the Alpe de Succiso (about 6,600 
feet), Mount Cusna (over 6,900 feet), and 
Mount Cimone (7,103 feet), the latter being 
the highest peak in the northern Apennines. 
The northern portion includes the Apuan Alps, 
bounded by the valley of the Serchio, the Magra 
and the Antella, which reach the height of about 
6,400 feet in Mount Pisano and are of pure mar¬ 
ble (Carrara) on the slope toward the sea. The 
most important thoroughfare of the Etruscan 
Alps is the railroad from Bologna to Florence, 
which passes through a tunnel near Prachia; 
the La Fluta Pass, over which the road from 
Florence to Bologna passes, should also be men¬ 
tioned. The Roman Apennines, beginning be¬ 
tween the valleys of the Tiber and the Metauro, 
extend to the valley of the Tronto and Belino 
and consist of numerous parallel chains. In the 
north the main peak is Mount Catria (about 
5.420 feet) ; in the south, the chain of the Sybil- 
line Mountains rise to the height of 5,100 feet 
(Mount Vittore). The formation of the range 


here renders the crossing easy, and the railroad 
from Ancona to Florence and Rome crosses 
here. The Abruzzi extend southward from the 
valley of the Tronto, and in their eastern chain 
in Gran Sasso’ d’ltalia reach the greatest height 
in the whole Apennines (Mount Corno, 9,585 
feet). The western chain, which, with the east¬ 
ern, encloses the Plain of Aquila, has a height of 
almost 8,150 feet (Mount Velino), and south of 
the Pescara tunnel is the Majella range with a 
height of 9,200 feet. The Neapolitan Apennines 
extend from the valley of the Sangro and Vol- 
turno to that of the Crati, but their altitude is 
much less than that of the middle Apennines, the 
Matesian Mountains reaching the height of over 
6,700 feet in Mount Miletto. Rounded, wave-like 
shapes prevail in this range. On the eastern 
range is the extinct volcano of Mount Vulture. 
The roads and railroads from the west to the 
east coast encounter no particular difficulty in 
crossing this range. In the south the Apennines 
reach again a noticeable height in Mount Pellino 
(7,450 feet) and slope abruptly to the valley of 
the Crati. The Calabrian Apennines consist of 
a small chain sloping abruptly to the Tyrrhenian 
Sea, and of the granite plateau of the Silagian 
Mountains with a mean height of 3,000 feet. 
This North Calabrian mountain land is sepa¬ 
rated from the South Calabrian by a neck of 
land between the Gulf of Santa Eusemia, and 
the Gulf of Squillace. The outer northerly and 
northeastern slope of the Apennines is gradual, 
the eastern slope almost everywhere so abrupt 
that on ttie Adriatic coast there is only room 
for a road. Since the Apennines on the west 
of the Gulf of Salerno lie near the coast, but in 
the north extend farther and farther away from 
it, there exists a three-cornered space in which 
lie the so-called Lower Apennines. The vol¬ 
canic formation is especially characteristic of 
these mountains, and these regions are the 
classic ground of present and former volcanic 
action. Therefore there are here active and ex¬ 
tinct volcanoes and hot springs, among them 
the springs of Voltena. The Lower Apennine 
region is divided into several parts by the broad 
valleys of the rivers flowing from the Apennines. 
Of these divisions the Tuscan highland is the 
most noted, ending on the south at the lower 
Tiber. In the interior are fertile plains slop¬ 
ing gently toward the valley of the Arno; in the 
west the highlands end with an abrupt slope, 
between which and the coast lie the plains of 
Maremma, from which rise a few single peaks. 
The part of the Lower Apennines between the 
valleys of the Tiber and the Garigl'iano includes 
two small mountain-groups: the Alban Moun¬ 
tains, famed for their beautiful scenery, and the 
Volsker Mountains extending as far as the 
coast near Terracina. West of these Volscian 
Mountains lies a plain whose northern por¬ 
tion includes the Campagna of Rome, while the 
southern part contains the Pontine marshes. 
The southernmost part of the Lower Apennines 
extends from the Garigliano to the mountain 
range of Castellamare, north of Salerno, and 
includes the plain of Campania, noted for its 
fertility as well as its beauty. From this plain 
rise several single volcanoes, including the ex¬ 
tinct Mount Della Croce in the north and Vesu¬ 
vius (4,200 feet) in the south. The climate is 
on the whole more severe than would be ex¬ 
pected from the latitude and the position of 


APENRADE — APHASIA 


Italy, while the heat in summer reaches a de¬ 
gree almost unendurable in the low and shel¬ 
tered valleys, and palms and other tropical vege¬ 
tation can thrive on almost all the west coast; 
neither fruit nor grain grow on the exposed, 
windy heights, with their elevation of over 
3,000 feet, and the trees are few and stunted. 
The region of vegetation may be divided into 
four sections: (1) The olive region to the 
1,500-foot elevation, with Mediterranean flora, 
garden plants, and winter pasturage; (2) the re¬ 
gion of the chestnut and oak, to the elevation of 
3,000 feet, with agricultural products and chest¬ 
nut woods; (3) the region of the beech and 
coniferous trees at the height of 3,000 to 6,000 
feet; (4) the region of the shrubs and Alpine 
plants with summer pasturage extending to the 
highest peaks. In climate, therefore, the north¬ 
ern Apennines form a line of separation be¬ 
tween north and south ; only on their southern 
slopes does Italy really begin. The northern 
part only presents great difficulties in traveling. 
The mountains are now traversed by eight rail¬ 
roads, mostly by means of tunnels. 

Apenrade, a'pen-ra'de. (Danish, Aabenraa ), 
a seaport of Prussia, in the district of Schles¬ 
wig-Holstein, on the Little Belt and in the 
Bay (fjord) of Apenrade. It is beautifully 
situated in a deep valley surrounded by woody 
heights and a fertile country. Apenrade has a 
school of navigation and carries on a consid¬ 
erable seafaring trade. It is a popular bathing 
resort and is a place of considerable antiquity. 
Pop. (1900) 6,616. 

Ap'erture, in anatomy, zoology, botany, 
etc.: The aperture of a univalve shell is the 
opening or mouth. In mollusks which feed on 
vegetable matter it is entire; while in those 
which are animal feeders it has a notch or canal. 
In some families it has an operculum or cover. 
The margin of the aperture is called the peri¬ 
stome. 

In optics, see Microscope; Telescope. 

Ape’s Hill (Arabic, Jebel Zatut ), the an¬ 
cient Abyla, the extremity of a mountain range 
in northern Morocco, opposite Gibraltar, and 
one of the <( Pillars of Hercules.” 

A'pex, in mining, the highest point of 
outcrop of a mineral vein or lode. This is the 
common definition of the term as used by 
miners, although its legal significance must 
be interpreted in connection with the local 
conditions and cannot be defined in general 
terms. According to the Revised Statutes 
of the United States for 1872 the owner of a 
mineral claim which includes the apex is al¬ 
lowed to follow the vein along the dip for an 
indefinite distance without regard to the own¬ 
ership of the overlying surface, so that the 
proper location of the apex is of the utmost 
importance in establishing the lines for a 
claim. It has been decided by the courts that 
the apex need not appear necessarily at the 
surface, and hence the term does not exactly 
coincide with the term outcrop. In the 
case of an inclined vein whose apex is con¬ 
cealed, but which outcrops at some point 
lower down, the right of mining is conveyed 
to the owner of the apex-claim in preference to 
the owner of the outcrop-claim. _ This law 
has been the cause of much confusion and of 
expensive litigation in settling the ownership 


of valuable mining properties in the western 
States. A wiser provision is that obtaining 
in most European countries, which grants the 
owner the right of mining only within the 
vertical limits of his claim. 

Apex of the Sun’s Way, a term signifying 
the point in the constellation Hercules to 
which the sun’s motion in space is directed. 
This point is about in right ascension 18 hours 
30 minutes, and declination 35 0 north. The 
point is therefore somewhat south of the zenith 
for most of the United States in the early part 
of the evenings of August. Of course this 
statement is meant to indicate the locality only 
in the most general way. That the solar system 
is moving toward this part of the heavens is 
indicated by the apparent spreading apart of 
the stars in this region, together with an appar¬ 
ent crowding together of the stars in the opposite 
direction, as the trees open in front of one 
walking through a grove and shut together 
behind him. The velocity of this motion is 
shown by spectroscopic observation to be about 
11 miles per second. The movement, so far as 
observed, seems to be in a straight line, 
but may turn out to be in a vast curved 
orbit. 

Aphan'esite, a-fan'e-sit (from the Greek 
aphanes, ^obscure,” in allusion to the difficulty 
of recognizing it by its crystals), a mineral 
now better known as Clinoclasite. 

Aphanip'tera, an order of wingless insects 
having a sucker of three pieces and a true 
metamorphosis. The thorax is distinctly sep¬ 
arate from the abdomen, and two horny 
plates mark the spots where wings would be 
in the higher insects. It contains the 
Pulicidce, or fleas. 

Aph'anite, af'a-nit (derivation same as for 
aphanesite), a variety of the rock known as 
diorite, in which the constituent minerals oc¬ 
cur in such small grains that the aggregate 
rock appears almost (or quite) homogeneous, 
except when examined through a lens. 

Aphasia, the designation of a disorder of 
speech due to disturbance of its brain 
mechanism independently of any muscular 
defect. This mechanism is complex and is 
usually divisible into two parts, the recep¬ 
tive, or sensory, and emissive, or motor. 
To the former belong those parts of the 
brain that store concepts of spoken words 
or written words; to the latter those parts 
concerned in co-ordinate speech or in writ¬ 
ing. Thus aphasia may be of at least four 
different and independent types. Frequently 
it is a combination of one or more of these. 
The centre in the brain that stores intellec¬ 
tual auditory impressions is located. in the 
first temporal convolution. Any injury to 
this part of the speech mechanism may pro¬ 
duce auditory aphasia, or word deafness. A 
patient thus affected is able to hear words 
and to speak, but he does not comprehend 
what is being said to him. He has lost his 
hearing word memories, and his own lan¬ 
guage is as a foreign language that he hears 
but cannot comprehend. In an analogous 
manner, if there is disorder of the occipital 
lobes, about* the calcarine fissure, or of its 
related fibre tracts, a patient may have visual 
aphasia, or word blindness. His own written 


APHELION — APHIS 


language might as well be in Arabic, for he 
has lost all his memory of written words. 
These types of aphasia are much less com¬ 
mon than the true type of motor aphasia, or 
aphemia. In this the trouble is in the third 
left frontal convolution in the brain, Brocas 
convolution, or its related fibre tracts, and 
a patient thus affected has lost the power to 
say the words he desires to say. He is per¬ 
fectly able to talk, may repeat words, but 
knowing in his mind precisely what he wishes 
to say is unable to express it, not because of 
any failure of the muscular power of the 
tongue to articulate, but because of the de¬ 
fect in the storage centre or its fibre paths 
for motor speech. A fourth type is agraphia, 
in which the affected patient is unable to 
write with understanding the words with 
which he is familiar. The site of the lesion 
here is undetermined. It usually accompa¬ 
nies motor aphasia. There are also forms 
of combined aphasia in which the fibre tracts 
from one centre to another are cut off. 
These make paraphasias, and their symptoms 
are extremely complex. Aphasia in its various 
forms may differ very widely in its extent. 
It may be very slight or very profound. It 
may be temporary or permanent, depending 
on the nature and extent of the brain injury. 
Aphasia is most frequently a symptom of 
hemorrhage from some artery or arteries in 
the brain; it may be caused by the growth of 
a tumor or result from an injury. The 
treatment is that of the causing disease. In 
the sensory aphasias education of the non- 
affected areas is of great importance. If 
there is word blindness, the memory for 
spoken symbols should be cultivated, and vice 
versa. See Speech, Defects of. 

Bibliography .— Baldwin, dictionary of 
Philosophy and Psychology, 5 article entitled 
( Speech and its Defects 5 (1903); Collins, 
( The Genesis and Dissolution of the Faculty 
of Speech 5 (1898); Bastian, ( Aphasia and 
other Speech Defects 5 (1898); Elder, Apha¬ 
sia and the Cerebral Speech Mechanism 5 
(1897) (with bibliography); Kiissmaul, article 
in ( Ziemssen’s Encyclopedia of Medicine, 5 
Vol. XII. 

Aphe'lion, that part in the orbit of the 
earth (or any other planet) which is farthest 
from the sun. 

Aphemia, a term employed to designate a 
motor aphasia. See Aphasia. 

Aphis, a plant-louse of the family Aphidi- 
dce, order Hemiptera. Aphides are among the 
most abundant of insects and do much injury 
to vegetation by their habit of sucking the sap 
of leaves and stems of plants. They are usually 
very small, never over a quarter of an inch 
in length. Their mouth-parts form a slender 
beak adapted for puncturing leaves and sucking 
the sap. Their antennae are from five- to seven- 
jointed, and generally longer than the body. 
The ocelli are wanting, and the beak is three- 
jointed and developed in both sexes. The legs 
are long and slender, with two-jointed tarsi. 
The males and females are winged, and also the 
last brood of asexual individuals, but the early 
summer broods are wingless. Their bodies are 
flask-shaped, being cylindrical, the abdomen 
thick and rounded, and in aphis and lachnus 


provided with two tubes on the sixth segment 
for the passage of a sweet fluid (honey-dew) 
secreted from the stomach, which attracts 
crowds of ants. (See Ant.) The wings are not 
net-veined, having few veins, which pass out¬ 
ward from the costa. They are usually green in 
color, with a soft powdery bloom exuding from 
their bodies. Bonnet first discovered that the 
summer brood of wingless individuals were born 
of virgin parents, hatched from eggs laid in the 
autumn, and that the true winged sexes com¬ 
posed the last generation, which united sexually, 
and that the female laid eggs in the autumn 
which produced the spring brood of asexual 
wingless individuals. 

In the early autumn the colonies of plant-lice 
are composed of both male and female individ¬ 
uals. These pair, the males then die, and the 
females begin to deposit their eggs, after which 
they die also. Early in the spring, as soon as 
the sap begins to flow, these eggs are hatched, 
and the young lice immediately begin to pump 
up sap from the tender leaves and shoots, in¬ 
crease rapidly in size, and in a short time come 
to maturity. In this state it is found that the 
whole brood, without a single exception, con¬ 
sists solely of females, or rather, and more 
properly, of individuals which are capable of re¬ 
producing their kind. This reproduction takes 
place by a viviparous generation, there being 
found in the individuals in question young lice 
which, when capable of entering upon individual 
life, escape from their progenitors and form 
a new and greatly increased colony. This sec¬ 
ond generation pursues the same course as the 
first, the individuals of which it is composed 
being, like those of the first, sexless, or at least 
without any trace of the male sex throughout. 
These same conditions are then repeated, and so 
on almost indefinitely, experiments having 
shown that the power of reproduction under 
such circumstances may be exercised, according 
to Bonnet, at least through nine generations, 
while Dural thus obtained eleven generations 
in seven months, his generations being cur¬ 
tailed at this stage not by a failure of the re¬ 
productive . power, but by the approach of 
winter, which killed his specimens. Huber ob¬ 
served that a colony of A. dianthi, which had 
been brought into a constantly heated room 
continued to propagate for four years in this 
manner without the intervention of males, and 
even in this instance it remains to be proved 
how much longer these phenomena might have 
been continued. 

Certain species feed on the roots of plants, 
as asters, lettuce, grasses, etc., and these also 
attract numerous ants. The cornplant-louse 
has been found by Forbes to hibernate in the 
wingless, asexual form in the earth of previously 
infested corn-fields. In the spring an ant 
(Lasius alienus), which runs its tunnels along 
the principal roots of the corn, collects the 
aphides and conveys them into its galleries, 
where they are watched and protected. The 
white-pine aphis (Lachnus strobi ) is destructive 
to young white-pine trees. Another aphid is the 
grape Phylloxera (q.v.). The woolly aphids 
(Schizoneurd tessellata) flock on the stems of 
the alder, their bodies concealed by a flocculent 
mass of wax. Another destructive species is 
the apple woolly louse (S. lanigera). Aphides, 
can be exterminated by frequent spraying. 


APHIS AND ANT-LION 



' / <tru.G£L.X.J. 


1-7. Phylloxera Vastatrix. 

1-3. Larvae, Front and Back View. 

2. Adult Insect. 

4. Mouth Parts. 

5. Grape Vine Root in which the Insects are workintr. 


6. Larva, Side View. 

7. Old Root, with Colonies of Lice. 

8. Ant-Lion (Myrmeleon formicarius). Showing 

Pupa, Larva and Adult Stages. 





















































































































































APIOSOMA —APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE 


Bibliography. — Works on injurious insects 
and economic entomology, especially, for the 
United States, Thomas, ( Eighth Report of State 
Entomologist of Illinois ) (Springfield, 1879) ; 
and for Europe, Buckton, ( Monograph of Brit¬ 
ish Aphides ) (Ray Society, London, 1879-83). 

Apis (Egyptian. Hapi), a bull at Memphis 
to which divine honors were paid by the ancient 
Egyptians, and which was regarded as the repre¬ 
sentative of Osiris. It was necessary that he 
should be black, with a triangle of white on 
the forehead, a white spot in the form of a 
crescent on the right side, and a sort of knot 
like a beetle^under his tongue. Other marks 
are. also mentioned. When a bull of this de¬ 
scription was found he was fed four months in 
a building facing the east. At the new moon 
he was led to a splendid ship with great sol¬ 
emnity, and conveyed to Heliopolis, where he 
was fed 40 days more by priests and women, 
who performed before him various indecent 
ceremonies. From Heliopolis the priests car¬ 
ried him to Memphis, where he had a temple, 
two chambers to dwell in, and a large court for 
exercise. His actions were thought to have 
prophetic significance, and he was believed to 
impart prophetic power to the children about 
him. His birthday was celebrated every year, 
when the Nile began to rise. The festival con¬ 
tinued for seven days, and it was said that the 
crocodile was always tame as long as the feast 
continued. Notwithstanding all this veneration, 
the bull was not suffered to live beyond 25 years, 
the reason of which is probably to be found 
in the astronomical theology of the Egyptians. 
The death of Apis, however, excited universal 
mourning, which continued till the priests had 
found a successor to him. As it was extremely 
difficult to find one with all the above distinc¬ 
tions, fraud was often practised by the priests. 

Ap'johnite, a native manganese alum, or 
hydrated sulphate of aluminum and manganese, 
found in fibrous form and as incrustations at 
Lagoa Bay, South Africa, and in Sevier County, 
Tennessee. It is variable in composition, but 
some analyses indicate MnSCh.A^SO-Os + 
24H2O. It is usually white or nearly so, and 
tastes much like common alum. 

Aplanatic Lenses, a term applied to lenses 
nearly or quite free from spherical aberration. 
If the curved surfaces of a single convex lens 
are portions of spheres, the rays of light from 
one point of an object are not accurately brought 
together at one corresponding point of the 
image, the rays passing through the outer por¬ 
tions of the lens being too much refracted. The 
result is a distorted image. Theoretically it is 
easy to correct this error by substituting 
ellipsoidal surfaces for the spherical, but such 
surfaces cannot be accurately constructed. 
Spherical aberration is corrected, in practice, 
by combinations of two or more lenses in one, 
the surfaces being of differing curvatures. The 
results are quite satisfactory, and the method is 
applied in the manufacture of objectives and 
eve-pieces for telescopes and microscopes, as well 
as in the making of lenses to be used in photog¬ 
raphy. 

Apoc'alypse (Greek, apokalypsis, from apo- 
halypto, I reveal), the name frequently given to 
the last book of the New Testament. It is 
generally believed that the Apocalypse was writ¬ 


ten by John in his old age, at the end of the 
first century (95-97 a.d.), in the Isle of Patmos, 
whither he had been banished by the Roman 
emperor Domitian. Though commonly regarded 
as. genuine in the first centuries of Christianity, 
critics have not been wanting who have doubted 
the evidence of its being the work of St. John. 
Its genuineness was maintained by Justin Mar¬ 
tyr (c. 150), Irenaeus (195), Clement of Alex¬ 
andria (200), Tertullian (207), and many oth¬ 
ers ; and doubted by Dionysius of Alexandria 
(240), Cyril of Jerusalem, Chrysostom, and, 
nearer our own times, by Luther and a majority 
of eminent German commentators. In recent 
times a composite authorship has been suggest¬ 
ed and some have regarded it as a Jewish work 
adapted by a Christian writer. The Apocalypse, 
On account of its metaphorical language, has 
been explained differently by almost every inter¬ 
preter, and for the same reason it has furnished 
all sorts of sects and fanatics with quotations to- 
support their creeds or pretensions. There can 
be no doubt that the hopes of the early Chris¬ 
tians and the severe persecution they endured led 
them to regard the Roman empire as the object 
of prophetic denunciation, and the coming of 
Christ and the millennium as near at hand. 
When, under Constantine, however, the Chris¬ 
tians became dominant and prosperous, the em¬ 
pire was considered as the scene of a millennial 
development, and in course of time the barbarous 
hordes who were closing round Rome were re¬ 
garded as fulfilling the woes predicted in the 
Apocalypse At the Reformation the Protes¬ 
tants identified Babylon with papal Rome, and 
the second beast of Antichrist with a universal 
pontiff. The modern interpreters may be divided 
into three schools: namely, the historical school,, 
who hold that the prophecy embraces the whole 
history of the Church and its foes from the time 
of its writing to the end of the world; the 
Praeterists, who hold that the whole, or nearly 
the whole, of the prophecy has been already ful¬ 
filled, and that it refers chiefly to the triumph 
of Christianity over Paganism and Judaism; 
and the Futurists, who throw the whole prophe¬ 
cy, except the first three chapters, forward upon 
a time not yet reached by the Church — a period 
of no very long duration, which is immediately 
to precede Christ’s second coming. The Apoca¬ 
lypse contains 22 chapters, which may be divided 
into two principal parts. The first comprises 
<( the things which are®—that is, the then pres¬ 
ent state of the Christian Church, including the 
epistolary instructions and admonitions to the 
angels or bishops of the seven churches of 
Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamos, Thyatira, Sardis, 
Philadelphia, and Laodicea, situated in Asia 
Minor. The second part comprehends a predic¬ 
tion of c the things which shall be hereafter,® 
referring either to the future state of the Church 
through succeeding ages, from the time of the 
apostle to the grand consummation of all things, 
or to the state of the souls of men after the 
general resurrection. 

Apocalyptic Literature, the designation of 
a large body of literature originating in Jewish 
and continued in early Jewish Christian circles. 
The most of it was produced between 200 b.c 
and 200 a.d. In a broad sense it had for its 
theme the future triumph of the kingdom of 
God. The most important works were written 
in times of great stress, when persecution or 


APOCALYPTIC NUMBER — APOCYNACEiE 


oppression weighed heavily on the Jews (or 
Christians, as the case might be). At such 
times consolation was found in the thought that 
God would surely cause his kingdom to triumph 
by punishing the wicked and rewarding his 
saints. 

The beginnings of Apocalyptic literature are 
to be found in the Old Testament writings of 
the Exile period. The main theme of the pro¬ 
phetic messages of these times was, of course, the 
solution of the problems directly concerned with 
Israel in exile, and the teaching was mainly in 
the nature of rebuke for sin, instilling loftier 
and purer conceptions of God and sustaining 
the hope of a restoration to the old land, there 
to enjoy a long and happy existence. But at 
times the future unveiled by prophecy took on a 
peculiar aspect,— on an imaginary arena, in an 
undated distant time, the great forces of the 
world and of God were seen to be in conflict. 
At first, as in Ezekiel xxxviii. and xxxix., the 
scene of the struggle is this earth, and the doom 
of the defeated hosts is simply their destruction 
by slaughter. The same may be said of the 
apocalyptic strains in Zech. xiv. and Joel iii. 
9-21. It is this unveiling of the future, not as 
to single events or specific historical movements, 
but as to its processes and great world-wide 
and age-long conflicts, that is technically termed 
apocalyptic (from the Greek airoKaX^-irieLv to un¬ 
veil). The foundation being thus laid in exilic 
and early post-exilic days, when the next great 
crisis came in the deadly struggle with Syria 
(168-142 b.c. ) it was but natural that a gifted 
spirit should again make use of this form of 
prophetic instruction. Hence we have in Daniel 
vii.-xii. such unveilings of the course of history 
in which the certain triumph of Jehovah’s eter¬ 
nal kingdom is the inspiring motive. But now 
Apocalyptic perception has opened its vision not 
simply on the earthly phases of the struggle, but 
on its eternal outcome for the evil and the good 
(cf. Dan. xii.). Henceforth these phases are to 
receive special attention from Apocalyptic writ¬ 
ers. The book of Daniel gave Judaism a power¬ 
ful impetus in this direction, and in the suc¬ 
ceeding centuries Apocalypses were put forth 
which made bold to pretend to uncover the secret 
counsels of God’s purposes and the mysteries of 
heaven and hell. The most refined and purified 
of all such works is the great Christian Apoca¬ 
lypse of the Apostle John. With the single ex¬ 
ception of the New Testament Apocalypse all 
the works of this nature are pseudepigraphic. 
In order to give them the appearance of pre¬ 
dictions uttered long before the times in which 
they were actually written they were put forth 
under the name of some ancient worthy, as 
Enoch, Abraham, Moses, etc., as though spoken 
or written by him. Between 20 and 30 Apoca¬ 
lyptic works are known to have been once 
in circulation. Those of Jewish origin, among 
which the most influential and comprehensive 
were the Book of Enoch and 2 Esdras (the lat¬ 
ter in the Old Testament Apocrypha) were taken 
over into Christian circles, and there often re¬ 
cast and made to do service as Christian books. 
After about 200 a.d. Christian scholars strongly 
disapproved of the use of the various Apoca¬ 
lypses, except those in the Bible and 2 Esdras, 
and they gradually dropped out of use. Many 
are now known only by name. 

Edward E. Nourse. 


Apoc'alyp'tic Number, the mystic number 
666, which, according to some authorities, should 
be 616, mentioned in Revelation xiii. 18. As 
early as the second century ecclesiastical writers 
found that the name Antichrist was indicated 
by the Greek characters expressive of this num¬ 
ber, numbers being expressed in Greek by the 
letters of the alphabet. By Irenseus the word 
Lateinos was found in the letters of the number, 
and the Roman empire was therefore considered 
to be Antichrist. Another solution is Neron 
Kesar (Hebrew form of Nero Caesar). Omit¬ 
ting the e’s and the a, not written in ancient 
Hebrew, we get 666 as the value of the letters. 

Apochrom'atic Lens. See Lens. 

Apoc'rypha (Greek, (( things concealed or 
spurious”), a term applied in the earliest chur¬ 
ches to various sacred or professedly inspired 
writings, sometimes given to those whose au¬ 
thors were unknown, sometimes to those with a 
hidden meaning, and sometimes to those con¬ 
sidered objectionable. It is specially applied to 
the 14 undermentioned books written during the 
two centuries preceding the birth of Christ. 
They were extant, not in Hebrew, but in Greek, 
and were accepted by Alexandrian, though not by 
Palestinian Jews. They were incorporated into 
the Septuagint, and thence passed to the Vulgate, 
but the Greek Church excluded them from the 
canon in 360 at the Council of Laodicea. The 
Latin Church treated them with more favor, 
and the Council of Trent, in the fifteenth cen¬ 
tury, definitively declared the acceptance of these 
books as part of the canon to be of faith. The 
Anglican Church says they may be read for ex¬ 
ample of life and instruction of manners, but 
that the Church does not apply them to establish 
any doctrine. All other Protestant churches in 
Great Britain and America ignore them. The 
following 14 books form the Apocrypha of the 
English Bible: The first and second Books of 
Esdras, Tobit, Judith, the rest of the Book of Es¬ 
ther, the Wisdom of Solomon, the Wisdom of 
Jesus the son of Sirach, or Ecclesiasticus, Baruch 
the Prophet, the Song of the Three Children, Su¬ 
sanna and the Elders, Bel and the Dragon, the 
Prayer of Manasses, and the first and second 
Books of the Maccabees. Besides the Apocry¬ 
phal books of the Old Testament there are many 
spurious books composed in the earlier ages of 
Christianity, and published under the names of 
Christ and his apostles, or of such immediate 
followers as from their character or means of 
intimate knowledge might give an apparent plaus¬ 
ibility to such forgeries. These writings com¬ 
prise: 1st, the Apocryphal Gospels, which treat 
of the history of Joseph and the Virgin before 
the birth of Christ, of the infancy of Jesus, 
and of the acts of Pilate; 2d, the Apocryphal 
Acts of the Apostles; and 3d, the Apocryphal 
Apocalypses, none of which have obtained can¬ 
onical recognition by any of the Churches. See 
Cowper, ( Apocryphal Gospels, EtcP 

Ap'ocyna'ceae, the designation of an exten¬ 
sive natural order of monopetalous exogenous 
plants, characterized by perfectly symmetrical 
flowers, the segments of the corolla all twisted 
one way like a catherine-wheel, five distinct 
stamens, a superior ovarium, which when ripen¬ 
ing opens into two- parts that diverge from 
each other at right angles; fruit follicular or 
capsular, or drupaceous or baccate, double or 


APODICTIC JUDGMENTS —APOLLO 


single. The order consists of trees or shrubs, 
many of whose stems yield, when wounded, a 
copious milk, usually poisonous. Generally 
found in tropical regions, they appear to be 
most abundant in the hot parts of Asia, are less 
common in the tropics of America, and still more 
rare in Africa. About ioo genera, including 566 
species, have been enumerated. The plants of 
this order are in many cases poisonous, and very 
generally to be suspected, although in some cases 
they are used medicinally, and in others have 
an edible fruit. One of the most deadly plants 
of the order is the Tangliina venenata. The 
kernel of the fruit, although not larger than an 
almond, is sufficient to kill 20 men; it was form¬ 
erly used in Madagascar as an ordeal. The com¬ 
mon oleander (Nerium oleander ) is a formid¬ 
able poison and death has resulted from eating 
its flowers. 

Apodictic Judgments, a logical term 
adopted by Kant from Aristotle to distinguish 
judgments or conclusions which are beyond con¬ 
tradiction from those which are merely empir¬ 
ical; or to put it differently, a judgment or con¬ 
clusion which is founded on the impossibility of 
the opposite, not upon grounds of experience is 
an apodictic judgment. 

Apollinarians, a sect of Christians who 
maintained the doctrine that the Logos (the 
Word) holds in Christ the place of the rational 
soul, and consequently that God was united in 
him with the human body and the sensitive soul. 
Apollinaris, the author of this opinion, was, from 
362 a.d. till about 382 a.d., bishop of Laodicea, 
in Syria, and a zealous opposer of the Aryans. 
As a man and a scholar he was highly esteemed, 
and was among the most popular authors of his 
time. He formed a congregation of his adher¬ 
ents at Antioch, and made Vitalis their bishop. 
His teaching was condemned at Alexandria in 
362; by Pope Damasus in 375; and in the Coun¬ 
cil of Constantinople in 381. The Apollinarians, 
or Vitalians, as their followers were called, soon 
spread their sentiments in Syria and the neigh¬ 
boring countries, established several societies, 
with their own bishops, and one even in Con¬ 
stantinople. The sect was denounced in 428 by 
imperial edict, and its members gradually re¬ 
turned to the Church or became Monophysites 
(q.v.). 

Apollo, son of Zeus (Jupiter) and Leto 
(Latona), who being persecuted by the jealousy 
of Hera (Juno), after tedious wanderings and 
nine days’ labor, was delivered of him and his 
twin sister, Artemis (Diana), on the island of 
Delos. He was the most important of the 
Olympian deities after Zeus and appears in 
mythology as the god of poetry, music, and 
prophecy, the patron of physicians and shep¬ 
herds, and the founder of cities. He aided Zeus 
in the war with the Titans and the giants, and 
destroyed the Cyclopes because they forged the 
thunder-bolts with which Zeus killed his son 
and favorite Asklepios (Hisculapius). AH of 
the male sex dying suddenly without previous 
sickness were supposed to be smitten by the 
arrows of Apollo. In the oldest poems Apollo 
is exhibited as the god of song, being known in 
this function as Apollo Citharcedus. Two stat¬ 
ues of Apollo Citharoedus are extant, one of 
them at the Glyptothek in Munich, the other at 
the Vatican, but their date is unknown. In the 


festivals of the gods and those of men in 
which they took part he plays and sings while 
the Muses dance around him. According to 
some traditions he invented the lyre, though 
this is generally ascribed to Hermes (Mercury). 
Marsyas, who ventured to contend with him on 
the flute, was conquered and flayed alive by the 
god. Apollo had another contest with Pan, in 
which the former played on the lyre, the latter 
on the pipe. Tmolus had already decided in fa¬ 
vor of Apollo, when Midas, opposing the sen¬ 
tence, was decorated with a pair of ass’s ears for 
his stupidity. That Apollo had the gift of 
prophecy appears from the Iliad, where he is 
said to have bestowed it upon Calchas and Cas¬ 
sandra ; and in the Odyssey mention is made of 
an oracular response delivered by him in Del¬ 
phi. The oracle at this place became very fa¬ 
mous. He also revealed future events at Abac 
in Phocis, Didyma near Miletus, Claros near 
Colophon in Ionia, Tenedos and Patara in 
Lycia. Apollo, in later times, came to be re¬ 
garded as the god of physic, and was repre¬ 
sented to be the father of Asklepios, the god of 
healing. He is reported to have taken charge for 
a long time of the herds of Admetus, according 
to some authorities voluntarily, according to 
others compelled by Zeus, on account of the 
murder of the Cyclopes, or the serpent Python. 
As a builder of cities, the founding of Cyzicum, 
Cyrene, and Naxos in Sicily is ascribed to him, 
while Homer relates that he built the walls of 
Troy together with Poseidon (Neptune), and 
afflicted the city afterward with a pestilence, 
because Laomedon defrauded him of his pay. 
According to the poets and sculptors, Apollo, 
with Ares (Mars), Hermes (Mercury), and 
Dionysos (Bacchus), belongs to the beardless 
gods, in whom the dawnings of early manhood 
appear. He is figured with a bow, a quiver and 
plectrum, a serpent, a shepherd’s crook, a griffin 
and a swan, a tripod, a laurel, an olive-tree, etc. 
He was originally the sun-god; and though in 
Homer he appears distinct from Helios (the 
sun), yet his real nature is hinted at even here 
by the epithet Phoebus, the radiant or beaming. 
In later times the view was almost universal 
that Apollo and Helios were identical, and by 
this theory of his origin we can easily under¬ 
stand how he should be regarded as the god of 
pastures (Nomios) and of flocks (Karneios), 
the god that protects and causes the fruits of 
the field to grow, the god that gives fair winds 
to mariners (Embasios), etc. As he slew the 
Python, that is, the hostile powers of darkness, 
with his arrows (the sunbeams), so in later 
times he was looked on as the averter of evil, 
the bringer of help, and the punisher of over¬ 
weening pride (as in the story of Niobe). From 
being the god of light and purity in a physical 
sense he gradually, as he became endowed more 
and more in the Greek mind with an ethical 
character, became the god of moral and spiritual 
light and purity, the source of all intellectual, 
social, and political progress. Thus he came to 
be considered as the god of song and prophecy, 
the god that purifies after the commission of 
crimes, that averts and heals bodily suffering 
and disease, the institutor and guardian of civil 
and political order, and the founder of cities. 
Though not one of the original gods of the 
Romans, his worship was introduced at Rome 
at an early period, probably in the time of the 


APOLLO BELVEDERE —APOLOGETICS 


Tarquins. Among the ancient statues of Apollo 
that are extant the most remarkable, and in the 
judgment of the learned and acute Winckel- 
mann the best and most perfect that art has 
produced, is the one called the Apollo Belvedere, 
from the Belvedere Gallery in the Vatican at 
Rome; also called the Pythian Apollo, because 
it is supposed that the artist has represented 
the god in the moment of his victory over the 
serpent Python. This statue was found in the 
ruins of Antium in 1503. It is conjectured to 
be a careful copy of a Greek original, perhaps 
of the 4th century b.c., or possibly a century or 
more later. 

Apollo Belvedere, bel'va-da'ra. See Apollo. 

Apollonius, Pergasus, from Perga in Pam- 
phylia; lived about 250-200 b.c. He was edu¬ 
cated in Alexandria under the successors of 
Euclid, and became one of the greatest mathe¬ 
maticians of antiquity, being commonly called 
the (< Great Geometer.® His most important work 
was a treatise on conic sections, in eight vol¬ 
umes, of which the first four, with the commen¬ 
tary of Eutocius, are extant in Greek, and all 
but the eighth volume in Arabic. We have 
also introductory lemmata to all the eight by 
Pappus, edited by Halley, ( Appolonius Pergseus 
Conic,> lib. VIII., c., Oxon. 1710, fol 

Apollo'nius of Tyana, a Pythagorean 
philosopher, b. at Tyana, in Cappadocia, about 
whom many wonderful stories are told. He was 
born in the beginning of the Christian era, early 
adopted the Pythagorean doctrines, abstaining 
from animal food and living in the simplest man¬ 
ner, and according to the Pythagorean precept 
maintained a rigid silence for five years. He 
traveled in Asia, disseminating his doctrines and 
doing many wonderful things, and proceeding 
as far as India, where he became initiated into 
the doctrines of the Brahmans. When Domi- 
tian ascended the throne Apollonius was accused 
of having excited an insurrection in Egypt in 
favor of Nerva, but readily submitting to a trial 
he was acquitted. After this he went once more 
to Greece and passed over to Ephesus, where he 
opened a Pythagorean school, and died in 96, or, 
according to others, no a.d. 

Apollyon, a-pol'li'on, or a-pokyun, a ren¬ 
dering of the Hebrew Abaddon, meaning de¬ 
struction. Apollyon is personified as the keeper 
of the bottomless pit. 

Apolo'gia pro Vi'ta Su'a, the title given 
by Cardinal Newman to the account of his re¬ 
ligious career, published in 1865. It was called 
forth by Charles Kingsley’s accusation that 
(< Truth, for its own sake, has never been a vir¬ 
tue with the Roman clergy. Father Newman 
informs us that it need not and on the whole 
ought not to be; that cunning is the weapon 
which heaven has given to the saints wherewith 
to withstand the brute male force of the wicked 
world, which marries and is given in marriage. 
Whether his notion be doctrinally correct or 
not, it is at least historically so.® Newman 
deeming the time ripe for a full and searching 
justification of his position, and of the position 
of his brother clergy, published the < Apologia :> 
the next year. Its supreme value is its intimate 
revelation of a luminous spirituality, of a per¬ 
sonality of lofty refinement and beauty. 

Apologetics, the department of theological 
science which deals with the defense of the 


Christian faith. It differs from dogmatics- 
which strives to reduce the doctrines of religion 
to a systematic form; and from polemics, which 
is the science of controversy, and while its sub¬ 
ject matter comprises the differences found in 
different schools of believers, apologetics deals 
with attacks upon the faith which are made 
by unbelievers. Apologetics may be again dis¬ 
tinguished from apologies. 1 he former has to 
do with the fundamental principles of the re¬ 
ligion and with the methods of defense which 
apply to all attacks, but an apology has to do 
with some special form of unbelief. The former 
is the science of which the latter is an applica¬ 
tion. Yet, apologetics as a science may be best 
understood through its historical applications 
and the distinction named is made more read¬ 
ily in theory than exhibited in detail. 

Owing to the nature of Christian theology 
as historically formulated, apologies have fallen 
under two main divisions, popularly known .as 
natural theology and the evidences of Chris¬ 
tianity. The former is usually put before the 
latter. It discusses the nature of God and the 
proofs of His existence as revealed to us in 
nature. It may also investigate the nature of 
man, his moral sense, the freedom of his will, 
and his capacity for knowing God. Its chief 
reliance has been upon four arguments: the 
ontological, which starts from our idea of a 
perfect being and shows that it implies actual 
existence: the cosmological, which from the 
long line of causes and effects, each contingent, 
argues backward to a first great cause, which 
is itself uncaused; the teleological, which shows 
the marks of design in nature, and from them 
argues to a great designer; the moral, which 
starts with the moral sense in man and argues to 
a holy and righteous maker. Some writers 
add an aesthetic argument, from our sense of 
beauty and its gratification in the universe. 
Then these various arguments are combined 
and the perfect being is shown to be the first 
great cause, righteous, wise, and a person 
whom therefore we call God. 

The evidences of Christianity assume the ex¬ 
istence of such a God, and from this basis 
prove Christianity to be His peculiar revela¬ 
tion, constituting the absolute religion. This 
proof ordinarily is divided into two great di¬ 
visions, external and internal. The external 
proofs are miracles and completed prophecy, 
which evince a power and wisdom which are 
Divine and guarantee the Divine authorship of 
the writings which they authenticate. The ex¬ 
ternal proofs include also the ‘ historical evi¬ 
dence to the genuineness of the scripture writ¬ 
ings. The internal evidences show the adapta¬ 
tion of the contents of the Bible to the needs 
of men, their agreement with the highest teach¬ 
ings of reason, and their elevating and purifying 
effect upon the mind and life. A further argu¬ 
ment is based upon the experience of the 
Christian as testifying to the truth of the doc¬ 
trines involved. 

This argument in both divisions, natural 
theology and the evidences of Christianity, oc¬ 
cupies the chief place in the text-books, but, 
evidently, it is a form of specific apology, and 
at best only in part illustrates essential apolo¬ 
getics. This appears from a wider survey for 
the argument, as stated above, while it meets a 
special situation, neither represents the actual 
argumentation in the first ages of the Church 


APOLOGETICS 


nor in our own day. Even in the New Testa¬ 
ment some of the writings have an apologetic 
purpose. Christianity in its early form met two 
opponents, Judaism and heathenism. To the 
first, the apostolic writers attempted to prove 
its truth by showing it as foretold in the Old 
Testament, and as completing the earlier Scrip¬ 
tures. When Christianity encountered Greek 
thought the situation was wholly different, and 
the apologists formulated the contents of the 
Gospel in a manner which appealed to the com¬ 
mon sense of all the serious thinkers and intel¬ 
ligent men of the age. That is, Christianity 
was presented as completing, or at least har¬ 
monizing with, the later Greek philosophy. In 
this it succeeded and then ensued a long period 
when apologetics was in abeyance. The in¬ 
tellectual life of the Church was engaged in 
formulating dogmas and in conflicts with her¬ 
esy.^ Only long aiter the Reformation was the 
strife renewed with men who seriously denied 
the truth of Christianity. 

In the end of the 17th century, and the be¬ 
ginning of the 18th century, the minds of Eng¬ 
lish Churchmen were engaged by the Deistic 
controversy. This had to do with the evi¬ 
dences of Christianity. The Copernican as¬ 
tronomy, changing men’s conceptions of the 
physical universe, the discovery of China, or 
better its rediscovery and its effect upon the 
imagination of thoughtful men, and the at¬ 
tacks of the British clergy upon the miracles 
of. the Roman Catholic Church, brought on a 
crisis. The new astronomy suggested the 
thought that the God of so great a universe 
could not be identical with Jehovah, the God 
of a Semitic people; nor could men conceive 
of the earth, no longer central but a mere 
planet, as the scene of the drama of the in¬ 
carnation and the redemption; the considera¬ 
tion of China with the thought of its relatively 
Tiigh civilization suggested that if China had 
got on so well without the special teaching of 
the gospel with the light of reason only, the 
special revelation must also be valueless to Eng¬ 
lishmen ; and the attacks of the clergy upon the 
Roman Catholic miracles as the frauds of priests 
led to the position that all miracles, including 
those of the Bible, may be put into the same 
category. It was further urged, that the de¬ 
scription of Jehovah in the Bible and in the 
doctrines of the Church does not accord with 
the righteousness and wisdom and power of 
the God disclosed by nature. The conception 
of nature as a vast machine was taking posses¬ 
sion of men’s minds, and God was thought to 
be the maker and starter of the machine, and as 
having no further occasion to interfere with 
its running. He was not denied, therefore, but 
He was made infinitely remote, and there 
seemed no opportunity for miracle, redemption 
or prayer. The attack called forth a multitude 
of replies, the Analogy 1 * of Bishop Butler being 
the most effective and distinguished. He 
argued that revealed and natural religion are 
not opposed, but that the second supplements 
the first, and that its peculiarities are what we 
should expect from a study of nature itself; 
and that further, the difficulties urged by the 
Deists against the God of the Bible lie with 
equal force against their own teaching of the 
God of nature. It was further argued, in par¬ 
ticular, that the account of the gospel miracles 
is to be accepted, because the witnesses were 


competent, and moreover had everything to 
lose and nothing to gain by their invention, 
proving their sincerity by dying as martyrs. 
The Wesleyan revivals were perhaps more in¬ 
fluential than the arguments of the apologists 
by supplying the powerful evidence of the effec¬ 
tual working of Christianity in the hearts and 
lives of men. From England the controversy was 
carried to France, and to Germany, with phases 
too varied for even the briefest review here. 

In the 19th century, from the middle dec¬ 
ades on, the apologetic warfare was renewed, 
with issues far more fundamental. Already 
Hume had stated positions which threatened 
the beliefs of Churchmen and of Deists alike, 
and under the influence of an extreme empiri¬ 
cism, reinforced by influences from German 
philosophy, men denied that God could be known 
at all. Hence apologetics again busied itself 
with the first division of topics, and discussed 
man’s capacity for knowing the Infinite, and re¬ 
viewed all the evidences for God’s existence in 
the light of the modern science of knowledge. 
The progressive establishment of the scientific 
conception of the universe also revived the dis¬ 
cussion as to miracles and forced a renewed 
examination of the whole subject. In addition, 
the historic credibility of the gospel narrative 
and the authenticity of the Biblical writings 
have been re-examined from many points of 
view, while the discovery of the ancient re¬ 
ligions of the past and of the living religions 
of Asia have caused prolonged debate as to the 
uniqueness and the absoluteness of the Christian 
teachings. Hence, the apologist is engaged in 
a discussion which involves philosophy, science, 
history, comparative theology, and criticism. 

In general, we may put apologists at present 
into three classes; those who hold substantially 
the old positions and seek in part by compro¬ 
mise and in part by adaptation to show that 
their essential truth may be maintained not¬ 
withstanding the progress in philosophy and sci¬ 
ence ; those who abandon the old arguments, 
and overcome the conflict between science and 
philosophy on the one hand and theology on 
the other, by adopting wholly the modern views 
and reconstructing theology by their aid; and 
those who attempt to discriminate between re¬ 
ligion and science and philosophy, and by pene¬ 
trating more completely into its essence to find 
an independent basis for the religious life which 
shall abide however men’s views may change in 
these other departments. Particular arguments 
in reply to special attacks are of less moment 
than a discussion of the meaning and essence 
of Christianity itself, and of the principles which 
underlie all defenses of its truth. That is, this 
age needs not so much an apology or defense 
of Christian truths as a thoroughgoing study 
of the science of apologetics itself. 

Bibliography. — Butler, ( Analogy of Re¬ 
ligion ; Paley, ( Evidences of Christianity 1 * ; 
Stephens, ( History of English Thought in the 
18th Century 5 ; Ebrard, ( Christian Apologetics 5 ; 
Fisher, ( The Grounds of Theistic and Chris¬ 
tian Belief 5 ; Hettinger, ( Apology of Christian¬ 
ity 5 ; Smythe, ( Through Science to Faith 5 
(1902) ; Kaftan, ( The Truth of the Christian 
Religion 5 (1894) I Knox, ( The Direct and Fun¬ 
damental Proof of the Christian Religion 5 

(1903). George Wm. Knox, D.D., 

Professor of Philosophy and History of Re - 
ligion, Union Theological Seminary . 


APOLOGUE — APOSTLE 


Ap'ologue, a story or relation of fictitious 
events intended to convey some useful truth. 
It differs from a parable in that the latter is 
drawn from events that pass among mankind, 
whereas the apologue may be founded on sup¬ 
posed actions of brutes or inanimate things. 
Aisop’s fables furnish excellent examples of 
apologues. 

Apol'ogy, a term at one time applied to a 
defense of one who is accused, or of certain 
doctrines called in question, but at present com¬ 
monly applied to an acknowledgment of error. 
The apologies of Socrates attributed to Plato 
and Xenophon are works of the first-named 
character. Later rhetoricans wrote upon the 
use of apologies and caused them to be com¬ 
posed by their scholars. Of this sort are the 
Apologies of Libanius. Thus the name passed 
over to Christian authors, who gave the name 
of apologies to the writings which were designed 
to defend Christianity against the attacks and 
accusations of its enemies, particularly the pa¬ 
gan philosophers, and to justify its professors 
before the emperors. Of this sort were those 
by Justin Martyr, Athenagoras, Tertullian, Ta- 
tian, and others. There are also apologies for 
the doctrines of particular sects; for example, 
Robert Barclay’s ( Apology for the People in 
Scorn called Quakers.-* 

Apol'ogy for the Life of Colley Cibber, 

An, an autobiography published in 1740, 
when the author, poet-laureate, actor, and man- 
about-town was in his 70th year. In the annals 
of the stage this curious volume holds an im¬ 
portant place as throwing light upon dramatic 
conditions in London after the Restoration, 
when the theatre began to assume its modern as¬ 
pect. 

Ap'omor'phine. See Morphine. 

Aponeurosis. See Tendon. 

Apoph'yllite, a-pof'i-lit (from the Greek 
words apo, “off,® and phyllon, “leaf,® in allusion 
to the tendency of the mineral to separate into 
thin leaves before the blowpipe), a native 
hydrated silicate of calcium and potassium, 
having the general formula K 2 0 . 8 Ca 0 .i 6 Si 0 2 . 
i 6 H 2 0 , but with some portion of the oxygen 
replaced by fluorine. It crystallizes in the 
tetragonal system, and also occurs massive. Its 
crystals are usually white or gray, with a pro¬ 
nounced pearly lustre on the basal plane, and 
a vitreous lustre elsewhere. Apophyllite cleaves 
easily into thin folia parallel to the basal plane. 
Its hardness is from 4.5 to 5, and its specific 
gravity about 2.3. . It occurs in many pairts of 
the world. Beautiful crystals, 3 or 4 inches 
across, are found in India, and others nearly as 
large have been found at Bergen Hill and Pat¬ 
erson, N. J. 

Apoplexy. See Brain Disease. 

Aposiopesis, ap'o-si-6-pe'sis, a rhetorical 
term denoting a sudden break or stop in speak¬ 
ing or writing, usually for mere effect or a pre¬ 
tence of unwillingness to say anything on a 

subject; as, «his character is such-but it is 

better I should not speak of that.® 

Apos'tasy (Greek, apostasis, a standing away 
from), a term signifying a renunciation of opin¬ 
ions or practices and the adoption of contrary 
ones, and usually applied to renunciation of 
religious opinions. It is always an expression 


of reproach. What one party calls apostasy is 
termed by the other conversion. History men¬ 
tions three eminent apostates — Julian the Apos¬ 
tate, who had never been a Christian except 
nominally and by compulsion; Henry IV., king 
of France, who thought that “Paris vaut bien 
une messe,® and that of course all France was 
worth the whole Catholic faith; and William 
of Nassau, the stadtholder, who separated him¬ 
self from the Roman Catholic Church and be¬ 
came a Protestant. The statute 9 & 10 of Wil¬ 
liam III. cap. xxxii., provides that if any person 
educated in or having made profession of the 
Christian religion shall deny it to be true, he 
shall be rendered incapable of holding any office 
for the first offense, and for the second shall 
be made incapable of bringing any action, of 
being guardian, executor, legatee, or purchaser 
of lands, and shall suffer three years’ imprison¬ 
ment without bail. This act is commonly called 
the “blasphemy act.® 

A Posteriori. See A Priori. 

Apos'tle (literally one sent out, from the 
Greek apostellein, to send out) and in the Chris¬ 
tian Church the title given to the 12 men 
whom Jesus selected to attend him during his 
ministry, witness his miracles, learn his doc¬ 
trines, and thus be able to promulgate his re¬ 
ligion. Their names were Simon Peter and 
Andrew his brother; James the greater, and 
John his brother, who were sons of Zebedee; 
Philip of Bethsaida; Bartholomew; Thomas; 
Matthew; James, the son of Alpheus, commonly 
called James the less; Lebbeus, his brother, who 
was surnamed Thaddeus, and was called Judas 
or Jude; Simon the Canaanite; and Judas Is¬ 
cariot. Of this number Simon Peter, John, 
James the greater, and Andrew were fishermen; 
and Matthew a publican or tax-gatherer. When 
the apostles were reduced to 11 by the suicide 
of Judas, who had betrayed Christ, Matthias 
was chosen by lot on the proposition of St. 
Peter. Soon after, their number became 13 by 
the miraculous vocation of Saul, who, under the 
name of Paul, became one of the most zealous 
propagators of the Christian faith. The Bible 
gives the name of apostle to Barnabas also, who 
accompanied Paul on his missions (Acts xiv. 
14), and Paul seems to give it to Andronicus 
and Junia, his relations and companions in 
prison. Generally, however, the name is used 
in the narrower sense to designate those whom 
Christ selected himself while on earth, and Paul, 
whom he afterward called. In a wider sense 
those preachers who first taught. Christianity in 
heathen countries are frequently termed apos¬ 
tles : for example, St. Denis,- the apostle of the 
Gauls; St. Boniface, the apostle of Germany; 
St. Augustine, the apostle of England; the 
Jesuit Francis Xavier, the apostle of the Indies; 
Adalbert of Prague, apostle of Prussia Proper. 
Tradition reports that several of the early 
apostles were married. The wife of St. Peter 
is said to have accompanied him on his jour¬ 
neys, and died a martyr. The tradition further 
states that St. Peter had a daughter Petronilla, 
who was also a martyr; this at least say St. 
Augustine, St. Epiphanius, and St. Clement of 
Alexandria. St. Philip also is said to have 
been married and to have had several daughters, 
among whom was St. Hermione. Hegesippus 
speaks of two martyrs, grandsons of St. Juder 



APOSTLE —APOSTOLIC SUCCESSION 


His wife was called Mary. St. Bartholomew is 
also said to have been married. Their history 
is largely a matter of tradition, save as it is 
recorded in the Acts of the Apostles. 

Apostle of the Ardennes. See Hubert, St. 

Apostle of the English. See Augustine, St. 

Apostle of Free Trade. See Cobden, R. 

Apostle of Germany. See Boniface, St. 

Apostle of Infidelity. See Voltaire. 

Apostle of Ireland. See Saint Patrick. 

Apostle of Temperance. See Mathew, T. 

Apos'tle Spoons, a name applied to sets 
of spoons with handles formed of images of 
the Twelve Apostles and the Virgin. 

Apostles’ Creed. See Creed. 

Apos'tles’ Islands, or The Twelve Apos¬ 
tles, the name given to a group of 27 islands 
in Lake Superior, belonging to Wisconsin. The 
principal islands of the group are lie au Chene, 
Stockton, Bear, Madeline, and Outer. They 
have an area of 200 square miles. Brown sand¬ 
stone is exported, and the islands are covered 
with a rich growth of timber. The cliffs have 
been worn into strange forms by the action of 
the waves. La Pointe, on Madeline Island, 
formerly the county-seat of Ashland County, 
Wisconsin, was settled by the French, who es¬ 
tablished Jesuit missions on the islands as early 
as 1680. 

Apostle to the French. See Denis, St. 

Apostle to the Indians. See Eliot, John. 

Ap'ostol'ic Brethren, Apostolici, or Ap- 
ostolics, the name given to certain sects who 
professed to imitate the manners and practice 
of the apostles. The last and most important of 
these was founded about 1260 by Gerhard Se- 
garelli of Parma. They went barefooted, clothed 
in white, with long beard, disheveled hair, and 
bare heads, accompanied by women called spirit¬ 
ual sisters, begging, preaching, and singing, 
throughout Italy, Switzerland, and France; an¬ 
nounced the coming of the kingdom of heaven 
and of purer times; denounced the papacy and 
its corrupt and worldly Church; and inculcated 
the complete renunciation of all worldly ties, of 
property, settled abode, marriage, etc. This 
society was formally abolished (1286) by Hon- 
orius IV. Segarelli was burned as a heretic in 
1300. Another leader now appeared, Dolcino, a 
learned man of Milan. In self-defense they sta¬ 
tioned themselves in fortified places whence they 
might resist attacks. After having devastated a 
large tract of country belonging to Milan they 
were subdued (1307) by the troops of Bishop 
Raynerius in their fortress Zebello, in Vercelli, 
and almost all destroyed. Dolcino was burned 
at Vercelli, 1 June 1307. The survivors after¬ 
ward appeared in Lombardy and in the south of 
France as late as 1368. 

Apostolic Church, the Church in the time 
of the apostles, constituted according to their 
design. The name is also given to the four 
churches of Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, and 
Jerusalem, and is claimed by the Roman Catho¬ 
lic Church and occasionally by the Episcopal¬ 
ians. 

Apostolic Constitutions and Canons, a 

collection of regulations attributed to the apos¬ 
tles, but generally supposed to be spurious. They 
appeared in the 4th century, are divided into 


eight books, and consist of rules and precept- 
relating to the duty of Christians, and particu¬ 
larly to the ceremonies and discipline of the 
Church. 

Apostolic Delegate, a permanent repre¬ 
sentative of the Pope in a foreign country. The 
term is sometimes confounded with the word 
ablegate, the latter meaning a temporary repre¬ 
sentative of the Pope for some special function. 

Apostolic Fathers, the Christian writers 
who, during any part of their lives, were con¬ 
temporary with the apostles. There are five: 
Clement, Barnabas, Hennas, Ignatius, Polycarp. 
Their writings are available in a recent collec" 
tion made with great care by the able Biblical 
scholar, Bishop Lightfoot. 

Apostolic Fathers, The: Revised Texts, 
with English Translations. By J. B. Lightfoot. 
A collection of about 12 of the earliest Christian 
writings, directly following those of the Apos¬ 
tles, made with great care and learning by the 
ablest of recent English Biblical scholars. The 
writings gathered into the volume represent 
those teachers of Christian doctrine who stand 
in the history nearest to the New Testament 
writers, and the account of them given by Dr. 
Lightfoot is not only the best for students, but 
is of great interest to the general reader. 

Apostolic Majesty, a title granted by the 
Pope to the kings of Hungary, first conferred 
on St. Stephen, the founder of the royal line of 
Hungary, on account of what he accomplished 
in the spread of Christianity. 

Apostolic Party, a name given to a body 
of Spanish fanatics who early in the 19th cen¬ 
tury clamored for the restoration of the Inqui¬ 
sition. About 1830 they became merged in the 
Carlist party. 

Apostolic See, official title of the Pope, 
the Bishop of Rome, who, according to the doc¬ 
trine of the Catholic Church, is the successor of 
Saint Peter. 

Apostleship of Prayer, a pious association 
founded in France in 1844 by Rev. Francis 
Gautrelet for the purpose of advancing its mem¬ 
bers in the spiritual life and particularly of hon¬ 
oring the Sacred Heart of Jesus. There are 
three degrees of membership, composed of those 
who promise to make the morning offering of 
their thoughts, words, actions, and sufferings to 
God in union with the intention of Christ; those 
who recite once each day the Lord’s Prayer and 
the Hail Mary ten times; and those who receive 
Holy Communion monthly as an act of repara¬ 
tion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus. The mem¬ 
bership throughout the world is supposed to be 
about 30,000,000, and there are about 5,000,000 
in the United States. The central office is at 
Saint Francis Xavier Church, New York. 

Apostolic Succession. The doctrine of the 
direct and hierarchical succession from Christ's 
apostles. Its defenders maintain that the 
Christian ministry is a succession, that valid 
ordination is transmitted to the clergy only by 
accredited bishops who have received the power 
of ordination in direct line of succession from 
the apostles. The points of controversy are: (1) 
as to when and how the exclusive authority of 
ordination was given by Christ and the apostles; 
(2) by what act, if any, the transmission of this 
authority is to be made valid, (3) along what 


APOSTROPHE —APPALACHIAN AMERICA 


lines has this supernatural commission come, 
and (4) whether or not this supernatural grace 
and spiritual authority are restricted to definite 
official lines of transmission. In later years 
differences have arisen among the Anglican 
scholars regarding these various points. Inde¬ 
pendents and Dissenters in England, of course, 
argue in favor of the theory that the Church 
itself as a body may constitute a legitimate min¬ 
istry, with full powers of ordination, etc. This 
in general is the attitude of non-prelatical bodies. 
In defense of the doctrine see Gore, ( The 
Church and the Ministry ) (1892) ; in opposition 
see John Brown, ( Apostolic Succession (1898). 

Edwin Knox Mitchell, 
Hartford Theological Seminary. 

Apos'trophe, a term in rhetoric indicating 
a figure of speech by which, according to Quin¬ 
tilian, a speaker turns from the rest of his 
audience to one person, and addresses him sin¬ 
gly. Now, however, the signification is wider, 
including cases in which an impassioned orator 
addresses the absent, the dead, or even things 
inanimate. 

The name is also employed in grammar to 
denote the substitution of a mark like this (’) 
for one or more letters omitted from a word, 
as tlio’ for though , ’twas for it was , king’s for 
kinges. It is also applied to the mark indicat¬ 
ing such substitution, especially in the case of 
the possessive. The old possessive singular 
was es, and the apostrophe stands for the 
omitted e. 

Apotheo'sis, a Greek term indicating the 
ceremony by which a man was raised to the 
rank of the gods. The custom of placing mor¬ 
tals, who had rendered their countrymen im¬ 
portant services, among the gods was very 
ancient among the Greeks, who generally fol¬ 
lowed in so doing the advice of an oracle. On 
their coins most of the founders of cities and 
colonies are immortalized as gods; and in sub¬ 
sequent times living princes assumed this title. 
The Romans for several centuries deified none 
but Romulus, and first initiated the Greeks in 
the fashion of frequent apotheosis after the 
time of Caesar. 

Appalachian America, a term first used 
by the present writer in 1893, now generally ac¬ 
cepted to designate the mountain region of the 
southern United States. This territory has a 
certain sociological unity, based on physical 
conditions, which was long obscured by the 
fact that it was parceled out among several dif¬ 
ferent States. 

Physio graphically it is a ^mountainous terri¬ 
tory without arms of the sea, inland lakes or 
other natural waterways. And furthermore it 
is a territory which forbids canals, and has not 
yet been opened up by railroads or even turn¬ 
pikes. Its universal characteristics are difficulty 
of communication, isolation, and remoteness. 
These conditions were less severe, and were 
largely overcome by greater commercial and in¬ 
tellectual activity in the portions of the Appa¬ 
lachian system which lay in the northern free 
States. Accordingly as a sociological grand 
division Appalachian America begins with the 
southern boundary of Pennsylvania and the 
Ohio River, and embraces the mountainous por¬ 
tions of the Virginias and Carolinas, Kentucky 
and Tennessee, Georgia and Alabama. In this 
vast area, which is all a land of saddles and 


bad roads, there are, of course, great varieties 
of elevation and climate, from the (( dissected 
plateaus® of Kentucky to <( the land of the sky® 
in North Carolina. Descriptions of the geo¬ 
logical formations, mineral, forest, and other 
resources, and physiographic conditions, will ap¬ 
pear under the several States. But the one 
great fact about the whole territory is that it 
condemns its inhabitants to the ills of isolation. 

Historically, Appalachian America received 
its first sparse settlements about the time of the 
Revolutionary War. A great tide of migration 
passed through it and around it to the West, 
and the valley land was occupied by hardy 
settlers. It was these who fought the battle of 
King’s Mountain, and in the war of 1812 rifle¬ 
men from the mountains gave material assist¬ 
ance in defeating the British at New Orleans. 
When the slave power developed in the South 
subsequent to the Revolution, Appalachian 
America, retaining its revolutionary spirit of 
liberty, came to be looked upon with hostility 
by its Southern neighbors. Slavery was never 
common in the mountains, and the scorn of the 
slaveholders for those who did not hold slaves 
was heartily returned by the mountaineers. 
Thus social barriers were added to the barriers 
of nature and the mountain people still further 
isolated from the world. In the Civil War, 
however, they emerged from their obscurity and 
surprised both the North and the South by their 
vigorous and effective stand for <( union and 
liberty.® They held Kentucky in the union, 
made West Virginia <( secede from secession,® 
well-nigh divided Tennessee, and furnished re¬ 
cruits to the loyal armies even from Alabama 
and South Carolina. Many of these recruits 
were not enrolled as coming from these States, 
but the regular regiments enlisted from slave 
States, nearly all from the mountains, aggre¬ 
gated about 200,000 men. The sufferings of the 
loyal people throughout the mountains, and 
especially in East Tennessee, and the eloquence 
of <( Parson Brownlow,® for the time fixed the 
attention of the nation. Naturally the moun¬ 
taineers have since the War followed the for¬ 
tunes of the Republican party. 

Sociologically Appalachian America reveals 
most interesting survivals of the spirit, arts and 
conditions of colonial times. Within its area 
are many valleys and villages which differ from 
other parts of the United States only in super¬ 
ficial matters like the greater number of saddle 
horses and the more free hospitality. But there 
is an immense population (commonly estimated 
at 2,000,000) which has been little affected by 
modern ideas. The stock is mainly British, 
representing rural England and the Scotch- 
Irish, though with traces of the Huguenot and 
the German. A large number of Washington’s 
soldiers settled in the valley land of Appala¬ 
chian America, and there is no evidence that 
the pioneers of the mountain region were in 
any way inferior to the first settlers in the more 
favored (( blue grass sections.® The early set¬ 
tlers had the education of their time, which 
lessened in succeeding generations. The con¬ 
ditions of life grew harder when the valley land 
and game were exhausted, and the public school 
did not come in until the ^reconstruction pe¬ 
riod.® . As a result, a great part of all the native 
born illiterates in the United States — many of 
them people of good character and good abili¬ 
ties— are in this region. In some counties the 


APPALACHIAN MOUNTAIN CLUB — APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS 


illiterate white voters exceed a third of the 
whole number. It is among these people that 
we find a survival of pioneer conditions — the 
woodcraft, the log cabin, the open fireplace — 
with a noble stone chimney in Kentucky, de¬ 
generating into a stick and mud chimney farther 
south. The arts of spinning, dyeing, and weav¬ 
ing are still found, together with a wealth of 
Saxon speech, and even old British ballads which 
have come down by oral tradition. Survivals in 
language consist of ancient pronunciations and 
constructions, and the persistence of words and 
meanings elsewhere obsolete; as <( pack® for 
carry, (( gorm® meaning to muss, etc. A kind of 
minstrelsy still exists among the ruder classes, so 
that we may find drinking songs and folk-lore 
still in the making. Preachers are few and 
poorly paid, and religion is of a mediaeval and 
fatalistic type. The feuds and homicides which 
attract so much attention belong with these other 
survivals. Weapons are carried to some extent 
in all parts of the South, because men retain 
the Elizabethan idea that while the government 
protects the land from foreign foes, each man 
is to protect his private honor and interests 
with his own right arm. In the mountains this 
view is more plausible because the law is not 
always carried out with the certainty and maj¬ 
esty which could inspire either confidence or 
dread. Considering these adverse conditions 
of life, the general good order and morality of 
the mountains is very creditable. A woman or 
a stranger who behaves properly is always safe. 
The chief disorders arise from corrupt political 
leaders and the whiskey bottle, and the moun¬ 
tain people have taken the first great step of 
progress in very generally enacting local option 
laws which prohibit the sale of intoxicants. 
Yet the ^moonshine still®—the secret manu¬ 
facture of spirits on which no tax is paid — 
survives in many places, and makes Christmas 
or election time a terror to the mothers of 
mountain boys. 

A most striking characteristic is the absence 
of any foreign element in the population. The 
35 mountain counties of Kentucky, for ex¬ 
ample, contain 478,205 people, with only 2,120 
who are of foreign birth, and these massed in 
a few counties where mines or lumber interests 
have been recently established. There are 15 
counties each containing less than ten persons 
of foreign birth. The massing of so great a 
population of purely American birth and breed¬ 
ing is very significant. And these people who 
owned land but did not own slaves (never to 
be confused with the (( poor whites®) constitute 
the true yeomanry of the South, its best nucleus 
for a true middle class. Large families are the 
rule, and the standard of physical development 
is high. With this large birth-rate the moun¬ 
tain region is approaching the limit of popula¬ 
tion and must either improve the means of 
subsistence, or emigrate. Both movements have 
begun. In time the mineral wealth will bring 
railroads to some extent, and if proper educa¬ 
tional guidance is furnished Appalachian Amer¬ 
ica will become what Scotland is in Great 
Britain, a storehouse of national vigor and pa¬ 
triotism. 

Printed information regarding Appalachian 
America is fragmentary and partial. Chas. 
Dudley Warner reported a charming tour ( On 
Horseback Through Virginia ) and important 
notices occur in Fisk’s ( 01 d Virginia and her 
Vol. 1— 39 


Neighbors/ Roosevelt’s ( Winning of the West/ 
and Draper’s ( King’s Mountain and its Heroes/ 
The spirit of war times is reproduced in Bar¬ 
ton’s ( Hero in Homespun/ and the general 
characteristics of mountain life appear in the 
tales of John Fox, Jr., and Miss Murfree 
( (< Charles Egbert Craddock®). See also articles 
in ( New England Magazine* (March ’97), 

( Atlantic Monthly ) (March ’99), ( Review of 
Reviews ) (March 1900), and files of the <Berea 
Quarterly/ 

W. G. Frost, 
President Berea College. 

Appalachian Mountain Club, the name 
of an organization interested in the exploration 
and study of the mountain ranges of eastern 
North America, and the preservation of their 
woodlands, waters, and historic sites for the 
use of the public. The club publishes a journal, 
called ( Appalachia/ now in its 10th volume 

(1903). 

Appalachian Mountains, the great moun¬ 
tain system of the eastern United States ex¬ 
tending from southeastern New York to north¬ 
ern Alabama. It includes a number of ranges 
and mountain groups of which the most im¬ 
portant are the Alleghanies, the Blue Ridge, 
the Cumberland Mountains, and the Black 
mountains. The Catskills form really the 
northern termination, although the system is 
commonly extended so as to include the Green 
Mountains, the White Mountains, and the line 
of elevations extending northward of the Gulf 
of St. Lawrence. The extreme length of the 
system is about 1,300 miles, and its greatest 
width over 100 miles. The most remarkable 
feature of the general formation of the Appala¬ 
chians is the regular arrangement of its ridges 
and valleys, these being, in general, parallel to 
the Atlantic coast line. This arrangement is 
particularly noticeable in the central part of the 
system, through Pennsylvania and Virginia. In 
general the ridges lie along two parallel lines 
from 50 to 100 miles apart, thus enclosing a lon¬ 
gitudinal valley whose sides rise rather abruptly 
over culminating points of the mountains. This 
great central valley extends from New York to 
the southern end of the system, including the 
Cumberland valley in Pennsylvania and the 
great valley of Virginia and of Tennessee. This 
region is very fertile throughout its whole 
length, and is especially well cultivated in Lan¬ 
caster, Berks, and Lehigh counties, Pennsyl¬ 
vania. The Appalachians show no remarkable 
elevations, and the height of the summits ap¬ 
pears less than it really is, because the moun¬ 
tains rise from a plateau varying from 500 feet 
in Pennsylvania to 1,500 and 2,000 feet in Vir¬ 
ginia and Tennessee. The lowest peaks are 
found in Pennsylvania, none rising much above 
2,000 feet. The culminating point of the whole 
system is Mount Mitchell, in the Black Moun¬ 
tains (6,711 feet) ; others of the high peaks are 
also found in the Black Mountain range, Balsam 
Cone 6,671 feet, Black Brother 6,619, and Mount 
Hallback; the Smoky Mountains, too, include 
some high peaks, Clingmann Dome 6,619, Guyot 
6,636, Mount Alexander 6,447, Mount Seconta 
6,612, and Mount Curtis 6,568. The culminating 
point of the northern part of the system is Mount 
Washington, New Hampshire (6,233 feet). The 
peaks are generally of rounded outline and lack 
the bold picturesqueness that characterizes the 


APPARENT; APPARITION 


Rocky Mountains and other ranges in the west¬ 
ern United States. Their low altitude and 
smooth contour are the result of the long- 
continued erosion which has removed great 
thicknesses of strata since the first uplift. 

Geology .— The Appalachians show all geo¬ 
logical formations from the metamorphic group 
to the so-called coal-measures, the latter in¬ 
cluding sandstones, shales, limestones, and coal. 
The strata of the western slope with their regu¬ 
lar horizontal arrangement show a great con¬ 
trast to the disturbed stratification of the east¬ 
ern slope. There the rock formations are con 
fused and pressed into folds and wrinkles with 
an inclination generally southeast. The strata 
of the system are all of marine or terrestrial ori¬ 
gin, the latest being those of the coal formation. 
After the formation of these strata the moun¬ 
tains were elevated to their present position by 
a force that proceeded from the southeast, work¬ 
ing probably by many successive impulses; and 
the receding waters hollowed the gaps through 
the ridges so characteristic of the Appalachian 
topography, and gave the mountains their pres¬ 
ent conformation. The chief minerals of the 
Appalachians are iron and coal. Iron ores, 
magnetite, hematite, and limonite, are very 
abundant; the magnetic iron is found especially 
in what is called the Champlain Iron District. 
The hematite and limonite ores are found all 
along the great Appalachian valley and are of 
great commercial importance; while the earthy 
carbonite of iron found in many parts has been 
largely manufactured. Coal is perhaps the most 
important product; the coal deposits of the Ap¬ 
palachians include the whole anthracite field of 
Pennsylvania and New York with an area of 
400 to 500 square miles, and the bituminous 
fields of Pennsylvania and other States, with an 
area of 56,000 square miles. Gold, silver, cop¬ 
per, and lead are found in comparatively small 
quantities and are of little importance com¬ 
mercially, but the deposits of marble, limestone, 
fire-clay, gypsum, and salt are abundant and 
valuable. 

Drainage .— The Appalachians form the 
watershed between the Atlantic Ocean and the 
Mississippi River systems; this does not lie 
in one continuous line, but shifts its position 
from one line of ridges to another, so that many 
of the rivers cut their way through the moun¬ 
tains from w’est to east, or east to west; the 
Delaware and Susquehanna, for example, with 
their branches. These two rivers, with the Po¬ 
tomac and James, drain the most of the eastern 
slope; the Ohio, with its tributaries, is the chief 
means of drainage on the western slope. 

Flora and Fauna .— The mountain slopes are 
heavily wooded throughout the whole system. 
The white pine is found in all portions; the 
sugar maple, the white birch, ash, and beech 
grow on the northern mountains; the oak, 
cherry, white poplar, white and yellow pine 
farther south. On the poorer lands the ever¬ 
greens flourish, such as spruce, hemlock, 
evergreen, and balsam-fir, which, on account of 
their dark foliage covering the summits of the 
Black Mountains, have given this range its 
name. There are large quantities of flowering 
shrubs, particularly the rhododendrons, azaleas, 
and laurel often growing in almost impenetrable 
thickets, and many varieties of smaller plants 
and flowers. Panthers and wolves have prac¬ 


tically disappeared from the mountains, but 
bears, deer, and wild-cats are quite common. 
Small game birds are plentiful, and wild tur¬ 
keys also on the southern ranges. Rattlesnakes 
and copperheads are found in all parts of the 
Appalachians, but not in great numbers. 

Bibliography. — Guyot, ( The Appalachian 
Mountain System* ( ( American Journal of Sci¬ 
ence^ 2d Series, Vol. XXXI) ; Hayes,<The Me¬ 
chanics of Appalachian Mountain Structure* ; 
( Physiography of the Chattanooga District 
(13th and 19th Annual Report of the United 
States Geological Survey) ; ( The Southern Ap- 
palachians ) ; H. D. and W. B. Rogers, ( Physical 
Structure of the Appalachian Chain ) (^Ameri¬ 
can Journal of Science,* 1st Series,. Vol. 
XLIV) ; Willis, ( The Northern Appalachians'* ; 
( Paleozoic Appalachian 

Apparent, a term employed by mathema¬ 
ticians and astronomers to denote things as 
they appear to the eye in distinction from what 
they really are. Thus they speak of apparent 
motion, magnitude, distance, height, time, etc. 
So important is this difference between reality 
and appearance, particularly in regard to the 
heavenly bodies, that we find all early astro¬ 
nomers, who were ignorant of this fact, running 
continually into error; and a great advancement 
in science was required before mankind was 
able to establish systems opposed to appear¬ 
ances. Every one knows that a body may ap¬ 
pear to move while it is, in fact, at rest, and 
the motion is in the spectator, or the place on 
which he stands, as is the case with the sun in 
relation to the inhabitants of this earth. The 
apparent altitude of a heavenly body is what 
appears to be its angle of elevation above a 
horizon which may itself be apparent — that is, 
the seeming junction of sea and sky; or (( sensi- 
ble** — that is, a plane passing through the point 
of observation at right angles to the plumb-line; 
or true — that is, a plane parallel to the (( sensi- 
ble** horizon and passing through the centre of 
the earth. When the altitude of a heavenly 
body is measured corrections are made for re¬ 
fraction, parallax, and, if the measurement is 
from a visible sea horizon, for the height of the 
observer above the water. 

The phrase heir apparent signifies one whose 
right of inheritance is indefeasible provided 
he survive his ancestor; as the eldest son or 
his issue, who must, by the course of the com¬ 
mon law, be heirs to the father. Heirs pre¬ 
sumptive are those who, if the ancestor should 
die immediately, would in the existing state of 
things be his heirs. 

Ap'pari'tion, the name given to an illusion 
involuntarily generated, by means of which 
forms not present to the actual sense are de¬ 
pictured with intensity sufficient to create a. 
temporary belief in their reality. It is now 
generally held to be the result of the reaction 
of an excited imagination, renovating past feel¬ 
ing or impressions, with an energy proportioned 
to the degree of excitement. But although the 
illusion thus generated is necessarily co¬ 
existent with the state of excitement in which 
it has its origin, or, in other words, ceases to 
be active when the phenomena vanish, it does 
not therefore follow that the mind, when it 
regains its ordinary condition, becomes imme¬ 
diately sensible of the hallucination under which 
it has for a time been laboring, or capable of 


APPEAL 


distinguishing between perceptions of sense and 
phantasms of imagination. On the contrary, 
observation proves what theory equally sanc¬ 
tions, that the conviction of reality generally 
outlasts the impressions which originally 
produced it; and that, so far from any sus¬ 
picion of illusion being entertained, or any 
power of discriminating the actual from the 
imaginary being evinced, this conviction takes 
entire possession of the mind, in many instances 
maintaining its hold with a firmness which all 
the force of argument and reason is insufficient 
to overcome. Hence the tenacity, and, we may 
add, the universality of the belief in appari¬ 
tions ; and hence also the prodigious diversity 
of forms under which these spectral illusions 
are presented in the popular legends and super¬ 
stitions— a diversity, in fact, which seems com¬ 
mensurate with the incredible variety of in¬ 
fluences, whether morbific or other, by which 
the imagination may be excited, and past feel¬ 
ings or impressions vividly renovated in con¬ 
sequence of its reaction on the organs of sense. 
Sir D. Brewster has remarked as a physical fact 
that (< when the eye is not exposed to the im¬ 
pressions of external objects, or when it is 
insensible to these objects, in consequence of 
being engrossed with its own operations, any 
object of mental contemplation, which has either 
been called up by the memory or created by the 
imagination, will be seen as distinctly as if it 
had been formed from the vision of a real ob¬ 
ject. In examining these mental impressions,® 
he adds, (( I have found that they follow the 
motions of the eyeball exactly like the spectral 
impressions of luminous objects, and that they 
resemble them also in their apparent immobility 
when the eyeball is displaced by an external 
force. If this result shall be found generally 
true by others it will follow that the objects 
of mental contemplation may be seen as dis¬ 
tinctly as external objects, and will occupy the 
same local position in the axis of vision as if 
they had been formed by the agency of light.® 
This goes to the very root of the theory of ap¬ 
paritions, all the phenomena of which seem to 
depend upon the relative intensities of the two 
classes of impressions, and upon the manner of 
their accidental combination. In perfect health 
the mind not only possesses a control over its 
powers, but the impressions of external objects 
alone occupy its attention, and the play of 
imagination is consequently checked, except in 
sleep, when its operations are relatively more 
feeble. But in the unhealthy state of the mind, 
when its attention is partly withdrawn from the 
contemplation of external objects, the impres¬ 
sions of its own creation, or rather reproduction, 
will either overpower or combine themselves 
with the impressions of external objects, and 
thus generate illusions which in the one case 
appear alone, while in the other they are seen 
projected among those external objects to which 
the eyeball is directed, in the manner explained 
by Sir D. Brewster. It may be added that the 
reasoning applied to the impressions derived 
from the sense of sight is equally applicable to 
those received through the medium of any other 
sense,— as the ear, for instance, an organ which 
ministers abundantly to the production of spec¬ 
tral illusions. This theory explains only those 
apparitions known to be subjective illusions, 
but it does not account for those objective appa¬ 


ritions, of which there are many and well authen¬ 
ticated accounts. Modern science has explained 
some of the objective apparations. 

Appeal', a legal term signifying the re¬ 
moval of a cause from an inferior tribunal to a 
superior, in order that the latter may revise, 
and, if needful, reverse or amend, the decision 
of the former. 

In the United States the distinction be¬ 
tween an appeal, which originated in the civil 
law, and a writ of error, which is of common- 
law origin, is that the former carries the whole 
case for review by the higher court, including 
both the facts and the law; while the latter 
removes only questions of law. An act of Con¬ 
gress of 1875 provides that the judgments and 
decrees of the circuit courts of the United 
States shall not be re-examined in the supreme 
court unless the matter in dispute shall exceed 
the sum or value of $5,000, exclusive of costs. 
No judgment, decree, or order of a circuit or 
district court, in any civil action at law or in 
equity, shall be reviewed in the supreme court 
on writ of error or appeal unless the writ of 
error is brought or the appeal is taken within 
two years after the entry of such judgment, 
decree, or order; save in the case of infants, 
insane persons, and imprisoned persons, when 
the period is two years exclusive of this term 
of disability. An appeal from a district court 
to a circuit court of the United States must 
be taken within one year. An appeal from the 
district court in admiralty to the circuit court 
must be made immediately after the decree, in 
open court, before the adjournment sine die; 
and should be taken to the next succeeding 
circuit court. An appeal may be taken from 
the State courts to the supreme court of the 
United States, in cases involving the validity 
of a treaty or statute of, or authorized under, 
the United States; on the ground of repugnance 
to the Constitution, etc. 

The effect of an appeal is generally to annul 
the judgment of the lower court so far that 
no action can be taken upon it until after the 
final decision of the cause. In many States, 
before the judgment of an inferior court will 
be reversed on the ground of error, the appel¬ 
lant, as the party taking the appeal is called, 
must show to the court that substantial injustice 
has been done him. In other States courts have 
held that when an error is shown to have been 
committed it will be presumed to have been 
prejudicial to the complaining party, and the 
judgment will be reversed unless the respondent 
shows that the error was harmless. Appellate 
courts, however, will not reverse the judgments 
of trial courts for technical or other errors 
where it appears from the record itself that the 
errors complained of were not prejudicial to the 
appellant. 

In legislation an appeal is the act by which 
a member of a legislative body who questions 
the correctness of a decision of the presiding 
officer, or (( chair,® procures a vote of the body 
upon the decision. In the House of Representa¬ 
tives of the United States the question on an 
appeal is put to the House in this form: (< Shall 
the decision of the chair stand as the judgment 
of the whole House?® If the appeal relate to an 
alleged breach of decorum, or violation of the 
rules of order, the question is taken without 
debate. If it relate to the admissibility or 


APPEARANCE; APPENDICITIS 


relevancy of a proposition, debate is permitted, 
except when a motion for the previous question 
is pending. 

Appear'ance, a legal term implying the 
coming into court as a party to a suit or action, 
whether as plaintiff or defendant. On the part 
of the plaintiff no formality is required. The 
appearance of the defendant may be effected by 
making certain formal entries in the proper 
office of the court, expressing his appearance, 
or in case of arrest is effected by giving bail, 
or by putting in an answer or a demurrer. 

Appendicitis, the name applied to an in¬ 
fectious disease of the vermiform appendix, a 
small organ occupying the lower right side of 
the abdominal cavity. The first authentic rec¬ 
ord of the distinct localization of a lesion in the 
appendix was by Saracenus in a letter dated 28 
Aug. 1642. A number of observers described 
the disease in later years, but it is to the honor 
and credit of American medicine that Reginald 
Fitz of Boston wrote ITis epoch-making memoir 
in 1886, ( On Perforative Inflammation of the 
Vermiform Appendix. 1 ’ Two years later Fitz 
advanced the sound theory that the diseases 
variously described as typhlitis, peri-typhlitis, 
para-typhlitis, appendicular peritonitis, and peri- 
typhlitic abscess were all varieties of one and 
the same affection: namely, appendicitis. Rapid 
strides have been made during the last decade 
in the study of the disease, and mainly through 
the exertions of American surgeons the treat¬ 
ment of appendicitis has been placed upon a 
sound and rational basis. In the embryologic 
development of the human intestinal tract there 
is at first a straight tube, divided into the fore- 
gut, midgut, and hindgut, each of which gives 
rise to different structures. From the midgut 
a diverticulum or pouch appears which marks the 
dividing line between the large and small in¬ 
testine. This pouch becomes larger and is 
called the cecum, but its terminal portion does 
not keep pace with the growth of the base and 
remains as a small projection depending from 
the cecum. This is the appendix vermiformis; 
it has no function and merely serves as a con¬ 
stant source of menace from its liability to 
disease. 

During early intra-uterine life the appendix 
lies near the umbilicus (navel), but about the 
sixth month descends into the right iliac fossa. 
If two lines are drawn at right angles to each 
other, intersecting at the umbilicus, the abdomen 
will be divided into four quadrants. The lower 
right quadrant will include the right iliac fossa, 
and in the majority of cases the appendix. The 
base of this organ will usually be found at a 
point tw r o inches from the umbilicus on a line 
drawn from the latter to the anterior superior 
spine of the iliac bone and known as McBur- 
ney’s point. 

The appendix is held in place by a fold of 
peritoneum called the meso-appendix, through 
which a single artery runs to supply the needed 
nutrition. The meso-appendix is derived from 
the lower layer of the mesentery, the fold of 
peritoneum which suspends the small intestine. 
In women there is usually, in addition, another 
blood-vessel which comes up to the appendix 
from the ovary. The end of the appendix is 
free and may point in any direction. This fact 
explains the great diversity of the symptoms 
often noted in appendicitis. 


Bearing in mind, then, that the appendix is 
without a function, hangs in a dependent posi¬ 
tion from a portion of bowel always containing 
irritating material, and has a very poor blood 
supply, it can readily be understood why this 
organ is so often attacked by disease. It hangs 
in a cavity lined by peritoneum, a delicate mem¬ 
brane covering the inner surface of the abdomen 
and the exterior of the intestines, which easily 
absorbs poisons, transmitting them to the whole 
body. Inflammation of this membrane is known 
as peritonitis, a very fatal disease, and one often 
caused by appendicitis. Many deaths supposed 
to be due to peritonitis pure and simple are 
really caused by appendicitis. The intestines at 
all times are loaded with germs which under 
favorable conditions may be converted into 
deadly little organisms. These microbes at¬ 
tack the inner coat of the appendix, destroy it 
with the formation of pus, and may ulcerate 
through all the walls of the appendix causing 
an abscess with peritonitis. But for such a se¬ 
quence of events to occur certain other factors 
are necessary. The old idea that foreign bodies, 
such as grape-seeds, are the cause of the disease, 
is now known not to be true. While foreign 
bodies are frequently found in the appendix, in 
rare instances only they are seeds, etc., but are 
almost always found to be hard masses of fecal 
material which has entered the appendix while 
soft, become dry and hard, forming a fecal con¬ 
cretion (fecal calculus ). By exerting pressure 
on the wall of the appendix these hard bodies 
may aid in the production of the disease. In 
rare instances pins have found their way into 
the lumen of the appendix and induced ap¬ 
pendicitis. It is interesting in this connection 
to note that worms are frequently discovered in 
the appendix. The Oxyuris vermicular is, or 
seatworm, has been found in large numbers, 
completely filling the appendix, and the Ascaris 
lumbricoid.es, or roundworm, has sometimes oc¬ 
cupied this organ. In studying the etiology of 
appendicitis we find the young are more fre¬ 
quently attacked than the old, the disease occur¬ 
ring less commonly in those over 50 years of 
age. It is fortunate that such is the case, be¬ 
cause older people do not stand operations as 
well as those in early adult life. Their re¬ 
sistance to shock is less, and the liability to 
kidney breakdown and to pneumonia would re¬ 
sult fatally in many instances. The greater 
susceptibility of young adults to appendicitis is 
due to the numerous disturbances of their 
gastro-intestinal tracts from dietary indiscre¬ 
tions, and, secondly, to the proneness to inflam¬ 
mation of the adenoid (glandular) tissues 
throughout the body during adolescence. Anal¬ 
ogy is found in the predominance of lesions of 
the tonsils and of the glands in the neck and 
mesentery during the period of development. 
In children appendicitis is characterized by the 
intensity of the lesion and by the remarkable 
recuperative power which children have. About 
two thirds of all cases of appendicitis occur in 
males. The reason for such a disparity is to be 
found in several facts. Females are less ex¬ 
posed to inclemencies of the weather and other 
deleterious influences, they undergo less mus¬ 
cular exertion, and their appendixes in the ma¬ 
jority of instances have a better blood supply. 
Of diseases that predispose to appendicitis may 
be mentioned constipation, gastro-enteritis, 


APPENDICITIS 


dysentery, typhoid fever, influenza, etc. Con¬ 
stipation exerts an influence by causing slug¬ 
gishness of the bowels, resulting in poor drain¬ 
age of the appendix. Noxious materials may 
be retained and favor an increase in the viru¬ 
lence of bacteria, especially the Bacillus coli- 
commums. Gastro-enteritis, or inflammation of 
the stomach and intestines, is a very important 
factor in appendicitis. In this disease the cecum 
may become inflamed and by extension involve 
the appendix. In many instances such is the 
mildness of the alterations in the walls of the 
appendix that they do not engender any clinical 
manifestations. At times, however, the lining 
membrane of the appendix is directly attacked, 
and acute appendicitis may supervene. Under 
other circumstances catarrhal changes of mild 
degree persist and lead to chronic appendicitis. 
Dysentery and typhoid fever are more remote 
causes of appendicitis, lhey cause catarrhal 
alterations, swelling, congestion, and oedema of 
the adenoid (glandular) follicles of the organ. 
Not uncommonly ulcerations occur, and the re¬ 
sulting scar is one of the most important fac¬ 
tors in the subsequent develonment of appen¬ 
dicitis by causing a stricture in the lumen of the 
appendix, obstructing the drainage of the organ, 
thereby favoring the retention of irritating ma¬ 
terial. Influenza exerts an influence from the 
intestinal lesions to which it gives rise. 

The most important predisposing cause of 
appendicitis is the fact that the appendix has 
already been the seat of one or more attacks of 
the same affection. The seemingly greater num¬ 
ber of cases of appendicitis observed in recent 
years is not that the disease has been on the in¬ 
crease, but rather that a greater refinement in 
diagnosis has rendered physicians more skilful 
in pronouncing the true nature of the malady, 
which in former years was variously styled in¬ 
flammation of the bowels, peritonitis, gastritis, 
obstruction of the bowels, etc. The factors that 
operate to render the appendix less resistant 
than other portions of the intestinal tract to 
the onslaught of bacteria and other determining 
causes are several. The blood supply becomes 
defective because of the liability to partial or 
complete obstruction of the blood channels as 
a result of kinking, twisting {volvulus), or ex¬ 
ternal bands of adhesions, etc., secondary to 
primary inflammation of the appendix. Dis¬ 
turbances of circulation, and hence of nutrition, 
are also produced by active and sometimes inef¬ 
fectual muscular efforts of the appendix to rid 
itself of fecal concretions or even inspissated 
fecal matter. Defective drainage, which has 
been referred to, is of great importance in the 
pathogenesis of appendicitis because of the 
anatomical and physiological peculiarities of 
this organ. The average length of the appendix 
is about 8 to 9 cm. (3^2 inches), while the 
diameter is only 3 mm. to 5 mm. 04 to 34 
inch). Therefore in such a long narrow tube 
free drainage is not favored. The peritoneal 
covering forms what is known as the meso- 
appendix in such a manner as to draw the ap¬ 
pendix into a curve and thus aid in any angula¬ 
tion resulting from disease. As additional fac¬ 
tors of importance are the relatively large ex¬ 
tent of mucous membrane presented by the 
appendix and the large amount of lymphoid 
(glandular) tissue, not only in the neighbor¬ 
hood of the valve-like opening into the cecum, 


known as Gerlach’s valve, but also scattered 
through the wall of the appendix. The latter is 
of especial significance in view of the proneness 
of adenoid tissue throughout the body to inflam¬ 
mation when subject to even slight irritation 
by bacteria and their poisons. An analogous 
condition may be observed in the tonsil, which 
is so frequently invaded by bacteria with a re¬ 
sulting tonsilitis (quinsy). Owing to this simi¬ 
larity the appendix has frequently been called 
the <( abdominal tonsil.® In considering the 
symptomatology of the two forms of appendici¬ 
tis — the acute and the chronic — it must be 
borne in mind that it is not always possible to 
determine the extent of disease which has ac¬ 
tually taken place in the appendix from the 
clinical manifestations. While it is true that, in 
general, the clinical symptoms become more 
marked with the increase in the severity of the 
appendicular and peritoneal lesions,— that is, 
when perforation, abscess, or gangrene super¬ 
vene,— it is also a fact that remission of all 
symptoms may occur, and yet the disease be 
progressing to a fatal termination. It is like¬ 
wise a fact that the symptoms suggestive of 
perforation of the appendix with abscess forma¬ 
tion in one patient, may arise in another patient 
in consequence of the development of an abscess 
without perforation of the organ. It is better 
therefore to consider acute appendicitis as a 
clinical entity. Similar reasoning obtains with 
regard to chronic appendicitis, although in the 
latter the questions requiring solution are less 
complicated. 

Acute Appendicitis .— There are three symp¬ 
toms of acute appendicitis so constant and, when 
associated, so characteristic of the disease that 
they are designated the (( three cardinal symp¬ 
toms.® These are pain, tenderness, and rigidity 
of the right lower quadrant of the abdominal 
wall. Pain is the initial symptom and usually 
develops suddenly in an individual previously 
well. At the onset of the affection the pain is 
paroxysmal or colicky in character, coming in 
storms with intervals of rest, in which respect 
it simulates an attack of acute indigestion. 
The location is at first centered about the urn 
bilicus, or the pit of the stomach, later becomes 
diffused all over the abdomen, and finally be¬ 
comes localized to the right iliac fossa. In 
recurring cases the initial pain of the later at¬ 
tacks is often referred immediately to the right 
iliac fossa. The pain of appendicitis may, how¬ 
ever, be referred to any region of the abdomen. 
It is a lack of knowledge of this fact that has 
lead to many errors of diagnosis in acute ab¬ 
dominal affections. The location of the pain 
depends to a great extent upon the position and 
direction of the appendix. For instance, with 
an appendix lying behind the cecum and point¬ 
ing upward until its tip nearly reaches the 
gall-bladder, symptoms are produced resembling 
very closely those induced by affections of the 
latter organ. In other cases pain is felt upon 
the left side of the abdomen and denotes that 
the appendix occupies a left-sided position or 
that it hangs into the pelvis. These examples 
will draw attention to the statement that the 
pain in appendicitis will depend upon the direc¬ 
tion and position of the appendix. Tenderness 
upon pressure is one of the most valuable and 
constant signs of appendicitis. It is always 
present, but, unlike the subjective symptom, pain, 


APPENDICITIS 


is limited first to the site and position of the 
appendix. To elicit this symptom the pressure 
should be made in as light and delicate a man¬ 
ner as possible. The open hand should be laid 
over the tender area and the fingers gently de¬ 
pressed, ceasing as soon as the patient complains 
of pain. It should be remembered that the ap¬ 
pendix may be distended with pus and on the 
verge of rupture, and any undue roughness in 
palpation might endanger the life of the patient. 
A celebrated German surgeon has truly said 
that «many a doctor who has sufficient practice 
and experience nevertheless never learns to 
palpate, since lightness of hand is wanting in 
him.® It is a good plan to begin to palpate over 
on the left side away from the seat of pain, and 
gradually approach that region. As complica¬ 
tions arise the point of tenderness may vary; 
for instance, in those cases previously referred 
to where the appendix occupies a pelvic posi¬ 
tion, the point of greatest tenderness will usu¬ 
ally be found to the left of the median line. In 
such a location of the appendix where the 
disease has advanced to a stage when an abscess 
has formed in the pelvis, a vaginal or rectal 
examination detects a point of resistance on the 
right side with more or less marked tenderness. 
The third cardinal symptom is rigidity of the 
right side of the abdomen and particularly of 
the rectus and other abdominal muscles. It is 
the most constant symptom of the three and ap¬ 
pears shortly after the onset of the attack. It 
varies in degree in different cases, but is gen¬ 
erally well marked, and is most intense over the 
site of the inflamed appendix. The variation 
observed ranges from rigidity so slight as to be 
barely appreciable up to a condition absolutely 
precluding any palpation, and to which the term 
^board-like® rigidity is applied. The degree of 
rigidity is usually in direct proportion to the 
severity of the lesion, but not invariably so. 
When the peritoneal cavity becomes involved 
with the development of peritonitis the entire 
abdomen becomes rigid and board-like, followed 
by distension or tympany from paralysis of the 
intestines. While the three cardinal symptoms 
are the most important indications of acute 
appendicitis there are other clinical manifesta¬ 
tions that are more or less constantly present 
and are of value in aiding in the formation of 
a diagnosis. Of these there should be noted 
disturbances of the gastro-intestinal tract (nau¬ 
sea and vomiting, etc.), elevation of the tem¬ 
perature, increased pulse and respiration rate, 
changes in the urine, etc. Nausea is a nearly 
constant symptom in appendicitis and usually 
coincides with the initial pain; it may be fol¬ 
lowed by vomiting, which at first consists of the 
gastric contents, then of bile or bile-stained 
fluid, and finally, if septic peritonitis develops, 
of the contents of the intestines. Such a condi¬ 
tion, when not seen early, has frequently been 
mistaken by the family physician for intestinal 
obstruction. 

In cases of appendicitis which progress 
rather rapidly to peritonitis, with the marked 
nausea and vomiting characteristic of such a 
condition, the pain suffered is apt to be severe. 
The attending physician, often following the 
promptings of the patient, administers the too- 
convenient hypodermic of morphine, relieving 
the patient, but at the same time masking the 
symptoms and rendering the task of the sur¬ 


geon called in for consultation an exceedingly 
difficult one. The giving of morphine for the 
relief of pain in appendicitis is a pernicious 
habit. Nausea and vomiting rarely persist after 
the pain has become localized to the right iliac 
fossa, though in some unfavorable cases vomit¬ 
ing may be continuous and uncontrollable. The 
condition of the bowels previous to the attack 
of appendicitis is very variable. In the ma¬ 
jority of cases constipation is observed, and such 
sluggishness may be directly traceable as an 
etiologic factor of some importance. But there 
are many cases where diarrhoea ushers in the 
attack, and in other instances it may alternate 
with constipation. Fever must not be relied 
upon as a diagnostic sign, as it bears no direct 
relation to the gravity of the anatomical lesions. 
While upon the onset of the disease the tem¬ 
perature usually rises to ioi° and 102° F., it 
may return to normal again despite the advance 
of severe complications such as perforation or 
gangrene of the appendix. Coincident with the 
development of an abscess around the appendix 
there is usually a rise of temperature, but again 
in this instance such a rise is not constant. 
There are, finally, some cases in which the tem¬ 
perature continues high from the commencement 
to the termination of the attack, and yet the 
patient makes an easy recovery. The amount of 
fever should therefore be considered as the ex¬ 
pression of the reaction and resistance of the in¬ 
dividual to infection. The condition of the 
pulse is a more constant aid than the degree of 
temperature, and in this instance the quality is 
of more importance than the rate of speed. If 
the pulse is strong, of good volume, regular, 
and the rate proportionate to the temperature, 
the outlook is favorable, and vice versa. Va¬ 
riations in the respiration are not of much im¬ 
portance. The breathing is embarrassed in toxic 
states, from the distension of peritonitis, and 
sometimes owing to the pain induced the pa¬ 
tient will favor the use of the chest muscles 
entirely. A quite characteristic position often 
assumed by the patient is with the right leg 
and thigh flexed, while the left leg remains 
prone and the patient demands perfect quiet. 
In addition there may be perspiration, a furred 
tongue, and a slight expression of anxiety 
appear upon the features. The patient will 
frequently complain of rectal and vesical (blad¬ 
der) irritability when the appendix occupies the 
pelvic position. An increased frequency in 
urination is the usual symptom, yet there may 
be inability to void the urine. The symptoms 
which have been described are typical of the 
usual attack of acute appendicitis, though 
marked variations may occur, depending upon 
the position of the appendix or the presence of 
adhesions from former attacks. With the his¬ 
tory of previous more or less severe attacks 
of abdominal colic and not necessarily referred 
to the appendix, a patient previously well is 
suddenly seized with severe pain, usually 
throughout the abdomen. Nausea follows and 
sometimes vomiting. The pain soon becomes 
more intense over the site of the appendix, and 
in a few hours this locality'- alone is involved. 
If the patient should be so fortunate as to send 
for his physician at this time, namely, within 24 
hours of the attack, and if operation is advised 
and performed, recovery is practically assured. 
But unfortunately this is not always the treat- 


APPENDICITIS 


ment pursued. The disease is in its earliest 
stages, with the inflammatory lesion confined to 
the appendix, and the particular sequence of 
events which will follow in any individual case 
cannot be foretold. In some cases the appen¬ 
dix under the influence of rest is able to 
eliminate the noxious materials causing the 
inflammatory lesions, recover its vitality, and 
apparently become in as good condition as be¬ 
fore the attack: but lymphoid (glandular) tis¬ 
sue which has once been the seat of infection 
is exceedingly prone to future attacks. In still 
other cases the disease extends through the wall 
of the appendix and induces a mild peritonitis 
localized to the coils of intestines and tissues 
immediately contiguous to the appendix. With 
the appearance of infecting bacteria or of their 
poisons in the peritoneal cavity, this membrane 
throws out a thin fluid or serum and an exudate 
(lymph) which organizes into firm tissue, 
known as adhesions. These adhesions glue 
the coils of intestine surrounding the appendix 
together, they cause adherence of such intestines 
to the roof of the cavity, which is the abdominal 
wall, and with the aid of the omentum, a 
fatty apron-shaped body covering the intes¬ 
tines, a firm wall is formed about a cavity 
containing the appendix, preventing the escape 
of toxic materials into the general peritoneal 
cavity. Should the disease, under medical 
treatment, subside, the lymphatics and the white 
blood corpuscles speedily destroy the infectious 
material, but the adhesions too often re¬ 
main and cause constant irritation. In time a 
period of chronicity is reached when any un¬ 
usual exertion provokes a dull ache in the lower 
right quadrant of the abdomen. The digestion 
is impaired, and the bowels become sluggish in 
their movements from the dragging of the ad¬ 
hesions upon the valve between the large and 
small intestines. In women, the subject of chron¬ 
ic appendicitis with involvement of the ovary and 
fallopian tube on the right side, slight attacks of 
appendiceal colic will occur during each men¬ 
strual period, and all treatment directed against 
dysmenorrhoea will prove unavailing. The 
appendix in such cases may become obliterated 
into a mere fibrous cord, or, as more commonly 
occurs, occlusion takes place at the opening 
into the cecum or at the site of a stricture, and 
the appendix becomes distended with clear 
mucus. While operations upon chronic forms 
of appendicitis in the presence of adhesions are 
attended with but little risk, yet the operation 
itself is more tedious and the incision longer 
than when operation is performed in the early 
stages of the disease. Having dealt with the 
favorable terminations of acute appendicitis, 
there remains that far too numerous class of 
cases where the appendix perforates, with ab¬ 
scess formation and sometimes general peri¬ 
tonitis. If the infection of the appendix is 
severe enough, its walls may become gangrenous 
and break down with a perforation occurring 
into the peritoneal cavity. In this case the 
peritoneum usually becomes infected in ad¬ 
vance of the perforation and enough time is 
gained for the formation of adhesions such as 
have been described. In what is known as ful¬ 
minating appendicitis the progress of the disease 
is so rapid that no adhesions are formed, and in 
24 hours or less after the onset of the initial 
symptoms the patient may be suffering from a 


violent general peritonitis. But, as a rule, the 
escape of purulent material through a perfora¬ 
tion in the appendix occurs into a preformed 
cavity, the walls of which consist of the ab¬ 
dominal wall, the iliac fossa, cecum and matted 
coils of small bowel, and the infiltrated omen¬ 
tum. '1 his cavity becomes filled with pus and a 
true appendiceal or peri-typhlitic abscess is 
formed. The amount of pus varies from a tea¬ 
spoonful to a pint, or in extreme cases even 
more. With the formation of the abscess the 
symptoms change somewhat. The severe pain 
of the early inflammatory stage becomes more 
dull and sometimes is referred to the back or 
left side, tenderness is increased, while the 
rigidity is more marked. The tongue becomes 
coated and the breath foul, chills are rarely ob¬ 
served even in the presence of pus, and when 
present — especially a single, severe chill usher¬ 
ing in an attack — usually mean a gangrenous 
condition of the appendix. There is fever, in¬ 
creased pulse-rate, and the patient shows the 
effect of absorption of poisonous products into 
his general circulation. An examination of the 
blood shows an increased number of the white 
blood corpuscles (leucocytosis). Palpation of 
the abdomen will reveal a mass in the right 
iliac fossa, rounded, hard, and often tender. 
The patient may not complain of any pain 
beyond the dull ache referred to, though the 
act of coughing or taking a deep breath usually 
results in an exacerbation of pain. In some 
cases with an appendix deep in the abdomen and 
behind the cecum, an abscess can exist which 
cannot be palpated. When such a condition is 
suspected it is not safe to prod the abdomen 
too hard for fear of rupturing the abscess. 
If the pus extends into the pelvis there are the 
additional symptoms of vesical and rectal ir¬ 
ritability, and a vaginal or rectal examination 
detects a bulging area extremely tender to the 
examining finger. In women and girls the ef¬ 
fect of such a pelvic abscess is frequently dis¬ 
astrous. The open ends of the fallopian tubes 
become bathed with the pus, and either a sal¬ 
pingitis or occlusion of the tubes takes place. 
The tubes are thereby prevented from fulfill¬ 
ing their function of transmitting the ova to 
the uterus, and sterility may result. The ex¬ 
tension of the pus upward toward the liver will 
cause symptoms very much resembling in¬ 
fectious gall-bladder disease, which will be re¬ 
ferred to under differential diagnosis. The 
latter direction has resulted, in neglected cases, 
in an abscess beneath the liver, rupture through 
or behind the diaphragm, and entrance of the 
pus into the lung and pleural cavity from which 
it has been actually evacuated by coughing and 
expectoration. If an appendiced abscess is small, 
recovery might occur without operation, though 
such a happy result is doubtful. The disease 
is progressive, and the pus tends to in¬ 
crease, and if not evacuated will frequently 
rupture the walls of the containing cavity, into 
the cecum occasionally, but more often, unfor- 
tunateh", into the peritoneal cavity, with a re¬ 
sulting general purulent peritonitis and a nearly 
inevitably fatal result. In such a case the pulse 
increases in frequency and becomes full and 
strong, the face becomes pinched and anxious, 
eyes brighten, the mind becomes active, though 
delirium appears later, the abdomen slowly dis- 


APPENDICITIS 


tends, accompanied by marked pain and rest¬ 
lessness of the patient. These three path¬ 
ognomonic conditions, a bright eye, an active 
mind, and a swollen belly, indicate approaching 
dissolution. The distension is due to a paral¬ 
ysis of the bowels, and gas and feces are re¬ 
tained in spite of all treatment. Nausea and 
vomiting soon begin, the latter at first green, 
but later black, from emptying of the contents 
of the intestines into the stomach. Death rapid¬ 
ly follows. The diagnosis of appendicitis from 
other lesions of the abdominal cavity, if seen ear¬ 
ly, is comparatively easy in the great majority of 
cases. Particular attention must be paid to the 
history of the patient, and especially to the char¬ 
acter of the onset of the illness and the earlier 
symptoms. While inflammation of the stomach 
and intestines (gastro-enteritis) has caused 
some confusion at times, yet unfortunately the 
mistake is made more often in the wrong direc¬ 
tion. That is, a true attack of appendicitis is 
thought to be gastro-enteritis and treated ac¬ 
cordingly until the appearance of an abscess 
with its unmistakable symptoms warns the at¬ 
tending physician of the true nature of the malady 
with which he is dealing. While the pain in 
both diseases may begin over the stomach (in 
the epigastric region) and continue over the 
whole abdomen, in appendicitis the region of the 
appendix will be tender to palpation from the 
onset, and this tenderness will persist and even 
become more acute after the general abdominal 
pain has ceased. Unilateral rigidity is quite 
constant in the beginning, of the appendiceal at¬ 
tack, while in the gastro-intestinal disease the 
entire abdomen may be rigid. In certain cases 
of gastric ulcer, with perforation and escape of 
stomach contents into the peritoneal cavity, the 
shock is more marked from the onset, while the 
beginning and the more severe symptoms will 
be found in the upper abdomen. Ulcer of the 
stomach is much more common in women than 
men, and often gives symptoms which can be 
recognized long before the ulcer has advanced 
to the stage of perforation. In enteritis, or in¬ 
flammation of the bowels, and particularly when 
poisonous food products have been eaten, the 
symptoms produce early and often marked 
shock. In the summer months iced drinks are 
a frequent cause of this complaint. About 18 
hours after the dietary indiscretion there will 
be marked general abdominal pain, diarrhoea, 
chilliness, perspiration, and a feeling of great 
weakness. In severe cases the depression may 
be so pronounced as to cause death (acute 
ptomaine poisoning). The greatest area of 
tenderness will be found about the centre of the 
abdomen, and careful palpation of the appendix 
region may find this organ not enlarged or 
tender. 

Mention was made earlier in this article of 
the symptoms produced by inflammation of an 
appendix behind the cecum and pointing up¬ 
ward toward the gall-bladder. In such in¬ 
stances the symptoms produced resemble very 
closely those due to inflammation of the gall¬ 
bladder and sometimes the two diseases cannot 
be differentiated with certainty. But as both 
affections require surgical intervention to effect 
a permanent cure, and as the incision in both 
instances is made in nearly the same place, the 
failure to make a correct diagnosis is not detri¬ 
mental to the patient. The pain in the gall¬ 


bladder affection, if referred, will cause a dull 
pain in the region of the liver and then upward 
to the right shoulder blade. Tenderness is 
limited to the gall-bladder region and is a very 
important symptom if the rigidity of the right 
rectus muscle does not prevent palpation. The 
appearance of jaundice, or the well-marked 
gallstone colics, would decide the diagnosis. 
Later in the progress of the disease, the infec¬ 
tion of the gall-bladder may produce pus, or 
empyema, as it is called, and the gall-bladder 
can be palpated as a round, tender, and firm 
mass beneath the edge of the ribs and moving, 
wdth respiration. An appendiceal abscess would 
rarely reach as high as the costal margin with¬ 
out implication of the right iliac fossa, and in a 
high position might be mistaken for a ruptured 
gall-bladder following empyema. In such a 
case the diagnosis would be nearly impossible 
and immaterial, as the treatment necessitates, 
an operation. Neither an infected gall-bladder 
nor an appendix should ever be allowed to ad¬ 
vance to the purulent stage without an operation 
being advised. Inflammation of the fallopian 
tubes has been mistaken for appendicitis and 
vice versa, particularly when the tube leaking 
into the pelvic peritoneum causes a localized in¬ 
flammation of that membrane. With the know¬ 
ledge that the appendix frequently occupies the 
pelvis and may lie adjacent to the tube, the exact 
diagnosis of acute appendicitis from acute 
salpingitis may be difficult, and in chronic cases 
even more so. From the close proximity to 
each other which the two organs may hold, the 
tube may be infected from the appendix or the 
latter may become involved secondarily from 
a pyosalpinx (pus in the tube). This compli¬ 
cates the differential diagnosis still further. If 
a history of specific infection can be obtained 
with symptoms indicating the commencement of 
the disease in the lower part of the abdomen, 
and a vaginal examination showing induration 
of the vault with tenderness to pressure on 
either side of the uterus, the diagnosis may 
reasonably be made of salpingitis. A number 
of other diseases may be suspected in deciding 
upon a diagnosis. Among these may be men¬ 
tioned extra-uterine pregnancy, some kidney 
affections, ovarian cysts, intestinal obstruction, 
typhoid _ fever, pancreatitis, etc. The nature of 
this article does not warrant the full discussion 
of these affections. The treatment of appendici¬ 
tis has been a mooted question for some time, 
and it has only been within the last few years, 
that the medical profession has accepted the 
dictum of those whose experience with the 
disease has been the greatest, that' appendicitis 
is a surgical disease. The soundness of this 
teaching rests upon the fact that it is impos¬ 
sible to foretell in any individual case what the 
outcome will be, and what case wull terminate 
favorably, or which will progress to perforation 
or gangrene, and the attendant peritoneal and 
other complications and sequelae. It is essential 
that physicians appreciate the importance of 
early operation, as although there may be a 
few patients who for various reasons will re¬ 
fuse operation, the majority will depend upon 
the attending physician for advice and accept 
the treatment which he advocates. 

The mortality of the early operation, before 
the peri-appendicular structures have become in¬ 
volved, is nil, barring accidents, and the incision 


APPENZELL 


in the rectus muscle can be so closely approxi¬ 
mated that the abdominal wall is not weakened 
in the slightest by the operation. The peri¬ 
toneum, sheath of the rectus muscle and skin, 
are usually sewed up in tier suture,— that is, in 
layers,— and the resulting scar about two inches 
long can barely be perceived after the lapse of 
several years. As the disease progresses the 
mortality increases in direct proportion to the 
extent to which the peri-appendicular structures 
have become involved. When an abscess de¬ 
velops, the search for the diseased appendix is 
difficult and often dangerous, and many sur¬ 
geons simply evacuate the pus cavity and estab¬ 
lish drainage. But the presence of a necrotic 
appendix is a constant menace, frequently caus¬ 
ing secondary pus collections which may result 
fatally in the end. In all cases where pus is 
found the employment of drainage is necessi¬ 
tated. This means that sterile gauze must be so 
disposed that the purulent material is caught 
up and carried off by capillary drainage and the 
abscess cavity forced to heal from the bottom 
upward, avoiding ^pocketing.® The course of 
these cases is tedious and the convalescence 
prolonged. The dangers incident to acute ap¬ 
pendicitis with abscess are attendant with great 
risk to life. The most dreaded is peritonitis 
with invasion of the entire peritoneal cavity by 
the purulent and infectious products due to 
rupture inwardly of the abscess. Nearly every 
patient developing general peritonitis from an 
appendiceal abscess will die in spite of the most 
careful treatment and skilful operation. In ad¬ 
vanced stages of the disease, when the appendix 
becomes necrotic and gangrenous, the cecum 
will frequently be implicated and be so diseased 
that the removal of the appendix cannot be 
followed by closure of the wound in the cecum. 
In cases of this character gauze must be so 
placed as to isolate the fistulous opening from 
the general peritoneal cavity, hoping that, by 
granulation, spontaneous healing of the bowel 
opening will take place; but this does not al¬ 
ways follow, and in such instances the hole in 
the cecum becomes a fecal fistula, discharging 
the contents of the bowel through the wound 
in the side. Fistulse require very frequent 
dressing, heal slowly, and are extremely annoj'- 
ing and disgusting to the patient. A third com¬ 
plication which may result in abscess cases is 
intestinal obstruction. Earlier in this article 
the way in which adhesions form was described. 
They are nature’s barriers against infection, but 
sometimes prove a veritable boomerang. The 
author has more regard for the results of the 
aseptic scalpel of the surgeon administered 
at the opportune season than he has for na¬ 
ture’s attempts to cure. It is well known 
that after burns of the hands the resulting 
scar tissue will cause contraction and . de¬ 
formity of the fingers. The adhesions uniting 
the coils of intestines together to prevent the 
spread of infection may encircle the bowel, and, 
contracting, occlude its lumen, obstructing the 
flow of bowel contents and necessitating a sec¬ 
ond operation the mortality of which is quite 
high. Finally, if convalescence is uninterrupt¬ 
ed, the wound slowly healing by granulation, 
the resulting scar is quite weak and nearly al¬ 
ways results in a hernia (rupture). 

In consideration of the facts that the course 
of appendicitis can never accurately be foretold, 


and that the dangers resulting from delay in 
operation are many and severe, the following 
outline of treatment is justified from present 
knowledge of this disease: Upon the apoear- 
ance of severe pain in the abdomen, with the 
maximum intensity over the region of the ap¬ 
pendix, nausea, or vomiting, and a point of 
tenderness in the right iliac fossa, the patient 
should be placed at rest, all food withheld, and 
the family physician sent for. When the at¬ 
tending physician has made the diagnosis of 
appendicitis there is no treatment to be dis¬ 
cussed save operative interference. Whether 
the operation should be performed immediately 
will depend upon the extent of peritoneal in¬ 
volvement, but this question should be decided 
by the surgeon called into consultation and in 
whose hands the management of the case be¬ 
longs. In those fatal cases which have been 
followed by a reopening of the wound a study 
of the ascertained conditions is of great inter¬ 
est. When death has taken place from a rapid 
septic poisoning or toxemia the abdomen may 
show nothing except some thin cloudy fluid in 
the pelvis and congestion of the peritoneum 
covering the intestines, giving them a ^scalded® 
appearance. In the abscess cases the right iliac 
fossa is found filled with a green purulent ex¬ 
udate adhering closely to the groin and intes¬ 
tines. There may be small quantities of pus 
which have formed since the operation. If 
death does not occur for several days after 
operation, and nature fails to check the spread 
of the disease, this purulent exudate may reach 
from the liver to the pelvis with infection of the 
portal vein, liver, and of the lymphatics behind 
the peritoneum. With extensive leakage the 
entire peritoneal cavity may be filled with a 
foul-smelling, greenish-colored pus, with gan¬ 
grene of the caecum. 

John B. Deaver, M.D., 

Specialist, Philadelphia, Pa. 

Appenzell, a'pen-tsel, a canton of Switzer¬ 
land, wholly enclosed within the territory of the 
canton of St. Gall, and, though covering an 
area of only 162 square miles, divided into two- 
independent portions, Ausser-Rhoden, or Outer- 
Rhodes, which is Protestant, and Inner-Rhoden, 
or Inner-Rhodes, which is Catholic. It is an 
elevated district, traversed by branches of the 
Alps; has large tracts of rich pasture-land and 
extensive forests of pine, and is watered by 
the Sitter and by several smaller affluents of 
the Rhine. The climate is cold, but healthy. 
Glaciers occupy the higher valleys. Flax, hemp, 
grain, fruit, etc., are produced, but the wealth 
of Inner-Rhodes, the more elevated division of 
the canton, lies in its numerous herds and 
flocks; that of Outer-Rhodes in its manufatures 
of muslins, gauzes, cambrics, and other cotton 
stuffs. The construction of railways has now 
made the canton more accessible, and great num¬ 
bers of strangers flock hither annually to take 
advantage of the whey-cure establishments of 
Gais, Weissbad, Gonten, Heiden, and Heinrichs- 
bad. The inhabitants speak a peculiar dialect, 
which even those who are well acquainted with 
Swiss-German have great difficulty in under¬ 
standing. The town of Appenzell (German, 
Abtcnselle, abbot’s cell), is the capital of Inner- 
Rhodes, beautifully situated on the Sitter, with 
4,369 inhabitants. Trogen, with 2,578 inhab¬ 
itants, is the capital of Outer-Rhodes. Schools 


APPERCEPTION 


are numerous, and education widely diffused. 
The division between the Protestant and Cath¬ 
olic portions of the canton has existed since 
1597. They have only one vote between them, 
and send deputies to the federal assembly in 
turn. Pop. (1900), Outer-Rhodes, 55,281; 
Inner-Rhodes, 13,499. The former is one of 
the most densely-peopled parts of Europe, its 
population being equal to more than 500 per 
square mile. See Richman, ^ppenzelP (1895). 

Ap'percep'tion, a psychological term re¬ 
ferring to higher consciousness. Until recently 
there has been considerable confusion among 
English and American writers on psychology 
as to the meaning of the terms perception and 
apperception. To point out the source of this 
confusion requires a brief history of the term 
apperception. The word was first used by Leib¬ 
nitz in connection with his philosophy of (< win- 
dowless® monads. With him every human soul 
is a monad which develops by an inner unfold¬ 
ing. When this development reaches the point 
of clear self-conscious being it attains what he 
calls apperceptive consciousness. If, on the 
other hand, the development is only partial, if 
its states are vague and only partially self-con¬ 
scious, the monad has attained the level of per¬ 
ceptive consciousness. Thus for Leibnitz the 
terms perception and apperception designated 
simply different degrees of clearness and dis¬ 
tinctness of consciousness, with no reference 
whatever to the apprehension of external things. 
In fact the theory of Leibnitz rendered any 
such use of the terms impossible. In more 
recent German psychology the term perception 
lias been dropped and that of apperception re¬ 
tained as an expression of all the higher forms 
of clear consciousness. There is, however, one 
important exception to this. Wundt has re¬ 
tained both terms and attempted to restore to 
them their Leibnitzian meaning without, of 
course, committing himself to Leibnitzian 
monadology. Mental processes which are clear 
and distinct and are also under the control of 
volition are called by Wundt processes of ap¬ 
perception. But when the mental act is merely 
association in character and not directly con¬ 
trolled by volition, or when it is obscure, Wundt 
calls it an act of perception. 

The philosophy of Herbart doubtless, more 
than that of any other German writer, has 
brought the term apperception into prominence 
in American psychology. If we consider his 
system we shall find that here again the terms 
perception and apperception mark different de¬ 
grees of clearness and completeness of the 
forms of mental activity. With Herbart all 
mental processes are but the interactions of 
ideas. When a new idea enters the mind it 
causes a connection among the ideas already 
present. It disturbs the equilibrium. It is 
welcomed by the ideas akin to it, and opposed 
by those which are not. When it finally be¬ 
comes adjusted and settled into its proper posi¬ 
tion among pre-existing ideas the new relation 
thus brought about is the result of apperception. 
Coming over to. English and American psychol¬ 
ogy we meet with that difficulty and confusion 
referred to above. This confusion had its 
origin in the fact that in translating the Leib¬ 
nitzian terms perception and apperception into 
English these same identical terms were used, 
regardless of the fact that in our psychology we 


had already a term, perception, which had ac¬ 
quired a fixed and definite meaning. T he Eng¬ 
lish word already in use stood for the recogni¬ 
tion of objects through the senses, and this is 
still its meaning. Hence it stands for the clear 
and self-conscious recognition of things as weil 
as the vague and imperfect apprehension of 
them. The term perception brought over from 
German psychology, and the same word already 
in use, thus stood for widely different mean¬ 
ings, and hence the confusion. The Germans 
have a wholly different word ( wahrnehnung ) 
for what we mean by perception, and conse¬ 
quently they cannot understand our difficulty. 
The result is that we have all along used the 
terms perception and apperception as though 
they distinguished wholly different mental ac¬ 
tivities instead of marking only different de¬ 
grees of the same processes, as they actually 
do. Apperception is only clear and self-con¬ 
scious perception. It involves in a highly 
complex way the various mental processes of 
memory, imagination, judging, inferring, etc., 
when these processes are clear and self-con¬ 
scious. A full treatment of apperception there¬ 
fore requires that these processes be taken into 
account. It is only necessary here to indicate 
briefly something of the pedagogical bearing 
and value of the term. Mainly through the in¬ 
fluence of the so-called Herbartian movement in 
America, this term apperception has centered at¬ 
tention upon, and emphasized the importance 
of, the processes involved and the conditions 
requisite for the successful acquisition and as¬ 
similation of new knowledge with that which 
has already been learned. As the bodily organ¬ 
ism separates and assimilates only such ele¬ 
ments of the food taken into' it as are needed 
for its growth and repair, so in a somewhat 
similar manner does the mind select and ap¬ 
propriate only such of its presentations as mani¬ 
fest a certain kinship to what is already con¬ 
sciously and vitally present, and rejects the 
rest. Elements wholly foreign to the mind’s 
present stock of ideas escape it altogether. We 
must therefore learn the new by means of the 
old. Hence before presenting the new it is 
necessary to call up and make alive, by arousing 
interest and curiosity, those ideas and materials 
of knowledge that by similarity or other bond 
of relation will best serve for the ready recep¬ 
tion and complete assimilation of the truth or 
fact to be taught. The goal of intellectual de¬ 
velopment is mainly the acquisition of clear, 
distinct, and adequate general conceptions, and 
the ability to make correct application of these 
to new particulars as they arise', or to see in 
each new fact the old in disguise. 

In the development of such general concep¬ 
tions, two stages are recognized which may be 
appropriately designated by the terms perception 
and apperception of German psychology, if these 
terms be employed without reference to whether 
the mental facts considered are externally or in¬ 
ternally derived. The process in the first 
stage is for the most part involuntarily and 
unconsciously directed, in the second it is volun¬ 
tary and self-conscious. The process is not, 
however, first, sense impression, then percept, 
concept, judgment, and reasoning in turn, each 
leaving off where the next higher begins. It 
dates its origin far back in the mental history of 
each individual, and all along in actual experi- 


APPERT —APPIUS CLAUDIUS CRASSUS 


ence, sensing, perceiving, conceiving, judging, 
€t.c., are inextricably joined in one indivisible 
movement of thought-development. To use 
James’ expressive phrase, the infant’s conscious¬ 
ness is a w big, blooming, buzzing confusion.® 
This is the child’s world. It is not, however, 
a world with which he can be satisfied. It must 
he broken in pieces and continually made over 
again. Chaos must be made cosmos, the irra¬ 
tional must become progressively rational. In 
fact, to rationalize the (( big confusion® becomes 
the great and never-to-be-finished work of edu¬ 
cation and of life. Therefore the manner of 
this rationalization is of especial interest to the 
teacher, the (< confusion® is not monotonous. 
It is not always the same. There is change. 
Certain elements come and go and some of them 
return again. By repeated recurrence these ele¬ 
ments come to stand out in the foreground of 
the dark (< confusion.® Some of them are uni¬ 
formly repeated together simultaneously or in 
close succession. These consequently become 
associated and form the basis of perception. 
Perception occurs when the presentation of one 
element immediately calls up the others belong¬ 
ing with it in the unity of consciousness which 
these elements represent. The presented ele¬ 
ment or sensation becomes the sign to which 
the mind at once adds the proper interpretation 
and accompaniment. The richness of the inter¬ 
pretation depends upon the mind’s present atti¬ 
tude and condition, and its past experiences 
with the object presented. In other words, in 
all perception there is more or less of apper¬ 
ception. 

Bibliography .— Leibnitz, ( New Essays ) 
(1896) ; Logek (Stuttgart 1893) ; Stout, 
Analytical Psychology* (1896) ; McMurry, 
< General Method ) (1891) ; De Genno, Essen¬ 
tials of Method ) (1899) ; Herbart, ( Text-Book 
In Psychology ) (1891) ; Wundt, Grundzuge der 
Physiologischen Psychology (1893) ; Wundt, 
( Outlines of Pschology* (1897! ; Lange, Ap¬ 
perception : A Monograph in Psychology and 
Pedagogy* (1893). 

Cloyd Macallister, 

Yale University. 

Appert, a'par, Benjamin Nicolas Marie, a 

French philanthropist prominent in educa¬ 
tional matters: b. in Paris, 1797; d. 1847. 
He made a careful study of prison con¬ 
ditions, spending much time in this pursuit, his 
researches being published in his ( Journal des 
Prisons* (1825-30). He was much opposed to 
solitary confinement and is said to have taught 
100,000 soldiers to read and write. Besides the 
< Journal ) he published ( Dix Ans a la Cour du 
Roi Louis Philippe* (1846), and Conferences 
contre le Systeme Cellulaire.* 

Appert, a'par, Nicholas. a French scien¬ 
tist, brother of Benjamin Appert (q.v.) : b. 1750; 
d. 1841. His method of preserving food 
without chemicals is given in his Art of Pre¬ 
serving Animal and Vegetable Substances > 
(1811). It is the familiar method of placing the 
article to be preserved in a can after heating, 
and then hermetically sealing it, and for his 
invention he was awarded a prize of 12,000 
francs from the French government. 

Ap'petite, a term in its widest sense de¬ 
noting the natural desire for gratification, either 
of the body or the mind; but generally applied 


to the recurrent and intermittent desire for 
food. A healthy appetite is favored by work, 
exercise, plain living, and cheerfulness; absence 
of this feeling, or defective appetite (anorexia), 
indicates diseased action of the stomach, or of 
the nervous system or circulation, or it may 
result from vicious habits. Depraved appetite 
(pica), or a desire for unnatural food, as chalk, 
ashes, dirt, soap, etc., depends often in the case 
of children on vicious tastes or habits; in grown¬ 
up persons it may be symptomatic of dyspep¬ 
sia, pregnancy, or chlorosis. Insatiable or ca¬ 
nine appetite or voracity (bulimia), when it 
occurs in childhood, is generally symptomatic 
of worms; in adults common causes are preg¬ 
nancy, vicious habits, and indigestion caused by 
stomach complaints or gluttony, when the gnaw¬ 
ing pains of disease are mistaken for hunger. 
See Dietetics; Dyspepsia. 

Appiani, a'pe-a'ne, Andrea, an Italian 
painter: b. in Milan, 23 May 1754, of noble 
but poor family; d. in 1817. He visited Rome 
three times in order to penetrate the secret of 
Raphael’s style of fresco-painting, and soon ex¬ 
celled in this art every living painter in Italy. 
He displayed his skill particularly in the cupola 
of Santa Maria di S. Celso at Milan, and in the 
paintings representing the legend of Cupid and 
Psyche, which he prepared for the walls and 
ceiling of the villa of the Archduke Ferdinand 
at Monza (1795). Napoleon appointed him 
royal court-painter, gave him the order of the 
Legion of Honor and that of the Iron Crown, 
and made him member of the Italian Institute of 
Sciences and Arts. Appiani painted afterward 
almost the whole of the imperial family. His 
best works are the fresco-paintings on the ceil¬ 
ing of the royal palace at Milan, allegories re¬ 
lating to Napoleon’s life, and his Apollo with 
the Muses,* in the Villa Bonaparte. Almost 
all the palaces of Milan have fresco-paintings 
by him. 

w 

Ap'pian of Alexandria, the governor and 
manager of the imperial revenues under Had¬ 
rian, Trajan, and Antoninus Pius, in Rome. He 
wrote a Roman history, from the earliest times 
to those of Augustus, in 24 books, of which 
only 11 have come down to us. It is written in 
Greek, in clear and simple style; but it is little 
else than a compilation, characterized by many 
inaccuracies and absurd blunders. The best 
modern edition is that of Schweighauser. 

Ap'pian Way, a famous Roman highway 
leading from Rome to Capua by way of Bo- 
villae, Aricia, Terracina, Formise, Minturnae, 
Sinuessa, etc.; called by Statius Regina Viarum, 
the Queen of Roads. It was made by Appius 
Claudius Crassus Caecus when he was censor, 
313 B.C., and afterward extended to Brundu- 
sium by way of Beneventum. It was paved with 
hexagonal blocks of lava, exactly fitted to one 
another, resting on an admirable substructure 
of considerable depth, and there may still be 
seen, particularly at Terracina, important re¬ 
mains which prove its excellent workmanship. 
See Roads and Highways. 

Ap'pius Clau'dius Cras'sus, a Roman pa¬ 
trician, of the family of the Claudii. In 451 B.C., 
when the decemvirs were appointed to compose 
a complete legal code for Rome (afterward 
known as the Laws of the Twelve Tables), and 
to wield the supreme power in the state for a 


APPLE 


year, Appius Claudius was chosen one of the 
ten, and when the office was continued for an¬ 
other year he was re-elected. As he and some 
of his colleagues had ruled in a very tyrannical 
manner, the people had become incensed against 
them, and the following circumstances led to 
their overthrow. Appius Claudius had con¬ 
ceived an evil passion for a damsel named Vir¬ 
ginia, the daughter of Lucius Virginius, a re¬ 
spected plebeian, and at his instigation Marcus 
Claudius, one of his clients, claimed Virginia 
as the daughter of one of his own female 
slaves and offered to prove this even to the 
satisfaction of her reputed father, while Appius 
Claudius decided that in the meantime she 
should remain in the custody of the claimant. 
This decision being directly contrary to law, 
and Icilius and her uncle Numitorius having ex¬ 
posed the decemvir’s criminal designs, the as¬ 
pect of the people became so threatening that 
he was forced to leave the maiden in the hands 
of her family, declaring, however, that he 
would finally settle the case next day. Virgin¬ 
ius, hastily summoned from the army, appeared 
with his daughter next day in the forum in 
mourning robes and appealed to the people; 
but Appius Claudius, attended by a strong 
guard, again adjudged her to M. Claudius. Un¬ 
able to rescue his daughter, the unhappy father 
snatched a knife from a butcher’s stall and 
plunged it into her bosom, saying, (( There is no 
way but this to keep thee free.® Virginius es¬ 
caped to the camp and with the army returned 
to Rome, demanding revenge. The decemvirs 
were deposed by the indignant people, and the 
government by tribunes and consuls restored 
448 b.c. Appius Claudius died in prison or was 
strangled, while Marcus Claudius was banished. 

Ap'ple, the name given to a low round- 
headed tree ( Pyrus mains) of the natural or¬ 
der Rosacea, with compact clusters of flowers 
which appear with the thick woolly short¬ 
stemmed leaves and followed by fruits botani- 
cally known as pomes. It is a native of south¬ 
eastern Europe and contiguous Asia, whence it 
has been spread by man as a cultivated plant to 
all temperate climates of the globe. It has been 
more or less hybridized with its close relative, 
P. baccata, the well-known Siberian crab, a 
smoother, more wiry species coming from a 
somewhat more northeastern district. This 
latter species has thinner, smoother, longer- 
stemmed leaves and fruit-stems than the other; 
the deciduous calyx of its smaller, harder fruits 
is also a striking difference, the calyx of the 
other being permanent. Certain hybrids of 
these two species are known as P. prunifolia. 
Besides these Old-World species and their pro¬ 
geny there are two American species, P. coron- 
aria, of no culinary value, but of use as an orna¬ 
mental plant, and P. ioensis, a promising species 
which, by crossing with P. mains, has given rise 
to the hybrid race, P. soulardi, remarkable for 
its hardiness. The term crab is loosely applied 
to small, long-stemmed apples as well as to va¬ 
rieties of the two leading species mentioned. 

Commercial Importance. — If not the leading 
fruit of the world, a status few will question, 
the apple is certainly the most important fruit 
of the temperate zones, a rank which it merits 
lor the following reasons: When the market is 
glutted it can be disposed of in more ways than 
any other fruit (see By-Products, below) ; a 


large number of its varieties keep well, with¬ 
stand. shipment to and sell well in distant 
markets; the tree readily adapts itself to great 
extremes of climate, soil, and other condi¬ 
tions. It is, in fact, the only fruit that has 
passed the bounds of luxury and become 
a staple article of food except in the trop¬ 
ics. Its range extends in the northern hem¬ 
isphere from Scandinavia to the mountain¬ 
ous parts of Spain, from New Brunswick tcv 
the high lands of Georgia, and from British Co¬ 
lumbia to the mountains of Mexico. The great 
apple-producing countries of the world are the 
United States, Canada, Australia and adjacent 
islands, Russia, and Germany. In America the 
principal apple districts are Nova Scotia, New 
England, New York, Pennsylvania, Ontario, 
Ohio, Michigan, Kentucky, and the central 
western States. Other less extended or younger 
districts are the Piedmont sections of Virginia, 
West Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, etc., 
the Pacific Coast States, and British Columbia. 

From the eastern regions a steady export 
trade has been growing, mainly with British 
ports, and when the eastern crop is short, Pa¬ 
cific coast apples are shipped across the conti¬ 
nent in large quantities to eastern markets. Ac¬ 
cording to Bailey a full crop of the United 
States and Canada (( of all kinds and grades, is 
probably not less than 100,000,000 barrels.®' 
The Twelfth Census Report of the United 
States gives the number of trees standing in 
1900 as follows: Missouri, 20,040,399; Illinois, 
13,430,006; Ohio, 12,952,625; Kansas, 11,848,- 
070; Pennsylvania, 11,774,211. The total num¬ 
ber of apple trees in orchards at that date was 
201,794,764 as compared with 120,152,795 in 
1890. When compared with the figures of the 
previous census the extension of orchard-plant¬ 
ing seems to be greatest in the central western 
States, especially in Missouri. The crop re¬ 
ported for some of the States in 1899 (see 
Census Report) are as follows: New York, 24,- 
111,257; Pennsylvania, 24,060,651; Ohio, 20,617,- 
480; Virginia, 9,835,982; Illinois, 9,178,150. 
The crop of New York and Pennsylvania was 
34.1 per cent of the total crop of the United 
States—175,367,626 bushels in that year. In 
1889 the crop was 143,105,689 bushels. The re¬ 
port further states: «The apple has a decided 
primacy among American fruits. Of the or¬ 
chard trees reported in 1900, 55 per cent were 
apples, and of the bushels of fruit reported, 
82.8 per cent were of that variety. In 10 years 
the number of apple trees increased more than 
80,000,000, yet the number of Other fruit trees 
increased so much faster that the apple trees, 
which constituted 62.1 per cent of all in 1890, 
were only 55 per cent in 1900. . . . The 
apple crop of 1899, taking the country as a 
whole, was more nearly a normal one than was 
that of any other orchard fruit. Further, the 
average production of apple trees, being larger 
than that of other trees, affects the total in such 
a comparison . . . more than does the num¬ 
ber of trees. The apple increased its propor¬ 
tion of the total production of orchard fruits 
from 76.3 per cent in 1889 to 82.8 per cent in 
1899. 

Varieties. — In addition to productiveness, an 
essential to the value of any food plant, the 12 
points mentioned and explained below should be 
looked for in an apple variety. Of course all 12 


APPLE 



T. An apple orchard in Delaware 


2. A Baldwin apple orchard in New York 
































































































« 




. 


. 












APPLE 


of these qualities cannot be found greatly devel¬ 
oped in a single variety because some are in a 
measure antagonistic, but by keeping these points 
in mind the prospective orchardist may avoid 
planting a variety that would not meet his own 
expectations or the market demands, (i) 
Richness, dependent upon the relative propor¬ 
tion of sugar to malic acid. When these are 
deficient in amount the fruit is insipid, but each 
may be present in large amount without mak¬ 
ing the fruit pronouncedly sweet or tart to the 
taste. Many tart apples contain more sugar 
than some of the so-called sweet apples. In 
ripe specimens of improved varieties the range 
of acid is from 0.19 to 1.11 per cent, and of 
sugar from 10 per cent or even less in poor 
sorts to 14 per cent or somewhat more, the 
usual range being from 11 to 13 per cent. (2) 
k lavor, a quality distinct from the taste of acid 
and sugar, and, like perfume, dependent upon 
minute quantities (seldom more than 0.5 per 
cent) of a volatile oil. A highly perfumed 
apple is, however, not necessarily highly fla¬ 
vored. (3) Firmness not sponginess, crispness 
not hardness, tenderness not softness, melting¬ 
ness not juiciness are dependent upon cell 
structure. (4) Color is often of more impor¬ 
tance in the uneducated market than form, size, 
richness, and flavor combined. It is an unsafe 
index of the last two qualities, except that, as 
a rule, well-colored specimens are superior to 
poorly colored ones of the same variety. Color 
varies in all varieties with season, soil, man¬ 
agement, etc. The favorite color in the general 
market is red. (5) Form: a nearly globular 
shape is most desirable because fruits of that 
form pack better without bruising than other 
forms. (6) Size and uniformity. In general, 
a diameter of about three inches and a weight 
of six or eight ounces is preferred, and a va¬ 
riety producing such as the bulk of its crop 
will usually, on account of the lessened neces¬ 
sity for grading, be more valuable than another 
variety of equal productiveness but with widely 
varying size of fruit. (7) Smooth, tough, but 
thin skin resists insect and fungous attacks, in¬ 
juries in handling and shipping, and are more 
economical with respect to waste. (8) Small 
core and few seeds, save waste. (9) Maturity: 
The commercial variety should be ready to har¬ 
vest all at once. (10) Firm adherence to the 
tree; self-evident. Defectiveness in this re¬ 
spect may be due to attacks of enemies. (11) 
Culinary qualities: of prime importance in com¬ 
mercial varieties because such are used mainly 
for cooking. Sweet varieties usually make in¬ 
sipid pies but good baked apples; tart varieties 
make best pies and sauce. (12) Good-keeping 
is not dependent solely upon firmness but is 
usually associated with locality, climate, soil, 
etc., as well as with the variety and the stock 
upon which it is grown. 

Another matter of importance in the se¬ 
lection of varieties of apples, and even more 
markedly of pears, is the determination of the 
fertility of the blossoms. Sterility, indicated 
by annual dropping of the fruit, may result from 
one or a combination of the following causes. 
Impotence of the pollen or the pistils, or the 
premature ripening of one or the other; in¬ 
juries to the blossoms by fungous attacks, rain, 
frost, or continued cool weather or other cause 
more or less beyond the grower’s control. On 


the other hand, it often results from impotence 
of the pollen to fertilize the pistil of the same 
variety and is noticed when trees stand singly 
or in blocks of one variety remote from other 
varieties. This may be obviated by the grower, 
who should plant varieties that blossom at the 
same time in proximity, usually in alternate rows 
through the orchard, or by grafting such in or¬ 
chards already set. A practice resulting from 
this and the varying maturity of varieties with 
respect to fruit-bearing is the planting of «filler» 
trees in permanent orchards. The fillers are 
quick-maturing varieties of usually upright 
growth and small size, which are set alternately 
with the slower-growing more-spreading per¬ 
manent trees, and cut out when crowding seems 
to threaten. For such practice four varieties 
are usually selected, two fillers and two perma¬ 
nents, each pair blossoming at the same time. 
Each pair is placed alternately with the other 
and each member of the pair alternately with 
its partner. Trees in such orchards are often 
planted 28 feet apart on the diagonal, so that 
when the fillers are removed the permanents 
will be left in rectangles of about 40 feet, the 
usual distance recommended for large-growing 
varieties. Some growers plant as close as 30 
feet, but this is too close except for trees of 
small growth. No other tree fruit than the 
apple should be planted in an apple orchard, 
because no two fruits demand the same treat¬ 
ment, and where two are planted, one or the 
other, perhaps both, must suffer more or less. 
See Orchard. 

Propagation .— New varieties of apples are 
propagated from seeds, but since seeds rarely 
improve upon the parent, seedlings are chiefly 
used to produce stocks for grafting or budding. 
Standard (that is, natural-sized) trees are so 
propagated. Dwarf trees result from grafting 
or budding the same varieties upon the small¬ 
growing, almost bush-like varieties, paradise 
and doucin, the stocks of which are produced 
by mound layering. Voluminous discussion has 
arisen concerning the relative advantages of 
grafting over budding, and also concerning cer¬ 
tain methods of grafting. Opinions in the first 
case are very conflicting; in the latter they 
seem to favor the use of a small piece of apple- 
root as stock and a rather long scion to be set 
deeply in nursery and orchard in order to ensure 
the rooting of the scion and thus obtain a tree 
drawing its nourishment from its own roots 
instead of from the nondescript roots of the 
seedling stock. In northern rigorous climates 
ver> hardy varieties are selected upon which 
to top-work less robust sorts, thus to increase 
their hardiness. When the trees are set the 
tops must be cut back severely to balance the 
loss of root due to digging from the nur¬ 
sery and to start the head at the proper height 
from the ground. Formerly six feet was the 
usual length of trunk desired, but half that 
length is now preferred and in the central West¬ 
ern States even less. Trees with short bodies 
and low heads are less likely to be injured by 
wind and sun-scald than those with high heads 
and long bodies. Established unprofitable trees 
and undesirable varieties are often top-worked 
to valuable ones; not more than a third of 
such trees being grafted each year because of 
the danger of producing water-sprouts. Sec 
Graftage; Pruning; Transplanting. 


APPLE 


Soils, Fertilizers, etc. — Apples thrive upon 
nearly all kinds of soils, certain varieties being 
better adapted to light soils and others to 
heavy rather than the reverse in each case; but 
the great majority of the almost innumerable va¬ 
rieties succeed best upon medium to clayey 
loams, especially if they are somewhat elevated, 
inclined, or rolling, and in a clear, dry climate. 
Since air and water drainage are usually good 
in such places the fruit produced is generally 
of fine color, flavor, and size. Upon low lands 
and in damp climates the fruits are usually of 
inferior quality and the trees more susceptible 
to fungous attacks. (See Orchard.) The fer¬ 
tilizers demanded by apples are mainly potash 
and phosphoric acid. (See Manures.) Some 
growers use a mixture of ioo pounds of muriate 
of potash to 200 pounds of 16 per cent super¬ 
phosphate at the rate of ioo pounds an acre 
while the trees are small, increasing to 500 
pounds and even as much as 1,500 pounds an 
acre for trees in full bearing, the amount de¬ 
pending upon the character and condition of the 
soil, and the grower’s management. If cover 
crops (see Green Manuring) such as clover, 
vetches, or cow-peas are grown, they will supply 
all the nitrogen needed; indeed, if long con¬ 
tinued or if several very heavy crops be turned 
under, too much nitrogen may accumulate, and 
recourse to a cereal crop be necessary to re¬ 
move the excess. Too much nitrogen induces 
a sappy, easily winter-killed growth, generally 
at the expense of fruit-production. Lack of 
nitrogen is indicated by pale green or yellowish 
foliage. The preparation of the land does not 
differ materially from that for other crops such 
as corn or potatoes, each of which is often 
grown the season previous to planting in order 
to fit the land for the orchard. The trees may 
be set in spring or autumn and the cost of 
cultivation may be met by cropping the land for 
the first few years with potatoes, melons, or some 
other low-growing, inter-tilled crop. Annual 
cultivation consists in an early spring plowing 
followed by narrowings at intervals of two 
weeks and after rains that form a crust until 
mid-summer, when a cover crop is sown to be 
turned under in the following spring. Deep 
plowing during the first five years or so will 
induce deep rooting which in after years will 
assist in withstanding drouth and obviate the 
necessity of annual deep plowing. See Tillage. 

Growers opinions differ as to the length of 
trunk an apple tree should have, and also as to 
whether there should be a main trunk above 
the principal lower limbs, but all agree that a few 
(some growers say five, four, or even three) well- 
placed main limbs are better than a larger num¬ 
ber. These mains should start far enough from 
one another to avoid the danger of splitting 
when under load of fruit, and should be made 
to re-branch near the main trunk. Some of 
these latter branches should be trained upward, 
the others more horizontally, so as to develop a 
well-rounded, symmetrical top. Four or five 
years’ careful training should so fix the char¬ 
acter of the tree as to obviate in great measure 
the necessity of subsequent pruning. See 
Pruning. 

Insects. — Several hundred insects feed upon 
the apple, but the most of them are so well 
controlled by their enemies or by natural checks 
that their injuries are seldom noticed. There 


are, however, many that are frequently trouble¬ 
some, among which the following are perhaps 
the most commonly destructive, in connection 
with the specific means of control here men¬ 
tioned, the reader should refer to the general 
article Fungicide, (i) Codlin moth ( Carpo- 
capsa pomonella ) is perhaps the best-known 
and most widely distributed apple pest. The 
eggs are laid upon the fruit, the larvae almost 
invariably entering the calyx, burrowing 
through the flesh and causing premature ripen¬ 
ing. Since two or even three broods are pro¬ 
duced in a season, the destruction of the first by 
spraying is of prime importance. This spraying 
must be done before the calyx closes, because 
the caterpillar’s first meal must be poisoned, to 
accomplish which the sepals must not have 
closed. The destruction of culls, cores, and 
parings and the use of moth-traps in the win¬ 
dows of storage-rooms also assist in controlling 
the pest. (2) Apple maggot {Tripeta pomonel- 
la), the footless grub (one fifth inch long) 
of a two-winged fly, tunnels in the fruit and is 
especially troublesome in New York and New 
England, attacking thin-skinned summer and 
autumn varieties. Windfalls may be eaten by 
stock running in the orchard, and stored apples 
may be fumigated with carbon disulphid. (3) 
San Jose scale ( Aspidiotus perniciosus) , a 
minute scale insect of enormous prolificacy 
found upon many species of woody plants 
which in a few years die. When full grown it 
so closely resembles some of its relatives that 
a microscopic examination is necessary to de¬ 
termine its identity. When abundant, infested 
twigs have a somewhat scurvy appearance re¬ 
sembling a coating of ashes. From beneath the 
female scale the young appear, crawl to new 
feeding ground, fix themselves, and reproduce 
with great rapidity. It has been estimated from 
careful records of close observations that more 
than three billion scales may be produced in 
a single season from one female. Spraying 
with kerosene emulsion, lime, sulphur, and salt 
solution, or fumigating with hydrocyanic acid 
gas, are the three popular ways of combatting 
this pest. (4) Canker-worm, the larvae of 
certain moths (species of Anisopteryx and Pa- 
leacrita), most common in the northeastern 
United States and adjoining- Canada. They at¬ 
tack the leaves of apple, pear, and some other 
trees, entirely defoliating them when especially 
abundant. The wingless females crawl up the 
trunks and lay their eggs upon twigs or bark. 
The larvae, measuring-worms, appear shortly 
after the foliage from which, when disturbed, 
they drop at the ends of silk threads. If they 
reach the ground they climb the trunk to re¬ 
sume feeding. Pupation occurs in the ground. 
This climbing habit of both females and larvae, 
especially of the former, suggested impassable 
bands upon the trunk as a means of control. 
To be most effective these must be applied just 
before the females begin to climb, and since 
those of one species are active in the late fall 
and upon warm days during the winter, and 
those of the other in the spring, the bands must 
be kept in good condition during most of the 
year. (Consult: New Hampshire Experiment 
Station Bulletin, No. 85, 1901.) (5) Tent cat¬ 

erpillar, the larvae of a moth (Clisiocampa 
americana), attack various trees in a large part 
of the United States and Canada. The eggs 


APPLE 


are deposited in gluey-looking masses upon the 
twigs in summer and hatch in very early spring. 

T he larvae are gregarious, and spin a protective 
web from which they emerge to feed. When 
numerous they frequently strip large limbs or 
even trees of foliage. Gathering the eggs dur¬ 
ing the winter and cutting off the nests as soon 
as seen are the two most effective methods of 
control. Since several parasites attack the eggs 
of this moth, the egg masses should be kept out 
of doors in a place from which the parasites, 
but not the newly hatched worms, can escape. 
(6) Web worm (Hyphantria cunea) is a caterpil¬ 
lar similar in habits to the preceding, but enclosing 
the foliage upon which it feeds inside a web until 
nearly full grown, when like the former species 
the larvae disperse. The eggs are laid by a 
moth in late spring upon the undersides of 
leaves near the tips of branches of many trees, 
bushes, and even clover. Cutting and burning 
,is the most effective remedy. (7) The round- 
headed and the flat-headed borers are serious 
pests. They bore in the young wood, the latter 
mainly near the ground in the trunk, the former 
more frequently in the larger limbs. They are 
the larvae of two beetles (respectively, Saperda 
Candida and Chrysobothris femorata). Their 
presence is indicated by the presence of chip¬ 
like castings at the mouths of their burrows. 
The only effective means of control are cutting 
out the larvae or prodding them to death in 
their burrows with a flexible wire. The appli¬ 
cation of repellants to prevent the laying of eggs 
upon the trunks is sometimes recommended. 
(8) Woolly aphis ( Schizoneura lanigera ) often 
called American blight in England and Aus¬ 
tralia, is a serious pest, especially upon young 
trees. Two forms of this insect appear; one 
above ground, the other upon the roots. The 
former, readily recognized by its woolly appear¬ 
ance, is easily controlled by kerosene emulsion; 
the latter is hard to fight without injuring the 
trees. Tobacco dust worked into the ground 
seems to be the most effective and least harmful 
remedy. Nursery stock should always be care¬ 
fully examined for this pest and treated, if ne¬ 
cessary, before being planted. (9) Bud moth 
(Tmetocera ccellana), a tiny insect, the larvae 
of which appear in midsummer, pass the win¬ 
ter in the larval state and attack the opening 
buds and young leaves, over which they weave a 
little web in early spring, when they are most 
destructive. Paris green is effective. 

Diseases. — Apple scab ( Fusicladium dendri- 
ticum ) is probably the most serious apple dis¬ 
ease, since it causes the loss of much fruit and 
injures the appearance of much more. It ap¬ 
pears as black spots with grayish borders on 
apples and pears, commonly seen on greening, 
snow, and yellow harvest varieties that have not 
been sprayed. Often the abundance of the con¬ 
fluent spots prevents the normal development of 
the fruit, which becomes lop-sided. The leaves 
are also attacked, but the markings are not 
so pronounced. Spraying with Bordeaux mix¬ 
ture is very effective. Rust ( Roestelia pirata ) 
appears upon the foliage in early summer as 
orange spots more or less confluent. The fruit 
is also destroyed. The spores of this fungus 
will not germinate upon the apple but find a 
congenial host in the juniper or cedar, upon 
which they are called cedar apples (botanically, 
Gymnosporangium macro pus) . These, when 


matured in the following spring, look something 
like orange yellow sponge. Their spores will 
not germinate upon the cedar, but will upon 
the apple. Sometimes the fungus perpetuates 
itself by its mycelium, which may live from year 
to year upon the young twigs and buds of the 
apple. Destruction of the cedars and spraying 
are effective. Apple canker ( Nectria ditissi- 
ma) destroys the bark and younger wood, and 
eventually the tree, but small areas may be cut 
out and the wounds painted with Bordeaux 
mixture. In fact, since this disease gains en¬ 
trance through wounds, all such should be 
similarly treated. Burning badly infested trees 
is the only means of checking the spread of this 
disease. Powdery mildew {Podosphcera oxy- 
canthce), a grayish growth upon the foliage, is 
often troublesome in the South upon young 
trees and seedlings in the nursery. It may read¬ 
ily be controlled by a standard fungicide. Bit¬ 
ter rot ( Glceosporium fructigenum ) appears 
upon the fruit as brown spots, extending until 
they often involve the whole apple. It may at¬ 
tack at any time and is especially destructive to 
the early varieties, more in the South than in 
the North. Black rot ( Splueropsis malorum ) 
resembles bitter rot and is similarly controlled. 
See Fungicide. 

Harvesting, etc. — As the fruit ripens, the 
starch which it contains becomes changed into 
sugar, the leaf green is replaced by tints char¬ 
acteristic of the variety, the flow of sap into the 
fruit diminishes until the apple has attained 
full size and weight, when the flow practically 
ceases. Since the changes that now take place 
are mainly chemical and continue independent 
of the tree, the fruit may be picked. Fruit¬ 
growers agree upon this time, which they de¬ 
termine with each variety from experience. The 
fruits are still hard, but have brown seeds, and, 
having reached the development mentioned, 
may be picked by slightly twisting the stem 
without danger of breaking the twig upon 
which it is borne, thus preventing a loss of 
bearing-wood. Fruits gathered at this time 
and ripened properly are superior to those al¬ 
lowed to hang longer upon the tree. For best 
results in keeping, apples should be stored as 
soon as possible after picking; the temperature 
kept uniform and near 33 0 F., so as to check the 
ripening process; draughts avoided, since they 
hasten decay and increase shrivelling, hence 
closed packages are better than shelves; odors 
should be excluded. 

Cost of Production, Yield, etc.-— From vari¬ 
ous sources the following annual averages of 
cost of growing an acre of apple trees to fif¬ 
teen years of age have been compiled, the or¬ 
chards in each case being managed according 
to approved modern methods. Plowing (once), 
$3.50; harrowing (seven times), $3.25; spray¬ 
ing (Bordeaux mixture and Paris green, four 
times) $5.00' fertilizers, $11.50; interest (at 
six per cent on land worth $100 an acre), $6.00; 
total, $34.55. Commencing at the age of from 
6 to 10 years, according to variety, there should 
be a gradually increasing crop. At fifteen the 
orchard should be in nearly full-bearing. The 
cost of maintaining a New England orchard in 
full bearing was, per acre, as follows: Prun¬ 
ing, $2.50; plowing, $0.90; harrowing, $1.80; 
picking and packing, $12.50; barrels at 30 cents, 
$15.00; fertilizers, $2.50; spraying, $2.00; inter- 


APPLE BRANDY —APPLETON 


est (six per cent on land valued at $50 an 
acre), $3.00; total, $40.20. This orchard pro¬ 
duced 50 barrels of No. 1 apples, which 
sold for $75.00. The plowing was probably- 
done with a gang-plow, hence its low cost. . In¬ 
dividual trees properly cared for often produce 
more than 10 barrels of fruit, and one New 
England orchard of young Fameuse apple trees 
produced in 1895 700 barrels and in 1896 1,000 
barrels, which netted $1.90 and $1.00 a barrel, 
respectively. Waugh, who quotes these New 
England figures, remarks: <( These results are 
not extremes; but they were secured by men who 
take care of their orchards.® 

By-Products .— Apple culls may be used in 
more ways than the culls of any other fruit 
crop, and each product finds a ready market, 
mainly at home. The better specimens are us¬ 
ually evaporated, the cores and peelings of such 
"being also utilized either for cider-making or 
more frequently they are dried and shipped to 
Europe for the manufacture of certain kinds of 
■champagne and other wines. The others are 
usually made into cider, which in turn may be 
remanufactured into jelly, apple-jack, (apple 
brandy, a distilled liquor) or vinegar. When 
cider and apples are mixed and boiled with 
or without sugar the product is called marma¬ 
lade, and, if spices be added, apple butter. The 
pomace (as crushed fruit is called, especially 
after the expression of the juice) is washed to 
obtain the seeds, which are dried and used for 
planting. 

Bibliography .— Warder, ( American Pomol¬ 
ogy^ Part I., Apples (1867) ; Todd, < Apple 
Culturist ) (1871) ; Bailey, { Field Notes on 
Apple Culture 5 (1886) ; Nebraska State Horti¬ 
cultural Society, Vol. XXV. ( The Apple, 5 (Lin¬ 
coln, Neb. 1894) ; and various reports of horti¬ 
cultural societies, especially of the American 
Pomological, Michigan Pomological, and West 
ern New York Horticultural societies; also va¬ 
rious works on fruit culture. M. G. Kains. 

Ap'ple Bran'dy, or Apple Jack, a liquor 
made from the fermented juice of apples by 
the ordinary processes of distillation. 

Ap'ple of Discord, according to Greek 
mythology, the golden fruit thrown among the 
Olympian divinities by the goddess of dis¬ 
cord (Eris), bearing the inscription <( for the 
fairest. 55 Aphrodite (Venus), Hera (Juno), 
and Pallas (Minerva) became competitors for 
it, and its award to the first by Paris so in¬ 
flamed the jealousy and hatred of Hera to all 
of the Trojan race (to which Paris belonged) 
that she did not cease her machinations till Troy 
was destroyed. This story is introduced in 
Tennyson's ( Ginone. 5 

Ap'ple of Sodom, the title of a fruit de¬ 
scribed by old writers as externally of fair ap¬ 
pearance, but turning to ashes when plucked. 
It is probably the fruit of Solanum sodomeum, 
a nightshade (q.v.) of northern Africa, which 
when eaten may produce delirium and even 
death. An American nightshade is also so called. 

Ap'ple-shell, the designation of one of 
the large, handsomely ornamented, globose, bush¬ 
climbing pond-snails of tropical Africa and 
America, belonging to the genus Ampullaria. 
Some species are to be found along the south¬ 
ern border of the United States. These mol- 
lusks are truly amphibious, having both lungs 


and gills, and are thus able to breathe in water 
or in air, whenever disposed to exchange an 
aquatic for a terrestrial existence. Consult 
Semper, ( Animal Life 5 (1881). 

Ap'pleton, Charles Edward Cutts Birch, 

an Englishman of letters: b. in Reading, Eng¬ 
land, 16 March 1841 ; d. in Luxor, Egypt, 1 Feb. 
1879. He was graduated from St. John’s Col¬ 
lege, Oxford, in 1863, studied for two years in 
German universities, and was appointed lecturer 
in philosophy at St. John’s College. His best 
service to literature and his time was his found¬ 
ing the ( Academy, a Monthly Record of Litera¬ 
ture, Learning, Science, and Art, 5 whose first 
number appeared 9 Oct. 1869. Its characteris¬ 
tic feature was the signing of all the critiques 
and leading articles with the writers’ names in 
full, and these included men of the highest emi¬ 
nence in literature and science. Appleton re¬ 
mained editor until his death. To a volume of 
essays on the ( Endowment of Research 5 he 
contributed two articles: ( Economic Character 
of Subsidies to Education, 5 and ( Endowment of 
Research as a Form of Productive Expendi¬ 
ture 5 (1876). See J. H. Appleton and A. H. 
Sayce, ( Life and Literary Relics 5 (1881). 

Ap'pleton, Daniel, an American publish¬ 
er: b. in Haverhill, Mass., 10 Dec. 1785; d. in 
New York city, 27 March 1849. After engaging 
in the dry-goods business in Haverhill, Bos¬ 
ton, and New York, he began importing English 
books with his merchandise. He presently de¬ 
voted himself exclusively to the business of 
printing and publishing, and between 1830 and 
1849, in conjunction with his sons, laid the 
foundation for the successful career of the firm 
still known as D. Appleton & Co. Its publica¬ 
tions extend over the entire field of literature, 
and it has rendered great service in issuing the 
works of modern scientists at moderate prices; 
for example, Herbert Spencer, Tyndall, Hux¬ 
ley, Darwin, etc. Medical books form a special 
department, and Spanish books for the South 
American market a specialty which the firm 
has made its own. In belle-lettres and Ameri¬ 
can history it has a strong list of names among 
its authors. 

Ap'pleton, George Swett, an American 

publisher, son of Daniel Appleton (q.v.) : b. in 
Andover, Mass. 1821; d. in 1878. After follow¬ 
ing the publishing business for some years in 
Philadelphia he succeeded, in 1849, to his fa¬ 
ther’s business in New York, with his three 
brothers. 

Appleton, George Webb, an American 

novelist and dramatist, now resident in London: 
b. in New Jersey in 1845. He is author of the 
novels ( Frozen Hearts 5 ; ( Catching a Tartar 5 ; 
( Jack Allyn’s Friends 5 ; C A Terrible Legacy 5 ; 
( The Co-Respondent 5 ; ( A Philanthropist at 
Large 5 ; ( The Blue Diamond Mystery 5 ; ( Fran¬ 
cois the Valet 5 ; ( Rash Conclusions 5 ; ( The Ro¬ 
mance of a Poor Girl 5 ; ( A Forgotten Past 5 ; 
of several plays, and of ( A Hundred Years of 
French History, 1789-1889. 5 

Ap'pleton, James, an American temper¬ 
ance reformer: b. in Ipswich, Mass., 1786; d. 
1862. He served in the American army during 
the second war with England, and, removing to 
Maine, in later years entered the Maine legis¬ 
lature, where in 1837 he introduced a report 


APPLETON 


APPONYI 


which became the basis of the famous Maine 
Liquor Law. 

Ap'pleton, Jesse, an American theologian: 
b. in New Ipswich, N. H., 17 Nov. 1772; d. in 
Brunswick, Me., 12 Nov. 1819. After his grad¬ 
uation from Dartmouth College in 1792 he was 
ordained pastor of the Congregational Church 
at Hampton, N. H., in 1797. He was president 
of Bowdoin College, 1807-19. A man of fine 
culture and attractive personality, he was con¬ 
stantly in demand as a preacher on important 
occasions. His daughter married President 
Franklin Pierce. His lectures, sermons, and 
other writings, with a memoir, were published 
by Prof. A. S. Packard, ( The Works of Jesse 
Appleton, D.D. 5 (1837). 

Ap'pleton, John, an American diplomatist: 
b. in Beverly, Mass., 1815; d. in 1864. He was 
secretary of the American legation at London, 
1 855 “ 6 , assistant secretary of state in 1857, and 
minister to Russia, 1860-1. 

Ap'pleton, John Howard, an American 
scientist: b. in Portland, Me., 3 Feb. 1844. He 
was graduated from Brown University in 1863 
and was instructor in chemistry there 1863-89, 
and professor since 1868. He has been profes¬ 
sor of chemistry at Brown. He was a member 
of the United States Mint Commission in 1891. 
His chemical text-books have been widely used, 
and include Qualitative Chemical Analysis ) 
(1878) ; Quantitative Chemical Analysis ) (1881) ; 
i Chemistry of the Non-Metals ) (1884) ; Pet¬ 
als of the Chemist 5 (1891) ; ( The Carbon Com- 
pounds ) (1892). 

Ap'pleton, Nathan, an American mer¬ 
chant: b. in New Ipswich, N. H., in 1779; d. in 
1861. He started the first cotton power-loom 
in the United States and was one of the foun¬ 
ders of the city of Lowell. He sat several 
times in the Massachusetts legislature, and in 

1830 and again in 1842 was a member of Con¬ 
gress. 

Ap'pleton, Samuel, an American mer¬ 
chant, well-known as a philanthropist, brother 
of Nathan Appleton (q.v.) : b. in New Ipswich, 

N. H., in 1766; d. in 1853. He retired from 
business in 1823 and at his death bequeathed 
$200,000 for benevolent and scientific purposes. 

Ap'pleton, Thomas Gold, an American 
author and artist: b. in Boston, Mass., 31 March 
1812; d. in New York city, 17 April 1884. He 
was graduated from Harvard University in 

1831 and spent much of his life abroad. A 
generous patron of the fine arts, he was himself 
an amateur painter of considerable ability. In 
society he was a well-known figure, being a 
brilliant talker with a gift of epigram. His 
witticism, ( Good Americans, When They Die, 
Go to Parish has been erroneously ascribed to 

O. W. Holmes and others. His books are: ( A 
Sheaf of Papers ) (1874) ; ( Nile JournaP 
(1876); ( Chequer Work: Tales and Essays ) 
(1879) ; ( Syrian Sunshine 5 (1877) ; < Windfalls ) 
(1878). His poem (< Faded Leaves. 55 was once 
popular. See Susan Hale, ( Life and Letters 5 
(1885). 

Ap'pleton, William Henry, an American 
publisher, the eldest son of Daniel Appleton 
(q.v.): b. in Haverhill, Mass., 27 Jan. 1814; 
d. in 1884. In 1835 he was sent to represent his 
father’s firm in London, and in 1836 a perma¬ 
nent agency was established there. In 1838 
Vol. 1 —40 


he was taken into partnership, and upon the re¬ 
tirement of his father in 1848 he formed a co¬ 
partnership with his brothers to continue the 
house of Daniel Appleton & Co. 

Ap'pleton, Wis., a city and county-seat of 
Outagamie County, on the Fox River and the 
Chicago & N. W. and the Chicago. M. & St. P. 
R.R.’s, 25 miles southwest of Green Bay. It is 
at the head of navigation on Lake Winnebago 
and on the Green Bay waterway, on a plateau 
70 feet above the river, and near the Grand 
Chute rapids whence it derives excellent power 
for manufacturing. The principal industry is 
the manufacture of farm implements, furniture, 
paper, flour, pulp, machinery, and woolen and 
knit goods. It is the seat of Appleton Collegi¬ 
ate Institute and Lawrence University (Meth¬ 
odist Episcopal), and has university and public 
school libraries, three national banks, daily and 
weekly newspapers, and a property valuation oi 
over $3,500,000. Pop. (1900) 15,085. 

Appoggiatura, a-pod'ja-too'ra, a musical 
term applied to a small additional note of em¬ 
bellishment preceding the note to which it is 
attached, and taking away from the principal 
note a portion of its time. It is expressed thus: 



and performed 



Long ap¬ 


poggiatura invariably occurs on the beat, and 
short appoggiatura, now commonly styled a 
grace-note, is written as an eighth note with a 
stroke through the stem. 

Appoint'ment, the designation of an indi¬ 
vidual, by the person or persons having au¬ 
thority so to do, to perform the duties of some 
office or trust. The making out of a commis¬ 
sion is conclusive evidence of an appointment 
to an office for holding which a commission is 
required. 1 Cranch, U. S. 137; 10 Pet. U. S. 343. 
An appointment is usually made by one person 
or a limited number acting with special au¬ 
thority, while an election is made by all of a 
class. In chancery practice an appointment is 
the exercise of a right to designate the per¬ 
son or persons who are to take the use of real 
estate. 2 Washb. R. P. 302. 

Appold, ap'old, John George, an English 

mechanician and inventor of automatic ma¬ 
chinery : b. in 1800; d. 5 Aug. 1865. He invent¬ 
ed a centrifugal pump, a brake which was used 
in laying the Atlantic cable, and a process for 
dressing furs. 

Ap'pomat'tox Court House, a village in 
Virginia, 20 miles east of Lynchburg. It was 
the scene, 9 April 1865, of Gen. Lee’s surrender 
to Gen. Grant, an event which virtually con¬ 
cluded the American Civil War. 

Apponyi, op'po-nyi, Gyorgy (George), 
Count, a Hungarian statesman: b. 1808; d. 
1899. He was Hungarian court chancellor in 
1847 and after some years of retirement entered 
the Reichsrath of Vienna in 1859 and was active 
in furthering schemes for the welfare of Hun¬ 
gary, materially assisting in bringing about the 
union of Austria-Hungary on the present basis. 
His son Albert Apponyi, a leading member of 
the Hungarian diet, is one of the most eloquent 
orators in Hungary. 











APPORTIONMENT — APPRENTICESHIP 


Apportionment, a term signifying the 
division or distribution of a subject-matter in 
proportionate parts. In relation to contracts an 
apportionment is the allowance, in case of the 
partial performance of a contract, of a propor¬ 
tionate part of what the party would have re¬ 
ceived as a recompense for the entire perform¬ 
ance of the contract. But where the contract 
is to complete a thing for a certain sum of 
money or other consideration, there can be 
no apportionment. 

Apportionment - incumbrances. — The deter¬ 
mining of the amounts which each of several 
persons interested in an estate shall pay toward 
the removal or in support of the burden of 
an incumbrance. 

Apportionment-rent. — A term denoting the 
allotment of shares in a rent to each of sev¬ 
eral persons owning it. It is also applied to 
the determination of the amount of rent to be 
paid when the tenancy is terminated at some pe¬ 
riod other than one of the regular intervals for 
the payment of rent. 

Apportionment Bill, the designation of a 
bill adopted by the United States Congress 
every io years, and directly after the completion 
of the Federal census, determining the num¬ 
ber of members that each State is entitled to 
send to the National House of Representatives, 
and providing for the necessary reorganization 
of the Congressional electoral districts. The 
number of representatives has risen from 65 
in 1789 to 386 in 1900, and the number of pop¬ 
ulation to each member has advanced from 
30,000 to 193,175, in the same period. 

Ap'posi'tion, a grammatical term imply¬ 
ing the relation in which one or more nouns 
or substantive phrases or clauses stand to a 
noun or pronoun, which they explain without 
being predicated of it, and with which they 
agree in case: as Cicero, the orator, lived in the 
first century before Christ; the opinion that a 
severe winter is generally followed by a good 
summer is a vulgar error. 

Ap'prehen'sion (Latin apprehensio, from 
ad + prehendere, to seize), a term employed to 
denote the subjective character of perception. 
In the philosophy of Aristotle the act of attaining 
direct acquaintance with any truth or object of 
knowledge was called Qeyeiv, which figuratively 
means a touching or immediate contact with 
truth. The scholastics translated this term 
by the word apprehension, which has descended 
with modified and extended meaning to modern 
philosophy. This word has accordingly been 
employed to designate the act or faculty (1) 
of perceiving anything through the senses, (2) 
of forming an image in imagination, (3) of 
conceiving without judging, the so-called sim¬ 
ple apprehension of nominalistic logic; or (4) 
a relatively simple and immediate act of intel¬ 
lection with or without reference to an external 
object. In this use of the word it distinguishes 
this form of intellection from the more com¬ 
plex and elaborated forms of knowledge de¬ 
noted by the words comprehension, judgment, 
etc. Thus, for example, when an object or 
event is viewed apart from other things or 
events, it is said to be apprehended. When 
brought into systematic relations with kindred 
objects of knowledge we say it is compre¬ 
hended. Stone makes a rather important dis¬ 


tinction between implicit and explicit apprehen¬ 
sion. Through frequent recognition of an ob¬ 
ject of knowledge the mind acquires the ability 
to distinguish and identify it as a whole without 
apprehending any of its constituent elements. 
The act which thus grasps its object without 
conscious combination or synthesis of parts is an 
implicit apprehension. If attention lingers upon 
the object, a tendency toward multiplicity arises, 
the component parts become discernible, and im¬ 
plicit apprehension becomes explicit. In the one 
there is a distinctionless unity; in the other a 
conscious synthesis. Implicit apprehension is a 
form of what Prof. Ladd calls the condensation 
of a series and is an important aim and result of 
correct mental training. 

Wundt distinguishes apprehension from ap¬ 
perception, or what we should call clear and 
self-conscious perception, in a very suggestive 
though highly figurative way. He, of course, 
recognizes that in a series of temporally succes¬ 
sive ideas or mental states the one immediately 
present in perception has the most favorable 
position as regards clearness and distinctness. 
Likewise, in a spatial series, or in a complex 
of simultaneously interconnected factors pres¬ 
ent in consciousness, some factors are more fa¬ 
vorably located than others. There is, accord¬ 
ingly, a state of clearest grasp in consciousness, 
which, when accompanied by a special feeling, 
is called attention. This state of clearest grasp 
is figuratively styled the fixation point of con¬ 
sciousness, or, more briefly, the inner fixation 
point In contrast the whole complex psychical 
content is called the field of consciousness. A 
conscious process which passes into an uncon¬ 
scious state is said to pass below the threshold 
of consciousness. A psychical compound which 
enters the field of consciousness passes on to 
the inner fixation point, then out again into the 
field, and finally descends below the threshold, 
is an apperceived compound. But just as such 
compounds may enter the field of consciousness 
before reaching the point of fixation, so may 
other compounds enter the field and pass out 
again without entering the fixation point at all. 
Such compounds are only apprehended. Thus 
it appears that Wundt’s distinction between ap¬ 
prehension and apperception is simply one of 
relative clearness and distinctness of percep¬ 
tion. Perceptions that are vague and unclear 
are called apprehensions, while those which are 
clear, self-conscious, and voluntary are apper¬ 
ceptions. Consult Wundt, ( Outlines of Psychol¬ 
ogy } (1897) ; Stout, Analytical Psychology ) 

(1896). 

In law, refers to the capture or arrest of 
a person on a charge of having violated the 
criminal law. Apprehension is the term usu¬ 
ally applied to criminal cases, as one having 
the power, by virtue of his office, may arrest 
on civil process and apprehend on a civil war¬ 
rant. See Arrest. 

Apprenticeship, in law, a contract by 
which a person called a master, who understands 
some art, trade, or business, undertakes to teach 
the same to another person, commonly a minor, 
and called the apprentice, who, on his part, is 
bound to serve the master, during a definite 
period of time, in such art, trade, or business. 
At common law an infant may bind himself 
apprentice by indenture, because it is for his 
benefit. But this contract, on account of its 


APPROPRIATION 


liability to abuse, has been regulated by statute 
in the United States, and is not binding upon 
the infant unless entered into by him with the 
consent of the parent or guardian, or by the 
parent or guardian for him, with his con¬ 
sent. The contract need not specify the par- 
, ticular trade to be taught, but is sufficient if 
it be a contract to teach such manual occupa¬ 
tion or branch of business as shall be found 
best suited to the genius or capacity of the ap¬ 
prentice. I his contract must generally be en¬ 
tered into by indenture or deed. The contract 
is to continue, if the apprentice be a male, only 
during minority, and if a female only until 
she arrives at the age of eighteen. The duties 
of the master are to instruct the apprentice by 
teaching him the knowledge of the art which he 
had undertaken to teach him, though he will be 
excused for not making a good workman if 
the apprentice is incapable of learning the trade, 
the burden of proving which is on the master. 
Ordinarily the indenture should contain, among 
other things, a stipulation that the apprentice 
shall be taught the general rules of arithmetic. 
The master must not abuse his authority, either 
by bad treatment or by subjecting his apprentice 
to menial employments unconnected with the 
business he has to learn; but he may correct 
him with moderation for negligence and misbe¬ 
havior. He cannot dismiss his apprentice ex¬ 
cept by consent of all the parties to the inden¬ 
ture. He cannot remove the apprentice out of 
the State under the laws of which he was ap¬ 
prenticed unless such removal is provided for 
in the contract or may be implied in its nature; 
and if he do so remove him the contract ceases 
to be obligatory. An infant apprentice is not 
capable in law of consenting to his own dis¬ 
charge. After the apprenticeship is at an end 
the master cannot retain the apprentice on the 
ground that he has not fulfilled his contract, 
unless specially authorized by statute. An ap¬ 
prentice is bound to obey his master in all his 
lawful commands, take care of his property, 
promote his interests, endeavor to learn his 
trade or business, and perform all the covenants 
in his indenture not contrary to law. He must 
not leave his master’s service during the term 
of the apprenticeship. If, without the know¬ 
ledge or consent of the master, an apprentice is 
employed by a third person, the master is en¬ 
titled to all his earnings, whether the person 
who employed him did or did not know that he 
was an apprentice. In an action for harboring 
or enticing away an apprentice it must be shown 
that the defendant had a knowledge of the ap¬ 
prenticeship. The enlistment of an apprentice 
; in the military service dissolves the relation of 
i master and servant, and the master has no claim 
! to the bounty money or pay of the apprentice so 
} enlisted. A master cannot delegate to another 
; the power to chastise his apprentice, as his au- 
J thority is a personal one. At common law an 
! apprenticeship is a relation which cannot be as¬ 
signed, but if under such an assignment the 
apprentice continue with his new master with 
the consent of all the parties and his own, it 
will be construed as a continuation of the old 
apprenticeship. 

Appropriation, a term denoting a specific 
sum set apart for the legislative power for 
a designated purpose. In the United States no 


money can be drawn from the Treasury ex¬ 
cepting by appropriations made by law (Con¬ 
stitution, art. i). Under this clause it is ne¬ 
cessary for Congress to appropriate money for 
the support of the Federal government and in 
payment of claims against it. All bills for 
appropriating money originate in the House 
of Representatives, but may be amended in 
the Senate. The same procedure is observed in 
the several States. 

Appropriation of payments refers to the ap¬ 
plication of a payment made to a creditor by 
his debtor, to one or more of several debts. 
The debtor has the first right of appropriation. 
No precise words are required of him, his in¬ 
tention when made known being sufficient, but 
such facts must be proved as will lead a jury to 
infer that he did intend to make the specific 
appropriation claimed. An entry made by the 
debtor in his own book at the time of pay¬ 
ment is an appropriation if made known to 
the creditor, but otherwise if not made known 
to him. The same rule applies to a creditor’s 
entry communicated to his debtor. If the debt¬ 
or does not apply the payment, the creditor 
may do so. There are, however, some restric¬ 
tions upon this right. The debtor must have 
known and waived his right to appropriate. 
Hence an agent cannot always apply his prin¬ 
cipal’s payment. He cannot, upon receipt of 
money due his principal, apply the funds to 
debts due himself as agent, selecting those 
barred by the statute of limitations. A cred¬ 
itor having several demands may apply the 
payments to a debt not secured by sureties, 
where other rules do not prohibit it. The 
court will direct the application of a payment 
upon the failure of both debtor and creditor to 
do so. Payments made on account are first to 
be applied to the interest due thereon at the 
time of payment, and if the payment exceed the 
amount of interest, the balance goes to extin¬ 
guish the principal. 3 Sandf. Ch. N. Y. 608; 
11 Paige Ch. N. Y. 619. Funds must be ap¬ 
plied by the creditor to a judgment.bearing in¬ 
terest, in preference to an unliquidated account. 
When no other rules of appropriation intervene, 
the law applies part-payments to debts in the 
order of time, discharging the oldest first. The 
general rule is that neither debtor nor creditor 
can so apply a payment as to affect the liability 
of sureties without their consent. Where a 
principal makes general payments the law pre¬ 
sumes them, prima facie, to be made upon debts 
guaranteed by a surety rather than upon others, 
although circumstances and intent will control 
this rule, as they do other rules of appropriation. 
5 Leigh, Va. 329. Payments upon continuous ac¬ 
counts are applied to the earliest items of ac¬ 
count unless a different intent can be inferred. 
5 Mete. Mass. 268; 23 Me. 24; 3 Sumn. C. C. 98. 
Where a creditor of an old firm continues his 
account with the new firm, payments by the 
latter will be applied to the old debt, prima 
facie, the preceding rule of continuous accounts 
guiding the appropriations. A different in¬ 
tent, however, clearly proved, will prevail. The 
appropriation cannot be changed, when once 
made, but by common consent, and rendering 
an account and bringing suit declaring in a 
particular way is evidence of an appropriation. 
9 Paige, Ch. N. Y. 165. 


APPROXIMATION — APRICOT 


Approximation, a term in mathematics 
signifying a continual approach to a quantity 
required, when no process is known for arriving 
at it exactly. Although, by such an approxima¬ 
tion, the exact value of a quantity cannot be 
discovered, yet in practice it may be found 
sufficiently correct; thus the diagonal of a 
square whose sides are represented by unity is 
V2, the exact value of which quantity cannot 
be obtained; but its approximate value may be 
substituted in the nicest calculations. This 
process is the basis of many calculations in 
pure and applied mathematics, and is of fre¬ 
quent use and great importance in all practical 
operations. 

Appur'tenance, in legal phraseology any¬ 
thing belonging to another thing as principal, 
and which passes as incident to the principal 
thing, io Pet. U. S. 25; 1 Serg. & R. Pa. 
169. For instance, if a house and land be 
conveyed, everything passes which is necessary 
to the full enjoyment thereof and which is in 
use as incident or appurtenant thereto. If a 
house is blown down, a new one erected there 
shall have the old appurtenances. 4 Coke 86. 
The appurtenances of a ship include whatever 
is 011 board of it for the objects of the voy¬ 
age and adventure in which she is engaged, 
and which belong to her owner. 

Aprax'ia, a term denoting a loss of power 
to appreciate the use and nature of common 
objects. Thus a patient with this affection 
might try to comb his hair with a tooth-brush 
or blacken his boots with a dinner-plate. It 
is a purely psychical disorder and frequently 
accompanies aphasia. 

Apraxin, a-praks'in, Feodor Matejevitch, 

a Russian admiral: b. in 1671; d. in Moscow 
in 1724. He may be considered as the creator 
of the Russian navy and was the most power¬ 
ful and influential person at the court of Peter 
the Great, who made him chief admiral. In 
1708 he defeated the Swedish general Liibecker 
in Ingermannland and saved the newly built 
city of St. Petersburg from destruction. In 
1713 he took Helsingfors and Borgo and de¬ 
feated the Swedish fleet. He was twice fined 
for embezzlement, but, being too useful to be 
dispensed with, Peter, in both instances, neutral¬ 
ized the effects of the condemnation by confer¬ 
ring upon him additional riches and dignities. 

Apraxin, a-praks'in, Stepan Fedorovitch, 

a Russian general, grandson of F. M. Apraxin 
(q.v.) : b. in 1702; d. in 1760. He defeated the 
army of Frederick the Great at Gross-Jagern- 
dorf in 1757, but, omitting to follow up his vic¬ 
tory by proceeding to Berlin, was tried by 
court-martial, but died before sentence was 
pronounced. 

Apricot, a small tree ( Primus armenia- 
ca), of the natural order Rosacece, long grown 
for its fruit and supposed to be a native of 
China, whence it reached Europe by way of 
western Asia in the time of Alexander the 
Great. The fruit resembles the peach in form, 
color, and its downy skin, and has a large, 
smooth, or slightly furrowed plum-like pit. It 
usually ripens earlier than either the peach 
or the plum. The choice varieties, of which, 
considering the length of time that it has been 
in cultivation, there are comparatively few, are 
firmer, less juicy, but probably higher flavored 


than the peach. The tree is plum-like in leaf 
and habit and peach-like in bark. The apricot 
demands practically the same general manage¬ 
ment and is as hardy as the peach and succeeds 
in similar climates and situations. 

Eastern Apricot Growing. — Though grown 
to some extent in the eastern United States, the 
apricot has not become widely popular for 
four principal reasons: its susceptibility to in¬ 
jury from late spring frosts which destroy the 
very early appearing blossoms; the attacks of its 
special enemy, the curculio (see Plum) ; in¬ 
complete knowledge of suitable stocks upon 
which to work it so as to ensure its most per¬ 
fect growth in various soils, etc.; and ignorance 
of its dessert qualities, probably owing to the 
lack of systematic exploitation by nurserymen. 
Best results seem to be obtained upon the deep, 
dry, gravelly loams suited to the apple, where 
such lands are situated on the leeward side of 
large bodies of water or elevated and facing the 
north. The trees are usually set 20 feet apart 
and cultivated like the peach, but since the 
fruit-bearing habit is similar to that of both 
the plum (on spurs) and the peach (on wood 
of the previous season’s growth), pruning le- 
sembles most nearly that of the plum. When 
properly managed and grown under favorable 
conditions the apricot probably equals the peach 
in productiveness, but like other tree fruits the 
fruit must be systematically thinned to obtain 
specimens of good size and to prevent bearing 
in alternate years. Since the apricot is even 
more a dessert fruit than the peach and must be 
carefully grown, picked, packed, and marketed, 
only the most careful Eastern fruit growers 
attempt its extensive cultivation. The chief 
disease, leaf-spot, is treated under Peach. 

California Apricot Growing. — Though the 
apricot has been known in California for more 
than a century in the vicinity of the Missions, 
where it was grown mainly from seeds, it has 
become commercially important only since 
American occupancy, in the early years of 
which improved varieties were introduced from 
Europe. In the Old World these varieties were 
trained to walls and otherwise coddled; in 
California they require no such treatment. As 
a consequence the apricot has become a leading 
fruit of the State where in 1899 more than 
40,000 acres were devoted to this crop. The 
world-wide demand for the fruit, fresh, dried, 
canned, and candied, is fostering still wider 
planting, and California, already the greatest 
apricot-growing region of the world, seems des¬ 
tined to be still greater. The tree is found to 
succeed well on the higher ground of interior 
valleys upon a variety of soils, but, as in the 
East, is susceptible in the low ground to injury 
by late spring frosts. For detailed account of 
California apricot-growing, consult Bailey Cy¬ 
clopedia of American Horticulture,> (1900-2). 

The Russian apricot is a rather hardy race 
of the common species, with small fruits of 
generally inferior flavor. The Japanese apricot 
(Primus Mume), recently introduced into the 
United States as the Bungoume plum, bears 
small greenish or yellowish rather hard and 
dry clingstone fruits. Its flowers are fragrant. 
The little cultivated black or purple apricot 
(Prunus dasycarpa), bears globular plum-like 
acid clingstone fruits. Sec Graftage; Orchard. 


APRIL—APSE 


April (Latin, Aprilis) , the fourth month 
of the year, consisting of 30 days, so-called 
probably from the word aperire , to open, as 
the buds begin to open at this time of the year. 
It was called Ooster, or Easter month, by the 
Anglo-Saxons, and Charlemagne, in his new 
calendar called it the grass month. In the 
Roman calendar, April was the second month of 
the year and it was Julius Caesar who added the 
30th day to it; during Nero’s reign it was called 
Neroneus; and in the Athenian calendar it 
corresponds to the latter portion of Elaphe- 
bolion and to the greater part of Munychion. 
In the brench revolutionary calendar, as adopted 
by a decree of the National Convention on 
24 Nov. 1793, it was merged into the last part 
of Germinal (bud month), and the first part of 
Floreal (flower month). Thus Germinal cor¬ 
responds to the period 21 March to 19 April 
and Floreal to the period 20 April to 19 May. 
See Calendar; Epoch. 

A Priori, a term in logic denoting the 
opposite of a posteriori. To prove anything 
a priori means to do it on grounds preceding 
actual experience or independent of it. Mathe¬ 
matical proofs, for example, are a priori. On 
the contrary, judgments or proofs a posteriori 
are founded on knowledge before acquired, like 
the conclusions of natural history and all ex¬ 
perimental science. In ordinary speech a thing 
is said to be proved a priori when deductively 
derived from a more general principle, even 
though that principle may itself be derived 
from experience. This, however, is not the 
sense which the phrase bears in philosophy. By 
a priori knowledge Kant, who originated the 
transcendental method of philosophy, means 
that which is independent of all experience, such 
as, to use one of his own illustrations, the 
knowledge of the fact that space has three, and 
no more than three, dimensions. The marks of 
a priori knowledge, according to that philos¬ 
opher, are, first, that it is necessarily true, and 
second, that it is absolutely universal, in the 
logical sense—that is, true of the whole sub¬ 
ject; as, in the example just given, it is the 
case that space not only has, but must have, 
three dimensions, and can have no more; and 
this is true of all space, and not merely of some 
spaces. 

According to him, part of our knowledge is 
knowledge a priori, or original, transcendental, 
and independent of experience; part of it is 
a posteriori, or based on experience. What he 
calls the (( pure reason* has to do with the for¬ 
mer. His great work, the ( Kritik der reinen 
Vernunft ) —Critique of Pure Reason (first ed¬ 
ition 1781), contains the foundation for his 
whole system of philosophy. In the preface to 
a later work, the ( Kritik der UrtheilskrafD— 
Critique of the Power of Judgment (1790), he 
defines (( pure reason* thus: Pure reason is the 
faculty to understand by a priori principles; 
and the discussion of the possibility of these 
principles, and the delimitation of this faculty, 
constitutes the critique of pure reason. In the 
first rank of such ideas as we do not derive 
from experience are space and time. Kant 
shows that all our perceptions are submitted to 
these two forms, hence he concludes that they 
are within us, and not in the objects; they are 
necessary and pure intuitions of the internal 
sense. The three original faculties, through the 


medium of which we acquire knowledge, are 
sense, understanding, reason. Sense, a passive 
and receptive faculty, has, as already stated, for 
its forms or conditions space and time. Under¬ 
standing ' is an active or spontaneous faculty, 
and consists in the power of forming conceptions 
according to such categories as unity, plurality, 
causality, etc., which categories are applied to 
objects of experience through the medium of the 
two forms ol perception, space and time. Rea¬ 
son is the third or highest degree of mental 
spontaneity, and consists in the power of form¬ 
ing ideas. As it is the province of the under¬ 
standing to form the intuitions of sense into 
conceptions, so it is the business of reason to 
form conceptions into ideas. Far from rejecting 
experience, Kant considers the work of all our 
life but the action of our innate faculties on the 
conceptions which come to us from without. 
He treats this part in his ( Kritik der prak- 
tischen VernunfU—Critique of Practical Rea¬ 
son (1788). The literature on this subject is 
voluminous; beside Kant’s works already re¬ 
ferred to the student may consult Bosanquet, 
‘Logic* (Oxford 1888) ; Bradley, Principles of 
Logic* (London 1883) ; Caird, ( Critical Ac¬ 
count of the Philosophy of Kant ) (New York 
and London 1889) ; Hegel, ‘Encyclopadie der 
Philosophischen Wissenschaften iin Grundrisse > 
(Heidelberg 1830), English translation by 
Wallace under titles ( Hegel’s Philosophy of 
Mind ) (Oxford 1894), and ( Hegel’s Logic ) 
(Oxford 1892-94) ; Hobhouse, ( Theory of 
Knowledge* (London 1883) ; Hume, ‘Treatise 
of Human Nature,* section of Book I entitled 
‘An Enquiry Concerning the Human Under- 
standing ) (Oxford 1888-94) > Leibnitz, ( Nou- 
veaux Essais sur l’entendement humain, ) trans¬ 
lated into English by Duncan (New Haven 
1890), Langley (New York 1896), and Latta 
(Oxford 1898); Locke, ‘Essay Concerning the 
Human Understanding ) (ed. by Fraser, Ox¬ 
ford 1894) ; Lotze, < Logik ) (Leipzig 1880) ; etc. 
See Logic; Kant; Deduction; Induction; 
Empiricism; Transcendentalism; etc. 

Apse, an architectural term applied to a 
semicircular or polygonal portion of a building, 
roofed in by itself, and most commonly appear¬ 
ing as the eastern termination of a church. The 
apse is a feature of Roman origin, correspond¬ 
ing to the curved recess in which sat the pre¬ 
siding magistrate and his assessors in the ba¬ 
silica or hall of justice. In front of the apse 
stood an altar for public sacrifices. When 
the Christians received the protection of the 
state in the time of Constantine, basilicas were 
frequently used for their assemblies, the bishops 
occupying the seats originally appropriated to 
the presiding magistrates, and the inferior 
clergy filling the seats of the assessors, the altar 
still keeping its place. In the cathedrals of 
France, Germany, and Italy the apsidal termina¬ 
tion is frequently met with; in England it is less 
common, but examples are found in Westmin¬ 
ster Abbey and the cathedrals of Canterbury, 
Rochester, Norwich, and Peterborough, and 
several parish churches; examples may also be 
seen in Scotland in the churches of Kirkliston 
and Dalmeny in Linlithgowshire and of Leu- 
chars in Fifeshire. Transepts with apsidal ends 
occur on the Continent, while apsidal chapels 
opening eastwardly from the transepts are found 
in England in churches of Norman date. 


APSLEY STRAIT —APULEIUS 


Apsides, ap'si-dez (the plural of Apse or 
Apsis), an astronomical term designating the 
two points in the elliptic orbit of a planet where 
it is at the greatest and the least distance 
respectively from the body around which it 
revolves. The moon moving in an elliptic orbit 
around the earth, which is situated in one of 
the foci, is at what was anciently called its 
higher apse when in apogee, and at its lower 
one when in perigee. Similarly, the primary 
planets, including the earth and some of the 
comets, moving in elliptic orbits around the 
sun, which is situated in one of the foci, pass 
through their higher apse when in aphelion, 
and their lower one when in perihelion. It is 
the same with the satellites of Jupiter when they 
are farthest from Jupiter and nearest to it. 

The line of the apsides is the line connecting 
the two apsides of a primary or secondary 
planet. 

The progression of the moon’s apsides is a 
slow movement in the position of the apsides 
of the moon, produced by the perturbing at¬ 
traction of other heavenly bodies. It is about 
three degrees of angular motion, in one revo¬ 
lution of the moon, and in the same direction 
as her progression in her orbit. The apsides of 
the primary planets are also perturbed. 

Ap'sley Strait, a narrow channel between 
Melville and Bathurst Islands, off the north 
coast of Australia. It is about 40 miles in 
length, with a breadth varying from 2 to 5 
miles. The land is low on either side, and the 
shores bordered by a broad belt of impene¬ 
trable mangroves, and indented by numer¬ 
ous salt-water creeks, which present the ap¬ 
pearance of rivers. Alligators of enormous size 
abound in the Straits, many of them measuring 
from 14 to 17 feet in length. A settlement 
was formed in 1824, on the Melville Island side 
of the channel, about 8 or 10 miles from its 
northern entrance, but subsequently abandoned. 

Ap'teryx, a strange flightless bird of New 
Zealand, representing the Apteryges, a group 
of ratite birds nearly related to the extinct 
dinornis. Four or five species are known in the 
various islands of the New Zealand group, 
besides two fossil species. These curious birds, 
called <( kiwis** by the natives, are about the size 
of domestic fowl and have very stout legs, 
wings reduced to a mere useless stump, long 
snipe-like beaks, and no visible tail. The plu¬ 
mage is colored in streaked browns and grays, 
and the feathers are incomplete, the disunited 
filaments giving them the appearance and feeling 
of coarse hairs. Kiwis inhabit the forested 
hills, going about in small flocks which during 
the day hide in the thickets or in cavities of the 
ground or rocks. They sleep during the bright 
part of the day rolled up into a ball, but some¬ 
times rest for a long period in a standing posi¬ 
tion, with the point of the bill touching the 
ground, as though they were leaning upon it. 
Their feeding-time is in the dusk of early 
morning and at evening, and their diet consists 
chiefly of worms, which they search for appar¬ 
ently mainly by the sense of smell, and obtain 
by probing the ground with their long bills. 
The nostrils are at the tip of the beak, which 
is also flexible and extremely sensitive to the 
touch, so that a worm may be detected when 


it is touched, although the bill may need to be 
thrust its whole length into the ground. The 
nest is usually at the end of a round tunnel dug 
in soft earth by the female, and consists of a 
little dry fern or a few leaves. The eggs, gen¬ 
erally two in number and incubated mainly 
by the male, are remarkable for their size, 
since they are equal to a quarter of the mother’s 
weight. They are greenish white in color with 
a smooth surface. As might be expected from 
the size of the egg, the development of the 
young reaches a high degree of maturity before 
hatching. The Maories are very fond of the 
flesh of the kiwi, either roasted or boiled, and 
their persistent hunting had greatly decreased 
the number of the birds before white men 
reached the islands. Since that time dogs and 
other accompaniments of civilization have near¬ 
ly exterminated these birds, which are the sole 
survivors of the moas. The most complete 
description of their habits will be found in 
Buffer’s ( Birds of New Zealand ) (second edi¬ 
tion, 1888). For anatomical details and rela¬ 
tionships see Parker’s memoirs in the Philo¬ 
sophical Transactions ) for 1891 and 1892. A 
good summary of this information will be found 
in Newton’s ( Dictionary of Birds* (1896). See 
Dinornis ; Moa. 

Ap'thorp, William Foster, an American 

dramatic and musical critic: b. in Boston, Mass., 
24 Oct. 1848. He was graduated from Har¬ 
vard University in 1869 and pursued his musi¬ 
cal studies under J. K. Paine and B. J. Lang. 
He taught in the New England Conservatory 
and College of Music to 1884, was musical 
critic for the ( Atlantic Monthly ) 1872-6; the 
Boston Sunday Courier 1876-8; and the Evening 
Traveler 1878-80. He has been musical and dra¬ 
matic critic for the Boston Evening Transcript 
since 1881, and was the critical editor of Scrib¬ 
ner’s ( Cyclopaedia of Music and Musicians.* 
He has written ( Hector Berlioz* (1879) ; ( By 
the Way* ; ( Music and Music Lovers* ; ( Opera, 
Past and Present.* 

Apule'ius, or Appuleius, Lucius, a satirist 

and philosopher of the 2d century: b. at Ma- 
daura, in Numidia; the time of his death is 
unknown. He was author of the celebrated 
satirical romance called the Golden Ass.* He 
first studied at Carthage, then renowned as a 
school of literature, and afterward went to 
Athens, where he became an ardent follower of 
the Platonic philosophy. Faffing iff while on 
a journey he was hospitably received in the 
house of Sicineus Pontianus, a former fellow- 
student, whose widowed mother Apuleius mar¬ 
ried. Soon after Pontianus died, and the rela¬ 
tives of the rich widow publicly accused 
Apuleius of having used magical arts to gain her 
love. The speech by which he successfully 
defended himself, ( Apologia sive Oratio de Ma- 
gia,* is stiff extant. The remainder of his life, 
which he devoted to oratory and literature, 
seems to have been passed at Carthage, where" 
as in some other cities, a statue was erected 
in his honor. His ( Metamorphoses,* ( Golden 
Ass,* a romance in eleven books, contains wit, 
humor, powerful satire, and much poetical mer¬ 
it. It is supposed to have been intended as a 
satire on the hypocrisy and debauchery of cer¬ 
tain orders of priests, on the tricks of pretend¬ 
ers to supernatural powers, and on the prevalent 
vices generally. The finest part of this work 


APULIA — AQUARIUM 


is the episode of Psyche, called by Plerder the 
.most tender and many-sided of all romances. 
It is sufficient to render him immortal, even if 
he be, as some have supposed, only the narrator, 
•and not the inventor of the story. Apuleius 
was also the author of many works on philoso¬ 
phy and rhetoric, some of which are still extant. 
Cervantes, Le Sage, Boccaccio, and others are 
indebted to Apuleius for various episodes. See 
•edition of his complete works, Hildebrand 
(1842); Van Vliet (1897-1900). An English 
translation by Head was published in Bohn’s 
Classical Library in 1851. 

Apu'lia, a province of southern Italy, 
•composed of the provinces of Foggia, Bari, and 
Lecce; area, 8,539 square miles; pop. (1901) 
L 9494 2 5 ; d he northern part forms the Apu¬ 
lian Plain, a rather barren tract on the whole, 
although affording extensive sheep pastures and 
isolated spots capable of cultivation, on which 
wine, olives, southern fruits, and maize are 
grown. The surface of the plain is not quite 
level, but diversified by broad undulations cross¬ 
ing one another at right angles. The southern 
portion is traversed from west to east by low 
•ranges of hills. In the extreme northeast of 
this part of the province rises close to the sea 
the isolated mountain Gargano, which attains 
the height of nearly 5,000 feet. The most im¬ 
portant river is the Ofanto (Aufidus). There 
are four coast-lakes of considerable size. Lake 
Salsi dries up in a great part in summer; and 
on its banks are the great salt-boiling works 
of Barletta. There is a considerable trade in 
grain, oil, salt, southern fruits, cattle, wool, etc. 
Apulia was in ancient times inhabited by sever¬ 
al peoples, such as the Apuli, Messapii, and 
Daunii. It was subdued by the Romans in 317 
B.C. 

Apure, a'poo-ra', a river in Venezuela, 
formed by the junction of several streams is¬ 
suing from the Sierra de Merida. After an 
eastern course of about 300 miles it falls into 
the Orinoco at Capuchino. It is navigable 
throughout almost its entire course. 

Apurimac, a-poo're-mak', the name of a 
department of Peru, embracing a territory of 
8,187 square miles and lying between the de¬ 
partments of Cuzco and Ayacucho. Its capital 
is Abancay. Pop. (estimated, 1902) 178,000. 

Apurimac, a Peruvian river in South 
America, the outlet of a lake in the Andes of 
Peru, in the province of Arequipa, not far from 
Caylloma. It is probably the tributary of the 
Amazon rising nearest the Pacific Ocean. It 
flows through a mountainous country in a 
northerly direction, and, joining the Yucay or 
Vilcamayu at lat. g° 15' S.; Ion. 72 0 30' W., 
forms the Ucayale, one of the principal trib¬ 
utaries of the Amazon. Its entire extent is 
between 500 and 600 miles. 

A'pus, a name designating a fresh-water 
phyllopod crustacean, remarkable for having 47 
body-segments, 20 being the normal number in 
Crustacea. It also has 60 pairs of limbs, cer¬ 
tain segments bearing as many as six pairs of 
legs, the normal number in all arthropods being 
no more than a single pair to a segment. The 
body is protected by a large carapace resem¬ 
bling that of the king-crab (q.v.) in that it is 
adapted for burrowing in soft mud at the bot¬ 
tom of lakes or pools. Apus is locally distrib¬ 


uted over western North America, Asia, and 
Australia. One form ( Lcpidurus glacialis ) 
lives in pools in the Arctic regions. It under¬ 
goes a complete metamorphosis, its larva being 
a (( Nauplius® (q.v.). The family ( Apodidce) 
appears to be of high antiquity, since the im¬ 
pression of an obscure crustacean (Protocaris), 
generally referred to it, has been detected in the 
lower Cambrian rocks of Vermont. See Pack¬ 
ard, ( Monograph of North American Phyllopod 
Crustacea ) (1883) ,* Bernard, ( The Apodidae ) 
(1892). See Phyllopoda. 

A qua (Latin, water), a word used by the 
alchemists and early chemists for solutions or 
other fluid preparations in which the men¬ 
struum is water. Aqua ammonia? ( (( ammonia 
water") is an aqueous solution of ammonia gas 
(NH 3 ). Aqua fortis ( <( strong water®) is ni¬ 
tric acid. Aqua regia ( (( royal water®) is a mix¬ 
ture of nitric and hydrochloric acids, the name 
(bestowed by Basil Valentine) referring to its 
power of dissolving gold and other so-called 
noble metals. Aqua vitce ( (( water of life®), so- 
called by Avicenna, is common grain alcohol. 

I he word <( aqua® is still in general use in phar¬ 
macy for designating aqueous solutions or in¬ 
fusions. 

A'quae So'lis, the ancient Roman name of 
the modern English city of Bath. It was famed 
for the splendor of its buildings and its many 
springs, and the remains of several Roman baths 
have been discovered here. 

Aquamarine, a-kwa-ma-ren' (from the 
Latin aqua marina, <( sea water®), a bluish-green 
variety of beryl (q.v.) esteemed as a gem. 
Siberia and Brazil have long been celebrated 
localities, while magnificent gem material has 
lately been mined in North Carolina. 

Aqua'rians, a name applied to Christian 
ascetics in the primitive Church, who consecrat¬ 
ed water instead of wine for the celebration of 
the Lord’s Supper — either for the sake of ab¬ 
stinence, or because they thought it unlawful to 
drink wine. 

Aqua'rium (Latin, a watering-place for 
cattle, from aqua, water), a term applied to a 
tank or smaller receptacle filled with water 
and stocked with aquatic animals and plants 
for study, or, in the smaller examples, for 
mere beauty and interest. To maintain nat¬ 
ural conditions, both plants and animals must 
be present — the plants to give off oxygen for 
the animals, as well as to furnish food for 
many of them, and the animals to supply car¬ 
bonic acid to the plants. Unless there is some 
arrangement for constant or frequent renewal 
of the water, it should often be aerated. Dip¬ 
ping it up and pouring it in again from a height 
will do this, if there is no less primitive way. 
The aquarium is provided with sea water or 
fresh water according as marine or fresh-water 
life is to be kept; when it is difficult to secure 
sea water for a marine aquarium, one may pre¬ 
pare a substitute by dissolving common salt, 
epsom salts, and certain other salts in the 
proper proportions in fresh water; but, when 
thus artificially prepared, salt water is not fit 
for the reception of animals until certain plants, 
particularly species of Ulva, a genus of green 
algse, have lived in it. With aeration and the 
removal of any dead animal or rotting plant, 
the water may be kept in good condition for a 


AQUARIUS; AQUATIC ANIMALS 


long time if supplied with a number of mol- 
lusks for the consumption of the too abundant 
growth of the algae and of their spores, which, 
otherwise, soon fill and discolor the water. 
When aquaria are placed in insufficient light, 
noxious fungi sometimes develop in them, doing 
injury to the other inmates. Fresh-water 
fishes in particular are subject to fungous para¬ 
sites which attack their eyes, gills, or any chance 
wound. They may frequently be cured by a 
bath in a strong solution of common salt, which 
affects them severely, but from which they re¬ 
cover if washed in an abundant stream of fresh 
water. The large public aquaria which exist 
in many cities are a great aid to students and 
a constant source of entertainment to the people. 
In America the aquarium of the United States 
Fish Commission at Washington and the New 
York city Aquarium are most important. The 
latter is under the control of the Department of 
Parks and was established in 1897 in old Fort 
Clinton (known for many years as Castle Gar¬ 
den) on the Battery. It is entirely free and has 
a daily average of 4,000 visitors; both marine 
and fresh-water animals are exhibited. In the 
floor are seven large pools, and the wall tanks 
number nearly 100. All the arrangements are 
the best which experience has yet suggested, 
and opportunities for special study of ichthyol¬ 
ogy and the natural history of marine animals 
are afforded. In Europe the aquarium at Brigh¬ 
ton, England, and particularly that connected 
with the Marine Laboratory at Naples, are of 
the greatest interest and importance. The most 
recent American work on the construction and 
management of an aquarium is G. E. Smith’s 
<The Home Aquarium. 5 For information upon 
the sea-animals suitable for keeping in a marine 
aquarium consult Verrill, ( Invertebrates of 
Vineyard Sound, 5 in the annual reports of the 
United States Fish Commission for 1871-2. 

Ernest Ingersoll, 

Editorial Staff, ( Encyclopedia Americana . 5 

Aqua'rius (the water-bearer), in astron¬ 
omy, (1) the nth of the twelve ancient zodiacal 
constellations, now generally called signs of 
the Zodiac. (2) A division of the ecliptic — 
that between 300° and 330° of longitude, which, 
on account of the precession of the equinoxes, 
has gradually advanced from the constellation 
Aquarius, once within those limits. The sun 
enters this part of his course about the 21st of 
January, at which time there are generally 
copious rains in Italy, whence the name Aqua¬ 
rius = the water-bearer or water-man. (Her- 
schel’s ( Astronomy, 5 §§ 380, 381.) It is 

marked thus . 

Aquat'ic Animals, a term denoting animals 
living constantly in water, and also those which 
swim on its surface or plunge beneath it for 
food. While the great majority of crustaceans 
are aquatic, a few, such as the wood-louse and 
the land crab, are modified for life ashore. 
Among mollusks there is occurrence of both 
aquatic and terrestrial habit, while numerous 
forms illustrate the transition from the former 
to the latter. The ascidians are exclusively 
marine. Some fishes have a limited power of 
life out of the water, the double-breathing Dip¬ 
noi being in this connection especially instruc¬ 
tive. Among many amphibians the transition 
from water to terra frma is seen in the individ¬ 


ual life-history, when the fish-like gilled tadpole 
becomes the lunged gill-less frog; while in a 
few exceptional cases, such as the black sala¬ 
mander of the Alps, the life is terrestrial from 
first to last, and even the young dispense with 
their preliminary swim as tadpoles, although a 
brief recapitulation of their aquatic life is still 
represented by a gilled stage within the body of 
the parent. The instance of the gilled axolotl 
becoming, in the absence of sufficient water, the 
gill-less amblystoma, forcibly illustrates the im¬ 
portance of the medium as a factor in evolution. 
Among reptiles there are numerous aquatic 
forms,— chelonians, lizards, snakes, and croco¬ 
diles,— though the absence of any gill respiration 
marks the progressive general adaptation to ter¬ 
restrial life. While an emphatically terrestrial 
amphibian like the tree-frog seeks a watery 
hole for the rearing of the young gill-breathing 
tadpoles, the habit is reversed in such reptiles as 
the sea turtle, which, having returned to the more 
primitive aquatic home, yet revisits the land 
for egg-laying purposes. The cradle of the 
young in both cases indicates the ancestral habit 
of the parent. Among the emphatically aerial 
birds there are cases, like that of the penguin, 
where the structure has become adapted to an 
almost exclusively aquatic life. Among mam¬ 
mals, the sea-cow, the seal, and the whale are 
familiar illustrations of very different types 
which have returned to the primeval watery 
home and aquatic habit, with consequent change 
of structure. 

It is important to note the general fact that, 
in the water, animals are subjected to influences 
somewhat different in detail from those which 
mold their congeners ashore. Even contact with 
a different medium, varying in composition, in 
currents, in pressure, in contained food and 
oxygen, and the like, obviously involves a great 
diversity in structure. Modes of motion, from 
the swimming-bell of a medusoid contracting 
and expanding in the tide, to that of the lowest 
vertebrates as illustrated in the pelagic tuni- 
cates, or from the paddling of worm and crus¬ 
tacean to that of fish and frog, duck and seal, 
are at once familiar adaptations to, and neces¬ 
sary results of aquatic life. Similarly the 
smooth and frequently fish-like form, especially 
of actively locomotive water-animals, is a very 
noticeable adaptive result of the conditions of 
life. In the more thoroughly aquatic animals, 
which have remained in the primitive environ¬ 
ment, and not merely returned to it, the blood 
is usually purified by being spread out on 
feathery gills which catch the oxygen dissolved 
in the water; while in terrestrial forms which 
have betaken themselves to an aquatic life, the 
ordinary direct (( air-breathing 55 is still accom¬ 
plished at the surface of the water, or in some 
isolated cases of insects and spiders, by means 
of the air entangled in their hairs, or even con¬ 
veyed into their submerged homes. The aquatic 
respiration of some larval insects, the power 
that some crustaceans and fishes have of keep¬ 
ing up a respiration on land with a minimum of 
water about their gills, and, above all, the cases 
of the double-breathing fishes or Dipnoi, and of 
amphibians already referred to, are especially 
instructive in regard to the problem of transi¬ 
tion from one medium to the other. The gen¬ 
uinely aquatic animals are known to have a 
body temperature not much higher than that 


AQUARIUM 




3. MAIN HALL OF NEW YORK AQUARIUM 


























AQUATIC PLANTS —AQUEDUCT 


of the surrounding medium, and often survive 
even the freezing of the water; while in the 
higher warm-blooded vertebrates which have 
returned to an aquatic habit, various modifica¬ 
tions, such as thick fur and plumage, waterproof 
varnish, formation of blubber, serve as protec¬ 
tions against the cold. 

Aquat'ic Plants, a term applied to plants 
growing in or belonging to water. All vegeta¬ 
tion was probably aquatic at first, certain plants 
becoming terrestrial by degrees. Numerous 
plants are, moreover, in the strict sense of the 
word aquatic, having never acquired or having 
lost all direct connection with the soil. The 
algae are mainly aquatic, though many occur in 
damp situations on land, or on other organisms, 
while others remain for long periods quiescent 
in comparative dryness. Many algae are abso¬ 
lutely isolated in the water, while others are 
more or less intimately fixed to some solid 
substratum. Fungi are very seldom found in 
water, and lichens are also emphatically terres¬ 
trial. Some liverworts, again, occur floating in 
lakes, but the majority grow in very damp 
places and mark the transition to the generally 
terrestrial life of mosses and ferns. Some rhiz- 
ocarps, such as Salvinia, are aquatic, with leaves 
rising to the surface, while others are land or 
marsh plants, like the higher horse-tails and 
club-mosses. 

Among the flowering plants, or phanero¬ 
gams, a return to aquatic life is exhibited by 
numerous though exceptional cases, while 
a very large number grow in moist situations 
and have a semi-aquatic habit. The simple 
monocotyledons, known as Helobice, or marsh 
lilies, are more or less strictly water-plants. 
The arrow-head (Sagittaria) , and other Alisma- 
cece ; the Butomis of the marshes; Hydrocharis, 
with floating kidney-shaped leaves; the water- 
soldier ( Stratiotes ), with narrow submerged 
leaves; and the Canadian pond-weed ( Anacha - 
ris), which, though entirely flowerless in Eu¬ 
rope, threatens to choke some canals and lakes, 
are familiar representatives. The little duck¬ 
weed (Lenina), floating on the surface of stag¬ 
nant pools, is one of the commonest aquatic 
monocotyledons; and the pond-weeds (Pota- 
mcce ) found in both fresh and salt water: the 
lattice-plant (Ouvirandra) , with its skeleton 
leaves; various estuarine and fresh-water naia- 
daceous plants,—for example, Zostera and Naias, 
are also common instances, while those grow¬ 
ing in marshy ground are far too numerous to 
mention. Among dicotyledons the white water- 
buttercup ( Ranunculus aquatilis), with its 
slightly divided floating and much dissected 
submerged leaves; the yellow and white water- 
lilies (Nymphcca) ; the sacred lotus flower of the 
Ganges and Nile ( Nelnmbium ) ; the gigantic 
Victoria regia of tropical South America; and 
the insectivorous bladderwort or Utricularia, 
are among the more familiar aquatic forms. 

A'quatin'ta, the name given to a method of 
engraving or etching upon copper or steel, in¬ 
vented by Leprince in 1760. The outline of the 
subject having been etched and bit, the plate 
is thoroughly cleansed, and a thin layer of etch¬ 
ing ground is again spread over it. When dry, 
the parts of the subject to be aquatinted are 
carefully painted over with a mixture of olive 
oil, turpentine, and lamp-black; this fluid, laid 
on with a hair pencil, quickly dissolves the parts 


of the ground it covers, which are then wiped 
off. The plate is next dusted all over with a 
finely-powdered white resin or mastic, and 
when equally distributed the superfluous resin 
is shaken off, and the plate gently heated over 
a charcoal fire till the resin dissolves and ad¬ 
heres to the bare metal. In dissolving, the 
grains of the resin run into small granules, 
leaving minute and peculiarly shaped portions 
of the metal open to the action of the aquafor¬ 
tis, a weak solution of which is then poured 
over the plate. When corroded to the proper 
strength the subject has acquired what may be 
termed the first wash of color. The plate is 
then cleaned, re-covered with ground, and treat¬ 
ed as before, for the second tint. The process is 
repeated until all the deeper tones of shading 
are completed. These operations are some¬ 
times reversed, the darkest shades being first 
bit in, and the lighter ones added by degrees. 

Aq'ueduct, a term denoting an artificial 
channel or conduit for the conveyance of water 
from one place to another; more particularly 
applied to great architectural structures for 
conveying water from distant sources for the 
supply of large cities, until the recent develop¬ 
ment of water-ways on a large scale for irri¬ 
gation, mining, and power has brought this 
term into more general use. Works for supply¬ 
ing communities with water must have been 
constructed at a very early period. In China 
there are said to be aqueducts dating back to 
prehistoric times. In Persia and Assyria there 
are structures whose remains indicate that they 
were used for aqueducts, but their history is 
not clear. Recent excavations at Jerusalem 
have laid bare wells and channels cut in the 
solid rock, and indicate that the water supply 
of the city was brought from the neighborhood 
of Bethlehem and Hebron. These channels 
seem to have been composed of earthen pipes 
incased in stones and covered with rough rocks 
cemented together. It is supposed that King 
Solomon built aqueducts; others are ascribed 
to Rameses the Great, in Egypt, and to Semi- 
ramis in Assyria. There are also early remains 
at Palmyra in the wilderness. In the island 
of Samos have recently been discovered re¬ 
mains of a tunnel nearly a mile long and con¬ 
taining water-pipes about nine inches in diame¬ 
ter. These may have been built in 687 b.c. by 
Eupalinos of Megara. Water was brought to 
Athens from Mount Hymettos and Mount 
Pentelikon; Thebes, Megara, Pharsalos, and 
other places also had aqueducts. In Patara, a 
city of Lycia, in Asia Minor, there is a very an¬ 
cient aqueduct consisting of an embankment 
of rough stone 250 feet high and 200 feet long, 
with an archway at the centre of the valley, al¬ 
lowing the stream to pass through it under¬ 
neath. The channels for the water consist of 
cubical stone blocks about a yard in dimension, 
with a hole 13 inches in diameter, the blocks 
being closely connected and cemented together. 

Roman Aqueducts .— While the Greeks devel¬ 
oped underground water-ways and canals, and 
followed simple methods, the Romans under their 
great engineers produced massive structures for 
carrying water at a high level across valleys 
and plains. At first Rome was satisfied with 
water from the Tiber, from wells, and the 
abundant springs which gushed forth within 
its precincts. Four hundred and forty-two 


AQUEDUCT 


years preceded the first aqueduct, which was 
the joint work of Appius Claudius Csecus and 
Caius Plautius Venox, censors in 312 b.c. Ap¬ 
pius Claudius built the conduit, Venox discov¬ 
ered the springs. The entire length of the 
aqueduct was 16,445 metres, or about 10 miles, 
and it furnished 115,303 cubic metres a day. 
The second aqueduct was begun in 272 b.c. by 
Manius Curius Dentatus, and was finished three 
years later. Its length was 63,704 metres, or 
about 45 miles, and it furnished 277,866 cubic 
metres a day; it was not used for drinking, 
but for irrigating gardens and flushing drains. 
In 144 b.c. the Senate determined to repair the 
two old aqueducts and build a new one. This 
work was begun by Quintus Marcius Rex. The 
Marcian aqueduct brought the water from 36 
miles away in the territory of Arsoli, and fed 
water to the highest platform of the capitol. It 
was restored in 33 b.c., and Augustine doubled 
the supply of water in 5 b.c. In 79 a.d. Titus 
repaired it; in 196 Septimius Severus brought 
in a new supply for his baths; in 212-3 Cara- 
calla cleaned out the springs, added a new one, 
and restored the aqueduct, building a branch 
four miles in length for his baths; in 305-6 Di¬ 
ocletian performed the same service. The via¬ 
ducts and bridges by which it crossed the high¬ 
lands are magnificent. There are seven bridges, 
some of them carrying four aqueducts. The 
Marcian reaches Rome at the Porta Maggiore, 
where no less than 10 water supplies met. It 
was restored as recently as 1869 and brings a 
water supply from the Sabine Mountains. The 
noble arches which stretch across the Cam- 
pagna for some six miles on the road to Fras¬ 
cati are a portion of this aqueduct. The Aqua 
Tepula and Aqua Julia, combined by Agrippa 
in 33 b.c., had a length, the one of 17,745 
metres, or 10 miles, the other of 22,853 metres, 
or about 12 miles, and a combined flow of 104,- 
300 cubic metres a day. Of the nine aqueducts 
which brought water to ancient Rome, three 
still supply the modern city, namely, the Aqua 
Virgo, now Acqua Vergine, finished by Agrippa, 
27 b.c, and restored by Pope Nicholas V. in 
1453; the Aqua Trajana, now Acqua Paolo; 
and the Aqua Marcia. 

The Romans also constructed important 
aqueducts for the cities throughout their em¬ 
pire. In 120 a . d . the emperor Hadrian con¬ 
structed the aqueduct of Saghuan, which sup¬ 
plied Carthage with water, bringing it by 
arched bridges of stone or concrete about 60 
miles. This aqueduct still supplies Tunis with 
water. Hannibal is said to have erected an 
aqueduct at Martorell, in Spain. The aqueduct 
of Alcantara, also in Spain, stretches over the 
Tajo, and is 125 feet high, with a span of over 
100 feet. There are other Spanish aqueducts 
at Chelves, at Merida, over the Albareges, and 
at Segovia. That at Segovia was originally 
built by the Romans, has in some parts two 
tiers of arcades 100 feet high, is 2,921 feet in 
length, and is one of the most admired works 
of antiquity. The one at Evora, in Portugal, 
is still in excellent condition. One of the finest 
aqueducts in Europe is the Pont du Card, built 
in the 3d or 4th century, or possibly by Agrippa, 
19 b.c., at Nimes, in southern France. It is 
still in a good state of preservation. It is 
higher than any about Rome itself, being fully 
180 feet in height, and the length of its highest 


arcade is 873 feet. It is composed of three 
tiers of arches, each less wide than the one 
below, and is admirably constructed of large 
stones, with no cement used except for the 
canal on the top. There is an aqueduct at 
Paris, built by Julian in 360 a. d., also a very 
important aqueduct at Constantinople, built by 
Hadrian and restored by Theodosius. Since 
1885 the water has been furnished the city by 
an aqueduct built by a French company, taking 
the supply from Lake Derkos, whence the water 
is pumped 358 feet into a reservoir. The ruins 
of an aqueduct exist at Mayence, and those of 
another near Metz, Germany. The aqueduct at 
Spoleto, Italy, is attributed by some to the East 
Gothic king Theodoric, in 500 a. d., and by others 
to Theodelapius, the third Duke of Spoleto, 604 
a.d. It is built of brick and rests between two 
steep cliffs on 10 arches, and is 290 feet in 
height and 231 yards in length. The ground 
plan is apparently Roman, while the pointed 
arches indicate a restoration in the 14th cen¬ 
tury. Many important aqueducts are found 
in more recent times. One of the most remark¬ 
able is that constructed by Louis XIV., in 1684, 
to convey the waters of the Eure from Point 
Gouin to Versailles. Troops to the number of 
40,000 were employed in this great undertaking. 
Thousands of these men died during the pro¬ 
gress of the work, which was interrupted during 
the war of 1688 and never resumed. The bridge 
at Maintenon, forming part of this aqueduct, 
even in its incomplete state is, in point of mag¬ 
nitude, the grandest structure of the kind in 
the world. The remains consist of 47 arches, 
each 42 feet wide and 83 feet high. The piers 
are 25 feet 6 inches thick. 

The first important aqueduct in England was 
built in 1613, to conduct the waters of the New 
River to London, over a distance of 20 miles. 
Wooden aqueducts were first used, but were 
replaced by embankments. Very large works 
were constructed during several years, ending 
in 1877, to bring water from Longdendale, be¬ 
tween Sheffield and Manchester, to the latter 
city. In this instance the aqueducts consist for 
the most part of tunnel and covered conduit, 
but for eight miles the water is conveyed in 
large cast-iron pipes laid along or under the 
public roads. Before the Longdendale works 
were finished the question of a greater supply- 
had to be considered. This led to the adop¬ 
tion of the scheme for bringing water from 
Lake Thirlmere in Cumberland to Manchester. 
The length of the line is nearly 100 miles, and 
the works were carried out in 1885-94. A tun¬ 
nel, about three miles in length and 270 feet 
below the surface, forms the first part of the 
aqueduct. There are 13^ miles of tunnels, 38 
miles of shallow tunnels cut from the surface, 
and 4414 miles of siphon pipes of 40 inches 
diameter. The aqueduct passes under Dunmail 
Raise, north of Grasmere, Ambleside, Winder- 
mere, and Kendal, to the east of Lancaster and 
Preston, across the Rivers Lune and Ribble, 
past Chorley, and west of Bolton. The ultimate 
supply is 50,000,000 gallons daily; the cost, $21,- 
500,000. In Scotland, the Loch Katrine aque¬ 
duct supplies Glasgow with water coming from 
a distance of 26 miles. An aqueduct was built 
m 1738, conducting water for a distance of about 
nine miles into the city of Lisbon. For a part 
of the way it is underground, but near the city 


AQUEOUS HUMOR; AQUEOUS ROCKS 


is carried over a deep valley for a distance of 
2,400 feet, on several arches, the largest of 
which has a span of 115 feet, and is 250 feet 
high. The aqueduct of Caserta, in Italy, was 
built in 1573 by Vanvitelli, for the purpose of 
supplying the gardens of Caserta with water 
from Monte Taburno, a distance of 25 miles. 
It now conducts the water to Naples and crosses 
20 valleys; the last 15 miles the water is carried 
in iron pipes. The Canal de Marseilles, in 
France, is 57 miles in length. It conveys water 
from the River Burance to Marseilles, and is 
a magnificent specimen of engineering. It was 
finished in 1847. At Roquefavour it crosses a 
valley on a bridge, the length of which is 1,290 
feet. The Vienna aqueduct, nearly 60 miles 
long, was finished in 1873. At several places in 
its course there are extensive aqueduct bridges, 
built either entirely of stone or of stone and 
brick. This aqueduct supplies 20,000,000 gal¬ 
lons of water per day. In America are a num¬ 
ber of important aqueducts. For 125 years the 
city of Otumba, in Mexico, received its supply 
of water through the aqueduct of Zempoala, a 
canal 27 miles long, which, though said to be 
in almost perfect condition, has not been used 
since 1700. New York is supplied with water 
from the Croton River, which falls into the 
Hudson above Sing Sing. The first aqueduct, 
which was constructed between the years 1837 
and 1842, at a cost of $12,500,000, is 38 miles 
long with a general declivity of 13I/4 inches to 
the mile, and is eight feet five inches in height, 
and seven feet eight inches in greatest breadth. 
Stone, brick, and cement are used for the en¬ 
casing masonry. The conduit, where it crosses 
the Harlem River, was carried in iron pipes 
over a splendid bridge 150 feet above the river. 
Although an important and well-executed work 
this aqueduct was soon found to be inadequate 
for the greater city, and a new and larger reser¬ 
voir and aqueduct were put into service in 1890. 
The water-way is 33 miles long, 29 of which 
lies in a tunnel through rock, where a horseshoe¬ 
shaped brick, or stone and cement conduit 13^2 
feet high is constructed. At the Harlem River 
this water is carried through an inverted siphon 
300 feet beneath the river. The siphon has 
been used also to carry water under the Danube 
at Nansdorf, Germany. It replaces the old 
Roman arched water-way and is possible since 
the system of building ceiled conduits has come 
into general use. The first aqueduct for sup¬ 
plying Boston with water was built in 1846-8, 
30 years later an aqueduct was built to carry 
water from the Sudbury River to Boston. This 
line crosses the Charles River on a large stone 
arch known as Echo Bridge, and has a fine 
bridge also in the Waban valley. As the city 
demanded a still greater supply an immense 
reservoir was projected to retain 65,000,000,- 
000 gallons of water in the Nashua valley near 
Clinton, Mass., from which the water is to be 
conducted to the Metropolitan district of Bos¬ 
ton. With this it is said the city will have a 
supply of 400,000,000 gallons of water daily. 
The cities on the Great Lakes require a peculiar 
system for supplying water. Tunnels are built 
out under the lakes (four miles at Chicago) to 
secure unpolluted water, and though of simple 
masonry, are difficult to construct. The great 
canals, such as the Suez, the projected Panama 
Canal, and the Chicago Drainage Canal are really 


aqueducts. The latter was completed in 1899 
at a cost of $33,000,000. It carries 300,000 
gallons of water per minute from the Chicago 
River and Lake Michigan to the Illinois River. 
A unique aqueduct was built in Pittsburg, Pa., 
in 1845. A canal was suspended from two 
cables across seven spans of 160 feet each. The 
demands of irrigation have required the con¬ 
struction of many aqueducts. In the western 
United States there are thousands of miles of 
canals, with dams, tunnels, and costly bridges. 
In British India, where the rainfall is uncertain, 
the government has constructed the Ganges 
Canal, which takes the most of the water from 
that river and distributes it over a vast area. 
In the development of water-power some large 
aqueducts have been constructed. At Niagara 
Falls a canal leading from the falls has been 
cut in solid rock. In the mining regions, 
water-ways and flumes are constructed of con¬ 
siderable proportion, but generally of a very 
temporary character and hardly to be consid¬ 
ered as aqueducts. See Canals; Dams; 
Flumes; Irrigation; Water-Power; Water- 
Works. 

A'queous Hu'mor, the designation of the 
transparent lymphatic fluid in the anterior 
chamber of the eye, or that portion of the in¬ 
terior of the eye in front of the crystalline lens. 
In its chemical composition aqueous humor 
closely resembles the cerebro-spinal fluid. It is 
a clear alkaline liquid, specific gravity, 1003- 
1009, and contains about one per cent of solids, 
one tenth of which are proteids. These are 
fibrinogen, serum albumin, and serum globulin. 
Traces of urea and sarcolactic acid are present. 
The secretion of aqueous humor is rapid. It 
is supposed that this fluid is derived from the 
posterior surface of the iris and the ciliary 
body. See Eye. 

A'queous Rocks, the title of a petrogra¬ 
phic division including all rocks that have been 
deposited under water. It is the most impor¬ 
tant class of the sedimentary series, and com¬ 
prises such common and widely distributed 
strata as sandstones, conglomerates, shales, and 
limestones, and many valuable products, as 
gypsum, salt, and coal. According to their man¬ 
ner of origin the aqueous rocks may be sub¬ 
divided into (1) mechanical deposits, (2) 
chemical precipitates. (3) organic accumula¬ 
tions. The mechanical deposits have been 
derived from the disintegration of pre-existing 
strata and the transportation of the materials 
by rivers, tides, and currents. They are being 
formed at the present time beneath the ocean 
and in rivers and lakes. Sandstone, conglomer¬ 
ate, clay, shale, and marl are the most important 
members of this subdivision. The chemical 
precipitates owe their origin to the deposition 
of materials from solution either as a re¬ 
sult of evaporation or by the action of precipi¬ 
tating agencies. Oolitic limestone, gypsum, 
rock salt, siliceous sinter, and many iron ores 
are included in this subdivision. The organic 
accumulations have been formed from ma¬ 
terials once belonging to living organisms. 
Limestones and chalk represent the comminuted 
and compacted remains of shells, corals, cri- 
noids, foraminifera, etc., while certain organ¬ 
isms secrete silica, and their casts have accu¬ 
mulated in the form of infusorial earth, chert, 
and fluid. Peat and the different varieties of 


AQUIFOLIACEiE — AQUINAS 


coal are deposits of vegetable matter which has 
been more or less completely transformed into 
carbon under the influence of pressure and 
sometimes also of heat. 

Aquifoliaceae, a'qui-fo-li-a'ce-e, the desig¬ 
nation of a natural order of plants, composed 
of shrubs with alternate or opposite persistent 
leaves, of thick texture and smooth surface, 
with a toothed margin, the teeth being some¬ 
times spinous. The flowers are solitary, or 
variously grouped in the axillae of the leaves. 
The fruit is always fleshy, containing from two 
to six indehiscent woody or fibrous nucules or 
minute nuts enclosing single seeds. The Amer¬ 
ican holly, Ilex opaca, has foliage less glossy, 
and berries less red than its European relative, 
Ilex aquifolium. Both are important commer¬ 
cially, being mostly used for decorative pur¬ 
poses. The genera are Ilex, Cassine, Myginda. 
The leaves of a species of Ilex afford the famous 
Paraguay tea. But one member of this order 
is found in Europe, the common holly (/. 
aquifolium). The other members are found 
sparingly scattered over different parts of the 
world, especially the West Indies, South Amer¬ 
ica, and the Cape of Good Hope. The Latin 
Ilex, the holm-oak ( Quercus ilex), belongs to 
a different natural order from the holly, and 
to the same order as the oak (Corylacece). 

Aquila, a'kwe-la, one of the early Chris¬ 
tians associated with Saint Paul, was of Jewish 
origin and a native of Pontus. In the year 
52, he with other Jews, was expelled from Rome 
by an edict of Claudius. He and his wife Pris¬ 
cilla went to Corinth, where they first became 
acquainted with Saint Paul. The apostle shared 
their lodgings, at the same time assisting them 
at their trade of weaving tent cloth. He was 
indebted to them for many acts of kindness and 
none of the Christians who aided him ever re¬ 
ceived such warm praise from his pen. See 
Epistle to the Romans xvi. 3. There are many 
references to Aquila in the New Testament: 
Acts xviii. 1-3, and 26-28; 1 Corinthians xvi. 19; 
2 Timothy iv. 19. Nothing definite is known 
about the death of Aquila. Though he led a 
poverty-stricken life in Corinth and Ephesus, bet¬ 
ter days came to him; for in the year 58 we 
again find him in Rome, where he and Priscilla 
kept a house on the Aventine, large enough to 
be used as a sanctuary by the Christians of 
Rome, to whom it was always open. Consult: 
Fouard’s ( Saint Paul and His Missions > (Chap, 
vii.) and ( Saint Peter and the First Years of 
Christianity } (Chap, xviii). 

Rev. James Higgins, D.D., 
Long Island City, N. Y. 

Aq'uila, Johann Kaspar, a celebrated Ger¬ 
man Protestant theologian: b. in Augsburg in 
1488; d. 12 Nov. 1560. After studying several 
years in Italy he was appointed pastor of Jenga, 
a village near Augsburg. Here he embraced 
the doctrines of Luther; but his boldness and 
zeal in the cause of reformed faith led the bishop 
of Augsburg to order his arrest. Aquila passed 
the winter of 1519-20 in the prison of Dillingen, 
and from Dillingen he went to Wittenberg, 
where he became personally acquainted with 
Luther. He was subsequently appointed pro¬ 
fessor of Hebrew at Wittenberg, where he ren¬ 
dered valuable assistance to his colleague Luther 
in his translation of the Old Testament. In 
1527 he became pastor, and the following year 
Protestant bishop at Saalfeld; but his vehement 


opposition to the Interim of Charles V. in 1548 
obliged him to flee. He was appointed to the 
deanery of Schmalkalden in 1550, and restored 
two years after to his office at Saalfeld, where, 
without further molestation, he continued to 
discharge his duties till his death. 

Aq'uila, Ponticus, a native of Pontus, who 
flourished about 130 a.d., and is remembered 
for his exceedingly close and accurate transla¬ 
tion of the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek. See 
Burkitt, ( Fragments of the Book of Kings, 
According to the Translation of Aquila* (1897). 

Aquileja, a'kwe-la'ja, Aquileia, or Aglar, 
a town of Austria, 22 miles northwest of Trieste. 
Before the fall of the Roman empire it was 
the great emporium of trade between the north 
and south of Europe, and was often called the 
(( Second Rome. 8 Caesar Augustus frequently re¬ 
sided here, and several councils of the Church, 
the first in 381, were held at Aquileja. In the 
6th century, the title of patriarch was taken by 
the bishops of Aquileja, who assumed second 
rank to the Pope. The town was destroyed by 
Attila in 452, when the inhabitants numbered 
100,000. It is now a small fishing village con¬ 
taining a number of interesting remains of its 
ancient splendor, and often rewarding the re¬ 
searchers of the antiquary with relics of value. 
Pop. about 2,000. 

Aqui'nas, Thomas, a celebrated scholastic 
theologian, related by birth to several of the 
royal families of Europe: b. near Aquino in 
1227; d. at Fossanora 7 March 1274. He stud¬ 
ied at the Benedictine monastery of Monte 
Casino and the University of Naples. About 
the age of 17 he entered a convent of Domini¬ 
cans, much against the wishes of his family. 
Partly to evade the endeavors of his family to 
recover him, and partly on account of the ex¬ 
traordinary aptitude he displayed for theolog¬ 
ical studies, his superiors sent him to Cologne 
to hear the lectures of the famous Albertus 
Magnus. He was so remarkable for taci¬ 
turnity, and the assiduity and apparent stolid¬ 
ity with which he pursued his studies, that he 
was known among his fellow-students as <( the 
great dumb ox of Sicily. 8 His teacher, how¬ 
ever, discerned his abilities, and is said to have 
foretold that <( this ox would one day fill the 
world with his bellowings. 8 In 1245 he visited 
Paris in company with Albertus. Becoming in¬ 
volved in the dispute between the University 
and the Begging Friars as to the liberty of 
teaching, he advocated the rights claimed by the 
latter with great energy, and, being called upon 
to defend his side in this controversy before the 
Pope, did so with complete success. In 1248. 
he returned with Albertus to Cologne, but re¬ 
visited Paris in 1257, when he received the de¬ 
gree of doctor from the Sorbonne and began to 
lecture on theology, rapidly acquiring the high¬ 
est reputation. The remainder of the life of 
Aquinas was one of the most varied activity. 
He was almost constantly engaged in lecturing* 
and preaching, and was often sent on distant 
journeys in the service of his order. In 1263 
he is found at the Chapter of the Dominicans in 
London. In 1268 he was in Italy, lecturing in 
Rome, Bologna, and elsewhere. In 1271 he was 
again in Paris lecturing to the students; in 1272 
professor at Naples. In 1263 he had been of¬ 
fered the archbishopric of Naples by Clement 
IV., but refused the offer. A general council 
being summoned at Lyons in 1274 for the pur- 


AQUINAS 


pose of uniting the Greek and Latin Churches, 
Aquinas was called thither to present the coun¬ 
cil with a book which he had written on the 
subject, but died on the way. The honors paid 
to his memory were prodigious: besides the title 
of Angelic Doctor, bestowed on him after the 
fashion of the times, he was called the Angel of 
the Schools, the Eagle of Divines, and the Fifth 
Doctor of the Church; in 1286 he was made by 
the Dominicans the doctor of their order 
(doctor ordinis) ; at the request of the Domini¬ 
cans he was, in 1323, canonized by John XXII., 
his tomb supplying the necessary testimony of 
miracles; and 1567 was declared by Pius V. the 
<( Fifth Doctor of the Church.® The numerous 
works of Aquinas are. all written in Latin. The 
most important of them is the ( Summa The¬ 
ologize, * which, although only professing to 
treat of theology, is in reality designed to form 
a complete and systematic summary of the 
knowledge of the time. All the minor works 
of Aquinas may be looked upon as preparatory 
to this great one. These are ( A Commentary on 
the Four Books of Sentences of Peter Lom- 
bard ) ; ( Quodlibeta Disputata et Qucestiones 
Disputatce* ; the ( Catena Aureal or Golden 
Chain, in form of a commentary on the four 
Gospels, but in substance an exhaustive expo¬ 
sition of the cardinal doctrines in theology of 
the greatest fathers of the Church; and com¬ 
mentaries upon Isaiah and Jeremiah, the Epis¬ 
tles of St. John the Divine, and the Psalms, 
as well as upon' Aristotle. His works were 
published in Rome in 1570-1 in 17 volumes, 
but his ( Summa Theologize* has passed sepa¬ 
rately through various editions. The resem¬ 
blance in thinking and writing between Augus¬ 
tin and Aquinas is so marked, that it has been 
fancifully said that the soul of the one had 
passed into the body of the other. The disci¬ 
ples of Aquinas are called after him Thomists. 
See Werner, ( Der Heilige Thomas* (1858) ; 
Gibelli, ( Vita de S. Tomaso ) (1862) ; Vaughan, 
( St. Thomas of Aquino, his Life and Labours ) 
(1872) ; Cavanagh (1890). 

Aquinas, Saint Thomas, Philosophy of. 

The philosophy of Saint Thomas Aquinas is the 
culmination of the philosophic efforts of the 
Christian schools of the Middle Ages. These 
schools, dating from their foundation in the 
reign of Charlemagne, set up a tradition of 
Aristotelian commentary and of independent 
speculative activity which, until the middle of 
the 12th century, were almost entirely circum¬ 
scribed by the limits of dialectic, or logic. After 
the middle of the 12th century the physical and 
metaphysical works of Aristotle (q.v.) became 
known in the Christian schools of Europe, and 
with them were introduced Arabian commen¬ 
taries which interpreted the text of Aristotle 
in a sense contrary to Christian theism. At the 
beginning of the 13th century a number of 
Christian teachers, especially Alexander of 
Hales and, later, Albert the Great, undertook 
the task of expounding the theistic and spirit¬ 
ualistic philosophy of the Christian schools on 
the basis of Aristotle’s physical and metaphysical 
doctrines, rejecting from the current Aristo¬ 
telian teaching whatever they considered to be 
due to the influence of the Arabian commenta¬ 
tors. These teachers prepared the way for 
Saint Thomas Aquinas (1225-74), whose chief 
merit is, not that he created a new method or 


contributed a new system of thought, but that 
he gave to the work of his predecessors and 
contemporaries a more compact synthesis and 
expounded this synthetic system with a sim¬ 
plicity and lucidity rarely to be met with in 
systems which like his carry complexity to a 
high degree of organic unity. Saint Thomas’ 
most important works are the ( Summa contra 
Gentiles 1 * and the ( Summa Theological The 
former, begun at Paris about the year 1257 and 
completed some time between the years 1261 
and 1264, was undertaken at the request of 
Saint Raymond of Pennafort for the purpose of 
defending the truths of Christianity against the 
Arabian pantheists and their followers. It is, 
therefore, apologetic rather than constructive 
in method and contents. The ( Summa Theo- 
logica ) was commenced at Bologna in 1271, and 
was never completed. Unlike the ( Summa con¬ 
tra Gentiles, ) it is constructive in aim and 
method. It is Saint Thomas’ greatest work, his 
last and most important contribution to Chris¬ 
tian theology and philosophy; for, although the 
work is entitled ( Summa Theologica ) and is, 
in fact, a compendious treatise on all the ques¬ 
tions of Catholic theology, it is also a summary 
of philosophy. It begins with the question of 
the existence of God, treats of the attributes 
of God, traces the origin of things from God 
and the return of man to God through Christ. 
It deals, therefore, with the creation and gov¬ 
ernment of the universe, with the origin and 
nature of man, with human destiny, with vir¬ 
tues, vices, and laws — with all the great prob¬ 
lems of speculative and practical philosophy. 
It contains the maturer views of its author, so 
that whenever discrepancies occur between the 
doctrines of the Summa and the views ex¬ 
pressed in his earlier works, the Summa is to 
be taken as the key to the mind of the master. 

The method used by Saint Thomas in all 
his constructive works is a developed and per¬ 
fected form of the dialectic method wh'ich 
we find anticipated in a short treatise by Gerbert 
(Pope Sylvester II., died 1003) and of which 
the first definite example is the Sic et Non of 
Abelard (died 1142). In this treatise Abelard 
presents in contrast the affirmative (Sic) and 
the negative (Non) opinions of patristic writers 
in reference to each successive problem of 
Catholic theology, without, however, furnishing 
principles by which the discrepancies, real or 
apparent, are explained. This was, as far as 
we know, first done by Alexander of Hales 
(died 1245), whose method was to set forth 
the arguments against his thesis, then the argu¬ 
ments for the thesis, and finally to answer the 
objections. Saint Thomas practically adopted 
the method as he found it in use in the schools 
of his day, giving to each article discussed the 
recognized tripartite division videtur quod non 
(introducing objections), sed contra (introduc¬ 
ing the argument for his thesis), and responde- 
tur ad primum , etc. (answers to objections). 
Underlying this somewhat formal method was 
the principle which the schoolmen derived 
from Aristotle, that it is only by the dialectic 
discussion of the affirmative' and negative sides 
of a question the truth is to be discovered and 
defined. In other words, the faculty of the 
mind on which philosophy chiefly relies is not 
intuition but ratiocination. 

In describing the content of Saint Thomas’ 
philosophy one must advert, in the first place, 


AQUINAS 


to the Aristotelian mold in which all his philo¬ 
sophical doctrines are cast. For him Aristotle 
is the philosopher. On the questions of method 
and doctrine which divide the Platonists from 
the Aristotelians Saint Thomas unhesitatingly 
and invariably takes the side of Aristotle. In 
fact, he is the Christian Aristotelian in the sense 
in which Saint Augustine is the Christian Pla- 
tonist. It would, however, be fatal to a proper 
estimation of his philosophy to overlook the 
elements in it which cannot be traced to Aris¬ 
totle. He was no slavish imitator; he main¬ 
tained as a principle of method that the argu¬ 
ment from authority is (in philosophy) the 
weakest of all arguments. It was only in the 
age of decay of the philosophy of the schools, 
when the letter rather than the spirit ruled the 
tradition of Thomistic teaching, his name and 
the name of Aristotle were invoked as authority 
to put an end to all discussion. 

To say that Saint Thomas was an Aristo¬ 
telian means little when we remember that in 
his day there were mere followers of Averroes, 
materialists and pantheists, who might with 
equal justice claim to be representatives of the 
Stagyrite. Saint Thomas was an Aristotelian 
who brought to the elucidation of his Master 
all the tradition of Christian speculation from 
Justin, the first of the Apologists, down to his 
own immediate predecessors and contempora¬ 
ries. The thought which inspired the Chris¬ 
tian philosophers was that above the order of 
natural truth, that is, of truth which can be at¬ 
tained and comprehended by the human mind 
unaided, there is another order of truth, the 
supernatural, which human reason cannot of 
itself attain, but which is known to us on the 
authority of divine revelation. Natural truth 
belongs to reason, and supernatural truth to 
faith. Christian philosophy from the beginning 
took its stand on the principle that these two 
orders of truth must, in some way, be capable 
of harmonious adjustment. Rationalism exag¬ 
gerated the power of reason, mysticism tended 
to slight reason and to emphasize and unduly 
extend the scope of faith. Throughout the early 
Middle Ages these two tendencies were at war 
with each other in the Christian schools. It is 
one of Saint Thomas’ chief titles to distinction 
that he united in his system what is true in 
rationalism with what is true in mysticism. 
The rationalism of Abelard obliterated all dis¬ 
tinction between supernatural and natural truths, 
when it treated mysteries of faith as if they 
were conclusions of theology and used the 
Scriptures as if they were sources of argument 
in philosophy. In an opposite sense, the mys¬ 
ticism of Erigena removed all distinction be¬ 
tween the two orders of truth, when it main¬ 
tained that even truths of the natural order 
are known to us by a special theophania, or di¬ 
vine manifestation. Saint Thomas taught that 
the two orders of truth are distinct: that our 
knowledge of supernatural truth rests on the 
authority of revelation, while our knowledge 
of natural truth rests on the evidence of reason. 
He maintained, at the same time, that they 
are consonant with each other, that since God 
is the author of all truth there can be no con¬ 
tradiction between what revelation proposes for 
our belief and what reason proclaims to be 
evident. This thought, namely, that revelation 
is reasonable and reason divine, crystallized the 
fundamental concepts of all the preceding sys¬ 


tems of Christian speculation, reconciled mys¬ 
ticism with rationalism and gave permanent 
form to the credo ut intelligam and the intclligo 
ut credam of scholasticism. The reconciliation 
of reason with revelation is of interest not 
merely to the Christian Apologist but to the 
philosopher as well. For it is inspired by 
the desire to establish between the supernatural 
and the natural that relation of continuity which 
Greek philosophy at the highest point of its 
development established between the spiritual 
and the material. 

To the controversy concerning the mode or 
manner of the existence of universals, which, 
during the nth and 12th centuries, had been 
so prominently before the minds of philosophic 
thinkers, Saint Thomas contributed his doctrine 
of moderate Realism. The Nominalists con¬ 
tended that universals are mere names; the ex¬ 
aggerated Realists, influenced for the most part 
by Plato, maintained that universals are things 
really existing outside the mind as completely 
developed universal forms. The doctrine of 
moderate Realism (q.v.) is that, while univer¬ 
sals are not mere names but real things, they 
exist outside the mind not as full-blown uni¬ 
versals but only as potentially universal es¬ 
sences which receive their formal aspect of 
universality from the mind in the act by which 
it compares and discusses individual objects 
and abstracts therefrom the formally universal 
concept. Saint Thomas found this doctrine es¬ 
tablished in the schools of his time. He adopt¬ 
ed it and gave to it, as to so many other tenets 
of the schools, its final and most clear-cut form. 

One of Saint Thomas’ most noteworthy con¬ 
tributions to philosophy was his elucidation in 
the Christian and theistic sense of some of 
the more obscure points of Aristotelian teach¬ 
ing. Having before him a translation made di¬ 
rectly from the Greek text — a translation which 
is, indeed, far from correct, yet which in spite 
of many ludicrous verbal blunders is immea¬ 
surably superior to the translations made 
through the medium of Syriac and Arabic — he. 
sought to free from the accretion of Neo- 
Platonic and Arabian commentary the original 
doctrine of Aristotle on the question of the 
nature of the Active Intellect. Rejecting what 
may be called the transcendentalist view, which 
held the Active Intellect to be something more 
than human, something akin to God and in 
some way common to all men, he defended the 
anthropological view, which held that the Active 
Intellect is a part of the individual soul, and, 
therefore, not common to all, but proper to 
each. In this way, he strengthened the defense 
of the immortality of the individual soul. 

Saint Thomas founded a school within the 
schools. To the Franciscan teachers, such as 
Alexander of Hales, Saint Bonaventure, and 
Roger Bacon, certain doctrines of Saint Au¬ 
gustine recommended themselves, to the detri¬ 
ment of the strict Aristotelianism which they 
professed. These Franciscan teachers were op¬ 
posed by the Dominicans, who, like Albert the 
Great and Saint Thomas, recognized in the 
Augustinian doctrines in question an element 
of Platonism which was inconsistent with thor¬ 
ough Aristotelianism. The struggle between 
Augustinianism (q.v.) and Aristotelianism 
(q.v.) was waged in the schools, especially at 
Paris, during the first decades of the 13th cen¬ 
tury. The doctrines under discussion were 


ARABESQUE — ARABIA 


mostly psychological: for instance, the Aristo¬ 
telians maintained that there is but one sub¬ 
stantial form in man, the soul, while the Au- 
gustinians maintained that there are several 
substantial forms; the latter contended that 
there is no real distinction between the soul 
and its faculties, while the former defended 
the real distinction; the Aristotelians main¬ 
tained that there are subsistent forms, that is to 
say, purely spiritual created substances, without 
any matter, while the Augustinians taught that 
all creatures, even the angels, are composed of 
matter and form. On all these questions Saint 
Thomas took the part of the Aristotelians and 
thus became the leader in the Dominican, or, as 
it is sometimes called, the Thomistic school in 
the stricter sense of the word. 

1 he controversies between the Dominican 
and the Franciscan schools brought out an im¬ 
portant general trait of Saint Thomas’ philoso¬ 
phy. Duns Scotus (1274-1308), the ablest of 
the Franciscan opponents of Saint Thomas, 
adopting the principle of voluntarism, brought 
to the surface the intellectualism which per¬ 
vades Saint Thomas’ speculative system. Saint 
Thomas pushed to its utmost consequences the 
intelligo ut crcdam of the earlier scholastics: he 
made intellect superior to will and sought in 
every thing to find an intellectual basis for be¬ 
lief. Scotus maintained that on many ques¬ 
tions of the highest importance reason fails to 
give a satisfactory explanation or proof and 
that we must fall back on will. 

To say, however, that Saint Thomas was an 
Aristotelian in the Christian, as opposed to the 
Averroistic, sense; that he gave final form to 
the idea which inspired scholastic, and indeed 
all Christian, speculation; that he was a mod¬ 
erate Realist; that he held to the strict sys¬ 
tematic Aristotelianism and excluded certain 
Augustinian and Platonic elements; that he was 
an intellectualist, is to give but a faint idea of 
his claims to pre-eminence as a representative 
of scholastic philosophy. Of him, as of all the 
great speculative thinkers, it may be said that 
the spirit of his work is more potent than the 
letter. To the modern mind, especially, he ap¬ 
peals in virtue of the spirit in which he under¬ 
took the work of adjusting his beliefs as a 
Christian to the scientific and philosophic 
thought of his age. To this task he addressed 
himself with an instinctive sense of complete¬ 
ness which impelled him to leave nothing in¬ 
complete or imperfect except so far as every¬ 
thing human is incomplete and imperfect. He 
brought to his task a mind appreciative of the 
value of truth wheresoever truth is found, 
whether in pagan, Jew, or gentile, and a belief 
— stronger in him than in any other Christian 
writer since Saint Augustine — that all truths 
and all contributions to knowledge, from what¬ 
soever source they are derived, must be capable 
of harmonious adjustment. 

Bibliography .— Vaughan, ( Life and Labors 
of Saint" Thomas ) (London, 1871, 2 vols.) ; 
Werner, <Der heil. Thomas von Aquino ) (Re¬ 
gensburg, 1858, 3 vols.) ; Touron, ( Vie de S. 
Thomas d’Aquin 5 (Paris, 1 773 ) ; De Wulf, 
( Histoire de la phil. medievakP (Louvain, 
1900), pp. 259ft; Stockl, ( Gesch. der Phil, des 
Mittelalters ) (Mainz, 1864ft), II., 42iff; Lehr- 
buch der Gesch. der PhilP (Mainz, 1888), pp. 
43iff; Turner, ( History of Philosophy > (Bos¬ 
ton, 1903). For complete bibliography consult 


Potthast, ( Wegweiser durch die Geschichts- 
werke des Europ. Mittelalters ) (Berlin, 1896), 

p ’ I ^ 01 ' William Turner, S.T.D., 

Saint Paul Seminary, Saint Paul, Minn. 

Arabesque, ar'a-besk', a term applied to a 
particular species of decoration employed in 
Arabian and Moorish architecture. The follow¬ 
ers of Mohammed, being prohibited by the 
Koran from representing the figures of men and 
beasts, endeavored to evade this law by invent¬ 
ing a series of monsters, griffins, dragons, 
strange birds, and chimeras; affixing the head, 
wings, and talons of birds to the bodies of lions, 
horses, and other quadrupeds; and making the 
upper parts of children, men, and beasts spring 
from among clusters of foliage and the like. 
In the Vatican there are paintings, executed by 
Giovanni da Udine from the drawings of 
Raphael, in this style, which are deservedly 
much admired. 

Arabgir, a'rab-ger', or Arabkir, a town in 
Asiatic Turkey, 147 miles southwest of Erze- 
room. It owes its enlargement and prosperity 
to the Armenians, who form about one fourth 
of the population, and it is especially noted for 
its manufacture of silk and cotton goods. Pop., 
about 28,000. 

Arabi, a-ra'be, Ahmed El (usually known 
as (( Bey® or (< Pasha®), an Egyptian national 
leader: b. in Lower Egypt about 1837. He was 
the son of a common peasant, and, entering the 
army, rose to the rank of colonel and became 
the head of a party desiring to restore native 
control of Egypt. Tewfik, the khedive, too- 
sluggish and timid to join the party openly, 
was nevertheless glad to see the movement 
prosper under the leadership of one with more 
energy than himself. The ministry of the ablest 
of Egyptian statesmen, Nubar Pasha, was pres¬ 
ently overthrown, and Arabi made minister of 
war in the new cabinet, blushed with success, 
the new war minister acted as if head of the 
state, and rashly undertook to overthrow the 
Anglo-French control of the finances. The 
bombardment of Alexandria, 11-12 July 1882, 
by order of the Gladstone ministry, and 
the rout of his army at Tel-el-Kebir, 13 Sept, 
following, ended his dream, and he was sent 
into life exile in Ceylon. He was pardoned 
and returned to Egypt in 1901. 

Ara'bia, the peninsula in the southwestern 
part of Asia, called by the natives Jeziret el 
Arab, that is, the Peninsula of the Arabs; and 
by the Turks and Persians, Arabistan. It is 
encompassed on three sides by the sea, namely, 
on the northeast by the Persian Gulf, on the 
southeast by the Indian Ocean, and on the 
southwest by the Red Sea. Its extreme south¬ 
ern point, Ras-Arah (the Cape St. Anthony 
of some maps), lies in lat. 12 0 35' N.; Ion. 44 0 
4' E. Thirty miles west of it are the Straits of 
Bab el-Mandeb. The extreme eastern point of 
Arabia, Ras-el-Had, stands in lat. 22 0 23' N.; 
Ion. 6o° 5' E. A line drawn from the head of 
the Gulf of Suez to that of the Persian Gulf, 
and marking the limits of the Arabian peninsu¬ 
la on the north, will be found to run nearly in 
the 30th parallel of north latitude, but a portion 
of what is considered Arabia extends north 
of this. Arabia includes also the peninsula of 


ARABIA 


Sinai, between the Gulf of Suez and that of 
Akabah. The whole area of the vast country 
thus described does not probably fall much 
short of 1,000,000 square miles. 

Divisions .— According to Ptolemy, ancient 
Arabia consisted of Arabia Petraea, Arabia De- 
serta, and Arabia Felix, a division likewise 
followed in modern times, but which is not only 
founded on erroneous principles, but unwar¬ 
ranted by the example of the inhabitants of the 
country. The name of Arabia Felix, or Arabia 
the Happy, is derived from an incorrect transla¬ 
tion of the word Yemen, which does not signify 
happy, but the country lying to the right of 
Mecca, in the same manner as the Arabic term 
for Syria, Al-Sham, denotes the country lying 
to the left of that city. Arabia Petrsea likewise 
lias been erroneously translated Stony Arabia, 
the epithet Petraea having been bestowed on it 
by Ptolemy, from the once flourishing city of 
Petra. 

The first of the divisions met with in pro¬ 
ceeding down the Red Sea is Hejaz, which, as 
it includes the sacred cities Mecca and Medina, 
is always set forth conspicuously by Arab ge¬ 
ographers. It extends a short way within the 
mountain barrier and terminates in the south 
in about lat. 20° N. Next comes Yemen, 
which, according to some writers, embraces 
the whole of south Arabia; but the name is now 
generally used in a confined sense, Yemen proper 
occupying the southwest part of the peninsula, 
and comprising a Tehama or maritime lowland 
on the shores of the Red Sea, with an elevated 
inland district of considerable breadth. It con¬ 
tains the towns of Sana and Mocha. Apper¬ 
taining to Yemen is Aden, now a free port in 
the hands of the British. Next Yemen, on the 
east, is Hadramaut, the western portion of which 
is a desert five days’ journey in length. The 
limits of this province are, however, variously 
assigned by authors, some extending the name 
to almost the whole of the southeast coast, 
while others confine it to a district only ioo 
miles in length. Beyond Hadramaut, in the 
latter narrower sense, lies Mahrah, beyond 
which again extends the principality of Shejer 
or Shehr, at the eastern termination of which, 
near the coast, is the populous district of Dho- 
far, which has occasionally figured as an inde¬ 
pendent State. At the east angle of the penin¬ 
sula is situated Oman. On the south shores of 
the Persian Gulf is Bahrein, from which, 
toward the head of the Gulf, extends the mari¬ 
time district of Hajar, while at a short distance 
southwest in the interior lies the fertile district 
of El-Ahsa, the name of which is sometimes 
also given to the coast. The interior of Arabia 
from Hejaz and Yemen across to the vicinity 
of the Persian Gulf is comprised by Arab ge¬ 
ographers under the single name of Nejed. 
Toward the north are the deserts of Sinai, and 
those of Sham, Jezireh, and Irak (Syria, 
Mesopotamia, and Babylon). The two most 
populous districts are Yemen and Oman. See 
Palgrave, ( Central and Eastern Arabia* 
(1862-3). _ 

The climate of Arabia resembles that of 
Africa. The mountains obstruct the mitigating 
influence of the sea breeze; scorching aridity 
and barrenness characterize both high and low 
grounds, and the date palm is often the only 
representative of vegetable existence. There 


are even districts which in the course of the 
year are refreshed by only one shower of rain, 
while a sky almost perpetually unclouded over¬ 
spreads the sterile plains. The short rainy 
season, which, in consequence of the shifting 
winds prevailing in the Red Sea, visits the west 
coasts in our summer months, fills with water, 
but only periodically, the depressions in the sur¬ 
face, or wadis , and a winter marked by slight 
frosts occurs in the table-lands of the interior 
and northeast. The simoom occasionally blows 
during the hot season, though only in the north¬ 
ern districts. 

Productions .— Arabia is destitute of large 
forests, and plains of green turf have their place 
supplied by steppe-like tracts, which, however, 
covered with aromatic herbs, afford excellent 
pasture to noble breeds of horses. The terrace 
portions of the country, which enjoy a more 
temperate climate, exhibit a greater luxuriance 
of vegetation. Here the date and cocoanut 
palms and various excellent sorts of fruit 
flourish along with durra (a species of millet 
which is here generally cultivated instead of 
European corn), the finest coffee in the world 
(the staple commercial product of the coun¬ 
try), and many aromatic plants and substances, 
such as gum-arabic, benzoin, mastic, balsam, 
aloes, myrrh, frankincense, etc. There are also 
cultivated in different parts of the peninsula, 
according to the nature of the soil and climate, 
beans, rice, lentils, tobacco, melons, saffron, 
colocynths, poppies, olives, the kath bush 
(Catha or Celastrus edulis ), the leaves of 
which are in general use, like those of the coca 
in Peru, as an excitant, sesame, the castor-oil 
plant, etc. In its fauna also, as corresponding 
with the desert nature of the country, Arabia 
presents much of an African type. Sheep, 
goats, and oxen supply man’s immediate domes¬ 
tic and personal wants; the horse and camei 
are his faithful attendants on his wide pere¬ 
grinations ; asses and mules, of a stronger make 
and better appearance than those of Europe, 
are common in the mountainous districts; the 
desert is inhabited by gazelles and ostriches 
hurrying rapidly from oasis to oasis; and the 
lion, panther, hyena, and jackal crouch in am¬ 
bush for the passing prey. Monkeys, pheas¬ 
ants, and doves are the peaceful occupants of 
the fertile districts, in which, however, locusts 
frequently commit tremendous havoc. There 
are several species of serpents and lizards, and 
scorpions and poisonous spiders are numerous. 
Fish and turtles abound on the coasts, and pearl 
oysters in the Persian Gulf. Among mineral 
products may be mentioned saltpetre, mineral 
pitch, and petroleum, which are found in the 
interior highlands, salt, sulphur (in Hadra¬ 
maut), and several precious stones, as the car- 
nelian, agate, and onyx. Iron, copper, and lead 
are far from abundant, and the country is also 
poor in the precious metals. 

Population .— The population of Arabia has 
been estimated by some authorities at 12,000,- 
000, by others at no more than 4,000.000. The 
former number is certainly too high, and it 
is believed that between 5,000,000 and 6,000,000 
is nearer the truth. The Arabs present, as a 
nation and as individuals, much that is peculiar 
both in their mental and physical development. 
They are of middle stature, of a powerful make, 
and have skin of a brownish color. Their fea- 



>§>o®§<2S§io< 






'at into i 








Kkai 
\Namard 
,\ Shahrofti 


Douletabad 


Beiruty?^ 

8ldon J rty, 


\oJavanieh -•' 


[aahan 


MahaOat 
'horamabad 'Y\ 

1 hOuipaiga^ 


Anantk 


iCubeiea Aj ** t O. 

s^sj-ja 

. -~<'S5/ca» 


Damascus 


&> jk .1 iagdad V^>fwV^ 

\ S’rf>,itii/ebxct^id £ 

^^ 3 * 3 to*s 

'. Rulns^v^ A'u i , <i/Q >n <1 raX 
vi^yf IJabjlon’^^T^si^ 3 

r^IIillah, c t,\ 

V /man (Jharbi I \ : 

Irt Nlf»|j«{/ ( ifcrt WA 

S-} TiDuvanij/ah •{) 

\ ( lrak^Arabi 

»y \Laml\in 


r eh Ha nea a t 
« ffi4 I ' 


Hir-cl-Melotah 

Bislicr Anase'xV^ 

1*5* 


Aiwe? 


i^Jtdmadf 1-5 

vV 1 * -* 


Atom 


Anted 


Klioi;sai 


ARABIA 


ngwaei(>> 

*A-Y5k-, 

yA> 

J^vJiruiiiJpia Knrnk 

< BAnir&,„ I \/Ctf 

~' l 4$**ii l ' a! ‘' ' , P'" a T 47 


N.Ni>jifal>a<^ 


/fialaiwi 


SCALE OF MILES. 


'Sura run H Mayor 


Dckke-, 




Syrian Desert 
( Dadiet-esh-Sham) 
-! El Ilained 

ma (Stonjr Plain) 

?*■'-.'• <*#*“*« fA 

„ i xp Ankara S A .. 

Ll Jeratct '—— "—Y “ artf 1 

j «V\4«w 
«/< 


lumietta 
JW'oi't Saij 


Urujan 


Kumiehah 


Population of places is indicated 
by different lettering, thus : 

200,000 and over_ ( A I IK) 

100,000 to 200,000_Damascus 

50,000 to 100,000 
10,000 to 50,000. 

Smaller Places 


A ^YRand-i-ki r 

J,l r t \£e 

yfAhirat 

\ftntbffl* 

k ir v(z i 

! JDnrakor A 
Hohntmncra L 


Haw am 


Anar 


7o6i 

I/l* V« , °« 

&T \\ 


p\^i e ) r 


W.Sktbexkehi 


iCeiunw» 


jJ/it Unbent/ 

f“'itt.AWan 

Bciiuouttjjf 


Hitter Lake.' 


Luka it 


3 Akabah 
Adhetflrg 


Amlah 


iieu/unV 

rt/Jcn</er-l>tl*wi‘ 


./ Dardnir 


Railroads 


Daflir 


Routes of Travel_ 

Telegraph Lines and Cables 


/ J Boo 1>1 <iu T. 

/ JM^V</^FiJUkah\ - 

f ^KAlupit ^\ Fort Malah. 

/' 4» a, 'A 

| /__I-A Raa ns Zaur 


'Sdidteu 


Merfi ~ ' hi. Hi tic bay ad 

UUm „ ... I„ cB.AbJallatS „ V 
Kehb Bet hr e^.l 0 1 

,^ p fOrH Butoa 
( jN c J o \ll.ef Aahaar 

s f r JVrt i^ h-~'£p 

Jlaidannieh el Aiwa 
\ |W Torbaj 

\ Heka<t_-Sbjaibeh Well$ 

E l\ S' l^rm a r 


' rf’Kan run S 
J Burazjoon 
^^Dehrud 


pjvsa 


t'ara 


Jowil 


Metsenuiah 


~\ \ Ra» , La M's* v 

a A VSulainyah | « RoaEbaftnS 
ifoila »KRas» Tannnjlb _ 

\. *| ‘O'" Yobrm 

\ Vs NRas lUiUllja 


^ Adjman/ ^ 

'■>■ v v 

El-Sedelr A 


Hamper 


■Deyci" 


Tebuks^ZAk/u/ai 

„ >oXI ' 

,Htrket Moaddani^T 




'Tintjhu 


Sfuiil 


^ni/^ L. .355TTL. 

Sh.iK 

*>4 ^a'i s^p Jtloyhu 


Nainahn I. 


icr/ia UarboA 


El-Khatij 


Ling fit' Mu 
iir-^oOr.Tpirf 
L.Tomb /Sbt 
rSerl ^rlfioUBn 
l/m el-Kuweyyf£( 

P SUarg chCj 


.QhIiih 




lllae o _ \ > YllaB , u\>KuU 

Dibbak | 

I Khar %. \V 

IFakan \ 1 v - 

IFajerah \l 

^cltadrauiein \ 

\P\Shina* (J t 

o^ ,iar i 

And i y t£Z uwah.^ 1 iii a . t 

jjurrurah c<-« .r- 


R«m Rekknn — 

\Foairat- - 

i Oyi Howrila 
A Ras Mntbakh 




Tckaubar 


Hjeladjiltf Q Raxfaa 
\el£ r.«l» L*!, 

\ \Tbermede oThiMtiir 0 Ormahieh 

l Woshcin I j’*f* / * 

rtr I cl Cmrk 
J Char fa \ 

Nt.i E \ 


Shuggera 


A ’r-A- 'S“ I i,J "^*T\Uenakbc. ^ 
>#> ’r'^Px^nehyi AJm ' 

^.^-'^^■4 . . 

V </ /f iif «/ Sberj u/l 

mra'rj^^^r Abba* fQherabe 

I _ \V _CVit|^^a \ 


Hi*n Dane 


^lbarah < 


-4^ WoM 

C Shaba jAindar 


Dohah 

’Umet Uul 


OMAN 


Miska 


Sbirmeh 


Ohar 


e Sheffa 


KhcrtAl Odaid ,Kaai ^Dnlmea 
/ < /_«6eir Benl-Vai 

/ \ flVMaOi^: 


Kl_Vjjimunah 
el Hauta 


.to’*'* 

Muscat 


•o«a»i 


\ ^ 

has llonasfs 


el Hazzam y?Ai 
SelTiia E<S>6rwm..I; 
h Tttenaid 0 f 


ElSubhakbah 


1161111111*1' 


ledcrl fltmci'n’C 

^2f. -Aila^ L ^ 


El It at an- 


el -Haryk 

1 ) a h n a 

» ( Desert of Xt Red 


TROPIC OF CANCER_ 


IliUm 


’'<—6 ce Sufeineh 


j r Sofmeh 
'liazzajm e' Setjd 


(JaGrin 

liarUr* 


•Maetura 


Uhabifflt' 


Korosko 


lUadd' 


Ytbrin 


Ici’.fltrAa/ '«J Mar ran 


-y^Scim^h o'; 

Sariah ir , 

Mecca . 


llaltain 


El-Jelvabet 


Bakarra* 

‘T 7 '\ 

(lor aba it' 


/]£>*V ;^ 03eiratl 

i,Manly 

Moseirah Gulf 


MeCawi J' 


, / He ra rah b 
A.-p ’ 1 o JCainan' 


QhdnUf 

"y'<. 


v KI»hr^n^ ; 
hfet or Lem 
Abu Laaci 


'a lat Iiishch , 
k~.t Kora 


Deserted Place) 


( Empty 


dbu lla, nmaJ 


• Sin Carlo! 

Bank 

b laulette o 

Kus Jer.lraU 


el Awunl 


Serrciu** '<A 
' Farrar Is/s 
Kunfidah ' 


Souukin jP 


Belatl es-Zolm 


Tenuma ,V5 ’adu 
Afnnaro ' \) ^ j-. 

TfcjJamarV.V 

‘T-Api. 

'Me hall# ~\Chann* Misnet.\ \ 

X \A-SCftadda'~ Bedr^JoV No j rail 
/ Sahrany'-o'**' t ' ^ 
LApSmta | Ull 

,e,an\\ ^’"-(S-adt I 

!dt. A>ii!psg tm >' a 

•. • : 1 ? ^ .Ant? rs < -I 

LoheiaJ’ 'j -cjQhulfe ‘ 


En'SeleJel 


Hiyat el-Raudhat 


vJczirat Kutnaf | 
t. \ Khor No hud 


M. Halt 




El-Jof cl-Yemen 


Belad el-Yafa 


\Vanto Is V r 
\\ ZelfeefvS 


Jebel Kamar < 


(j^hab Oasis 
M'l.i' htl 


Duhlak 

Isl.URls 


el Akhaf Deserts 

...ah 


y , '■'■X V <^■0* vq ^G> £ 


ADEN 

SCALE OF UILE3 




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b~ i ieiier ' 


Jebel 


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,Schekha' 


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iDiyhaCAT 


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^ABYSSINIA { / 

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“ • • 



























ARABIA 


tures express dignity and pride; they are nat¬ 
urally active, intelligent, and courteous; and 
their character is marked by temperance, 
bravery and hospitality, along with a strong 
propensity for poetry. On the other hand, they 
are revengeful in their disposition and preda¬ 
tory in their habits. The women have the en¬ 
tire education of the children in their early 
yeajo'. The most fortunate events in the esti¬ 
mation of an Arab are the birth of a camel, a 
mare of noble breed bringing forth a foal, or a 
triumph achieved by a poet. The first re¬ 
ligion of the Arabs, the worship of the stars, 
was supplanted by the doctrines of Mohamme¬ 
danism, which succeeded rapidly in establishing 
itself throughout Arabia. Besides the two 
principal sects of Islam, the Sunnites (the most 
numerous) and the Shiites (on the east coast), 
there also exists, in very considerable numbers, 
a third sect, the Wahabees, which arose in the 
latter half of the 18th century, and to which 
the Bedouins of Nejed belong. There are also 
numerous Jews, who dwell among the Ara¬ 
bians and are chiefly employed in trade. 

The whole of the west coast, comprising the 
districts of Hejaz and Yemen, and in quite re¬ 
cent times part of the east coast, namely, the 
republic of Koweit at the head of the Persian 
Gulf, and the district of El Alisa, are more or 
less under the suzerainty of the Turks. The 
area of the western strip is about 200,000 square 
miles in extent, and has a population of about 
1,130,000; while the eastern has an area of 
about 31,000 square miles and a population 
of nearly 200,000. Even in these districts, how¬ 
ever, the chief offices of government are per¬ 
formed by the chieftains of the small territories 
into which the districts are subdivided. The 
most extensive districts politically united in the 
rest of Arabia are the kingdoms of Oman and 
Nejed, the former with an area of 81,000 square 
miles and a population of 1,598,000; the latter 
(the kingdom of the Wahabees) with an area of 
perhaps 200,000 square miles and a population 
of about 1,219,000. 

The mode of life of the Arabs is either 
nomadic or settled, or in other words, they 
either live in tents and derive their subsistence 
from the rearing of cattle, wherever sufficient 
pasture is obtainable, .and from the transport of 
caravans through the desert; or from the pur¬ 
suits of agriculture and commerce. The no¬ 
madic tribes in Arabia are termed Bedouins, 
Beduins, or Bedawins; those following settled 
occupations, Hadji and Fellahs. A considera¬ 
ble trade, partly overland, partly maritime, is 
carried on, chiefly in coffee, dates, figs, spices, 
and aromatic substances of various kinds, 
though its present amount is scarcely a shadow 
of what it was in times previous to the dis¬ 
covery of the passage by the Cape of Good 
Hope. Commerce is partly in the hands of 
foreigners, among whom the Jews and Banians 
are the most numerous. The latter are a tribe 
of Indian merchants, who, however, only re¬ 
main long enough in the country to enable them 
to return with wealth to their own land. At 
present the trade of Arabia is almost exclu¬ 
sively confined to exports of raw material or 
imports of foreign manufactures, domestic in¬ 
dustry being scarcely able to supply the most 
necessary articles of consumption, and the in¬ 
habitants are thus rendered dependent on for- 
Vol. 1 —4 1 


eign nations for the greater portion of their 
manufactured commodities. The period of in¬ 
tellectual development among the Arabs is now 
indeed long past its zenith, but it does not ap¬ 
pear yet to have sunk so low as is often as¬ 
sumed. Even in the desert children are taught 
to read, write, and cipher, and in the towns 
there are higher schools for satisfying the taste 
for scientific pursuits. The political constitu¬ 
tion of the Arabs is patriarchal, and based on 
a love of freedom. The titles of the chiefs of 
the tribes are emir, sheikh, or imam, personages 
whose functions appear in general to be limited 
to the command of the army in war, the collec¬ 
tion of tribute, and the administration of law 
by the cadis or judges. 

History .— The history of the Arabs previous 
to Mohammed is obscure, and, owing to their 
slight connection with the rest of the world, of 
little interest. The evidence of language, 
tradition, and other things, establishes the fact 
that Arabia must have been settled at a very 
early date by two branches of one race. One 
of these branches inhabits the south and east 
of the peninsula (Yemen, Hadramaut, and 
Oman), and considers itself as forming the 
^pure® Arabs, while to the other branch it gives 
the name of Mostareb, or ^Arabified.® The 
oldest traditions regarding the origin of the 
former branch point to an immigration from 
Africa which took place about the southwest 
corner of the peninsula, and the physical ap¬ 
pearance and structure of the southern Arabs, 
the remnants of their dialect (which is now 
superseded by that of the northern branch), 
and various institutions and customs prevailing 
in the parts of Arabia inhabited by them, all 
confirm the notion that they were originally 
identical with the nearest inhabitants of Africa. 
The northern branch, on the other hand, though 
bearing an unmistakable affinity with the south¬ 
ern, shows (in its language and other respects) 
more traces of Asiatic than African influence. 
The Arabs of the southern branch were the 
first to attain any considerable political power. 
A kingdom belonging to this branch is said 
to have existed in the south for upward of 
2,000 years, embracing, when in a flourishing 
condition, the whole of the south half of the 
peninsula, and sometimes extending its bounda¬ 
ries by conquest very much farther. There is 
no doubt that there was actually such a king¬ 
dom, called the kingdom of Yemen, and having 
its capital first at Mareb and afterward at 
Sana, both in the district of that name; but how 
long that kingdom subsisted cannot be deter¬ 
mined. Its kings belonged to the Himyarite 
dynasty, but this designation Himyarite is some¬ 
times applied by Arab writers to the ruling 
classes of the southern branch, and sometimes 
to the whole branch. The Yemenite kingdom 
was rendered subject by the Abyssinians for 
upward of 70 years in the 6th century of the 
Christian era, during which period Christianity 
was proclaimed in the land. Ultimately the 
heir to the throne of the Himyarite dynasty was 
restored through the assistance of Chosroes, 
king of Persia (605 a.d.), but about 30 years 
later the kingdom was finally overthrown by the 
followers of Mohammed. Another Himyarite 
kingdom was that of Hira on the west shore of 
the lower Euphrates. It seems also to have 
extended at times to the region between the 


ARABIA 


Euphrates and the Tigris, so as to give the 
name of Irak Arabi to that district. The dates 
given for the foundation of this kingdom are 
widely different. Its overthrow is placed in 
the 5th century of our era. In the ist century 
of the Christian era the Himyarite kingdom of 
Ghassan was founded in lower Syria and 
Hejaz. It lasted till the time of Mohammed. 
The last Himyarite kingdom that need be men¬ 
tioned is that of Kindeh, which detached itself 
from that of Hira early in the 3d century, and 
lasted about 160 years. Its sway extended over 
northern Nejed. The divided forces of the 
Arabs could not always successfully resist the 
Roman arms, and though their country was 
never completely reduced to the condition of a 
province, yet the princes in the north at least 
lived in a state of dependence on the Roman 
emperors, and were regarded as their viceroys. 
In the south the Romans had no influence. An 
expedition was fitted out against Yemen in the 
reign of Augustus (24 b.c.), but it completely 
miscarried. With the decline of the Roman 
empire Arabia made vigorous struggles for in¬ 
dependence, which could easily have been 
brought about by a union of the various tribes. 
But the Arabian peoples continued dispersed 
and broken, and passed many centuries in in¬ 
ternal conflicts, during which the central high¬ 
lands (Nejed) became the theatre of those 
chivalrous contests so celebrated by the native 
poets. Christianity early gained many ad¬ 
herents in Arabia, though it did not succeed in 
entirely banishing the ancient worship of the 
stars. Several Christian bishoprics were estab¬ 
lished, subject to the metropolitan at Bozra, in 
Palestine. The town of Elhira, near the Eu¬ 
phrates, contained many Arabian Christians and 
convents, and the reigning king, Ennoman-ben- 
el-mondsir, became a convert to Christianity 
not long before the time of Mohammed. The 
conflict of the Arabs with Roman despotism 
was more especially the cause of attracting to 
their country numbers of Christian sects, among 
others the Monophysites and Nestorians, seek¬ 
ing a refuge from the persecutions to which 
they were subjected by the maintainers of 
orthodoxy throughout the East. Jews also 
were very numerous in Arabia after the de¬ 
struction of Jerusalem, and even made some 
proselytes, chiefly in Yemen. The wide differ¬ 
ences between the various sects produced in the 
minds of many an indifference to all the exist¬ 
ing religions, and was probably one of the 
principal causes that the doctrines of Moham¬ 
med found so speedy an acceptance in Arabia. 
With Mohammed a new phase commences in 
the history of the Arabian peoples, who are 
wont to designate respectively the periods be¬ 
fore and after the appearance of the Prophet as 
those of ignorance and knowledge. Moham¬ 
med belonged to the Mostareb, and among them 
to the tribe of Koreysh, which had occupied a 
position of great influence in Arabia since the 
beginning of the 5th century, when it managed 
by craft to obtain possession of the city of 
Mecca, which was not only a city of great 
commercial importance, but was regarded as 
sacred by the Arabs on account of its contain¬ 
ing the Kaaba. During the whole of the 6th 
century the Mostareb generally were increas¬ 
ing in power, and by the beginning of the 7th, 
when Mohammed had grown to manhood, they 


had absorbed the kingdom of Kindeh, and had 
extended their sway at the expense of those of 
Yemen, Hira, and Ghassan. By the time of 
Mohammed’s death, in 632, his religion had ac¬ 
quired a firm hold in Arabia, and after that 
event his successors, acting on the commands 
of the Koran, began to spread it by force of 
arms beyond the bounds of the peninsula. The 
nation, now for the first time acting as a body, 
played for several centuries an important part 
in the world’s history, advancing in a career 
of victory beyond its natural frontiers, to found 
empires in three quarters of the globe. The 
brilliant period of Arabian history, indeed, as 
regards foreign countries, came to a termina¬ 
tion in Asia in 1258, on the fall of the caliphate 
of Bagdad, as also about the same time in 
Africa and Europe, in the latter of which the 
Moorish dominion was finally overthrown (in 
the kingdom of Granada in Spain) in the last 
decade of the 15th century; yet the epoch of 
the Arab sway must ever occupy a distin¬ 
guished place in the intellectual history of man¬ 
kind. The internal history of the country dur¬ 
ing its foreign conflicts presents little more than 
unimportant accounts of some Bedouin tribes, 
and the fortunes of the caravans which made 
the annual pilgrimage to Mecca. In 1517 Tur¬ 
key subjected Hejaz and Yemen, and received 
the nominal submission of the tribes inhabiting 
the rest of Arabia. The subjection of Hejaz 
has continued down to the present day, with 
a brief interval in the latter half of the 16th 
century, and another longer interval in the 19th 
century, when the pasha of Egypt was domi¬ 
nant in Arabia; but Yemen achieved its inde¬ 
pendence in 1630 and maintained it till 1871, 
when the territory again fell into the hands of 
the Turks. In 1839 Aden, in Yemen, was occu¬ 
pied by the British. 

In the east Oman became virtually inde¬ 
pendent of the caliphs in the middle of the 
8th century, and grew into a well-organized 
kingdom. In 1507, however, its capital, Maskat 
or Muscat, was occupied by the Portuguese, 
who were not driven out till 1651. Oman was 
temporarily subjugated by the Persians under 
Nadir Shah in the first half of the 18th century. 
They were expelled by Saood, who was made 
imam of Oman, and under whom it extended 
its sway over part of the opposite coast of Per¬ 
sia as well as the islands lying between and 
oyer the coast of Zanzibar. Since 1867 the 
kingdom of Oman has been again confined to 
the mainland of Arabia. The appearance of the 
Wahabees about the middle of the 18th century 
is the first event since the time of Mohammed 
that affected Arabia generally. The moral ef¬ 
fects of this event exercise still a powerful 
influence; the political were soon effaced by the 
ruler of the neighboring country of Egypt. 
Mehemet Ali, pasha of Egypt, subdued the 
coast of Hejaz, as also several places on that 
of Yemen, and in 1818, by means of a great 
victory gained by Ibrahim Pasha, and the de¬ 
struction of their capital city Derreyeh, put a 
stop to the further extension of the Wahabite 
power. He also expended large sums in the 
maintenance of his sway in Arabia, which se¬ 
cured to him the trade of the Red Sea. The 
events of 1840, however, in Syria, compelled 
him to concentrate his forces, and he soon 
found himself obliged, as thwarting the Euro- 


ARABIA 


pean line of policy, to renounce all claims to 
the territories lying beyond a line drawn from 
the Dead Sea to the Gulf of Akabah. The 
Hejaz thus again became immediately subject 
to Turkish sway. Turkey has since extended 
its rule not only over Yemen as already men¬ 
tioned, but also over the district of El Ahsa on 
the Persian Gulf; but the extreme weakness 
of the Turkish empire scarcely warrants the 
expectation that its tenure of power in Arabia 
will last very many years longer. 

Language — The Arabic language belongs to 
the Semitic dialects, among which it is distin¬ 
guished for its richness, softness, and high de¬ 
gree of development. By the spread of Islam 
it became the sole written language and the 
prevailing speech in all southwestern Asia and 
eastern and northern Africa, and for a time in 
southern Spain, in Malta, and in Sicily; and 
it is still used as a learned and sacred language 
wherever Islam is spread among people who in 
daily life speak Indian, Persian, or other lan¬ 
guages. The study of Arabic is important not 
only on account of the wide area over which 
it is still spoken and the extensive literature it 
contains, but also because it is almost an indis¬ 
pensable preliminary to the study of some of 
the other languages of the East. Almost a 
third part of the Persian vocabulary consists 
of Arabic words, and there is the same propor¬ 
tion of Arabic in Turkish. A scientific treat¬ 
ment of the Hebrew language first became pos¬ 
sible through comparing it with the Arabic. 
The characters originally used in writing the 
Arabic language were borrowed from the old 
Syrian Estrangelo alphabet, which, however, 
was very inadequate for the purpose, having 
only 16 signs for the 28 Arabic consonants. 
This alphabet is now superseded by the Neski. 
As in all Semitic languages (except the Ethi- 
opic) it is read from right to left. There are 
valuable Arabic grammars by Erpen (1613), 
De Sacy (1831), Ewald, Caspari, Wolff (2d 
ed. 1867) ; and in English by Wright (based 
on that of Caspari, but practically a new work, 
1874-5), and Palmer (1874). The great 
standard Arabic-English dictionary is that of 
E. W. Lane (continued by his nephew, Lane 
Poole, a most extensive work). Other valuable 
works are Richardson’s ( Persian-Arabic-Eng- 
lish Dictionary 5 ; Newman’s dictionary of 
Modern Arabia (1871) ; Badger’s ( English- 
Arabic Dictionary ) (1881); and Salmones 
( Arabic-English Dictionary 5 (1890). 

Literature .— Of the first cultivation of the 
literature of this country we have but few ac¬ 
counts. That poetry early flourished in Arabia 
may be inferred from the character of the in¬ 
habitants, who are at the present day much 
given to poetry. In the fairs of Mecca and 
(from the 5th century after Christ) at Okadh, 
poetical contests were held, and the poems to 
which the prize was awarded were written on 
byssus in letters of gold, whence they were 
called Modsahhabat (gilt), and hung up on the 
wall of the sacred temple containing the kaaba 
at Mecca, on which account they also got the 
name of Moallakat (hung up). The collection 
of the Moallakat contains seven poems by seven 
authors — Amr-ul-kais, Tarafa, Zohair, Lebid, 
Antar, Amr-ben-Kelthum, and Hareth. They 
are distinguished by deep feeling, lofty imagina¬ 
tion, richness of imagery and sentiment, na¬ 


tional pride, and love of freedom. Many other 
poems belonging to the time before Mohammed, 
some of equal age with those of the Moallakat, 
are also preserved in collections. The in¬ 
fluence of Mohammed gave a new direction to 
Arab poetry. The rules of faith and life estab¬ 
lished by him were collected by Abubekr, first 
caliph after his death, corrected and published 
by Othman, the third caliph, and constitute the 
Koran. The warlike times of Mohammed and 
the first caliphs, however, were not favorable 
to the cultivation of literature. The progress of 
the Arabs in the arts and sciences may be said 
to have begun with the government of the 
caliphs of the family of the Abassides, a.d. 750, 
at Bagdad. Here Haroun al Rashid (786-808) 
invited learned men from all countries and paid 
them princely salaries. He caused the works 
of the most famous Greek writers to be trans¬ 
lated into Arabic and spread abroad by numer¬ 
ous copies. Under the government of Al 
Mamum (813-33) excellent schools were es¬ 
tablished at Bagdad, Bassora, Bokhara, Cufa, 
and large libraries at Alexandria, Bagdad, and 
Cairo. The caliph Motassem, who died a.d. 
842, was of the same disposition, and while lit¬ 
erature was thus favored by the dynasty of the 
Abassides in Bagdad, it received not less en¬ 
couragement from that of the Ommiades in 
Spain. What Bagdad was for Asia, the uni¬ 
versity at Cordova was for Europe, where, par¬ 
ticularly in the 10th century, the Arabians 'were 
the chief pillars of literature. At a time when 
learning found scarcely anywhere else a place 
of rest and encouragement, the Arabians em¬ 
ployed themselves in collecting and diffusing it 
in the three great divisions of the world. In 
Spain were established numerous academies and 
schools, which were visited by students from 
other European countries; public libraries were 
collected, one of them said to contain 600,000 
volumes; and important works were written on 
geography, history, philosophy, medicine, phys¬ 
ics, mathematics, and especially on arithmetic, 
geometry, and astronomy. There are a number 
of terms still in use, such as almanac, algebra, 
alcohol, azimuth, zenith, nadir, which were bor¬ 
rowed originally from the Arabs. The most of 
the geography in the Middle Ages is the work 
of the Arabians. Among their chief writers on 
geographical subjects are El-Istakhri, ( Liber 
Climatum 5 , edited by Moller (1839) ; Abu- 
Ishak-al-Faresi, Ibn-Haukal, who wrote about 
815, ^l-Edrisi, 5 1150 (French translation pub¬ 
lished by Jaubert 1836) ; Yakuti, who died in 
1249, and Abulfeda; and much that the most 
renowned among them, Abulfeda and Edrisi, 
have written, is still useful and important in 
regard to historical geography. Even more im¬ 
portant than the geographical text-books are 
the descriptions of countries which were writ¬ 
ten by Arab travelers; such as those by Ibn- 
Foslan, who traveled in Russia in the 9th 
century; by Mohammed ibn-Batuta, who tra¬ 
veled in Africa, India, China, Russia, etc., in 
the 13th century; and by Leo Africanus, who 
traveled in Africa and Asia in the 15th cen¬ 
tury. 

The Arabian historians since the 8th cen¬ 
tury have been very numerous, though not yet 
long enough known to European scholars to 
enable the latter to derive full advantage from 
them. The oldest known historian is Hesham 


ARABIA 


Ben-Mohammed Al-Kelbi (died 819). Several 
other historians lived in the same century. 
Masudi, the Persians Tabari and Hamsa of 
Ispahan, and the Christian patriarch Ibn el 
Batrik or Eutychius of Alexandria, were the 
first that attempted universal histories. These 
were followed by Abulfaraj and George Elma- 
kin, both Christians, Abulfeda, Nuvairi, Al- 
fachri, and others. Native historians wrote on 
the history of the Arabs in Spain and in Mau¬ 
retania ; others, such as Abdullatif and Makrisi, 
wrote on the history of Egypt; others compiled 
biographical dictionaries or wrote lives of indi¬ 
viduals. The style of most of the historians is 
simple and void of ornament. Indeed their 
histories are little more than voluminous chron¬ 
icles. The philosophy of the Arabians was of 
Greek origin and derived principally from that 
of Aristotle, who through them became known 
in Spain and thence in all the west of Europe, 
having been translated from Arabic into Latin. 
Hence the origin of the scholastic philosophy 
may be traced to the Arabians. The Arabians 
seem to have become acquainted with the works 
of the Greek philosophers in Bagdad, where a 
knowledge of them was disseminated by the 
Nestorian Christians who had been expelled 
from Syria in the 5th century and found refuge 
and patronage in Persia. During the 8th and 
9th centuries numerous versions of the princi¬ 
pal works of Aristotle were made into Syriac 
and thence into Arabic; and once Aristotle had 
been introduced to their knowledge the Arabian 
philosophers both in the east and the west did 
little else than advance nearer and nearer to 
a faithful interpretation of that master. Of 
their philosophical authors the most celebrated 
are Alfarabi (died 950), who wrote on the 
principles of nature; Ibn Sina, or Avicenna, 
who was born about 980 and died a.d. 1037, 
and, besides other philosophical writings, was 
the author of a treatise on logic, physics, and 
metaphysics, and of a commentary on the works 
of Aristotle; Alghazzali (1058-1111), who 
wrote a work attacking all heathen philosophical 
systems; and in Spain Avicebron (died 1070), 
a Jew, the same with Solomon ben Gebirol; Ibn 
Badja, known to Europeans as Avempace (died 
1138) ; Ibn Tofail (died 1190) ; and (one of the 
greatest of them all) Ibn Roshd, or Averroes 
(1126-98). Of these, Avicenna was by far the 
most important, and his influence on Western 
thought was considerable. 

Nearly all the Arabian philosophers were at 
the same time physicians; for the physical sci¬ 
ences, including medicine, were not then sepa¬ 
rated from philosophy. At Jondisabur, Bag¬ 
dad, Ispahan, Firuzabad, Bokhara, Cufa, 
Bassora, Alexandria, and Cordova, from the 
8th to the nth century medical schools were 
instituted, and with the devoted study bestowed 
on this branch of science the nation could not 
fail of making important advances in it, though 
in reality they were here also dependent on the 
Greeks. Anatomy made no progress among 
them, because the Koran expressly prohibited 
dissections. To their famous writers on medi¬ 
cine belong Aharun (who first described the 
smallpox), Jahiah Ben Serapion, Jacob Ben 
Ishak Alkendi, John Mesve, Rhazes, Ali Ben 
Abbas, Avicenna (who published the ( Canon 
of Medicine, ) for a long time the best work of 
the kind), Ishak Ben Soleiman, Abulcasim, Ibn 


Zohar, Averroes (the author of ( A Compen¬ 
dium of Physic*). Mathematics the Arabians 
enriched, simplified, and extended. Moham¬ 
med Ben Musa and Thabet Ben Korrah par¬ 
ticularly distinguished themselves in this de¬ 
partment. Nassireddin translated the ( Elements ) 
of Euclid. Jeber Ben Afla wrote a commentary 
on the ( Trigonometry* of Ptolemy. Astronomy 
was especially cultivated, there being famous 
schools and observatories at Bagdad and Cor¬ 
dova. As early as a.d. 812 Alhazen a-nd Sergius 
had translated into Arabic the < Almagest ) of 
Ptolemy, the first regular treatise on astronomy. 
Albatani, in the 10th century, noted the advance 
of the line of the earth’s apsides and the ob¬ 
liquity of the ecliptic. Alpetragius wrote a 
theory of the planets. Geography was treated 
scientifically, in connection with mathematics 
and astronomy, particularly by Abulfeda. The 
Arabian scholars devoted much time to gram¬ 
mar and rhetoric, particular attention being paid 
to expounding the Koran and in preparing 
works dealing with it. 

Much as the severer sciences were cultivated 
the genius of the people for poetry was not 
fettered. After the 9th century the Oriental 
peculiarities of Arabian poetry became more 
and more strong; the tone grew mystical and 
extravagant and the language lost its purity. 
Motenabbi deserves to be noticed for his tender 
elegies, in a classic style; Abu Ismael Tograi, 
vizier of Bagdad, for his elegies and poems; 
Hariri for his history of an unscrupulous but 
amusing vagabond in his work entitled ( Me- 
kammat,* admirably translated into German by 
Riickert, into English by Chapellon and Pres¬ 
ton ; Ibn-Arabshah for his narrative tales, etc.; 
Asmai for his great heroic romance, ( Life of 
Antar.* The dramatic excepted, there is no 
sort of poetry which the Arabians have left 
unattempted. There is no doubt that they had 
by this means a powerful effect on modern Eu¬ 
ropean poetry, for no small share of the roman¬ 
tic poetry of the Middle Ages belonged to the 
Arabians. The tales of fairies, genii, en¬ 
chanters, and sorcerers in particular passed 
from the Arabians to the Western poetry. 
Some of the books most widely read in th rt 
Middle Ages, such as ( The Seven Wise Mas¬ 
ters^ and the ( Fables of Pilpay,* found their 
way into Europe through the instrumentality of 
the Arabs. To this rich and many-sided intel¬ 
lectual life among the Arabs in the Middle Ages 
the intellectual poverty of the 19th and past 
two or three centuries offers a striking contrast. 
Arab literature now scarcely offers anything 
worthy of notice. Learning is chiefly confined 
to the production of commentaries and scholia, 
discussions on points of dogma and jurispru¬ 
dence, and grammatical works on the classical 
language.. Among authors who have written 
to a certain extent under the influence of Euro¬ 
pean culture we must mention Michael Sab- 
bagh of Syria ( ( The Carrier Pigeon, ) Arabic 
and French, Paris 1805) ; Sheikh Refaa of 
Cairo ( ( The Broken Lyre,* Paris 1827; ban¬ 
ners and Customs of the Europeans,* Cairo 
*834)', Nasif-Effendi of Beyrout, and Ahmed 
Faris (died 1887), journalist and miscellane¬ 
ous writer. Translations of modern European 
works (Jules Verne’s and others) are numer¬ 
ous. A. number of periodicals are published 
in Arabic. 


ARABIAN NIGHTS ENTERTAINMENT — ARACHNID A 


Ara'bian Nights Entertainment, The, a 

celebrated collection of Arabic tales, first intro¬ 
duced into Europe in the beginning of the 18th 
century by means of the translation of Antoine 
Galland, a distinguished French Orientalist, 
which was hailed with universal delight, and 
soon became one of the most popular works in 
Europe. The story which connects the tales of 
the c Thousand and One Nights ) is as follows: 
The Sultan Shahriyar, exasperated by the faith¬ 
lessness of his bride, made a law that every one 
of his future wives should be put to death the 
morning after marriage. At length one of 
them, Shahrazad, the generous daughter of the 
grand vizier, succeeded in abolishing the cruel 
custom. By the charm of her stories the fair 
narrator induced the Sultan to defer her execu¬ 
tion every day till the dawn of another by 
breaking off in the middle of an interesting 
tale which she had begun to relate. The de¬ 
light felt by Shahriyar has been felt by multi¬ 
tudes since his time, and the universal popu¬ 
larity of the ( Arabian Nights* is unequivocally 
evinced by the numerous translations in differ¬ 
ent European languages which have appeared 
since the time of Galland. Lane, who resided 
for years at Cairo and published an excellent 
(abridged) translation of these tales, with nu¬ 
merous most valuable notes (1839), considered 
that they took their present form some time be¬ 
tween 1475 and 1525. A complete (unexpur¬ 
gated) translation of great value by Sir R. F. 
Burton has been published (1885-^6), with a 
somewhat abridged edition by Lady Burton 
(1887-8). There is also a modern translation 
by Mr. Payne (1882-4). 

Ara'ceae, the designation of an order of 
endogenous plants having for their inflorescence 
a spadix placed within a spathe. They have 
neither calyx nor corolla. The leaves are fre¬ 
quently cordate; the fruit succulent, with many 
seeds. They are acrid in character and often 
poisonous. The Caladium sequinum, or dumb 
cane of the West Indies and South America, 
when chewed, causes the tongue to swell so as to 
cause temporary dumbness. A common English 
species is the wake-robin. The nearest relatives 
of the family in America are the Indian turnip, 
water-arum, and skunk’s cabbage. 

Arach'nida, the name applied to the class 
of arthropods represented by the scorpion, 
spider, and mite. The body is divided into 
two regions, the cephalothorax and abdomen, 
the head having been in embryonic life folded 
back over and fused with the thorax. There 
are no antennae, the first pair of appendages 
resembling mandibles, and called chelicerae; the 
second pair end in a large forceps, or chelae, or 
in a palpus-shaped appendage called (( pedi- 
palpi.® The head appendages are not differ¬ 
entiated into antennae, mandibles, maxillae, and 
maxillipeds, as in Crustacea. There are four 
pairs of legs ending in a pair of minute claws. 
On the abdomen there are no appendages. The 
respiratory organs are spiracles opening into 
tracheas or air-tubes, or pouches containing nu¬ 
merous leaves or their sacs, resembling the 
leaves of a book, and hence called <( book- 
lungsA The eyes are simple, never compound, 
two being situated in the middle of the head, 
others on each side of it. There may be as 
many as five pairs of nephridia. The genital 


outlet is single instead of being double, as in 
Limulus. They have a pair of malpighian tubes 
or urinary vessels, but, like Limulus, possess 
two large digestive glands, the ^liver.** 

The young are hatched in the form of the 
adult, there being no metamorphosis except a 
slight one in the mites. Their embryos have, 
on at least six abdominal segments, rudiments 
of limbs, which indicate their descent from ani¬ 
mals like Limulus. All of the Arachnida are 
terrestrial, none of them living in or near fresh¬ 
water, except a few mites. Their embryology 
is like that of Limulus, which suggests that the 
Araclinida have descended from the Merostom- 
ata (q.v.). Whether we take into account the 
mode of development or the very primitive 
nature of the appendages, it appears that the 
Arachnida are much less closely allied to in¬ 
sects than was formerly supposed. On the other 
hand, they differ from the merostomes, and 
especially their living representative, the king 
crab (q.v.), in having no gills. Their em¬ 
bryology and morphology tend to show that the 
class has probably descended from limuloid an¬ 
cestors, of which there are examples in the 
Silurian rocks, intermediate between limuloid 
(Xiphosura ) and eurypteroid ( Eurypterida) 
forms. The characters in which Arachnida re¬ 
semble insects, as respiration by tracheae and 
the presence of urinary tubes (which do not 
occur in Crustacea or in any other marine or 
branchiate arthropods), are probably adaptive 
and were acquired during a change from a marine 
to a terrestrial life, and not primitive heirlooms. 
Arachnida also show their later origin than 
merostomes by the fact that their sexual ducts 
(oviduct, etc.) are in most cases single, unpaired, 
and in all cases open externally by a common 
single genital aperture in the median line of the 
body, at the base of the abdomen. In this re¬ 
spect Limulus, with its pair of genital (male and 
female) openings, situated each at the end of a 
papilla, which are placed widely apart at the 
base of the first abdominal legs, is decidedly 
more archaic. The Arachnida are divided into 
six groups or orders: (1) Scorpionida (scor¬ 
pions) ; (2) Pseudoscorpionida (false- or book- 
scorpions) ; (3) Pedipalpida (Phrynus or scor¬ 
pion-spiders) ; (4) Solpugida (galeodes) ; (5) 
Phalangida (harvest men) ; (6) Araneida (spi¬ 
ders) ; (7) Acarida (mites and ticks), the latter 
comprising the aberrant and degenerate forms, 
many of them parasitic; while of somewhat 
doubtful relationship to the Acarina are three 
aberrant groups: the Linguatulida, Pycnogo- 
nida, and Tardigrada. See Mite ; Scorpion ; 
Spiders. 

Several of the Arachnida are of interest in 
medicine. A few of the scorpions are poison¬ 
ous, their sting even causing death, although 
it is quite certain that there are no poisonous 
spiders north of Mexico. A number of thfe 
mites are found in man. One, the Demodcx 
canis, is frequently found in the sebaceous fol¬ 
licles of the skin, notably in comedos, or black¬ 
heads. The itch mite (Sarcoptes scabeii ) 
bores little canals under the skin, in Which it 
deposits its eggs. The itch is a common disease 
of Europe, and is becoming more frequent in 
this country. Sulphur ointment is one of the 
best parasiticides for this small nuisance. 

In the warm countries ticks ( Ixodes ) are 
troublesome pests. See Parasites. 


ARAGO 


ARARAT 


Arago, a'ra-go, Dominique Frangois, a 

celebrated French astronomer: b. in Estagel, 
1786; d. in Paris 2 Oct. 1853. After studying 
at the Polytechnic School at Paris he was ap¬ 
pointed secretary of the Bureau des Longitudes, 
and in 1806 was associated with Biot and in 
completing the measurements of Delambre and 
Mechain to obtain an arc of the meridian which 
was to serve as the basis of a new metrical 
system. In 1809 he was elected to fill the seat 
left vacant by the death of Lalande in the 
Academy of Sciences, and at the same time he 
was appointed a professor of the Polytechnic 
School. In 1811 he communicated to the Insti¬ 
tute a paper on a particular modification which 
the luminous rays experience in their passage 
through certain transparent bodies, thus paving 
the way for some of the most brilliant discov¬ 
eries made in optical science since the days of 
Newton. In 1812 he began a series of lectures 
on astronomy, which created an immense sensa¬ 
tion. With Gay-Lussac he established in 1816 
the ( Annales de Chimie et de Physique. } His 
discovery of the magnetic properties of sub¬ 
stances devoid of iron procured him the Copley 
medal of the Royal Society of London in 1825, 
and a further consideration of the same subject 
led to the equally remarkable discovery of the 
production of magnetism by electricity. In 
1830, on the death of Fourier, Arago succeeded 
him as perpetual secretary to the Academy of 
Sciences, becoming in the same year director 
of the Observatory. After the expulsion of the 
Bourbons Arago was elected to the Chamber of 
Deputies as representative of the Pyrenees- 
Orientales, taking his place on the extreme left, 
and proving a ready and effective speaker. The 
revolution of 1848 brought him still more 
prominently upon the scene, first as minister of 
war and marine in the provisional government, 
and then as a member of the Executive Com¬ 
mittee of the National Assembly. His 
< Works, ) edited by Barral, appeared in 1854-62. 

A'ragonite, a mineral having the formula 
CaC 0 3 , and therefore identical with calcite in 
composition. It is classed as a separate species, 
however, because it crystallizes in the ortho¬ 
rhombic system. Its specific gravity is also 
somewhat higher than that of calcite. Occa¬ 
sionally it contains a little strontium, lead, or 
zinc, and it often occurs in connection with 
pyrites, galena, or malachite. It is translucent 
and usually white with a vitreous lustre. In 
hardness it varies from 3.5 to 4, and it has a 
specific gravity of about 2.94. Aragonite occurs 
in fine crystals at Aragon, Spain (whence its 
name), near Bilin, Bohemia, in Hungary, and 
Sicily, and near Frizington, England. There are 
no important American localities, though it oc¬ 
curs on stalactitic calcite in caves in New Mex¬ 
ico, Arizona, and elsewhere. The coralloidal 
form, called ^flos-ferri,® is most beautifully de¬ 
veloped in Styria. It is said to be forming rap¬ 
idly at the present time in the Eureka mine in 
Nevada. 

The minerals aragonite, bromlite, witherite, 
strontianite, and cerussite, all of which are car¬ 
bonates crystallizing in the orthorhombic sys¬ 
tem, are classed together as the (( aragonite 
group.® 

Ara'lia, the designation of a widely dis¬ 
tributed genus of about 400 species of dicotyle¬ 
donous shrubs, trees, and perennial herbs typi¬ 


cal of the natural order Araliacece. The species 
have large alternate deciduous leaves, small um¬ 
bels of whitish flowers usually arranged in pani¬ 
cles, and 2- to 5-seeded, variously colored, 
globular, berry-like drupes. All parts of the 
plants have a warm, aromatic taste. A. spinosa, 
devil’s walking-stick, angelica tree, Hercules’ 
club, toothache tree, a very ornamental shrub 
or small tree about 12 feet tall (sometimes 40 
feet), is common in moist woods and along river 
banks from Pennsylvania to Indiana and south¬ 
ward to the Gulf of Mexico. Its very stout, 
prickly stems, large pinnate leaves, and clusters 
of flowers which appear in midsummer, give a 
decided sub-tropical effect upon lawns in the 
South. It is not hardy in the North. A. race- 
mosa, spikenard, a widely branched herbaceous 
species, with large, spicy, aromatic roots and 
greenish-white flowers which appear in midsum¬ 
mer, is common in rich woods from New Bruns¬ 
wick to Minnesota and southward to the 
mountains of Georgia. A. nndicaulis, wild sar¬ 
saparilla, small spikenard, a nearly stemless her¬ 
baceous species with a single pinnate leaf a foot 
high, is common in rocky and sandy places from 
Newfoundland to Dakota and southward to the 
mountains of North Carolina. It bears from 
two to seven umbels of greenish flowers in late 
spring. The long, horizontal, aromatic roots 
are believed to be equal to those of sarsaparilla 
as an alterative and tonic. A. hispida, wild el¬ 
der, bristly sarsaparilla, a bristly stemmed peren¬ 
nial found in the same localities and soils as the 
preceding. It bears several terminal umbels of 
white flowers in early summer. Among foreign 
aralias the Asiatic species are perhaps of most 
importance. Some, notably A. edulis (A. cor- 
data of some botanists), are of value as human 
food; others as stock food when grasses are 
scarce. The pith of A. papyrifera (referred by 
some botanists to Fatsia papyrifera ) is used for 
the manufacture of Chinese rice paper. A. chi- 
nensis, Chinese angelica tree, is much like its 
American relative, A. spinosa (to which it is re¬ 
ferred by some botanists), but is hardier and 
blossoms somewhat later. A. polaris ( Stibo - 
car pa polaris of some authors), a New Zealand 
herbaceous perennial, is four or more feet tall 
and has attractive foliage and handsome waxy 
flowers. Many other species are cultivated 
either out of doors or in greenhouses for orna¬ 
mental purposes, for which uses their symmetry 
and grace specially fit them. Among the best 
known of these are A. elegantissima, a native of 
New Hebrides, and A. veitchii, indigenous to 
New Caledonia. The stronger growing species 
are propagated by cuttings of roots or stems; 
the more delicate by grafting on the strong spe¬ 
cies. For A. quinque folia, better known in 
America as Panax quinquefolia, see Ginseng. 

Aransas (a-ran'zas) Bay, an inlet on the 
coast of Texas, connected with the Gulf of Mex¬ 
ico by a channel known as Aransas Pass. A bar 
at its mouth renders its harbor of very little 
commercial importance, in spite of the money 
lavished in various attempts to establish there 
a harbor and port of entry. During the Civil 
War it was the scene of a conflict between the 
Confederate and Federal troops. 

Ar'arat, or Pilot Mountain, an American 

mountain about 3,000 feet in height, in Surrey 
County, N. C. It is situated between the 
Ararat and Dan rivers and is visible for a long 
distance. 


ARAS — ARAUCARIA 


Aras, a-ras, a river of Armenia, rising in 
the Turkish pashalic of Erzerum. After flowing 
for some miles through Turkish territory to the 
new Russian frontier, it turns eastward to the 
Ervian plain north of Ararat, whence it sweeps 
in a semicircle mostly between the Russian and 
Persian territories to its confluence with the 
Kur, 60 miles from its mouth in the Caspian 
Sea. Its entire course is about 500 miles. Mod¬ 
ern research has discovered that it originally 
flowed directly into the Caspian Sea, as ancient 
writers had claimed. It is identical with the 
ancient Araxes. 

Arauca'nians, a'row-ka'ne-ans, a South 
American native race in the southern part of 
Chile, formerly occupying Chile, Argentina, 
Chiloe, and the Chonos Archipelago, etc. When 
first encountered by the Spaniards in 1535 they 
were a confederacy of the loosest kind, with 
many tribes and sub-tribes in entire independ¬ 
ence, and in about the same political stage as the 
North American Indians: electing a toqui or 
war-chief and deposing him at will, with no 
authoritative head in peace, practising polygamy, 
and for worship conciliating an evil spirit, 
Quecubu,— probably the same as the Fuegian 
spirit immortalized by Shakespeare as (( Sete- 
bos,® the shape given it by Magellan’s sailors. 
They were divided into Picun-che or North¬ 
men, living north of the river Maule; Pehuen- 
che or Pine-men, occupying through central 
Chile and the pine forests on the western slopes 
of the Andes (the chief division of the tribe, and 
from whom most of the modern Araucanians 
are descended) ; Huilli-che or South-men, occu¬ 
pying the rest of the Chilean mainland ; Puel- 
che or East-men; South-men or Patagonians; 
Chono; Lubu-che or Water-men; Cuncho; 
Payo, etc. But their instant and indomitable 
cohesion in face of the Spanish attack shows 
that they were of much higher political stamp 
than the North Americans. No other native 
race in the western hemisphere retained its in¬ 
dependence anything like as long. For over 
two centuries they waged warfare with the 
Spaniards, broken only by truces sought by the 
latter, though their numbers were small com¬ 
pared with the Aztecs or Quichuas, who went 
down at a blow. Ercilla’s famous epic ( Arau- 
cana ) commemorates their early heroism and 
that of their powerful chief, Caupolican. In 
1641 Spain conceded their independence, con¬ 
firming it in 1655, imposing only the condition 
that no enemies of Spain should be allowed to 
enter their country; an easy condition, as it 
amounted only to keeping out all foreigners, 
which they were glad to do. The territory left 
them was about 30,000 square miles, from the 
Andes to the sea, and from Arauco Bay to the 
river Calle-Calle. The war was renewed never¬ 
theless, and went on a century and a third 
longer; till in 1773 the natives, weakened by war 
and social practices, were compelled to submit. 
They had not lost the memory of their past, 
however, and in 1861 a French adventurer 
named Antoine Tounens, originally a provincial 
lawyer, had himself elected king of Araucania 
as Orelie Antoine I.; but the Chilean govern¬ 
ment conquered and deposed him and sent him 
back to France. In 1870 the Araucanians rec¬ 
ognized the sovereignty of Chile. Araucania 
occupies a great part of the province of Arauco 
in south Chile, and is divided into four parallel 


north-and-south districts, each formerly gov¬ 
erned by a toqui whose rule had become heredi¬ 
tary before its extinction. The inhabitants are 
now a mixed race with much Spanish blood. 
They number perhaps about 50,000, but are 
said to be decreasing, owing to smallpox, dys¬ 
entery, liquors, and polygamy. They are 
of a pale yellow color, and in character 
and life resemble the higher North Ameri¬ 
can plains Indians, such as the Navajos. • 
They are uncivilizable and unchristianized; 
nomad herdsmen of horses, cattle, and sheep; 
despising agriculture, eating little but meat, 
and living in skin tents; but skilful wool- 
weavers, skin-dressers, and weapon-makers. 
Their language is so harmonious and flexible 
that an enthusiastic missionary student once at¬ 
tempted to introduce it into Europe to super¬ 
sede Latin. Their stock in Chiloe are called 
Chilotes. 

Ar'auca'ria, the name of a genus of 15 
species of lofty evergreen trees of the order 
Conifers, indigenous to Australia and South 
America. In general habit the species resemble 
the pines, but have broader leaves. In warm 
but not excessively dry climates they are much 
planted for ornament, but in cool countries are 
grown in greenhouses on account of their ten¬ 
derness. They are propagated by seeds and cut¬ 
tings planted in good soil and grown in a cool 
greenhouse. A. excelsa, Norfolk Island pine 
and its varieties, glauca and robusta compacta, 
unquestionably the most popular species grown 
in the United States, is imported to the extent 
of probably 250,000 annually, from Belgium, 
where it is grown in immense quantities. In 
Norfolk Island, its home, it often attains a 
height of 200 feet (100 feet to the first branches) 
and a diameter of 10 feet near the base. The 
white, close-grained tough wood is so heavy that 
it barely floats in water. A. cunninghanni, 
hoop pine, Moreton Bay pine, colonial pine, coo- 
nam, cumburtu, coonong, a native of New South 
Wales, is similar to the preceding, but some¬ 
what smaller, of less formal and symmetrical 
habit. Its lower branches are horizontal, its 
upper ascending; one of its varieties, however, 
is weeping. Its yellowish wood is highly val¬ 
ued for carpentry, shipbuilding, and furniture¬ 
making. It also furnishes a valuable resin. A. 
imbricata, Chile pine, monkey puzzle, a native 
of the western slopes of the Chilean Andes, at¬ 
tains a height of 150 feet, and is limbless ex¬ 
cept near the top. It furnishes an abundant 
supply of valuable white resin which smells like 
frankincense. Its timber, which is used for 
ships’ masts, is yellowish white, handsomely 
veined, heavy, and hard. Its huge cones, often 1 
eight inches in diameter, frequently contain sev¬ 
eral hundred seeds, which are largely used as 
food, either raw, roasted, or boiled, by the Chil¬ 
eans, who also distil a liquor from them. A. 
braziliana, Brazilian pine, a native of southern 
Brazil, is a more spreading species than the 
above, which seldom greatly exceeds 100 feet in 
height. Its seeds are also used as food; _ its 
resin for mixing with wax in candle-making. 
A. Bidwellii, bunga-bunga, of Australia, at¬ 
tains a height of 150 feet and a diameter of four 
feet. It furnishes a less valuable timber than A. 
cunninghamii, an important resin, and every 
three years a crop of large seeds used by the na¬ 
tives as food. It rivals A. excelsa in beauty a? 


ARAUCO 


ARAYAT 


a pot plant. A. cookii, named after Capt. Cook, 
the explorer, reaches a height of 200 feet, and 
A. pulei, both natives of New Caledonia, are 
useful for ornamental purposes and for their 
products of timber, resin, etc. In California and 
the southern States these trees have been found 
to succeed well as out-door specimens. 

For cultivation consult Bailey, ( Cyclopaedia 
of American Horticulture ) ; Nicholson, dic¬ 
tionary of Gardening ) ; Von Mueller, ( Select 
Extra-Tropical Plants Readily Eligible for In¬ 
dustrial Cultured 

Arauco, a-row'ko, the name of a province 
of Chile with an area of 4,248 square miles. It 
is but a strip of coast at present, but was for¬ 
merly much more extensive. Capital, Lebu. 
Pop. (1901) 75,000. 

Araujo de Azevedo, a-row'zho da a-za- 
va'do, a noted Portuguese statesman: b. in Sa, 
1754; d. in Rio Janeiro, 1817. He became minis¬ 
ter of foreign affairs in 1803, but on the capture 
of Lisbon by Napoleon in 1807 accompanied the 
king to Brazil. At Rio Janeiro he founded 
schools of fine arts and medicine, introduced the 
tea culture into Brazil and was an active pa¬ 
tron of agriculture and other industries. In 
1815 he was created Count of Barca. His liter¬ 
ary pretensions were not inconsiderable. 

Araujo Porto-Alegre, a-row'zho por'to- 
a-la'gra, Manoel de, a Brazilian poet and 
architect: b. Rio Pardo, 1806; d. 1879. He not 
only designed several important buildings in 
Rio Janeiro, but w r as the author of several com¬ 
edies, of ( Colombo,> an epic, and ^rasilianas,* 
a collection of poems (1863). 

Arauna, a'ra-oo'na, the name of a South 
American tribe whose home is on the borders 
of Peru and Bolivia, regarding whose appear¬ 
ance and customs travelers differ widely. Ac¬ 
cording to some accounts they are naked and 
ill-formed cannibals, while according to others 
they are light-colored, mild-mannered agricul¬ 
turists. 

Araure, a-row'ra, a town in Venezuela 
in the State of Lara, the centre of a fertile 
region producing coffee, cotton, and cattle. The 
battle of Arame took place near here, 4 Dec. 
1813. Pop. 4,000. 

Aravulli, ar'a-vul'le, or Aravalli, a moun¬ 
tain range in Hindustan about 300 miles in 
length. Its river system is extensive, but the 
valleys enclosed within the range are mainly 
sterile. 

Arawakan (a-ra-wa'kan) Stock (from the 
Arawaks below), the most widely diffused lin¬ 
guistic stock of South America, and originally 
forming a curious and significant link between 
the South and North American regional if not 
philological stocks. Their habitat reached from 
Bolivia and southern Brazil not only to the 
northern coast of Venezuela, but — while barred 
to the westward by the Colombian Chibchas or 
Muyscas of the Magdalena basin — occupied the 
entire West Indies and had an outlier of sev¬ 
eral villages in Florida. Just before Columbus’ 
discovery, however, they had been expelled from 
the southern Antilles and part of the adjoining 
South American coast by the fierce Caribs (q.v.) 
from the lower Orinoco, who had seized their 
women for wives, most of the latter still speak¬ 
ing Arawal when the Spaniards found them. 


The larger Antilles were still Arawak, and the 
names given in the early West India voyages 
are intelligible in this set of languages yet. The 
Arawakans have neither the energy and co¬ 
hesiveness of the Araucans, the splendid phy¬ 
sique and fiery vigor of the Caribs, nor the polit¬ 
ical development of the Quichuas in the past; 
they are below the medium stature, and of no 
great stamina. Yet they had, perhaps owing 
to this very lack of savage vigor, an intellectual 
and artistic development and a stage of culture 
above the surrounding tribes: they made fictile 
vases decorated with grotesques of men and 
animals, were skilful artisans in stone, gold, 
and wood, and excellent weavers; and the island 
Arawakans cultivated not only corn and manioc 
for food, but cotton and tobacco, whose use the 
Europeans took from them. There are probably 
a hundred or more different tribes of this stock 
scattered through Brazil, Bolivia, the Guianas, 
Venezuela, and Colombia. Among the chief, 
besides those mentioned below under Arawaks, 
are the Manaos near that city, at the junction of 
the Amazon and Negro; the Waupes, Maipures, 
and Miranhas, in the extreme west of Brazil 
next to Colombia, on the llanos between the 
Negro and Amazon; the Goajiros on that penin¬ 
sula west of the Gulf of Venezuela; the Piaroas 
on the Orinoco near its junction with the Meta; 
the Maneteneris in the northwest angle of Bo¬ 
livia; the Baures and the Moxos or Mojos in 
northeast Bolivia, next Matto Grosso; and the 
Antas in extreme south Brazil, near Uruguay. 

Arawaks, a'ra-waks (name most improba¬ 
bly defined (( meal-eaters®—that is, of cassava 
bread — from a Tupi word: not more descrip¬ 
tive of, them now than the Tupis or any other 
South American race except the Araucanians, 
and they hunt and fish as well as raise corn 
and manioc. Their own name is Lokono or 
Lukkunnu, C( men®: cf. Illinois, Innuit, Muysca, 
Alemanni, etc.), a tribe of South American 
Indians living on the coast of British and Dutch 
Guiana, across the Corentyne and Berbice riv¬ 
ers, and taken as the type of the great Arawakan 
stock (above). They are not pure-blooded, 
however, being mixed with Caribs, etc., in a 
conglomerate of plantation laborers. The term 
is also used in a broader sense to include all 
the tribes of this stock in British Guiana and 
the neighboring corner of Brazil, with the ex¬ 
tension noted into Dutch Guiana: Tarumas and 
Atoradis of the upper Essequibo basin, Wapisian- 
as of the upper Rio Branco in Brazil, etc., as 
well as Arawaks proper. All these are in a very 
primitive stage of culture, making marriages 
by abduction after orgies on corn spirits, count¬ 
ing descent through females, having the clan 
system, and practising the couvade (q.v.). The 
Atoradis are almost white, or not duskier than 
South Europeans, with fine figures, especially 
the women having much beauty and dignity of 
appearance. The Wapisianas are browner and 
less graceful, but their language is so soft, 
sonorous, and vocalic that it is the general 
medium, of communication for trade and other 
intercourse among all the tribes in this region, 
even the Caribs; and the Atoradis have nearly 
abandoned their own for it. 

Arax'es. See Aras. 

Arayat, a-ri'at, a Philippine town on the 
island of Luzon, occupied by the American 
army 12 Oct. 1899. Pop. 14,000. 



ARBACES — ARBITRATION 


Arba'ces, a Median general under Sardan- 
apalus and the founder of the Median empire 
in 876 b.c. The dynasty founded by Arbaces 
lasted till its overthrow by Cyrus, 559 b.c. 

Arbalest. See Cross-bow. 

Arbe'la, now Arbeel, a small town in 
Asiatic lurkey which gave its name to a deci¬ 
sive battle fought by Alexander the Great 
against Darius at Gaugamela, about 20 miles 
distant from it, 1 Oct. 331 b.c. There are sev¬ 
eral large mosques in the modern town. Pop. 
about 6,000. 

Arber, Edward, an English scholar, 
emeritus professor of English literature at the 
University of Birmingham. He is best known 
through the reprints of which he is editor. These 
include ( English Reprints ^ (1868-71) ; <Tyndale’s 
New Testament of 1525 > (1871) ; <A Transcript 
of the Registers of the Company of the Station¬ 
ers at London> (1875) ; ( An English Garner> 
(1877-96) ; ( An English Scholar’s Library (1878- 
84) ; ( The First Three English Books on Amer¬ 
ica ( (1885) ; ( The Story of the Pilgrim Fathers, 
1606-23 > (1897) ; ( British Anthologies > (1899— 
1901); <The Term Catalogues ) (1003-5). 

Ar'bitra'tion, a term applied to an adjudi¬ 
cation by persons, called arbitrators, appointed 
to decide a matter or matters in controversy by 
agreement of the disputants. Submissions to 
arbitration, however, should not be oral, because 
open to disputes, and in California and Louis¬ 
iana the submission must be in writing. 2 Cal. 
92; 5 La. 133. Also in New York, Code Civ. 
Pro. 2366. A submission to arbitration may 
be made at any time of causes not in court, and 
at common law, where a cause was pending, 
submission might be made by rule of court be¬ 
fore the trial, or by order after it had com¬ 
menced, which was afterward made a rule of 
court. It differs from a reference made by the 
order of a court of law. The proceeding gen¬ 
erally is called a submission to arbitration; the 
parties appointed to decide are termed arbitra¬ 
tors, not referees; and their adjudication is 
called an award. This mode of settling dis¬ 
putes has been approved by legislatures at va¬ 
rious times, and there are statutes in a number 
of States regulating the proceeding. 

Legal Arbitration . — Infants and others not 
entitled to sue cannot submit controversies to 
arbitration. In general, where the owner of real 
estate is incapacitated in any way, and also in 
many cases of agency, the person having the legal 
control of the property may submit the matter in 
dispute to arbitration. Such, for example, as a 
husband for his wife; a parent or guardian for an 
infant (not, however, a guardian appointed for 
some other special purpose); a trustee for his 
beneficiary; in some instances, an attorney for 
his client; an agent duly authorized so to do by 
his principal; an executor or administrator may 
submit to arbitration, but does so at his personal 
risk should his estate be improperly held liable. 

The matters that may be submitted to an 
arbitrator are all personal disputes and differ¬ 
ences that might otherwise be made the subject 
of controversy in the courts of civil jurisdiction. 
The New York Code of Civil Procedure, § 2365, 
provides that a submission of a controversy to 
arbitration cannoi be made (1) where one of 
the parties is an infant, or a person incom¬ 


petent to manage his affairs by reason of lunacy, 
idiocy, or habitual drunkenness; (2) where the 
controversy arises respecting a claim to an estate 
in real property in fee or for life. The second 
subdivision of this section does not prevent the 
submission of a claim to an estate for years, or 
other interest for a term of years, or for one 
year or less in real property; or of a contro¬ 
versy respecting the partition of real property 
between joint tenants or tenants in common; or 
of a controversy respecting the boundaries of 
lands or the admeasurement of dower. Subject 
to the exceptions in this section, any contro¬ 
versy existing between two or more persons at 
the time of the submission may be submitted to 
arbitration. Thus breaches of contract gener¬ 
ally, breaches of promise of marriage, trespass, 
assaults, charges of slander, differences respect¬ 
ing partnership transactions, or the purchase 
price of a piece of personal property, all may be 
referred to arbitration. Differences between 
landlord and tenant, where no claim of title is 
interposed, and pure questions of law, may also 
be referred to the decision of an arbitrator. 
Actions at law and suits in equity may be set¬ 
tled by arbitration; and this kind of reference 
may be made at any stage of the proceedings, 
sometimes even after the verdict, and probably, 
by analogy, after decree in equity. An agree¬ 
ment to refer future disputes will not be en¬ 
forced by a decree of specific performance, nor 
will an action lie for refusing to appoint an 
arbitrator in accordance with such an agree¬ 
ment. (2 Bos. & P. 235; 6 Ves. Ch. 815; 15 Ga. 
473; 50 N. Y. 250; 39 N. Y. 377; 35 Barb. N. Y. 
602; 6 State Rep. 603.) It is well settled by 
authority that an agreement to refer all matters 
of difference or dispute that may arise to arbi¬ 
tration will not deprive a court of law or equity 
of jurisdiction. The best reason for the rule is 
an aversion of the courts, from reasons of pub¬ 
lic policy, to sanction contracts by which the 
protection which the law affords individual citi¬ 
zens is renounced. (50 N. Y. 250; 39 N. Y. 377.) 
A matter clearly illegal cannot be made the 
subject of a valid submission. But where 
transactions between parties have been brought 
to a close by general award, apparently good, the 
courts have refused to reopen them on a sug¬ 
gestion that some legal item had been admitted 
in account. It is not the policy of law to refer 
to arbitration felonies and other criminal of¬ 
fenses of a public nature, because the public 
safety requires them to be punished, and for 
this purpose they can be properly tried only in 
one of the ordinary courts of the country. 
Partners and corporations may make submission 
to arbitration. The arbitrator ought to be a 
person who stands perfectly indifferent between 
the disputants; but there are no other particular 
qualifications for the office, and the choice by 
parties of the person who they agree shall de¬ 
cide between them is perfectly free, unless it 
is stipulated in the agreement to arbitrate that 
an arbitrator need not be sworn at common law. 
In various States of the Union, however, arbi¬ 
trators are required by statute to take an oath to 
hear faithfully and fairly, and examine the mat¬ 
ters in controversy, and to make a just award 
according to the best of their understanding, 
unless the oath is waived by the written con¬ 
sent of the parties to the submission, or their 
attorneys. (See N. Y. Code Civ. Proc. § 2369.) 


ARBITRATION; ARBOGA 


In matters ot complicated accounts mercan¬ 
tile men are greatly preferred. In other cases 
it is usual to appoint lawyers, who, being accus¬ 
tomed to judicial investigations, are able to 
estimate the evidence properly, to confine the 
examination strictly to the points in question, 
and, in making the award, to avoid those in¬ 
formalities in respect to which it might after¬ 
ward be set aside. Both time and expense are 
thus saved by fixing on a professional arbi¬ 
trator. 

Mods- of Procedure .— The proceedings be¬ 
fore an arbitrator are regulated generally ac¬ 
cording to the forms observed in courts of law. 
The arbitrator on the day appointed hears the 
case and makes his award, which need not be 
in writing at common law, for a verbal award 
is perfectly valid; but in practice it is usual for 
the arbitrator to make a written award. While 
at common law the award may be oral or in 
writing, this rule has been changed by statute 
in some States, and an award, to be legal in 
those States, must be in writing. It is provided 
by the New York Code of Civil Procedure, 
§ 2372, that an award, to be legal, must be in 
writing. (See Award.) This award in its ef¬ 
fect operates as a final and conclusive judgment 
respecting all the matter submitted, and binds 
the rights of the parties for all time. Arbitra¬ 
tors are allowed the greatest latitude in investi¬ 
gating matters in controversy. They are judges 
of both law and fact and are not bound by the 
rules of practice adopted by the courts. (2 
Johns. Ch. N. Y. 276, 368; 3 Duer, N. Y. 69; 
1 E. D. Smith, N. Y. 85, 265.) Arbitrators 
cannot delegate their authority; it is a personal 
trust. (7 Serg. & R. Pa. 228; 2 Atk. Ch. 
401.) An award may be set aside on the 
ground of corruption and fraud in the arbitra¬ 
tor, and for any material irregularity or ille¬ 
gality appearing on the face of the proceedings, 
such as is beyond or not covered by the sub¬ 
mission. The interest of the arbitrator in the 
subject-matter of controversy, his relationship 
to one of the parties, business relations between 
an arbitrator and a party, or the expression of 
an opinion upon the merits of the controversy, 
if unknown to the party injured, will warrant 
the court in holding an arbitrator incompetent 
to make an award. But the tendency of the 
courts is to favor arbitration and maintain 
awards unless such serious grounds as are 
above referred to can be substantiated. Where 
there are two arbitrators the submission often 
provides that in the case of their differing in 
opinion the matter referred shall be decided by 
a third person, called an umpire, generally ap¬ 
pointed under a power to that effect by the 
arbitrators themselves. But they cannot make 
such appointment unless specially authorized so 
to do by the terms of the submission. This 
umpire rehears the case, and for this purpose is 
invested with the same powers as those pos¬ 
sessed by the arbitrators, and is bound by the 
same rules. It remains to be stated in general 
concerning arbitration that from the nature of 
the case there can be no appeal, on the merits of 
the dispute submitted, to any public tribunal 
whatever. In New York the proceeding to va¬ 
cate an award, and the grounds on which it can 
be made, are regulated by statute. 

Court of Arbitration .— By chapter 278, laws 
of 1874, the legislature of New York established 


the (( Court of Arbitration of the Chamber of 
Commerce of the State of New York,® defined 
its jurisdiction, and regulated its proceedings. 
Gov. Dix nominated, and the Senate con¬ 
firmed, the Hon. Enoch L. Fancher as the offi¬ 
cial arbitrator or judge of the court. Its work 
was chiefly confined to commercial matters and 
disputes of shipping merchants, though during 
its existence almost all subjects of controversy 
have been before the court and decided. There 
is no appeal from the decision of the official 
arbitrator; though, where a defeated party de¬ 
sires it, a rehearing of the case is always 
granted. No costs or fees to attorneys or coun¬ 
sel can be recovered; each party, whether de¬ 
feated or not, must bear his own costs and 
expenses. The London Corporation and the 
London Chamber of Commerce founded jointly 
in 1892 a chamber of arbitration, or tribunal 
of commerce, for settling trade and commer¬ 
cial difficulties; and the great coal dispute and 
strike of 1893 led to a conference which secured 
a peaceful conclusion for the time and the foun¬ 
dation of a permanent (( Board of Reconcilia¬ 
tion,® consisting of representatives both of 
owners and of the miners. Diplomatic confer¬ 
ences, which often obviate war, belong to a 
different category. The Parliament of New 
South Wales has passed an act constituting an 
arbitration tribunal for the purpose of settling 
industrial disputes. This tribunal consists of 
a judge of the supreme court, a representative 
appointed by the employers, and a representa¬ 
tive nominated by the employees. The court 
has jurisdiction in the case of industrial dis¬ 
putes, and a lockout or a strike before allowing 
time for reference to the court or pending the 
proceedings of the court is illegal. 

International arbitration has been discussed 
frequently and at length. It has been employed 
in matters of debate between nations more than 
a hundred times. As between the United States 
and Great Britain, the San Juan boundary ques¬ 
tion, the Alabama question, and the Bering 
Sea sealing controversy have been so arranged. 
The first general treaty of arbitration ever 
drawn between nations was signed 11 Jan. 1897, 
in Washington, by Richard Olney, secretary of 
state for the United States, and Sir Julian 
Pauncefote, ambassador of Great Britain to the 
United States, for Great Britain. This treaty 
was placed before the United States Senate, 11 
Jan. 1897, accompanied by a special message 
from President Cleveland, but the Senate re¬ 
fused to ratify it. Since then similar treaties 
have been made and ratified between Italy and 
the Argentine Republic and between the Argen¬ 
tine Republic and Uruguay. The International 
Peace Convention at The Hague, in 1899, estab¬ 
lished an international court of arbitration 
which has been ratified by the United States 
and other signatory powers. See Hague Court. 

Arbitration, International. See Arbitra¬ 
tion. 

Arbo'ga, ar-bo'ga, a Swedish city, once 
important commercially, but now only of his¬ 
torical interest from having been at one time a 
residence of the royal family of Vasa, the scene 
of Church assemblies and national diets, and 
for the antiquities in its neighborhood. Pop. 
(1901) 5,250. 


ARBOLEDA — ARBUTHNOT 


Arboleda, ar'bo-la'fha, Julio, a South 
American poet and statesman: b. in Barbacoas, 
Colombia, 9 June 1817; d. 1862. He was edu¬ 
cated in Europe, and on his return to Colombia 
engaged in journalism. In the various Colom¬ 
bian revolutions he was a liberal Conservative 
and more than once declined the vice-presidency 
of the republic. His poems are much esteemed 
in Spanish-American literature. 

Arbor Day, an annual tree-planting day 
appointed by nearly every State and Territory 
of the Union, sometimes as a legal holiday and 
sometimes merely advisory, to assist in forest¬ 
ing or reforesting scantily wooded tracts, or 
shading or beautifying towns. It is generally 
in special connection with the public schools, to 
impress children with the importance of forestry 
and natural beauty in our civilization. The 
date depends on the climate of different sec¬ 
tions, and is absolutely fixed in but few; most 
Northern States hold it in April or early in 
May; Arizona, Texas, and Alabama in Febru¬ 
ary, the two latter on Washington’s birthday; 
Florida in January, Georgia in December, and 
New Mexico in March; many make it optional 
either with the State or with localities, and 
West Virginia holds it twice a year, in spring 
and fall. It arose from the alarm felt by the 
most far-sighted public men over the rapid and 
reckless deforestation of many parts of the 
Union, and the prospects of its extending to all, 
the proof as seen abroad of what that deforesta¬ 
tion meant, and the example of their govern¬ 
ments in reforesting and conserving. (See 
Forestry.) Most civilized governments at dif¬ 
ferent times have looked after their forests to 
assure a supply of timber for naval construc¬ 
tion; New Hampshire and New York, even in 
the colonial period, felt it needful to check the 
inroads on them; the United States government 
at the beginning of the 19th century bought 
timber lands, and a quarter of a century later 
authorized the President to take measures for 
their preservation; and about the same time the 
Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agricul¬ 
ture offered prizes for forest planting. But 
the first widespread realization of its importance 
was caused in 1864 by the notable book of 
George P. Marsh (q.v.), the eminent American 
scholar and diplomat, entitled ( Man and Na- 
ture ) ; the chapter on <( The Woods® aroused 
especial attention, and in 1865 Birdsey G. North¬ 
rop, then secretary of the Connecticut Board of 
Education, suggested that States might profit¬ 
ably plant trees every year at the proper time, 
or supervise their planting. The subject brought 
out several books and many articles; the late 
Dr. Franklin B. Hough, the first forest com¬ 
missioner, publishing a work upon it as early 
as 1873. But the first to propose a regular 
Arbor Day for the purpose was J. Sterling 
Morton, late commissioner of agriculture, then 
of Nebraska, who in 1872 succeeded in inducing 
his almost treeless State to set apart a day for 
the purpose. Great enthusiasm was aroused, 
and over a million trees were planted that year. 
In 1885 it was made a legal State holiday on 22 
April, Mr. Morton’s birthday. The movement 
did not at first spread very rapidly, though some 
localities took it up; the first States to copy the 
legal enactment were Kansas and Tennessee in 
1875, and the next year Minnesota. It was six 
years before another joined, Ohio in 1882, fol¬ 


lowed by West Virginia in 1883; then the tide 
began to rush in, and within five years 26 more 
States and Territories had adopted the ob¬ 
servance. The only absentees now are Dela¬ 
ware, Utah, and Indian Territory, and even there 
it is observed in some places. ( ( Arbor Day , ) 
bulletin of the Department of Agriculture.) 

Ar'bore'tum (Latin arbor, a tree), a place 
set apart for the cultivation of different trees 
and shrubs for scientific or educational pur¬ 
poses. See Botanic Gardens ; Forestry. 

Arboriculture. See Forestry. 

Ar'bor Vi'tae (Latin, (< tree of life®), the 
designation of several trees belonging to the 
natural order Coniferce, and allied to the cy¬ 
press. The genus consists of evergreen trees 
and shrubs, with flattened branchlets, and small, 
imbricated or scale-like leaves. The common 
arbor vitae ( Thuja occidentalis) is a native of 
North America, and reaches a height of 50 
feet in favorable locations. The cones are 
small; the young twigs have an agreeable 
balsamic smell; the wood is soft and light, 
but tough and durable. There are 60 North 
American species, the principal one after 
T. occidentalis being T. plicata, found on the 
Pacific coast from the region of San Francisco 
Bay north to Alaska. The Chinese arbor vitae 
( T . orientalis ) is also common in Great Britain. 
Its upright branches and larger cones easily 
distinguish it from the former. It yields a 
resin which was formerly thought to have medi- • 
cinal virtues, like the wood and young twigs of 
the T. occidentals; hence the name — arbor 
vitae. 

Arbuthnot, John, Scotch physician and 
author: b. Arbuthnott, Kincardineshire, Scot¬ 
land, 29 April 1667; d. London, 27 Feb. 1735. 
Arbuthnot was the eldest child of Alexander 
Arbuthnot, rector of Arbuthnott, and Margaret 
[Lammy] Arbuthnot. Little is known of John 
Arbuthnot’s early life; he was probably edu¬ 
cated at Marischal College, Aberdeen, but almost 
nothing else can be stated of his minority. It is 
known, however, that as a result of the Revo¬ 
lution of 1688, his father, who was a stout sup¬ 
porter of the Stuarts, lost his preferment, and, 
on his death in 1691, his sons were obliged to 
seek their fortunes abroad. John went to Lon¬ 
don, where he supported himself by teaching 
mathematics. The following year he probably 
published a little book entitled ( The Laws of 
Chance/ but it may not be definitely assigned 
to him. In October 1694 he entered University 
College, Oxford, and in September, two years 
later, took his doctor’s degree in medicine at 
Saint Andrews. Shortly afterward, in all 
probability, he settled in London for the re¬ 
mainder of his life. 

Arbuthnot’s first important work was ( An 
Examination of Dr. Woodward’s Account of 
the Deluge ) (1697), a work in which Arbuthnot 
showed his interest in questions of science and 
the candor and fairness of his mind. His next 
piece, ( An Essay on the Usefulness of Mathe¬ 
matical Learning/ appeared in 1701. His 
progress in distinction was so rapid that in 1704 
he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society 
and the following year was made Physician 
Extraordinary to the Queen. In 1709 he was 
appointed Physician in Ordinary to the Queen, 
and the following year was admitted as Fellow 


ARBUTHNOT — ARC 


to the College of Physicians. His publications 
of the period are of a somewhat miscellaneous 
character: ( Tables of the Grecian, Roman, and 
Jewish Measures, Weights, and Coins, Reduced 
to the English Standard’ (1705), ( A Sermon 
Preached to the People at the Mercat-Cross of 
Edinburgh; on the subject of the Union’ (1706), 
and ( An argument for Divine Providence, taken 
from the Constant Regularity Observed in the 
Births of Both Sexes’ (1710). Because of his 
well-known good humor, fairness of mind, and 
ability he was frequently named to settle vexed 
questions and rival claims. 

Arbuthnot is remembered in English litera¬ 
ture chiefly for the friendships which he made 
and the work that he did during the next four 
years. He became acquainted with Swift in 
1711 and with Pope two years later, and both 
friendships were close and life-long. It was 
possibly under the influence of the former that 
he contributed several interesting satires to the 
support of the Tory Administration. In Feb¬ 
ruary 1712, appeared ( The Story of the Saint 
Albans Ghost, or the Apparition of Mother 
Haggy,’ a satire upon the Duke and Duchess of 
Marlborough. In the spring and summer of the 
same year there appeared, in five instalments, 
the much more important ‘Law is a Bottomless 
Pit,’ called later and better known as ‘The His¬ 
tory of John Bull.’ Both were attributed to 
Swift and have been included frequently in his 
published works, in spite of his denial of them. 
‘John Bull’ is undoubtedly one of the master¬ 
pieces of English political satire of the milder 
sort. It pursues throughout the method of the 
narrative parts of Swift’s Male of a Tub’ and it 
gives an account of the history of English 
foreign politics of the time, but its quality is 
more genially humorous than violently satirical. 
It is particularly notable for the name and 
character of John Bull, which Arbuthnot 
created. In October of the same year Arbuthnot 
published ( The Art of Political Lying,’ a satire 
of an expository rather than a dramatic cast. 

The friendship of Arbuthnot with Swift, 
Pope, and the Tory leaders resulted in a society 
for the diversion of its members in times of 
political turmoil. Out of that sprang the 
Scriblerus Club. The object of the club was, 
in the words of Pope, (( to have ridiculed all the 
false tastes in learning, under the character of a 
man of capacity enough, that had dipped into 
every art and science, but injudiciously in each.’’ 
The members were Arbuthnot, Swift, Pope, 
Gay, and Parnell, but almost exclusively to 
Arbuthnot alone belong the ‘Memoirs of the 
Extraordinary Life, Works, and Discoveries of 
Martinus Scriblerus,’ probably written in 1713- 
14, but published in 1741, by Pope. The 
‘Memoirs’ are usually included in Pope’s works, 
who wrote only the excellent ‘Art of Sinking in 
Poetry.’ The reason that so many of Arbuth- 
not’s works have been attributed to other 
writers is that literature was to him a diversion 
and he made little attempt to keep his writings. 

On the death of Queen Anne in 1714, Arbuth¬ 
not, along with the Tory ministers and their 
supporters, lost their places at court, but Ar¬ 
buthnot retained his favor with influential peo¬ 
ple. In his profession he was honored by being 
made, in 1723, Second Censor by the College of 
Physicians, and, possibly, in 1730. Physician to 
the Queen. His writing up to his death con¬ 
sisted of an amplification of his ‘Tables of 


Ancient Coins’ (1727)* some satirical notes, 
with Swift, to the ‘Dunciad’ (1729), a popular 
‘Essay Concerning the Nature of Aliments and 
the Choice of Them’ (1731), to which the fol¬ 
lowing year he added ‘Practical Rules of Diet, 
an ‘Essay Concerning the Effects of Air on 
Human Bodies’ (i 733 )> and a poem. ‘Know 
Thyself’ (1734). Alone and in collaboration 
with his friends he probably wrote a number of 
satirical pieces, which are often included in his 
works but which cannot be definitely assigned 
to him. The last 10 years of his life were 
marked by several illnesses, but he never lost his 
cheerfulness and good-nature. A few weeks 
before his death appeared Pope’s masterly 
‘Epistle to Dr. Arbuthnot,’ which is interesting 
in part as a proof of the esteem in which he was 
held by his friends and by which he is best 
known to the average reader. 

Bibliography. —The chief source of informa¬ 
tion about Arbuthnot is George A. Aitken’s 
‘The Life and Works of John Arbuthnot’ 
(Oxford 1892), wherein all that is definitely 
known to be Arbuthnot’s is included except the 
technical treatises. The other chief source of 
information is Leslie Stephen’s article in the 
Dictionary of National Biography. References 
to the history of the Scriblerus Club and Ar¬ 
buthnot’s relations to the great men of letters 
of the time are to be found in the separate lives 
of these men and in the literary histories. 

William T. Brewster, 

Professor of English, Columbia University. 

Ar'buthnot, Marriot, an English Admiral: 
b. 1711 ; d. 1794. With Sir Henry Clinton he 
captured Charleston, South Carolina, 20 May 
1780, after the city had withstood a long siege, 
and commanded in a sea fight with a French 
fleet off Cape Henry in March 1781. 

Arbutus, ar'bu-tus or ar-buffus, the desig¬ 
nation of a genus of about 20 species of shrubs, 
mostly evergreen and small trees of the natural 
order Ericacecc, natives mainly of Europe and 
North America. The species, many of which 
have smooth red branches, are often used for 
ornamental purposes. A. unedo, the strawberry 
tree, a species from southern Europe, is often 
planted in California, its profusion of white or 
rosy flowers and strawberry colored fruits 
which ripen during the blossoming period of 
the following year being greatly admired. In 
Spain this fruit is used to make sugar and a 
kind of liquor. A. mensiesii, the madrona, a 
native of the Pacific Coast States, attains a 
height of about 100 feet and is the hardiest and 
perhaps the handsomest species of the genus. 
A. arizonicus , another American species, which 
sometimes reaches a height of 50 feet, has white 
bark on the trunk, red branches, pale-green 
leaves, loose panicles of white flowers, and 
dark orange-red fruits. 

Arbutus, Trailing, an evergreen creeping 
plant ( Epigcca repens) of the natural order 
Ericacecc, growing in shaded sandy and rocky 
soils, especially in pine woods, from Newfound¬ 
land to Florida and westward to Minnesota. It 
is known in New England as the Mayflower 
and in the southern United States as ground 
laurel, and is everywhere prized for its fragrant 
rose-colored or white flowers. 

Arc, a geometrical term denoting a portion 
of the circumference of a circle, often cut off by 


ARC —ARCH 


two lines which intersect it. The name is also The lowest voussoirs of an arch are called 

applied to a portion of any other curve. The springers, or skewbacks, and the central one, the 

magnitude of an arc of a circle is stated in de- keystone. The under or concave side of the 
grees, minutes, and seconds, which are equal voussoirs is called the intrados, and the outer or 
to those of the angle which it subtends convex one the extrados of the arch. A chord 

at the centre. Hence, counted by degrees, of the arch at its lower part is called its span, 

minutes, and seconds, the arc of elevation and and a line drawn at right angles to this chord, 
the angle of elevation of a heavenly body are and extending upward to the under side of the 
the same, and the two terms may be used in keystone, is called its rise. The impost of an 


most cases indifferently. The straight line unit¬ 
ing the two extremities of an arc is called its 
chord. Equal arcs must come from circles of 
equal magnitude, and each must contain the 
same number of degrees, minutes, and seconds 
as the others. Similar arcs must also each have 
the same number of degrees, minutes, and sec¬ 
onds, but they belong to circles of unequal mag¬ 
nitude. Concentric arcs are arcs having the 
same centre. In mathematical geography, an 
arc of the earth’s meridian, or a meridional arc, 

' is an arc partly measured on the surface of the 
earth from north to south, partly calculated by 
trigonometry. By these measurements the earth 
was discovered to be an oblate spheroid. 

Arc, Electric. See Electric Light. 

Arc, Joan of. See Joan of Arc. 

Ar'ca, a term applied to a genus of con- 
chiferous mollusks, the typical one of the family 
Arcadev. The shell is strongly ribbed or can¬ 
cellated, hinge straight, with very numerous 
transverse teeth. They are universally distrib¬ 
uted, but are commonest in warm seas. They 
inhabit the zone from low water to 230 fathoms. 
The fossil species are found in the United 
States, Europe, and southern India. 

Arcadius, the first emperor of the East: 
b. 377; d. 408. He was son of the Emperor 
Theodosius, on whose death in 395 the empire 
was divided, he obtaining the East, and his 
brother Honorius the West. He proved unable 
to govern for himself, and was a mere tool, first 
in the hands of Rufinus, then of the. eunuch 
Eutropius, and then of his queen Eudoxia. 

Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel, ark de 
tre'onf dii ka'roo'zel. See Arch, Memorial 
and Triumphal. 

Arc de Triomphe de l’Etoile, ark de tre' 

onf dii la'twal. See Arch, Memorial and 
Triumphal. 

Arcesilaus, a Greek philosopher: b. 
316 b.c. ; d. 241 b.c. He studied philosophy at 
Athens and was largely influenced by Crates 
and Crantor. At the latter’s death he became 
the head of the Academic School. Arcesilaus 
denied the certainty of intellectual and sensuous 
knowledge and recommended abstinence from 
all dogmatic judgments. 

Arch, an architectural term denoting a 
structural form made up of a series of wedge- 
shaped stones, or bricks,, so arranged over a 
door or window in an edifice for habitation, or 
between the piers of a bridge, as to support each 
other, and to carry in addition the weight 
of the superstructure. These stones and bricks, 
of a truncated wedge shape, used in building 
arches, are called voussoirs. The side of an 
arch between the crown and the springer, or 
skewback, is called its haunch or flank, and by 
old English writers of the 16th century, its 
hanse. The highest part of the arch is called its 
crown, or by the old English authors, the scheme 
->r skeen, from the Italian schiena, the back. 


arch is the portion of the pier or abutment 
whence the arch springs; the thrust of the arch 
is its outward pressure against the abutments. 
The voussoirs are also called ring-stones. The 
spandrel is the part above the haunches, or, in 
a bridge, the part between the arch-ring and the 
roadw T ay. If the height of the crown of an arch 
above the level of its impost be greater than half 
the span of the arch, the arch is said to be 
surmounted. If, on the contrary, it be less, the 
arch is said to be surbased. The curved arch 
was known to the Assyrians and the old Egyp¬ 
tians. Sir J. G. Wilkinson considers that it 
existed in brick in the reign of Amenoph I., 
about 1540 b.c., and in stone in the time of 
Psammetichus II., 600 b.c. The evidence is de¬ 
rived from the ruins of actual buildings, but 
paintings appear to carry the arch back to about 
2020 b.c. There is no mention of the genuine 
arch in Scripture, the term ^arches,® in Ezek. 
xl. 16, being a mistranslation. The round arch 
was brought into extensive use by the Romans, 
and prevailed everywhere until the 12th century 
a.d., when the arch pointed at the apex, and 
called in consequence the pointed arch — the one 
so frequently seen in Gothic architecture — ap¬ 
peared in Europe as its rival. The forms of 
both curved and pointed arches may be varied 
indefinitely. Of the former may be mentioned 
the horseshoe arch, a name which explains itself, 
and the foil arch, from Latin folium , a leaf, 
of which there are the trefoil, the cinquefoil, and 
the multifoil varieties, so named from the plant- 
forms after which they are modeled. Other 
arches are the equilateral, in which the centres 
of the circles whose intersection constitutes the 
pointed arch coincide with the angular points at 
the two sides of the base; the lancet, in which 
the centres of the circles fall beyond these 
points; the drop arch, where they fall within 
the base; and the segmental arch, the sides of 
which constitute segments of circles containing 
less than 180 degrees. Besides these there are 
several other varieties of arch distinguished by 
their respective forms. The names applied to 
arches may be divided into several classes, as 
referring to geometric or familiar forms, style 
or position in the building. The following are 
different geometrical forms: The flat arch, with 
voussoirs radiating from one centre. Arches 
with one centre are: semicircular, segmental, 
horseshoe. Arches with two centres are; the 
equilateral pointed arch, where the centres of the 
circles coincide with the angular points at the 
two sides of the base; the drop arch, where they 
fall within the base; the lancet, where they fall 
outside of it, and the pointed horseshoe. 1 he 
common three-centred arch is called basket- 
handled arch, this being the form generally used 
instead of an ellipse. Four-centred,, six-centred, 
and other similar forms are occasionally used. 
The names horseshoe, lancet, basket-handled, 
etc., are given because of their resemblance to 
familiar forms. Gothic, Roman, and Moorish 


ARCH 


arches are names given because these forms 
were used in those architectural styles. Certain 
names are given with reference to the position of 
the arch in the building, such as discharging 
or relieving arch, where the arch is placed 
over a lintel to carry pressure to the sides. 

Examples of arches are the Cloaca Maxima, 
built about 641 b.c., with three concentric rings of 
voussoirs, inside diameter, 14 feet; the Pont du 
Gard, built by Agrippa, 19 b.c., which has semi¬ 
circular arches, built of Pozzuolani concrete with 
stone or brick facing. The longest masonry 
span in Europe is the railway bridge over the 
Pruth, Jaremcze, Austria, 213 feet wide with a 
rise of 59 feet, and built in 1892. This shows 
hollow spandrels, which are constructionally and 
artistically correct. The Cabin John Bridge, 
near Washington, D. C., which carries an aque¬ 
duct and highway, 220 feet, the largest masonry 
span in the world. The Wheeling, W. Va., 
Main Street Bridge, built in 1892, 159 feet long, 
28 feet rise, is deceptive, as spandrels are hol¬ 
low, but appear to be solid. The great arch now 
built for the Cathedral of St. John the Divine, 
New York, is of masonry resting on the top of 
piers 86 feet high. The span is 114 feet from 
outside to outside of voussoirs. In 1896 was 
built the first large concrete arch in the United 
States, 40 feet span, 7 feet rise, all of concrete. 
This was for a highway bridge. There is also 
a 6o-foot arch of steel-concrete in Franklin 
Bridge, Forest Park, St. Louis, Mo. <( Con- 
crete reinforced® is the name given to the com¬ 
bination of concrete with steel or iron in build¬ 
ing. Steel concrete, armored concrete, beton 
artne, cnnent arme, are various terms for such 
construction, now coming into frequent use. 

The Melan arch system was developed by 
Prof. Joseph Melan, using stiff steel ribs or 
beams embedded in concrete to form the arch 
ring, following Austrian experiments. Exam¬ 
ples of Melan arch are found in Eden Park, Cin¬ 
cinnati, O., 70 feet span; railway bridge over 
Southern Boulevard, Detroit, Mich.; road 
bridges over the Passaic, Paterson, N. J.; Kan¬ 
sas Ave., Topeka, Kansas, this being the longest, 
having five arches, one of 125 feet, two of no 
feet each, two of 97 feet each; Hyde-Park-on- 
Hudson, for F. W. Vanderbilt, 75 feet span; a 
foot bridge in park, Stockbridge, Mass., 100 
feet span, rise 10 feet, only 9 inches thick at 
crown; three-hinged arch, Steyr, Hungary, span 
137 feet, rise only 9 feet, or one fifteenth of span, 

In regard to the cost of arches compared 
with steel construction, a railway steel girder 
span 60 feet in length, with solid floor, costs about 
$1,600. The cost of maintenance and renewals 
capitalized amounts to about $400, giving total 
cost of about $2,000, while equivalent masonry, 
arch would cost about $1,800. A concrete 
arch built in 12 hours, by 65 men, 39 feet span, 
6 l / 2 feet rise, Switzerland, cost, complete, $600. 
The Monier method is concrete with wire net¬ 
ting imbedded near the soffit. Arches of long 
span and slight rise in building construction are 
being made with the Guastavino system of co¬ 
hesive construction, which is practically a re¬ 
vival of ancient and mediaeval building meth¬ 
ods. See also Abutment; Arch, Memorial; 
Bridge; Buttress; Vault. 

Frank D. Bourne, 
Architect, Boston, Mass. 


Arch, Memorial and Triumphal, a monu¬ 
mental structure erected in honor of some prom¬ 
inent person or memorable event. In the cus¬ 
tom of temporarily decorating the gates of cities 
with garlands and trophies, on the return of a 
victorious general, we can find the origin of 
the triumphal arch. These are similar in form 
whether commemorating a peaceful event or a 
military triumph. In the time of the Roman 
republic, temporary arches were erected in hon¬ 
or of triumphant generals. At that period, also, 
memorial arches or fornices, were erected in 
memory of some individual or to ornament a 
city, but it was not until the time of the Empire 
that the triumphal arch, the arcus, came into use, 
to perpetuate the glory of a person who had 
obtained the honors of a triumph. Arches were 
often placed at the entrance of cities, becoming 
in such a position merely a monumental form 
of city gate. The usual form of triumphal or 
memorial arch employed a high and imposing 
semicircular arch as its central motive, resting 
on heavy piers, which were decorated generally 
with Corinthian columns and other architectural 
details, statuary, and bas-reliefs. Above this was 
a heavy mass of stone-work or attic, on which 
was placed a suitable inscription. The arch of 
Titus, at Rome, is the most remarkable for its 
purity, the beauty of its sculpture, and the har¬ 
mony of its proportions. It was probably erect¬ 
ed by Domitian in honor of Titus to recall his 
conquest of Jerusalem. In panels on the inner 
sides of the piers are sculptured, on one side 
the triumphant Titus on his quadriga surround¬ 
ed by soldiers; on the other side the triumphal 
procession, with the spoils of the Temple, the 
sacred vessels and the seven-branched candle¬ 
stick. At the foot of the Capitol, at the side of 
the Forum, is the arch of Septimius Severus, 
erected in honor of this emperor and his two 
sons to commemorate their victories over the 
Parthians and the Arabians. It has small side 
arches reached by a few steps, and a large cen¬ 
tral arch. The most important arch in Rome is 
that to Constantine, which is similar to that of 
Septimius Severus. It was erected by the Sen¬ 
ate and the Roman people in honor of Con¬ 
stantine. The arch of Trajan at Ancona was 
erected on a pier which serves as a base, and 
was a memorial of the completion of that port. 
It is said that another arch of Trajan at Bene- 
vento was erected to commemorate an extension 
of the Appian Way. In modern times the name 
triumphal arch is given to a structure of wood 
or staff decorated with flags, banners, and floral 
designs, as a part of some public celebration, or 
in honor of some person ; for example, the Dewey 
arch, in New York. This is an outgrowth of the 
old Roman idea. Modern history has illustra¬ 
tions of many examples of this form of arch. 
Albert Diirer has many engravings of the tri¬ 
umphal entry of the Emperor Maximilian, and of 
the arches erected in his honor. There are also 
illustrations of arches for Charles V. at Bou¬ 
logne; to Henry III., at Lido, on his trip to 
Venice. Rubens made the designs for the tri¬ 
umphal arch for Ferdinand of Austria at Ant¬ 
werp, and a large arch was erected to Louis 
XIV. at the Barriere du Trone. There are also 
triumphal arches in Paris: the Arc du Carrousel 
near the Louvre, built by Napoleon I., now de¬ 
stroyed; Porte St. Denis, built by Louis XIV.; 
the large Arc de l’Ltoile, dedicated by Napo- 


ARCHEAN — ARCHEOLOGY 


leon to his soldiers and sailors; and Porte St. 
Martin (1674) ; in Berlin the Brandenburgerthor 
at the entrance of the Thiergarten. In the 
United States there are arches of this character 
in Brooklyn and Hartford, Conn., and the 
Washington arch, in New York. 

Among celebrated arches of this character, 
mediaeval and modern, may be named the fol¬ 
lowing gateways: At Naples, the Arch of Al¬ 
fonso of Aragon (1470), and the Porta Capu- 
ana; at Burgos, the Santa Maria; at Montpellier, 
a 17th century memorial of the revocation of the 
Edict of Nantes; at Milan, Della Pace; at Mu¬ 
nich, Sieges Thor (Victory Gate) (1850) ; and 
at London, the Marble Arch. See Arch ; Gate¬ 
way. 

Bibliography. — Bartoli, P. S. ( Veteres Arcvs 
Avgvstorvm Trivmphis Insignes ex Reliqviis 
qvae Romae adhvc Svpersvnt. 5 46 pis. 
(Romae, 1824) ; Beauvais, C. T. ( Monumens 
des Victoires et Conquetes des Francais. 5 
(1822) ; Kinch, ( L’Arc de Triomphe de 
Salonique 5 (1890) ; Knight, W. ( The Arch of 
Titus, and the Spoils of the Temple 5 (1867) ; 
Normand, L. M. ( Arc de Triomphe des Tuileries 
Rrige en 1806, d’apres les Dessins de MM. C. 
Percier et P. F. L. Fontaine ) (1830) ; Piccioni, 
M. ( Sculpture of the Arch of Constantine and 
Trajan’s Column 5 Romae, n. d.; Reina, J. de¬ 
scription of the Arch of Peace in Milan (Milan, 
1839) ; Reinach, S. ( L’Arc de Titus 5 (1800) ; 
Reland, ( De Spoliis Temple Hierosolymitani in 
Arcu Titans^ 5 ; Rossini, L. ( Gli Archi Trionfali, 
Onorarii e Tunebri degli Antichi Romani Sparsi 
per Tutta Italia 5 (1836). 

Archaean (ar-ke'an) Period, a term applied 
to the most ancient division of the geological 
time-scale. The rocks referred to this period 
underlie the oldest sedimentary and fossiliferous 
strata and hence are often called the fundamen¬ 
tal complex. They are entirely of crystalline 
character, consisting of granite and basic erup- 
tives, gneisses, and schists, all of which bear 
evidence of having undergone great disturbance 
and metamorphism, so that it is impossible to 
work out any order of strategraphic succession 
that will apply to different regions. Their great 
uniformity of composition over wide areas, their 
marked characteristics which differentiate them 
from all other groups of rocks, and their basal 
position in the geological scale have led many 
geologists to believe that the Archaean rocks 
represent a portion of the original crust of the 
earth as it solidified from molten magma. 
While this view has not found universal ac¬ 
ceptance, it is quite certain that if the first 
solidification of the earth is still preserved any¬ 
where, it is present in this formation. The 
Archaean rocks are known to occur in all of the 
continents, although in some regions they have 
been brought to the surface only after long pe¬ 
riods of erosion during which immense thick¬ 
nesses of overlying strata were removed. In 
North America they cover much of the region 
between the Arctic Ocean and the Great Lakes, 
and are also found in the Adirondacks, along the 
Appalachians, and in the Rocky Mountains. 
They occur in many parts of Europe, especially 
in Scandinavia, France, Germany, and Austria, 
in eastern Asia, and in central Africa. See 
Geology. 


Archaeological (ar-ke-6-loj'i-kal) Institute 
of America, a society formed in 1879 f° r the 
purpose of promoting and directing archaeo¬ 
logical investigation and research. Under its 
direction several important excavations were 
conducted on the site of the ancient city of 
Assos. It publishes a bi-monthly ( Journal, 5 
which is its official organ. It has a membership 
of 1,050. President, Prof. John Williams White 
of Harvard. 

Archaeology, ar'ke-ol'o-ji ( (< antiquity- 
study 55 ), the history of antique human progress 
as inferred from relics of man’s industry or pres¬ 
ence, apart from written records. It is thus 
identical with history where there are no such 
records, and supplementary material for it when 
they exist. It is distinguished from anthropol¬ 
ogy as concerned chiefly with industrial and 
artistic rather than social and political progress. 
But its limit neither of date nor of subject can 
be sharply fixed. The antiquities of a country 
are relative to its present and its records; 400 
years in Mexico brings us to pure archaeology, 
2,000 in Greece and Rome is almost this side of 
it, all west-Asian history belongs to it. Even 
written records, if inscriptions on stone or brick, 
or papyri, are archaeological when pertaining to 
an extinct civilization; if classical, they are his¬ 
tory, epigraphy, or palaeography. Nor can we 
wholly dissociate the biological study of the 
bones found in a prehistoric camp, river drift, or 
cave (palaeontology), from that of the flints, 
worked bones, drawings, etc., found with them, 
as evidences of mechanical and intellectual 
progress (archaeology), and the social organism 
implied by the camps, food, ruddle, etc. (an¬ 
thropology). The genesis of the science re¬ 
stricted the name at first to remains of classical 
art and architecture, still often regarded as its 
most important section, through its illumination 
of classic literature; but general archaeology 
does not merely supplement a developed history, 
it reveals the very existence of empires, nations, 
races, cultures, stages of human progress, other¬ 
wise unsuspected, and carries our knowledge far 
into the geological past. 

The classical branch, whose material was 
relatively accessible and its bearing obvious, 
naturally originated first in the 18th century; 
general archaeology is the creation wholly of the 
19th century and has two independent origins. 
On one side it springs from the decipherment 
of the Egyptian hieroglyphs, unveiling a remote 
history implying a still more remote one, and 
making scholars realize for the first time how 
futile were the distorted scraps of classical tradi¬ 
tion. This was followed by excavations in 
Mesopotamia which uncovered the remains of 
the Assyrian culture, and by the decipherment 
of the cuneiform characters. Here it was first 
realized that archaeology is the one branch of 
history (for numismatics is a department of 
archaeology) that absolutely settles historical 
questions. A written statement may be a false¬ 
hood or mistake, but an inscription is conclusive 
as to its date and writer. On the other side, 
archaeology springs from the examination of 
relics of antique man in burial mounds, kitchen 
middens, lake dwellings, caverns, and river 
drifts, showing his co-existence with animals long 
extinct and in geologic ages long gone by. 
These two streams have gradually resulted if. 
a vast storehouse of verified knowledge, not onlj 


ARCHAEOLOGY 


unsuspected, but revolutionary of truths pre¬ 
viously supposed axiomatic. Briefly, archaeology 
has shown that civilization is not a sudden 
mushroom growth of a few dozen centuries, 
from a single centre and a highly developed 
group, but a gradual evolution through enor¬ 
mous ages, in all parts of the world, from 
savagery. In place of the convenient division 
into (( civilized, half-civilized, and barbarous, }) 
we have many stages of culture, based on the 
knowledge of natural forces, the utilizing of 
natural products by art, and the co-ordination of 
social groups, in combination almost as endless 
as the notes of an organ, the same tribe being 
almost civilized on one side and wholly savage 
on another. The classification of these grades 
is somewhat different in archpeology and an¬ 
thropology. The latter, in Lewis H. Morgan’s 
system (which needs much qualification) marks 
seven stages: the first prior to the use of fire; 
the second marked by the discovery of fire and 
of catching fish; the third by the bow and ar¬ 
row ; the fourth by pottery; the fifth by the 
domestication of animals, or the use of irriga¬ 
tion, polished stone or bronze tools, and the 
occurrence of adobe or stone architecture; the 
sixth by the use of iron; the seventh, or true 
civilization, by phonetic alphabets and written 
records. Archaeology, however, finds it con¬ 
venient to classify man wholly according to the 
material and construction of his implements, 
these having in fact accompanied and deter¬ 
mined with great accuracy a corresponding set 
of changes in industrial arts and even social 
development. Accordingly it divides human 
progress into the Eolithic (^Stone-Dawn^), the 
Palaeolithic or Old Stone, the Neolithic or New 
Stone, the Bronze, and the Iron Ages; a portion 
of these being still further subdivided. 

For vast epochs after the appearance of man 
upon the earth, no record of his presence exists 
or can exist except a palaeolontological one — 
his bones. He doubtless wrenched off tree- 
branches and threw or hammered with stones, 
like the higher simians, but we cannot prove a 
broken branch or scratches on a stone to be 
artificial, or due to man rather than to orang. 
When, however, a stone is rubbed, or evidently 
bruised from repeated use, still more when a 
number of these are found near together, we 
know that something more than casual use by an 
animal has produced the result; but it may mark 
only the utterly unrisen savage, who lives on 
nuts and fruits and sleeps under any casual tree 
or bank, and has not thought of improving on 
nature. The first identifiable stage of real cul¬ 
ture is: 

The Eolithic Age .— This probably began 
(probably elsewhere also) in Kent, England, 
where loose flints lay about or might be easily 
dug from the chalk. These were very roughly 
hammered into an edge that would bruise off a 
stick or into a grip for the hand; so roughly, 
indeed, that their having received deliberate art 
at all was. long bitterly contested. They are 
found in river deposits on the top of hills 600 
feet above the present stream-beds, which must 
therefore have been excavated since. Even in 
this remote antiquity man was no new organism 
on the earth, and this stage of culture, from the 
excessive slowness of progress in the early 
stages, must have lasted for a long period. 


The Palaeolithic Age succeeded; the forme* 
till recently was reckoned a part of it. It is now 
further divided into two chief periods, from 
the anthropological differences implied, those of 
the river gravels and of the cave-dwellers; and 
the latter again into three others, with well- 
marked stages of culture. More specifically: 

1. River gravels up to 200 feet above present 
beds (“Achuleen^). The remains are massive 
flints scarcely less rude than the former, but 
unmistakably worked. They still antedate any 
permanent dwelling or shelter. 

2. Cave-dwellers. Man has now a perma¬ 
nent though not artificial dwelling, and the germ 
of family life is born. (1) ^Mousterien”: 
Flint flakes split off (the first true artificial 
tool), and massive flints hammered into definite 
shapes, with others rude like the former. (2) 
^Solutrien® : Flints carefully worked and finely 
shaped. (3) ^Magdalenien® : Well-shaped flint 
tools, plentiful bone-working with them, and 
drawings on implements and the walls of caves. 

All these remains have been found along with 
fossils of the mammoth, cave-bear, cave-lion, 
sabre-toothed tiger, and other extinct forms, in 
ancient river deposits, deep under stalagmitic 
accumulations in caves, beneath American lava- 
beds, etc. The age assigned to these deposits 
by geologists is from 100,000 to 300,000 years. 
Another clue of the same significance is the cir¬ 
cumstance that in Egypt flints are found to¬ 
gether, of which the latest, Neolithic, were dug 
and worked fully 7,000 years ago, and are tinged 
only a faint brown, while others, Palaeolithic, 
have turned nearly black. The most conserva¬ 
tive estimate is 100,000 b.c. for the beginning of 
the Eolithic period; the Palaeolithic has not 
ended yet, but in the advanced regions it began 
to be displaced by the Neolithic perhaps 10.000 
b.c. Roughly speaking, the Old Stone periods 
cover a space ten times as long as all those since 
put together, the latter succeeding each other 
with relative swiftness, as progress accelerates 
by its own development. In some respects the 
19th century has shown more advance than all 
the previous half-million years of man’s exist¬ 
ence. The rate of progress has depended great¬ 
ly also on the natural advantages offered: the 
flint mines of the English chalk hills with the 
early savage perhaps corresponded to the coal- 
and iron-mines of the present, producing rapid 
advance in skill and also competition of tribes, 
the stronger expelling the weaker from the 
coveted districts. On the other hand, the lack of 
domesticable animals in America had much to 
do with its slight progress under barbarism. 

The Neolithic Age is the evident beginning 
of modern life, made possible by improved work¬ 
ing tools. The remains of this period are not 
buried under geologic deposits, but lie on or near 
the surface. They are no longer merely ham¬ 
mered or chipped, but rubbed or ground to 
shape, giving a sharper edge and a smoother 
surface. There is a gradual advance in the best 
specimens to weapons and tools almost equal 
to metal, such as lance-heads, arrow-heads, 
knives, daggers, awls, chisels, and axes of razor¬ 
like sharpness, and needle points, serviceable for 
and accompanied by highly-developed arts and 
manufactures, agriculture, and navigation, of 
remarkable magnitude and variety. As timber 
could now be easily cut, men built large wooden 
dwellings and rowing galleys. Early in the 


ARCHAEOLOGY 


period we find immense earthworks both for 
defense and for burial; later, in the cities, brick 
architecture and fine engineering. The lake 
dwellings of central Europe and England belong 
to this period, and, being built on piles over the 
water, combined security against wild beast and 
animals with easy fishing, a fashion that spread 
widely and no doubt rapidly: indeed, some of 
them with their Neolithic inhabitants lasted into 
historic times. From these discoveries it is 
evident that man not only hunted and fished, 
but raised grain, vines, fruit, and flax, breeding 
domestic animals to draw the plow, another im¬ 
mense gain to agriculture; spun and wove; made 
pottery; and not only ornamented that but his 
tools as well, shaping them for beauty as well 
as use, thus showing development of aesthetic 
taste. Still more important was the social de¬ 
velopment. The large camps indicate a settled 
.tribal society, the careful selection of material 
from considerable depths indicates combined 
labor in mining. 

Between this and the Bronze Age there ex¬ 
isted in some countries what is called by some 
archaeologists a Copper Age, where native cop¬ 
per was hardened with oxid or arsenic; but as 
it did not drive out flint tools, but only supple¬ 
mented them, it is hardly entitled to be called 
an epoch, and is not accompanied by any iden¬ 
tifiable advance in general progress consequent 
upon it, like the others. 

The Bronze Age, however, was an enormous 
step forward. It was earlier in Assyria than 
Egypt, probably from the Armenian copper: the 
former introduced it by 5000 b.c. ; the latter not 
fully till about 3000, and did not use it freely 
till 1600, only 500 years or so before iron dis¬ 
placed it. And in all countries stone imple¬ 
ments were still used in sacrifices to the gods, 
who did not like new inventions. The hardness 
of the alloy of copper and tin seems to have been 
realized before its toughness and the many ad¬ 
vantages given by ability to cast it; hence at 
first the stone tools and implements were simply 
copied in massive bronze, and were needlessly 
heavy and limited in pattern. But as its prop¬ 
erties became evident the tools were much light¬ 
ened, and made thin yet stiff with embossed 
patterns, and various kinds invented which could 
not have been made in stone, as the sickle, 
gouge, etc. The axe, or celt, was first made as 
a plain bronze wedge fastened by a thong, as 
with stone; then cast with a socket for the helve, 
an extraordinary gain in efficiency. There were 
light cups and kettles, knives and chisels, spear- 
and arrow-heads, swords and daggers, and 
bronze-bound shields, and a mass of personal 
fastenings and adornments. Some of these were 
impossible in stone, as buttons, buckles, and pins, 
necklets, bracelets, rings, and earrings. A price¬ 
less collection of these objects was found at Bo¬ 
logna, Italy, in the shape of the abandoned stock 
of an ancient bronze founder. The industrial ad¬ 
vantage of this newly found hardness, tough¬ 
ness, and variety developed industries and trade 
immensely; it also made possible for the first 
time true stone architecture, and engineering of 
hewn and dressed stone. No small branch of 
business in stoneless Egypt was the quarrying 
and transportation of stone for the public works 
from the southern rockier regions. 

The Iron Age is the present (though the 19th 
century developed what is really a distinct era, 
Vol. 1—42 


the Steel Age, making possible many advances 
beyond the mere iron), and the most of its 
course belongs to history. It originated from 
about 1200 to 1000 b.c., — that strange period, in 
seeming the blackest in the calendar of the 
ancient world, when the old civilization of Meso¬ 
potamia had collapsed under the Semitic in¬ 
vaders, Egypt had sunk into decay, and barba¬ 
rism seemed to have reasserted its reign over 
both the Eastern and Western world, yet in 
which lies the birth of perhaps the three greatest 
factors of human progress in historic times,— 
the use of iron, the alphabet, and the Hebrew 
nation. The first is thought to have sprung 
from Armenia; regarding the second, the Phoe¬ 
nician origin is still valid; the third is a myste¬ 
rious gift of Arabia. 

Babylonia and Assyria .— The civilization of 
the Mesopotamian plain is not only the oldest 
in the world so far as known, but the first (unless 
with the possible exception of Egypt) where 
men settled in great city communities under an 
orderly government with a developed religion, 
practising agriculture by irrigation, erecting 
adobe buildings, and using a syllabified writing. 
All modern Western civilization is its direct 
descendant through Greek and Roman periods, 
so that in studying it we are studying our own 
ultimate intellectual and even religious pedigree. 
Its astronomers gave us the division of the year 
into months, weeks, and days, the signs of the 
zodiac, the constellations, the division of the cir¬ 
cle into degrees; its art was the foundation on 
which Greek and Etruscan art was built; its 
religious names, forms, and traditions are a 
deep element in the Hebrew, as in its cos¬ 
mogony and mythology and such forms as the 
Psalms, and hence enter into Christian thought. 
Nor are we the only beneficiaries. For some 
6,000 years the cuneiform was the business and 
literary script of the whole civilized world, the 
one method of writing from the western Medi¬ 
terranean to India, and probably the origin even 
of the Chinese, as Mesopotamian civilization 
was the parent of Chinese civilization. 

The physical difficulties and dangers of ex¬ 
ploration in this district (once a garden and 
turned into a desert by Turkish misgovernment, 
a region without supplies or administrative or¬ 
der, and infested by hordes of dangerous 
Bedouin), as well as the difficulty of obtaining 
justice or possession of one’s goods from the 
Turkish authorities after finding them, have 
kept it far behind that of Egypt in thorough¬ 
ness ; but the results have been not less splendid 
in additions to our knowledge of the past. The 
earliest studies — those of J. B. Rich, Indian 
consul-general at Bagdad, in 1818-20, who col¬ 
lected sculptures and outlined Assyrian art; the 
excavations by the French consul Botta at 
Khorsabad in 1843, of Nimrud and Nineveh by 
Layard in 1845-51, and Hormuzd Rassam in 
1854 — were of relatively modern Assyrian sites. 
The first entrance on the ancient Babylonian 
civilization was made at Erech (1849-52) by 
Loftus; a further one by Sarzac in the impor¬ 
tant Tello excavations of 1876-81; but by far 
the most important was by the Americans, 
Peters and Haynes, with Hilprecht, at Nippur 
from 1889 down. This was probably the first 
city foundation in the world, dating from about 
7000 b.c., then a seaport and now 120 miles in¬ 
land ; and the great temple library has poured 


ARCHAEOLOGY 


floods of light on the political and social condi¬ 
tion of this mother-land of modern culture. 
Next to this, our greatest source of information 
— for Babylonian history almost the whole — 
has been the library of Nabonidus, the last king, 
at Babylon. The whole fabric of Assyrian 
chronology rests on his statement that Naram- 
Sin, the son of Sargon, lived 3,200 years before 
his time; a suspicious number, the dubiousness 
of which leaves half that chronology a thou¬ 
sand years or so doubtful. But the subject was 
practically sealed till the decipherment of the 
inscriptions gave the key; and this was im¬ 
mensely complicated by the fact that the cune¬ 
iform character, like the modern alphabet, did 
not imply any given language, but was used 
for all the tongues of the then civilization. The 
first step was taken in 1800 by Grotefend, who 
identified Persian names and then applied the 
characters to other names, till he made out sev¬ 
eral Persian inscriptions, and Bournouf (1836) 
and Lassen (1836-44) worked out the rest of 
the Persian alphabet. But this was only a 
small part of the enormous Assyrian syllabary 
of 600 signs. The task was finally accomplished 
by Sir Henry Rawlinson by means of the great 
trilingual Behistun (q.v.) inscription, in Assy¬ 
rian, Median or Vannic, and Persian: his know¬ 
ledge of old Persian gained from Zend and 
Sanskrit enabled him to identify the Persian 
words in Assyrian character, and thus, resolve 
the vast Assyrian syllabary. This has given the 
clue in turn to the other languages written in 
the cuneiform: the old Sumerian, Median, etc. 

The general results are as follows: The 
earliest inscriptions show us a mixed people 
speaking two languages: one certainly Semitic, 
the other either an archaic Semitic or Aryan 
(the Ural-Altaic affinity is now discredited). 
The non-Semitic element, known as Sumerian 
(^river-men® ?) is believed to be Aryan, related 
to the Caucasian tribes, and to be the original 
settlers of the valley. Into this valley came, 
somewhere between 10000 and 8000 b.c., a Semitic 
invasion (Accadians, = <( highlanders M ?) from 
the upper Euphrates-Tigris valleys, and by 5000 
b.c. had developed, through the mixture of two 
powerful stocks, the wonderful civilization we 
know. The beginnings were in the Neolithic 
Age, but by 7000 b.c. the people were already 
organized into nations, and built fortified towns, 
the centre and heart of each being the temple of 
the local god, raised on immense piles of brick¬ 
work. They had finely colored and ornamented 
pottery, made with the potter’s wheel. The 
principle of the arch was known as early as 
5000 b.c. ; the architecture was careful and re¬ 
lated to the nature of material; drainage sys¬ 
tems were constructed to prevent soaking into 
the adobe. Several important centres existed 
by about 7000 b.c., including Nippur, Ur, Eridu, 
and probably Erech. When we first find in¬ 
scriptions, perhaps about 4000 b.c., there had 
already been evolved from the old picture-writ¬ 
ing a system of conventionalized line-symbols, 
some pure pictographs, some ideographs, some 
syllables; and while at first the writing was 
entirely votive or commemorative, and stone 
used as the material with straight lines, it was 
soon applied to business and record, the ever¬ 
present clay utilized, and the lines assumed the 
familiar wedge or cuneiform shape. Sculpture 


and the engraving of gems and gold were al* 
ready at a high level shortly after 4000. 

The history will be found under Assyria and 
Babylonia. The great landmarks are the reign 
of Sargon, the Charlemagne of the ancient 
world, who founded a huge west-Asiatic <( em- 
pire» from north Arabia to Armenia and west 
to the Mediterranean; the second great Semitic 
invasion from Arabia about 2500 b.c., overrun¬ 
ning south Babylonia, and the Elamite invasion 
from the Karun valley in Persia about 2300 b.c., 
subjugating the remainder; the expulsion of the 
Elamites about 2250 by Hammurabi ( (< Am- 
raphel®), and the founding of Babylon, which 
became for 17 centuries the Rome of the Asiatic 
world, the political and religious centre at once; 
the first emergence of Assyria, on the Accadian 
highlands, about 1800; the Kassite invasion from 
the Persian highlands 1782 b.c., founding 

a dynasty which ruled Babylonia till 1207 ; their 
expulsion; the great double invasion of Semites 
from the south and Aryans from the north, 
which broke up the Hittite empire and over¬ 
whelmed Babylonia and Assyria in a common 
wreck; the collapse of the Old World civiliza¬ 
tion ; the re-emergence of Assyria and its 
domination over Babylonia, from about 900; its 
eclipse by the growth of Armenia in the 8th 
century; its new and enormous power under 
Tiglath-Pileser II., who annexes Babylonia; the 
destruction of Babylon by Sennacherib, 689 b.c., 
and its rebuilding by his son Esarhaddon; the 
rebirth of Babylonia under Nabopolassar the 
Chaldsean, who extinguished Assyria, 610 or 609 
b.c., and, after a short, brilliant career, the end 
of the Babylonian-Assyrian power forever 
through its conquest by Cyrus. The relation of 
the Assyrian power to the Babylonian was much 
like that of Rome to Greece; though on a lower 
scale, for the Assyrians, though great war¬ 
riors, had none of the organizing and assimilat¬ 
ing power of Rome. Assyria copied laboriously, 
and on the whole clumsily, the literature and art 
of its intellectual masters, and produced no lit¬ 
erature proper of its own. But its libraries, 
copied from the Babylonian tablets with minute 
textual and critical accuracy, give it an im¬ 
perishable claim to our gratitude. 

Egypt .— The archaeological history of pre¬ 
historic civilizations was studied in Egypt ear¬ 
lier, and has been studied there more fully, than 
elsewhere, from the accessibility of relics and 
safety of work, the involution of Egyptian poli¬ 
tics and history with records in a classic lan¬ 
guage through the existence of an Egyptian 
state under classic rulers, and the survival of a 
descendant of the Egyptian language to our 
own day. It was the latter which furnished the 
key to the decipherment of the hieroglyphic 
records. The Rosetta Stone (q.v.), discovered 
by the French in 1799, bearing a proclamation 
in hieroglyphic, demotic, and Greek, invited a 
textual comparison. An Englishman, Young, 
devised a correct principle, but had neither 
knowledge nor interest to apply it in full; Sir 
William Gell utilized his knowledge of Coptic, 
and identified three fourths of the signs; Cham- 
pollion, the Frenchman, was a thorough Coptic 
student, and in 1821-32 worked out the entire 
system for use. This first made it possible to 
rescue Egyptian history in preclassic times from 
the fog of distorted Greek legends, scraps of 
priestly record, and misapplied Biblical compari- 


ARCHAEOLOGY 


sons, while the excavations at Thebes in 1820-30 
opened up the Ramesside and neighboring pe¬ 
riods 1500-1000 b.c. Later, Lepsius and Mari- 
ette were foremost in revealing the period of 
the Pyramid-Builders, carrying us back to far 
past 3000 b.c. ; and still later Dr. Flinders Petrie 
has not only turned the First Dynasty and oth¬ 
ers still farther back, from myth into solid 
history, but has recreated the prehistoric world 
prior to the organization of the monarchy, about 
4800 b.c., with a surety as great as that of writ¬ 
ten record. In the historic periods, the total 
lack of any chronological sense in the Egyptians, 
who in this respect were very different from the 
Assyrians, and the catastrophe of the Hyksos 
invasion, make its history in large portions less 
clear than the Babylonian; but we know its gen¬ 
eral outline at worst, and the synchronism and 
variations of arts and industries often supply the 
lack of dated chronology. 

The oldest inhabitants of upper Egypt known 
were of the same race as the Algerian Kabyles 
of to-day,— a white-skinned, blond, blue-eyed, 
narrow-headed race, with a negro strain, allied 
to the south European races. They had ac¬ 
quired by 5000 b.c. the highest grade of Neolithic 
civilization ever reached in the world, so far as 
evidenced by tools and implements,— the finish 
of the flint-knives and lances being incompara¬ 
ble,— and were using copper ones also. They 
built brick towns, and carried on an active Medi¬ 
terranean commerce in large rowed galleys; they 
made leather and woven linen clothes, beautiful 
and varied pottery without the wheel, perfect 
vases of the hardest stone without the lathe, 
applied colored glazes even to great rock carv¬ 
ings, manufactured ornaments of precious 
stones, metals, and ivory, ivory spoons and 
combs, games, etc. Their art, however, was 
very crude, and they had no system of writing 
whatever, though using marks. About 5000 b.c. 
a much more developed race invaded Egypt,— 
probably from Arabia, whence the Hyksos and 
the Hebrews and the other Semites came: a 
race which used metals more freely, had a sys¬ 
tem of writing, a better government organiza¬ 
tion, and higher artistic taste. Here, as in As¬ 
syria, the blending of two able but diverse 
strains made the great Egyptian type and civil¬ 
ization of the Old Kingdom, which we know 
from their monuments and achievements. They 
were a grand people in every way: active war¬ 
riors and administrators, firm in policy, fine 
mechanicians, adepts in organizing combined 
labor; strong artists, with lofty conceptions; 
withal a sensitive, kindly, sympathetic folk, 
with the least strain of ferocious savagery of 
any great people in history. This long era has 
left us the Pyramids and magnificent monumen¬ 
tal tombs, masses of grand and accurate archi¬ 
tecture, and noble sculpture. This great age 
could not last forever, and for some centuries 
after about 2500 b.c. it was in decline, to revive 
only less brilliantly in the Twelfth Dynasty 
about 2000 b.c., considered by Egyptian writers 
their Golden Age of art and literature. The 
tremendous catastrophe of the Hyksos invasion, 
already mentioned, took place probably about 
1780 b.c., and the (( Shepherd Kings^ remained 
till about 1600. Their final expulsion opened a 
new and brilliant era, of expansion into and 
' domination over west Asia, of the closest rela¬ 
tions with the Mediterranean countries, of a 


general spread of luxury through the people 
Egypt for the first time threw off its exclusion 
and became part of the current of the world's 
progress. In this period (about 1600-1200) we 
find, near the beginning, the great Thothmes 
III., whose exploits were exaggerated into the 
Sesostris of Greek tradition; near the end the 
rather braggart King Rameses II., commonly 
identified with Joseph’s Pharaoh, and his son 
Merneptah, often accredited as the Pharaoh of 
the Exodus. But the empire had the doom of 
all states which live on the tribute of foreign 
districts: the outside revenue stopped, the habits 
of luxury remained, and the nation declined. 
In the thousand years to follow before it was 
absorbed in Rome, it had much prosperity and 
some periods of brief glory, but the vital spirit 
had gone. 

Syria .— While the work of the Palestine 
Exploration Fund, from 1866 onward, has thor¬ 
oughly mapped out the surface of the country, 
relatively little has been done in excavation here 
or in Turkey; for political reasons (as before 
noted) mainly, as the interest in Biblical sites 
and classical remains is the keenest of all. The 
chief part thus far has been at Jerusalem and 
the Philistine cities, and in the north at Zin- 
jirli; but few inscriptions have been found even 
where the excavation has been done, and no 
very ancient ones. The most important his¬ 
torically is that of Mesha, king of Moab ( ? 896 
b.c. ). It would seem that by the time the Jew¬ 
ish nation was advanced enough to make in¬ 
scriptions, its intellectual activity was drawn off 
in other directions, and the hope of finding 
masses of archaeological confirmation of or sup¬ 
plement to Biblical records has been disappoint¬ 
ed. The chief historical result of Syrian re¬ 
search has been to restore the Hittite empire 
(q.v.) to history: formerly regarded as a Ca- 
naanitish tribe, it is now known to have been a 
powerful people from Cappadocia, which formed 
for a couple of centuries a strong state ruling 
north Syria and much of Asia Minor, with its 
centre at Carchemish, till broken up by the great 
southward Aryan movement of which the Do¬ 
rian invasion was a part. Its writing is almost 
undeciphered. Curiously enough, the most im¬ 
portant documents for ancient Syrian history 
have been found not in Syria, but in Egypt,—- 
the Tel-el-Amarna tablets, containing a 15th cen¬ 
tury correspondence with Egypt in cuneiform. 

Classical Archccology .— Till the very recent 
excavations at Troy, Mycence, etc., resulting 
from enthusiasm for the Homeric poems, archae¬ 
ological research in the classic lands was mostly 
confined to illustrating historical periods, and 
to a study of Greek and Roman art and archi¬ 
tecture ; even now the light on prehistoric times 
is not from written records and inscriptions as 
in the East, but inferential from material objects. 
It has, however, in confirmation of Egyptian 
and other records, and by comparison of objects 
with those of known date in that country and 
Babylonia, given unmistakable proof of a hither¬ 
to unsuspected stratum of old Greek history. 
From foreign pottery found in Egypt, 5000-3000 
b.c., Greece and Italy probably had a Neolithic 
pottery-making population at those times. But 
the first positive beginning of civilized settlement 
is in the lowest Troy, dating certainly before 
2000 b.c., and perhaps 3000: almost no metal is 
found there. Still before 2000 is another Troy, 


ARCHAEOLOGY 


with fine vases and golden ornaments. This 
was contemporary with the supremacy of Crete, 
then the mistress of the seas, as the Etruscans 
and Phoenicians were later; and there was a 
direct connection between Crete and Troy. The 
legends of the great law-making Cretan kings 
and their suzerainty over Greece and exactions 
of tribute from it are doubtless based on fact; 
even the Labyrinth has been uncovered, and 
a nucleus of fact in much of the old Greek leg¬ 
endary lore made probable. Three times after 
this was Troy abandoned and rebuilt before the 
contemporary of the Mycenaean kingdom of 
about 1500 b.c. is reached. At this time the 
coasts of Greece and the AEgean islands were 
the seat of a high culture radiating in all direc¬ 
tions, and even influencing the East, so that this 
has been styled the <( AEgean Period® of civiliza¬ 
tion. There was a powerful and wealthy king¬ 
dom with its centre at Mycenae, where we find 
magnificent domed tombs, fine jewelry and metal 
work, exquisite pottery and ornaments, etc.; as 
also at other great towns marked by hill for¬ 
tresses, Athens, Tiryns, and other places. This 
rich and prosperous land traded with all the 
Mediterranean countries, but chiefly with Egypt, 
in whose ruins are found hosts of Greek objects 
of this period. By 1100 b.c. this civilization had 
begun to droop, and about 1000 the inva¬ 
sion of the barbarous Dorians from the north 
temporarily overwhelmed it on the mainland. 
But it was only for a time: even where the 
Dorians had conquered, the union of old and 
new flowered into richer bloom, and Athens, 
the chief city which they had not conquered, 
became the head and heart of a far more splen¬ 
did revival of every art and literature, the fore¬ 
most in the world to the present time. By the 
7th century the immortals had begun to spring 
up: Archilochus and Sappho were islanders, and 
the great time of Athens had not yet come, but 
the thronging masters show that society had 
become fairly settled once more. _ 

The development of civilization was very 
much later in Italy than in Greece, and more 
slowly affected by outside civilizations excent 
on the southern coast. The Neolithic Age, with 
black pottery rnd lake dwellings, lasted down to 
nearly or quite 1000 b.c., the full development 
'ff the Bronze Age not taking place till about 
800. The Etruscan invasion, which tradition 
brings from Asia Minor, cannot be dated, but 
was probably later than 1000 b.c. The art and 
religion of the Etruscans were entirely foreign, 
indicating rather a Northern than an Eastern 
origin; but they were not an original people, 
and borrowed elements of civilization and art 
from every nation they came in contact with,— 
Italians, Greeks, Egyptians, and Assyrians. In 
this assimilativeness they remind one of the 
Northmen, and the tradition of their origin may 
be wholly wrong. The one great specialty of 
the Etruscans was engineering. Their history 
and affiliations remain a mystery chiefly because 
their language is such. Known since historic 
times, and in the last century thousands of in¬ 
scriptions in it copied, and even many words 
translated for us, the language remains an ab¬ 
solute secret to the laborious and penetrating 
scholarship directed on it. 

Archaeology, American. America’s place 
in the world’s history has been an abundant 
source of discussion among geologists and 


archaeologists, and there exists still a wide range 
of opinion, particularly concerning the antiquity 
of man on this continent. There is uniformity 
of opinion as to the occurrence in definite super¬ 
ficial strata of traces of man’s handiwork, but 
the geological history of these strata has been 
variously considered. It is now generally con¬ 
cluded, however, that they are a product of the 
concluding activities of the Glacial Epoch, ma¬ 
terial laid down by floods caused by the melting 
of the glaciers that filled the valleys, and not 
improbably accompanied by rainfall far in ex¬ 
cess of any in post-glacial times. 

As yet the evidences of man’s antiquity may 
be summed up in the discoveries made in the 
valley of the Delaware River (1872-1902) on 
the Atlantic slope, and the shell-heap discov¬ 
eries (Dali) on the Pacific slope. In the in¬ 
terior of the continent there have been many 
reported discoveries of evidences of equal an¬ 
tiquity, but so generally were they open to possi¬ 
ble errors of observation, due to lack of skill 
required in such investigations, that their accept¬ 
ance has not been general. This is true even of 
the much-discussed Calaveras skull and Nampa 
image. This, however, is not true of the human 
cranium knowm as the <( Lansing skull,® from 
Kansas, and the age of the deposit in which it 
was found only is in dispute. Much more satis¬ 
factory is the result before mentioned obtained 
by Dali in his investigation of the Pacific 
coast shell-heaps. Here we have evidence of a 
gradual change of habit, of a succession of oc¬ 
cupations of the region that enables us to deal 
with (< time relative® if not <( time absolute,® and 
to feel assured that man’s first appearance on 
the western coast of North America was in the 
extremely long distant past as measured by 
years. As shown that traces of man occur in 
deposits on the Atlantic coast, notably in the 
valley of the Delaware River, the dual question 
arises just when and whence came man to the 
American continent? It is inherently improba¬ 
ble that he did so while glacial conditions ob¬ 
tained in the northern half of the country, for 
in that case he would have confined himself to 
those unglaciated regions in the south, where 
the struggle for existence was reduced to its 
minimum. It is far more probable that his ar¬ 
rival on the continent was pre-glacial and that 
when driven southward by the steady encroach¬ 
ment of the ice-sheet he lingered at its south¬ 
ward limit of extension and lived in a manner 
not essentially dissimilar to that of the present 
boreal races, but more favorable in that the 
fauna was richer than that of the circumpolar 
regions of to-day. This is not to say that the 
glacial man of the Delaware valley and the Es¬ 
kimo of to-day were racially the same, but 
merely that similar physical conditions would 
produce essentially the same modes of living. 

It can scarcely be questioned that man origi¬ 
nally was a tropical animal, and the existence of 
boreal races indicates that primitive man was 
slowly differentiated and, spreading over the 
earth, so far changed in habit as the environ¬ 
ment required. Pre-glacial man — at least in 
North America — is yet to be demonstrated by 
unquestionable discoveries of his remains, but 
theoretically nothing can be more reasonable 
than the claim of his one-time existence. 

From what other continent man came to 
America is still an unsettled question. The 


ARCHAEOLOGY 


necessity for an ultra-American origin is in¬ 
sisted upon, perhaps illogically, but, accepting the 
necessity, a migration route is fancied from the 
direction of Japan or directly across Bering’s 
Strait from Siberia, and that North America 
was peopled by an incursion of wandering hu¬ 
manity into the northwest portion of the con¬ 
tinent, and thence followed down the Pacific 
coast and finally spread eastwardly until the 
Atlantic checked the movement. That the Jap¬ 
anese archipelago was the <( home® of the first 
American is possible, so far as our present 
knowledge warrants our forming any opinion 
on this point; but, accepting this or another 
Asiatic origin of this country’s (( first® people, it 
is clearly evident, from the traces of them that 
have been recovered, that the trans-Pacific mi¬ 
gration occurred in what we know as pre¬ 
glacial time, and so, so far in the past that race- 
differentiation had not progressed to an extent 
at all comparable to what has since occurred. 
The pioneer invaders of the American continent 
were doubtless much the same as folk wherever 
found at that time; in other words, still very 
near to that primitive condition in which man 
remained so long after losing all visible traces 
of its pithecoid ancestry. If such was his con¬ 
dition, man might well have wandered over a 
wide territory, tracing each river’s valley, up or 
down, as the case might be, and, depending upon 
his physical strength and the simplest of weap¬ 
ons, it is little wonder that no recognizable traces 
of him should be found. His inventive ingenuity 
was subsequently developed, and it is in tracing 
this from its humblest manifestations to the de¬ 
gree of skill in tool-making ultimately acquired, 
that the archaeologist is able to demonstrate that 
man in the lowest state of savagery originally 
peopled this continent, and that there has been 
here a growth or development of human facul¬ 
ties which may be considered strictly indigenous. 
This advance toward what we call ^civilization® 
reached its highest point in Mexico, in Central 
America, and in Peru. That it was influenced 
in Mexico and Central America, if not else¬ 
where, by an occasional influx of Asiatic people 
who had outreached their distant cousins, is per¬ 
sistently claimed; and certainly, if at a far more 
remote period an Asiatic savage had reached 
this country, it is not improbable that such an 
occurrence should happen in later time, when 
savagery had given way to a higher cult and 
travel by land and water was a less formidable 
undertaking. Such influence may have been im¬ 
pressed at times upon the growing American 
civilization, but never to such a degree as radi¬ 
cally to change its character. The American 
race was too firmly fixed to be wholly altered, 
and whatsoever reached it from the East in re¬ 
cent times — geologically _ speaking — made • but 
an inconsiderable impression. 

Dating, then, the appearance of man on this 
continent at the close of the Glacial Epoch 
(q.v.), and inferring only that his career really 
commenced in pre-glacial time, we find him a 
rude chipper of flint-like stone, fashioning im¬ 
plements so nearly identical with the palaeolithic 
forms of other continents that it is logical to 
assume that his general mode of living and men¬ 
tal attainments were the same as those of the 
river-drift man of Europe. This, when the ac¬ 
tivities of glacial conditions were at their height; 
but as these waned, slowly a change took place. 


Faunal changes certainly occurred, and these 
may have been the direct cause of the alterations 
in implement forms; for it is at this time that 
the more specialized and smaller objects, in¬ 
tended for smaller game, appear; among them 
the arrow-head. These are found in the alter¬ 
nated layers of sand and clay that overlie the 
coarse gravels due to the torrential flood-s that 
marked the beginning of the close of the great 
Ice Age. These stone implements are almost 
wholly made of argillite — laminated slates that 
have been fused by volcanic heat — and are the 
traces of an intermediate period between palse- 
olithic man proper and the historic Indian. 

This intermediate period was one of immensely 
long duration; one during which the surface was 
but sparsely clad with vegetation, and tree- 
growth limited to coniferous forests that had 
grown for ages beyond the reach of the en¬ 
croaching glaciers. It was during this time that 
the bow came into use, and there was a faint 
foreshadowing of the manifold activities of 
later date, but as yet no pottery. It was now 
that the surface soil began accumulating, here 
and there in favorable spots, and finally until 
the old half-barren sands were covered. With 
this change vegetation increased until the flora 
was what we now find it. Deciduous trees grew 
where the soil was moist, and at last the country 
was concealed by forests. It was not until then 
that the Indian occupation of the country really 
commenced. As we know him, he is strictly a 
creature of the soil and not related to any of 
the older, underlying sands. He is a man of 
history, and of that misty borderland of history 
and geology known as prehistoric time. That 
there was an interim, when the <( argillite® man 
was absent and the flint-chipping, pottery-mak¬ 
ing Indian finally appeared, has not been dem¬ 
onstrated, but is probable. It has been sug¬ 
gested by Hrdlicka that if the argillite man 
was in possession of the land when the later 
Indian arrived, there would be found a modi¬ 
fication in skull type resulting from the ab¬ 
sorption of one race by another. As yet such 
crania have not been discovered. This is nega¬ 
tive evidence, and it is offset by the fact that 
skulls have been discovered in undisturbed gla¬ 
cial strata that are of wholly different type from 
that of the Indian. How far we can be guided 
by craniology alone has yet to be determined, 
but taking in this case all conditions under 
consideration, in the Delaware valley, where 
exhaustive researches have been made (Volk), 
there is evidence that can scarcely be disputed 
that man was here to witness the closing acts 
of the ice-drama — if not its entire progress — 
and continued to live in this river valley during 
the subsequent centuries that bring us to the 
confines of historic time. What relation he bore 
to the Indian who succeeded him has yet to be 
determined. The appearances to-day of the soil 
and underlying sands, each with its imperish¬ 
able traces of man, suggest continuous occupa¬ 
tion of the region, but do not prove it. How¬ 
ever this may be, it does not affect the sequence 
here given of man’s career on the Atlantic slope 
of North America: 

A. Paleolithic Man. 

B. Post-paleolithic Man. 

C. Historic Indian. 

The so-called Indian of this continent has 
been so closely studied, and his handiwork, 
whether of stone, bone, metal, or clay, scruti- 


ARCHAEOLOGY 


nized so exhaustively by ethnologists that every¬ 
thing relating t<p him is familiar to all. But 
our knowledge is not as definite and free from 
contradiction as might be wished. Theories be¬ 
yond count have been elaborately set forth, each 
claiming to fix finally the career of these people. 
The literature of the subject is enormous and 
stands quite as much a monument to our ignor¬ 
ance as to our erudition. That the Indian is a 
descendant of the man who reached the con¬ 
tinent in pre-glacial time or during an imme¬ 
diately succeeding period is in all probability 
true. That the variations in his degree of cul¬ 
ture and all that he has succeeded in accom¬ 
plishing is due to his environment on this con¬ 
tinent ; is an unfolding of his faculties unin¬ 
fluenced except by Nature,— may be accepted 
as in all probability true of him; even such ad¬ 
vanced outreaching toward our own concep¬ 
tion of civilization as was found in Mexico, 
Central America, and in Peru does not call for 
the incoming of a superior people. The Indian 
of North America, in possession when the coun¬ 
try was invaded by the European, has been de¬ 
nied any significant antiquity, and not a trace 
of his labors, whether earthwork, shell-heap, or 
deeply-buried implement has been admitted to 
possess an age at all suggestive. All the 
^mounds® have been declared to be of Cherokee 
origin, and not one dating so far back that the 
years may not be easily counted. Here the pen¬ 
dulum swung too far toward the craze for mod¬ 
ernity. As well confuse the Aztec and the Eski¬ 
mo. There are mounds and mounds,— mounds 
proper, the history of which had faded from the 
traditions of the Indians; and earthworks that 
were not beyond the capabilities of the various 
tribal groups or tribes known to the Jesuit 
fathers who saw the people to such excellent 
advantage. 

It is to the careful examination of our sea- 
coast shell-heaps that we must look for those 
evidences of prolonged occupation of the coun¬ 
try which admit practically of no dispute. 
These accumulations of clam and oyster shells 
in many localities show that they were begun 
when the shore level was not what it now is; 
the base of the heaps being now several feet 
below the water’s surface at low tide. These 
shell-heaps are to be judged by the traces of 
handiwork found in them and likewise by a 
careful study of the shells themselves. The im¬ 
plements and pottery have been found in some 
instances to be of the rudest description, while 
in others the traces are of workmanship that 
was reached only in the palmiest days of Indian 
time. This might prove a snare to the archaeol¬ 
ogist if all considerations were not kept in view, 
for not a one-time village site in the land but 
shows a curious commingling of crude and elab¬ 
orate implements, weapons, and ornaments; but 
it has been found — on the North Atlantic coast, 
at least — that the shell-heaps that are appar¬ 
ently the older are really such from the fact 
that argillite implements, and no pottery, are 
found in them. This significance of argillite 
unassociated with objects of other material has 
already been pointed out. But more full of 
meaning than all else is the fact that the same 
species of mollusk has gradually undergone a 
change during the time that elapsed between the 
laying down of the base of the shell-heap and 
the day of its final abandonment. Evolution 


is as slow as it is sure, and the change mentioned 
is alone sufficient to indicate beyond cavil the 
antiquity of the sea-coast dweller, who must 
be considered strictly post-glacial, but impress¬ 
ively prehistoric. An overlooked feature of the 
subject is that of the marked difference in the 
traces of man found in different village sites 
scattered over a limited area, as of io or 20 
square miles. It has not infrequently happened 
that traces of human occupation have been 
brought to light wherein nothing but the rudest 
forms of implements and coarsest grade of pot¬ 
tery occur. Such have been found, too, remote 
from present watercourses, deeply buried, and 
the spot still retaining evidences of being heav¬ 
ily forested after the site was abandoned by 
man. No one can unearth such evidences of 
one-time human presence without being im¬ 
pressed with their antiquity as counted by years; 
but of far greater significance is the occurrence 
of such a village site finally abandoned, over¬ 
grown, and buried by drifting sands, and then, 
when not a vestige of it remained visible, the 
spot being reoccupied by an Indian of greater 
skill in handicraft. Exposing the relics of the 
two occupations and placing them side by side, 
the difference is eloquent of the lapse of time 
beyond the skill of pen to picture. 

That a family likeness should be traceable 
among the native races of the Americas is not 
remarkable and as yet there has been no suffi¬ 
ciency of evidence to lead us to the conclusion 
that the so-called ^Indians® are referable to 
diverse origins. The cranial differences are of 
degree only, and when a number of skulls are 
brought together, the extremes are united by a 
series of gradations that stamp them all as one 
in anatomical essentials. Yet, viewing the vast 
territory as a whole, we find wide differences 
among these people, differences which may be 
explained, however, by the wholly dissimilar 
environment; this not including the strictly 
boreal people, though their variations from the 
typical Indian are not, perhaps, so great as has 
been asserted. The marked feature of the handi¬ 
work of Arctic man is skill in carving ivory and 
very strikingly etching it in such a manner that 
frequently the fauna of the region and mode of 
life of the inhabitants are most cleverly depicted. 
But considering that bone and ivory take the 
place of stone so largely, and that there is so 
much enforced idleness during the long Arctic 
winter, this artistic taste has been most naturally 
developed. There must of necessity be some 
occupation, and the artistic instinct is common 
to all mankind. Whether or not it flourishes — 
is a vigorous or a stunted growth — is, again, 
a matter of environment only. The compara¬ 
tively few stone implements found in the far 
North are not noticeably well-fashioned, and 
the majority of their patterns are to be dupli¬ 
cated in the one-time Indian village sites of the 
temperate regions. 

The purported Indian etchings on slate are 
not as artistic in any instance as those on ivory 
made within or near the Arctic circle, and it is 
possible that all or nearly all of them should be 
ruled out of court. They usually tell too much, 
when they pass from series of <( tally marks® or 
merely ornamental zigzag lines, which may or 
may not have had a significance beyond the fab¬ 
ricator’s idea of decoration. The tablets from 
Iowan mounds and the remarkable Lenape 


ARCHAEOLOGY 


stone (q.v.) from eastern Pennsylvania stand 
out so prominently among the Indian relics of 
their respective neighborhoods, and especially 
the latter, that an unqualified acceptance cannot 
be accorded them. If they were the culmina¬ 
tion of artistic effort on the part of the Indians 
of the central west and Atlantic seaboard respec¬ 
tively, the question arises where are the pictured 
tablets of lesser degree of merit. There is too 
great a difference between the notches, straight 
or zigzag lines and the thrilling scene of battling 
with a mastodon that finally is stricken by 
lightning. If all this ever occurred we have not 
evidence that any Indian of that day had the 
skill to tell the story in this manner. The same 
is true of the Iowan tablets. That the Indian 
had not knowledge of the mastodon we do not 
claim, for there is every reason to believe that 
it became extinct in comparatively recent times; 
probably not more than 25 centuries ago. The 
conditions under which its bones have been 
found and the instances of association of human 
and elephantine bones show that before this 
country’s (< autochthonic hunter, Behemoth melt¬ 
ed away.® 

What the Indian was at the time of the Co¬ 
lumbian discovery has a distinct bearing on the 
archaeology of the country he occupied, inas¬ 
much as an agriculturist he was in possession 
of maize and grew it extensively. This plant 
had become during that time a product of arti¬ 
ficiality or cultivated growth, so modified that 
but for man’s care it would be lost. Whatever 
the plant from which it originated there is no 
resemblance to it now. To effect such a change 
calls for an immense lapse of time. Other prod¬ 
ucts of agricultural skill were as carefully 
grown and the impression that the results of the 
chase were the main food supply is not a correct 
one. The researches of Carr on this subject 
show how methodical these people were as 
tillers of the soil and that great suffering fol¬ 
lowed when their crops failed. The Indians did 
not come to America as agriculturists; of that 
we can be very sure, and to pass from the hunter- 
stage of life to that of cultivator of the ground 
is not conceivable as a sudden transition; but 
is intelligible as a slow evolutionary process. 
This development, in no mean stage as finally 
reached, shows the upward tendency of the In¬ 
dians in given areas over what is now the United 
States, and how much beyond the status gained 
they would have progressed had not European 
invasion checked their career is conjectural. 
Herbert Spencer believes they had reached 
the full limit of their capabilities, but among 
such a people as these Indians in the 15th cen¬ 
tury it is conceivable that superior intellects 
might appear occasionally and such men would 
have their following. If such men are philoso¬ 
phers and not fanatics, a distinct gain is the re¬ 
sult. When it is considered that people with 
merely a novel view and usually an absurd one 
become prominent for a day and have a host 
of applauders, it is not unreasonable to suppose 
that among the Algonkins or Iroquois there 
might have risen those who saw the folly of 
war and set forth convincingly the manifold 
blessings of peace; who realized the advantages 
of agriculture over the difficulties attending 
hunting and so brought into existence a train of 
thought that would influence the people who 
gave them a hearing. Attracted first by the 


novelty of the suggestion, they would later see 
the logic of the argument, if such existed, and a 
distinct gain be made. That their growth toward 
our civilization would ever have been equal to 
our own is quite improbable, as these people 
have been as long upon the earth as any other 
race and America offers opportunities for in¬ 
tellectual growth equal to Asia or Europe. 
What does appear is that the upward growth 
was in existence when the blight of European 
contact fell upon them. Certainly the savage of 
ten thousand years ago was far lower in skill, 
in handicraft, and culture generally than the 
men who witnessed the landing of the Norse¬ 
men. Then, or about that time, a fatal scourge 
seems to have raged along the Atlantic seaboard 
and the natives suffered a serious check, the re¬ 
sult of which appears to have lowered their 
status, as smallpox and syphilis, introduced by 
Europeans later, largely decimated their num¬ 
bers. The Indians for a time were driven to 
the dire necessity of daily struggle for bare ex¬ 
istence, and many of the better things of which 
they were capable fell into disuse. So, at least, 
it seems most rational to explain the fact that 
these people, when European contact became 
permanent, were not what they had been. They 
had not been able wholly to recover from one 
disaster before another overtook them; the last, 
Spanish, French, and English invasion, proving 
as destructive as fire upon the dry prairie. 

The accounts of what the Jesuit fathers saw 
and the records of Kalm, Loskiel, Haeckwelder, 
and many others, make no mention of many 
forms of implements, ceremonial objects, and 
talismans, that are now familiar objects in all 
considerable collections of Indian antiquities; 
but the simpler forms, as the grooved axe, the 
polished celt, the arrow-head, flake-knife, and 
pottery are not only referred to definitely, but 
the method of manufacture given in considerable 
detail. Their hunting and agriculture are made 
plain, and we know with what tools they sought 
their game and tilled the soil, and more prom¬ 
inent than all else, the culture of tobacco, and 
the pipe in which it was burned, figure in the 
pages of the early travelers. Not less con¬ 
spicuous as objects were more than one form of 
wrought stone implements to which no refer¬ 
ence is made. It is inconceivable that they were 
successfully hidden, and we can only conclude 
that they had passed wholly out of use. As¬ 
suming that all the products of the Indian’s skill 
in shaping stone, of which we now know noth¬ 
ing, were wholly in disuse and either inten¬ 
tionally hidden or effectually lost, it is strange 
that the pioneer explorers should have had so 
little of the archaeological instinct as not to 
have detected traces of them. Had more interest 
been taken in the Indian’s physical welfare, 
which was important, and less in his spiritual 
condition, which needed no repairs, we should 
not now be groping in darkness as to the origin 
and antiquity of the original, if not autochtho¬ 
nous American. 

With so great an extent of country and such 
diverse physical and climatic conditions, it is 
obvious that what were originally one people, 
should by force of environment become widely 
differentiated in habits of life, and what are 
now the almost tropical regions of Arizona, 
New Mexico, and Southern Colorado have been 
long peopled with Indians that superficially 


ARCHAEOLOGY 


differ widely from those of the more northern 
regions. Their cliff dwellings, rock shelters, and 
well-built permanent dwellings other than those 
on the faces of cliffs; their pottery, which they 
had learned to color; their weaving, basket¬ 
making, and skill in stone chipping and polish¬ 
ing, all point to a distinct advance over the 
more northern nomadic tribes. It is practically 
demonstrated, in the judgment of those who 
have most exhaustively explored this south¬ 
western region of the United States, that when 
the country was first occupied by the ancestors 
of the present Pueblo Indian, the physical con¬ 
ditions and climate were more favorable for 
human occupation than at present; a fact that 
has its significance, for the antiquity of man 
in America is one that has been long disputed; 
at least an antiquity at all comparable to 
that of man in Europe. Wandering along our 
Atlantic coast and laboriously picking from the 
accumulated shells that have almost hardened 
into rock, trifling potsherds or a rude arrow- 
point ; or inland, walking over a newly-ploughed 
field, we gather a grooved stone axe, a celt, 
spear-head, arrow-point, skin-scraper or a drill ; 
some one or two or perhaps all of these in the 
course of a morning, we are enabled at best to 
picture man in but an humble way and think 
of him as almost one with the wild beasts of the 
forest on which he preyed — an erroneous, but 
common impression — then, transplanted quickly 
to the vast southwest, note the substantial dwell¬ 
ing and skilful products in many lines, it is, at 
first, difficult to think that these people are 
but as branches of the same tree. The contrast 
is impressive and by just so much is it mis¬ 
leading. Step by step the gradations may be 
traced and when familiar with the handiwork 
fc>f early man everywhere in North America, the 
relationship is quite apparent. The need of 
foreign influence to produce the differences, im¬ 
pressed here and there and again and again, 
is not apparent. 

Mexico and Central America present prob¬ 
lems that are not yet solved. Here we are 
brought face to face with what may be dignified 
as a real civilization, and so far as its genesis 
and continuance have been determined, it is 
essentially a thing of itself and points to no 
influences other than those that the country 
might exert. That a foreign element gained 
lodgment here and through intellectual supe¬ 
riority gained control over and finally absorbed 
a pre-occupying people has not been demonstrat¬ 
ed. So far as we now know of it, it is not a 
civilization beyond the reach of a native Amer¬ 
ican race. All that is in it that resembles the 
culture in other continents is far more likely 
to be coincidence than a transplantation. That 
essentially the same ideas in given lines may 
independently arise is beyond dispute. So much 
more impressive is all that remains of ancient 
Mexican centres of population that attention 
has been called to the subject for more than 
a century and the literature of the subject is 
enormous, and not free of the curse of undue 
haste in reaching a conclusion. The Aztec has 
not been shown to be other than an American 
Indian, but one advanced beyond the <( hunter 
stage® and so with a fixed habitation. He 
dwelt where his forefathers had lived and so 
a more rational, that is, truthful form of tra¬ 
dition was preserved. They were mechanics and 


artists. They (( made useful implements and 
weapons and high-grade ornaments and jewels 
from stones, obsidian, and metal (copper, tin, 
lead, silver, gold) ; made paper and dyes and 
were far advanced in weaving, embroidery and 
feather-work.® (Hrdlicka.) They knew well 
the properties of clay and so ceramic skill was 
highly developed. With these accomplishments, 
it is not to be wondered at, that they were also 
skilled in architecture and erected not dwellings 
merely, but temples on an elaborate scale and 
carved their surfaces in most intricate manner. 
The advanced artisan is always an aspirant and 
not satisfied, as he might well be, with the ac¬ 
quirements of reasonable creature comfort; in 
this instance of the Aztec, he devised an intri¬ 
cate form of government and formulated a re¬ 
ligion, polytheistic and including (< the cult of 
the sun, moon, and stars; but with this there 
was a well-defined belief in a single Supreme 
Deity.® (Hrdlicka.) This Aztecan civilization 
was not alone in America. The Mayans of Yu¬ 
catan were equally advanced as architects, as 
artisans, and with society established on an 
elaborate and intricate basis. If their records 
have been read aright, they reach back for 
some seventy-five or more centuries, and grant¬ 
ing this as approximating the truth, and claim¬ 
ing the culture existing as an indigenous growth, 
the date of man’s appearance on the continent is 
carried so far into the past that we must reckon 
by centuries and not by years. Pure-blooded 
Aztecs still survive, but the glory of their 
culture as it blossomed in pre-conquest times, 
is a matter of history. How great, how far 
comparable this civilization was to our own can 
be judged by the exhaustive studies of Madam 
Zelia Nuttall, in her work, ( The Fundamental 
Principles of Old and New World Civilizations ) 
(Peabody Museum Memoirs 1901). There is 
nothing suggestive of the (( Indian® as we know 
him in all these pages. Astronomy, mathemat¬ 
ics, and abstruse philosophical disquisition are 
dealt with and we find, not unnaturally, that in 
striving to compass the unknowable, they were 
led to the most extreme cruelty through that 
anthropomorphic idea of Deity which universal¬ 
ly has proved a curse to mankind. The conclu¬ 
sion reached by Mrs. Nuttall is directly the op¬ 
posite of what has been held in this article as 
almost if not quite demonstrable; the home, 
origin, and growth of what has been revealed 
by archaeological research. She writes: <( I can 
but think that the material I have collected will 
also lead to a recognition that the role of the 
Phoenicians, as intermediaries of ancient civiliza¬ 
tion, was greater than has been supposed, and 
that it is imperative that future research be 
devoted to a fresh study and examination of 
those indications which appear to show that 
America must have been intermittently colo¬ 
nized by the intermediation of Mediterranean 
sea-farers.® 

Southward, when the adjoining continent is 
reached, we find in the vast plains, forests, and 
following the wonderful rivers of that region, 
savages that have not as high a standing as 
those of the temperate regions of North Amer¬ 
ica. The struggle for existence has been, in 
the tropics, and is, too keen to give opportunity 
to a mental growth not directly concerned with 
the bodily passions and demands. Above all 
else, the savage must eat, and if the food supply 


ARCHAEOLOGY 


is to be had without effort, the result is bodily 
inactivity and mental stultification. If the food 
required must be struggled for, then the body 
only is excited to vigor, and food obtained, the 
body is too fatigued to follow physical exertion 
by mental. This is the result in the ex¬ 
tremes of tropical conditions and it is not sur¬ 
prising that man shows to more advantage as 
the climate becomes more temperate. Mind and 
body seem then to have more equal chance and 
the same unevenness of development is found 
among South American Indians that originally 
obtained in North America. The differences are 
those that the different physical features of the 
country suggested. As Mexico stands to the coun¬ 
try north of it, the favored spot wherein flowered 
and fruited the native civilization of that conti¬ 
nent ; so in Peru, we find a people who aban¬ 
doned the more primitive features of a nomadic 
life, and establishing cities, organized govern¬ 
ment, society, gave such attention to art, agri¬ 
culture, and skill in varied handicraft, that they 
stood apart, finally, from the other peoples of 
South America. Compared with the advanced 
civilization of to-day it may seem crude indeed, 
but if we take their products of handicraft sepa¬ 
rately into consideration, we shall find that they 
made most excellent thread and dyed it so 
honestly, that to-day, many a fabric a thousand 
or more years old has not lost its brilliancy of 
color. They were honest workmen as well as 
artists. It has often been asked would this 
culture in the interior of Peru have gone on 
developing, had not it been snuffed out by a 
really as savage but more powerful a people. 
It cannot be determined, but as civilization is 
merely evolution, there is no logical reason why 
the potter in Peru should not finally have vitri¬ 
fied and glazed his wares, and the metal workers 
have wrought even greater wonders with the 
product brought to them by miners who knew 
their work. Peruvian products in pre-Colum¬ 
bian time, never found a foreign market, but it 
is rash to say they never would have found it, 
had they not been molested and their career de¬ 
stroyed for all time by the infamous invader. 

Whether in North, Central, or South Amer¬ 
ica, there were centres where things higher than 
mere animal wants found chance to flourish and 
the upward growth toward rational rather than 
mere physical man took place, and all about 
these centres, roamed those out-lying people, 
who were not degenerates, but the as yet un¬ 
advanced descendants of that original people of 
the early stone age to whom it fell to populate 
these two continents. See also Mound Build¬ 
ers. 

Bibliography .— The bibliography of Ameri¬ 
can archaeology is more extensive than compre¬ 
hensive and much more theoretical than prac¬ 
tical. The ( Smithsonian Contributions to 
Knowledge ) (Washington, D. C., 1847-1900) 
contain many important monographs; . also 
the ( Annual Reports * of the same insti¬ 
tution. The volumes of the ‘Antiquarian 
Society of Worcester,* Mass., of the now non¬ 
existent American Ethnological Society, also, 
are valuable; likewise the ( Annual Reports of 
the Regents of the State University,* Albany, 
N. Y. The Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, 
D. C., has issued an annual volume of inesti¬ 
mable value for many years ; and the publications 
of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology, Cam¬ 
bridge, Mass., and certain of the bulletins of the 


American Museum of Natural History, New 
York, are authoritative and necessary for a full 
understanding of the subject. The separate 
works that have been published are of less 
importance. Those prior to 1850 are purely of 
a speculative character. Of later date, the 
works of Brinton are of most importance; not¬ 
ably his ( American Race* ; ( Essays of an Amer¬ 
icanist* ; and ( Notes on the Floridian Peninsu¬ 
la.* Of equal importance is Bancroft’s ( Native 
Races of the Pacific Coast.* See also, Dellen- 
baugh, Moore, Jones, and Mercer, for resume 
of subject covering North America, Florida, 
the Southern States, and valley of the Dela¬ 
ware River, in the order named. 

Mexico. — Kingsborough ( Antiquities* ; May¬ 
er ( Mexico as It Was and Is* ; Humboldt ( Vues 
des Cordilleres* ; and the publications of Zelia 
Nuttall in the series issued by Peabody Museum, 
Cambridge, Mass., notably ‘The Fundamental 
Principles of the Old and New World Civiliza¬ 
tions.* See also Stephens, ( Yucatan.* 

Peru. —Transactions of the Ethnological So¬ 
ciety of London; biennial reports of Internation¬ 
al Congress o-f Americanistes; von Tschudi 
‘Peru.* 

Brasil .— Bates ‘Naturalist on River Ama¬ 
zons* (1863) ; Agassiz ‘Journey in Brazil* 
(1868) ; Kidder and Fletcher ( Brazil and Bra¬ 
zilians* ; R. F. Burton ( Explorations in High¬ 
lands of Brazil (1869). 

Patagonia. —Dobrizhoffer ‘Abiponer* (1822) ; 
Muster’s ( At Home With the Patagonians* : 
and for South America generally, transactions 
of learned societies in Europe,— German, 
French, and English. 

Charles Conrad Abbott, M.D., 

Archceologist. 

Archaeology, Christian. See Christian Ar¬ 
chaeology. 

Archaeopteryx, ar'ke-op'te-riks, an extinct 
bird exhibiting many reptilian characters, es¬ 
pecially in having jaws provided with teeth and 
a long tail of many vertebrae; and it constitutes 
a link between birds and reptiles. It lived dur¬ 
ing the Jurassic period, and is by far the most 
ancient bird known. Its distinctness from all 
other birds is expressed by placing it by itself 
in a separate sub-class, the Archaeornithes birds 
are the rarest of fossils, and this one is known 
only from two' skeletons and a single feather, 
all preserved in the lithographic limestone quar¬ 
ries of Solenhofen, Bavaria. The skeletons, one 
in the British, the other in the Berlin Museum, 
are wonderfully well preserved in the fine 
smooth-grained stone, and have the impressions 
of the feathers in their natural position. They 
show that the Archaeopteryx had short wings 
with primary and secondary feathers arranged 
much as in modern birds; but the bones of the 
wing are not so specialized for their peculiar 
use as in modern birds; the metacarpal bones 
are separate, and the digits free and complete, 
each with a claw on its tip, while in modern 
birds the first and third digits are rudimentary 
and the metacarpals fused into a single bone. 
The long tail of 23 separate vertebrae has the 
feathers arranged in pairs springing from the 
sides of each vertebra except toward the tip; 
in modern birds the tail-feathers spring from a 
triangular bony plate at the end of the short 


ARCHANGEL — ARCHDALE 


rudimentary tail. (See Birds.) The teeth are 
like those of many lizards, sharp, conical, each 
set in a separate socket, and there is no horny 
bill as in modern birds. 

The extinct Dinosaurs are the reptiles which 
come nearest to Archaeopteryx, and it is prob¬ 
able that they are descended from a common 
stock, the ancestors of the birds becoming arbo¬ 
real and acquiring rudimentary wings to assist 
them in leaping from tree to tree. A somewhat 
analogous case is seen in the fold of skin and 
hair which the modern flying squirrels have 
developed for the same purpose; if further 
developed and specialized this would enable 
them to accomplish true flight. In Archaeop¬ 
teryx the wings are short and the attachments 
for the breast muscles (those chiefly used in 
flight) are small in comparison with those of 
modern birds, so that the creature must have 
had very limited powers in this direction. 

Archangel, ark-an'jel, a seaport, capital of 
the Russian government of same name, on the 
right bank of the northern Dwina, about 20 
miles above its mouth in the White Sea. The 
port is closed for six months by ice. Arch¬ 
angel, founded in 1584, was long the only port 
which Russia possessed. Pop. 21,930. The 
province contains 331,490 sq. miles; pop. 348,500. 

Arch'angel, an angel of superior or of the 
highest rank. They are seven in number, of 
which Michael, Gabriel, and Raphael are men¬ 
tioned in Scripture. 

Archbald, Pa., borough in Lackawanna 
County, 10 miles northeast of Scranton, on the 
Delaware & Hudson and the New York, On¬ 
tario & Western Railroads. It waj first settled 
by Welsh miners in 1831 and is to-day essen¬ 
tially a mining town. It has 5 churches, 6 
schools, and several imposing public buildings. 

1 wo silk mills give employment to 350 persons. 
Oyer 3,500 men and boys are employed in coal 
mining. Population (1890) 4,032; (1900) 5,394. 

Archbishop, arch'bish'up, a chief bishop. 
The attentive reader of the Acts of the Apos¬ 
tles, noting that nearly the whole missionary 
energy of St. Paul was expended upon the cities 
and chief towns rather than on the villages and 
the country districts, will be prepared to learn 
that there were flourishing churches in the lead¬ 
ing centres of population, while, as yet, nearly 
all other parts remained pagan. So strong, 
however, was the evangelistic spirit prevailing, 
that a number of younger and less powerful 
congregations were called into being. The 
pastors of these new churches being called 
bishops, that term no longer appeared a dignified 
enough appellation for the spiritual chief of the 
mother church, and, about a.d. 340, the Greek 
title of archiepiscopos was introduced 

An archbishop is often called a metropolitan. 
He exercises a certain supervision over the 
bishops of his province, who are called his 
suffragans; convenes and presides over them in 
provincial councils, receives appeals against 
their decisions in matters of discipline, and, in 
the event of the death of one of them, provides 
for the administration of the dioceses. In the 
United States, the Roman Catholic Church is the 
only one which has dignitaries of this rank, and 
in 1900 the entire country comprised 14 archdio¬ 


ceses, Baltimore, as the first established see, 
having the dignity of primacy. 

In England the early British churches were, 
in large measure, swept away by the Anglo- 
Saxon invaders, who were heathens, and the 
country consequently required to be reconverted. 
The great southern centre from which this was 
done was Canterbury, then the capital of Kent, 
where King Egbert gave Augustine, the chief 
missionary, a settlement. In the north, York, 
the chief town of Northumbria, where King 
Edwin built a shrine for Paulinus, became the 
great focus of operation for that part of Eng¬ 
land ; hence the two archbishoprics now existing 
are those of Canterbury and of York. The pre¬ 
late who occupies the former see is Primate of 
all England, while his brother of York is only 
Primate of England, the superiority of the see of 
Canterbury, long contested by that of York, hav¬ 
ing been formally settled in a.d. 1072. The for¬ 
mer is the first in dignity after the princes of the 
blood ; the latter is not second, but third, the Lord 
Chancellor taking precedence of him in official 
rank. In Ireland the same distinction holds 
for Armagh and Dublin. When the Catholic 
hierarchy was established in England in 1850 
Westminster was constituted the metropolitan 
see. 

Archdale, arch-dal, John, American colo¬ 
nial governor: b. Buckinghamshire, England, 
probably about 1635. Ferdinando Gorges, the 
last proprietor of Maine, married his sister 
Mary in 1660, and in 1664 sent him to Maine to 
set up Gorges^ government afresh in opposition 
to Massachusetts, under whose protection the 
settlements there had placed themselves. (See 
Gorges.) They resisted Archdale so fiercely 
that the next year he sailed for home, entirely 
baffled. In May 1681 he acquired a dubious 
title to a share in the proprietorship of the 
Carolinas, and in 1682 the proprietors commis¬ 
sioned him to come over and receive their rents 
from ^Albemarle** (North Carolina). He was 
there by 1683, with the intention of settling 
permanently (as his daughter did)—perhaps 
drawn by a liking for the Quakers in the colony, 
he having been converted by George Fox. . A 
few years later, however, he returned to Eng¬ 
land, and was one of the chief managers of the 
proprietary affairs. In 1688 he appears on de¬ 
positions in the Gorges matter, private claims 
being still unsettled; but there is no evidence 
that he visited Maine again. In 1694, the Caro¬ 
lina proprietors needing some manager on the 
spot he was induced to become governor of 
South and North Carolina by the title of <( land- 
grave^ and the attendant barony of 48,000 
acres; but it was not till 17 Aug. 1695 that he 
assumed the government at Charleston, and he 
retained it but a year, then turning it over to 
a deputy and returning to England again. The 
complimentary address of the Assembly on his 
departure has been taken literally as a proof of 
influential and pregnant statesmanship; but in 
fact he dissolved his first Assembly in haste 
from a quarrel over abatement of quit-rents, 
compromised with the second, left the Hugue¬ 
nots unenfranchised and the unsatisfactory In¬ 
dian trade as it was and made no strong im¬ 
press. His spirit was good, however: he treated 
the Indians with humanity and modified some 
hard restrictions on them, drew up a militia 
act (into which the Assembly unanimously re- 


ARCHDEACON — ARCHER 


fused to put a clause exempting the Quakers), 
and established a bureau of public charities. 

He is also credited with having introduced 
rice culture into the Carolinas, through a bag 
of rice which a merchant vessel brought from 
Madagascar and he distributed among his 
friends. 

In 1698, elected a member of Parliament, he 
refused to take the oath but only to affirm, and 
was not permitted to take his seat. In 1707 
appeared ( A New Description of that Fertile 
and Pleasant Province of Carolina,by him, a 
vindication of his administration, of little value 
except for some original documents. 

Archdeacon, arch'de'kun, an ecclesiastical 
dignitary next in rank below a bishop, who 
has jurisdiction either over a part of or over 
the whole diocese. He is usually appointed by 
the bishop, under whom he performs various 
duties, and he holds a court which decides 
cases subject to an appeal to the bishop. The 
dignity is still maintained in the Anglican, but 
not in the Roman Catholic Church, the canons 
or rural deans exercising the same functions as 
archdeacons. 

Archduke, arch'duk', a duke whose author¬ 
ity and power is superior to that of other 
dukes, a title in the present day assumed 
only by the princes of the imperial house of 
Austria. In France, in the'reign of Dagobert, 
there was an Archduke of Austrasia; and at 
a later period, the provinces of Brabant and 
Lorraine were termed archduchies. The Dukes 
of Austria assumed the title of archduke in 
1156; but the dignity was not confirmed till 
1453 - 

Archegosaurus, ar'ke-go-so'rus, a fossil 
saurian reptile, found in 1847, in large concre¬ 
tionary modules of clay-ironstone, from the 
coal field of Saarbriick. Four species have been 
described. Prof. Owen makes it a connecting 
link between the reptile and the fish, and on 
these grounds: it is related to the salaman- 
droid-ganoid fishes by the conformity of pattern 
in the plates of the external cranial skeleton, 
and by the persistence of the chorda dorsalis, 
as in the sturgeon, while it is allied to the 
reptiles by the persistence of the chorda dorsalis, 
and the branchial arches, and by the absence 
of the occipital condyle or condyles, as in Lepid- 
osiren, and by the presence of labyrinthic teeth, 
as in Labyrinthodon, which, however, also ally 
it to the ganoid Lepidosteus. See Stegocelpha- 

LIA. 

Archelaus, ar'ke-la-us, the name of several 
personages in ancient history, of whom we need 
mention only Archelaus the son of Herod the 
Great. This prince received from Augustus, 
with the title of Ethnarch, the sovereignty of 
Judea, Samaria, and Idumea. His reign is de¬ 
scribed as most tyrannical and bloody. The 
people at length accused him before Augustus, 
who, after hearing his defense, banished him in 
a.d. 10 to Vienne, in Gaul, where he died. To 
avoid the fury of Archelaus, Joseph and Mary, 
with the infant Jesus, retired to Nazareth. 

Archenholz, ar'Hen-holts, Johann Wilhelm 
von, a German historian: b. 5 Sept. 1743; d. 
28 Feb. 1812. He took part in the closing cam¬ 
paigns of the Seven Years’ war and retired as 
captain, 1763; traveled extensively in Europe, 
lived in England the greater part of 1769-79, 


and settled in Hamburg in 1792. His book on 
( England and Italy ) (1785), extensively trans¬ 
lated, obtained a phenomenal success. A sequel 
to it was ( Annals of British History ) (1789- 
98, 20 vols.). His ( History of the Seven Years’ 
’ War } (1789; augmented 1793, 13th ed. 1892) 
is still the most popular account of that war. 

Arch'er, Belle, actress: b. Easton, Pa., 
i860; d. 1890. Her maiden name was Arabella 
S. Mingle; married Herbert Archer, 1880, and 
was divorced from him, 1889. She made her 
debut in Washington, D. C., with Wm. Florence 
in ( The Mighty Dollar, } and later played lead¬ 
ing parts in Pinafore,> ( Hazel Kirke,* ( Lord 
Chumley* (1888), and Tennyson’s PorestersP 
For a time she was leading woman with Sol 
Smith Russell. 

Arch'er, Branch T., Texan revolutionist: 
b. Virginia, 1790: d. Texas, 22 Sept. 1856. He 
studied medicine in Philadelphia, practised many 
years in Virginia, and was repeatedly a member 
of the legislature. In 1831 he removed to Texas, 
and was one of the leaders in preparing for 
the revolution determined upon far in advance 
of the actual crisis. On 3 Nov. 1835 he presided 
over the celebrated “consultation® of the Amer¬ 
ican settlers concerning independence, and im¬ 
mediately after was one of three commissioners 
— the others being Stephen Austin and N. H. 
Wharton — to solicit aid from the United States. 
The next year he became speaker of the House 
in the first Texan Congress; and he was secre¬ 
tary of war for Texas 1839-42, when bodily 
infirmity compelled him to retire from public 
life. 

Arch'er, Frederic, organist and musical 
director: b. Oxford, England, 1838; d. Pittsburg, 
Pa., 1901. Educated at Oxford, London, and 
Leipsic, and held important positions as organ¬ 
ist in Oxford, London and Glasgow, 1852-79. 
Organist Plymouth Church, Brooklyn, N. Y., 
1880-85; conductor Boston Oratorio Society, 
1887; founded Pittsburg Symphony Orchestra, 
1896; organist Church of the Ascension, Pitts¬ 
burg, 1899-1901. He gave recitals and lectured 
on musical subjects throughout the United 
States and Canada. Founded and edited ( The 
Keynote ) (1885). 

Arch'er, John, physician: b. Harford 
County, Md., 6 June 1741; d. there, 1810. Grad¬ 
uated at Princeton, 1760, and in 1768 received 
from the Philadelphia Medical College the first 
medical diploma issued in America. He raised 
and commanded a military company during the 
Revolution, served several years in State Legis¬ 
lature, was a presidential elector in 1801, and 
member of Congress 1801-7. He made several 
discoveries in medicine which have been adopt¬ 
ed by the profession. 

Arch'er, Thomas, an English novelist and 
essayist. His works deal with the conditions of 
the working classes and with social evils. 
Among the best known are: ( A Fool’s Para- 
dise 5 (1870) ; Profitable Plants > (1874). 

Arch'er, William, an English author and 
critic: b. Perth, Scotland, 23 Sept. 1856. Edu¬ 
cated at Edinburgh University; became barris¬ 
ter, Middle Temple, 1883. Went to London 
1878, became dramatic critic of the Figaro, 
1879-81, and London World since 1884. In 
1899 he visited the United States to study 
American theatres. He has edited and translat- 


ARCHER-FISH — ARCHIDAMUS 


cd Ibsen’s ( Prose Dramas 5 (5 vols.) ; and with 
his brother translated Ibsen’s ( Peer Gynt. 5 He 
has written ( Life of Macready 5 (1890) ; Eng¬ 
lish Dramatists of To-day 5 (1882) ; ( The 
Theatrical World 5 (5 vols. 1893-97) 1 ( Study 
and Stage 5 (1899); ( America To-day 5 (1900); 
( Poets of the Younger Generation 5 (1901) ; 
( Masks or Faces: a Study in the Psychology of 
Acting. 5 

Arch'er-fish, a fish reputed to be able to 
shoot drops of water from its mouth at insects 
in the air above, thus bringing the insects down 
where they can be seized. The name is most 
frequently applied to a single species, Toxotes 
jaculator, a fish six or seven inches long, a 
native of Java and the neighboring islands, 
which represents an aberrant group of chseto- 
donts, or coral fishes (q.v.). This, however, is 
an error of identification, the true fish with this 
habit being a related small coral fish ( Chelmon 
rostratus ) of India. This genus has its mouth 
extended into a tube-like snout, forming a sort 
of nozzle. When it perceives an insect perched 
on a plant over the water, it swims to within 
a distance of from four to six feet, and then 
with surprising dexterity will eject a single 
drop of water with so true an aim as to knock 
the insect into the water where it is instantly 
seized. Captives will do this in a tank or 
aquarium; whereas experiments show that the 
Toxotes never does such a thing for which its 
mouth is entirely unfitted. 

Arch'ery. Ages after the bow and arrow 
had disappeared in general use from Europe 
and many other countries, it was the universal 
arm both for war and sport in the Americas, 
from Patagonia to the Arctic Circle, and its use 
lingered on the borders of advancing civilization 
till within the memory of thousands living. It 
may indeed be considered the most characteris¬ 
tic American weapon, yet the practice of arch¬ 
ery as a recreation is limited. A few societies of 
Toxopholites exist and hold monthly meetings 
and annual contests. The principal clubs are 
in the neighborhood of Washington, D. C., and 
of Cincinnati. 

A faithful band, too, of whom the late 
Maurice Thompson, the author of ( Alice of Old 
Vincennes, 5 was the exponent, have continued 
into this 20th century to take the bow and arrow 
into field and forest, and to live while in camp 
by the product of their skill in its use. Several 
charming pen pictures may be found in the 
pages of ( Scribner’s, 5 ( Harper’s, 5 ( Outing, 5 and 
ihe ( Badminton 5 magazines, relating their hunts 
after turkeys, herons, wild duck, wood-duck, 
and squirrels, and even fish, in Florida, Georgia, 
Illinois, Indiana, and other States. For practi¬ 
cal purposes, however, the attention may be 
confined to archery as popularly understood: 
that is, shooting at the target as a recreation 
and to acquire skill. This form of its use 
continued long after gunpowder had become 
common: in fact the first book of instruction in 
archery, that of Roger Ascham, the teacher 
of Lady Jane Grey, and professor of Greek 
at Cambridge, ( Toxophilius. or the Schole of 
Shooting, 5 was published in 1571, when the bow 
had practically become obsolete as a weapon of 
offense. The bow used for recreation is the 
long-bow and not the arbalest or cross-bow 
which was used by William Tell. That style of 


the bow was never popular in England. As 
gunpowder came more and more into use in 
sports, the interest in the bow and arrow faded. 
About the year 1760 the possibilities of archery 
as a builder up of the body and the eye-sight 
were rediscovered, and from thenceforward it 
had a lusty growth and has always had a con¬ 
siderable following of devotees both in England 
and America. Bows are made either of one 
piece of wood, or two or more strips glued to¬ 
gether, preferably of yew. A man’s bow is 
about six feet in length, and a woman’s some 
half a foot shorter. A man’s bow requires a pull 
of from 40 to 50 pounds, a woman’s about half 
that amount. The distance shot varies with the 
kind of contest: a Potomac round consists of 
24 arrows at 80 yards, 24 at 70 and 24 at 60. 
A double Columbia round of 48 arrows at 50 
yards, and 48 at 40. A double York round of 
144 arrows at 100 yards, 96 at 80 and 48 at 60. 
A double National round of 96 arrows at 60 
yards and 48 at 50, and a double American 
round of 60 arrows at 60 yards, 60 at 50 and 
60 at 40. The arrow’s shape and feathering is 
a matter of personal inclination. The targets 
are four feet in diameter, made of banded straw 
with a canvas front painted in five concentric 
rings, the centre gold, then red, blue, black and 
white; the value in counting shots being, re¬ 
spectively, 9, 7, 5, 3 and 1. There are in the 
National meet also competitions for longest flight 
and annual team competitions of 96 arrows at 
60 yards for men and 96 arrows at 50 yards for 
women. 

Arch'es Court, the chief and most ancient 
consistory court, belonging to the Archbishop¬ 
ric of Canterbury, for the debating of spiritual 
causes. It is named from the church in Lon¬ 
don, St. Mary le Bow, or Bow Church (so 
called from a fine arched crypt), where it was 
formerly held. 

Archibald, Sir Adams George, Canadian 
statesman: b. Truro, Nova Scotia, 18 May 1814; 
d. Halifax, 14 Dec. 1892. He was secretary of 
state for the Dominion of Canada, and lieuten¬ 
ant-governor of the Northwest Territories, and 
Manitoba, later; and later held the same office 
in Nova Scotia. He was knighted in 1885. 

Archidamus, ar'ki-da'mus, the name of 
several kings of Sparta. I. The son of 
Anaxidamus, who lived during the Tegeatan 
war, which broke out soon after the termina¬ 
tion of the second Messenian war, in the year 
668 b.c. II. The son of Zeuxidamus, and 
succeeded to the throne in the year 469 b.c. In 
the fifth year of his reign there was an earth¬ 
quake in Laconia which almost destroyed 
Sparta. In that trying period the foresight of 
Archidamus probably saved the surviving citi¬ 
zens from being massacred by the Helots. In 
the discussions at Sparta and Corinth, which 
preceded the rupture with Athens, he acted a 
prominent part, and always as the advocate of 
peace and moderation. He survived the out¬ 
break of the Peloponnesian war about five 
years, during which time he had the conduct 
of three expeditions against Attica and one 
against Plataea. Archidamus died in the 42d 
year of his reign, 427 b.c. III. Son of 
Agesilaus II. While yet a boy he prevailed 
on his father to pardon Sphodrias, who had 
dared to make an irruption into Attica at a 


ARCHIL — ARCHIMEDES 


time of profound peace. In 371 b.c. he was sent 
to the relief of his countrymen who had been 
vanquished at Leuctra. In 367 b.c. he defeated 
the Arcadians and Argives in what the Spar- 
tans termed the «scarless battle,® because they 
had won it without the loss of a single man. 
Archidamus III. appears to have been a war¬ 
like prince, but he was neither a great general 
nor a great statesman, and makes but a poor 
figure in either capacity after such kings as his 
father and grandfather. IV. Son of Euda- 
midas I. and grandson of Archidamus III., was 
king of Sparta in 296 b.c. V. Son of Eudami- 
das II. Archidamus V. was the last king of the 
Eurypontid race that reigned in Sparta. When 
he was killed the rights of his children were dis¬ 
regarded and his crown was given to a stranger. 

Archil, ar'kil, or Orchil, or'kil, a coloring 
matter obtained from various kinds of lichens, 
the most important of which are the Roccella 
tm'ctoria and the R. fuciformis. The Lecanora 
tartarea, or cudbear, is another of the same 
nature; orchella-weed and dyer’s-moss are 
common names for them. The R. tinctoria , 
or archil plant proper, is abundant in the Ca¬ 
naries and Cape Verde Islands, and in the 
Levant; the R. fuciformis also grows chiefly in 
warm climates, as the coasts of Africa (Angola) 
and Madagascar. The lichens, which are chief¬ 
ly collected from rocks near the sea, are cleaned 
and ground into a pulp with water, after which 
some ammoniacal liquor is added, when the 
coloring matter, red, violet, or purple, is evolved 
and falls to the bottom. The red coloring mat¬ 
ter of Lecanora tartarea produces litmus when 
lime or an alkali is added. Archil has a beauti¬ 
ful violet color. It is used for improving the 
tints of other dyes, as from its want of per¬ 
manence it cannot be used alone. 

Archilochus, ar-kil'6-kus, a Greek poet, 
classed by Cicero with Homer and Sophocles: 
b. in the Island of Paros, flourished between 720 
and 660 b.c. While a resident of Thasos, he 
incurred disgrace by throwing away his shield 
in a battle. He was the inventor of iambics. 
His terrible invective is said to have caused 
several suicides. A hymn to Hercules was the 
most esteemed of his poems, and used to be 
sung three times in honor of the victors at the 
games. 

Archimandrite, ar'ki-man'drit, in the 
Greek Church, an abbot or abbot-general, who 
has the superintendence of many abbots and 
convents. 

Archimedes, ar'ki-me'dez, one of the most 
celebrated among the ancient physicists and ge¬ 
ometricians ; b. at Syracuse, about 287 b.c. 
Though, according to some accounts, a relation 
and certainly a friend of King Hiero, he ap¬ 
pears to have borne no public office, but to have 
devoted himself entirely to science. We can¬ 
not fully estimate his services to mathematics 
for want of an acquaintance with the previous 
state of science; still we know that he enriched 
it with discoveries of the highest importance, 
upon which the moderns have founded their 
admeasurements of curvilinear surfaces and sol¬ 
ids. Euclid, in his Elements, considers only 
the relation of some of these magnitudes to each 
other, but does not compare them with surfaces 
and solids bounded by straight lines. Archi¬ 
medes has developed the propositions necessary 


for effecting this comparison in his treatises 
on the sphere and cylinder, the spheroid and 
conoid, and in his work on the measure of the 
circle. He rose to still more abstruse consid¬ 
erations in his treatise on the spiral, which, how¬ 
ever, even those acquainted with the subject can 
with difficulty comprehend. Archimedes is the 
only one among the ancients who has left us 
anything satisfactory on the theory of mechan¬ 
ics, and on hydrostatics. He first taught the 
principle (< that a body immersed in a fluid loses 
as much in weight as the weight of an equal 
volume of the fluid, and determined, by means 
of it, that an artist had fraudulently added too 
much alloy to a crown which King Hiero had 
ordered to be made of pure gold. He discov¬ 
ered the solution of this problem while bathing; 
and it is said to have caused him so much joy, 
that he hastened home from the bath un¬ 
dressed, and crying out, Eureka! Eureka! <( I 
have found it; I have found it!® Practical me¬ 
chanics, also, received a great deal of attention 
from Archimedes. He is the inventor of the 
compound pulley, probably of the endless screw, 
etc. During the siege of Syracuse he devoted 
all his talents to the defense of his native coun¬ 
try. Polybius, Livy, and Plutarch speak in de¬ 
tail with admiration, and probably with exag¬ 
geration, of the machines with which he repelled 
the attacks of the Romans. They make no 
mention of his having set on fire the enemy’s 
fleet by burning-glasses,— a thing which is in 
itself very improbable, and related only in the 
later writings of Galen and Lucian. At the 
moment when the Romans, under Marcellus, 
gained possession of the city by assault, tra¬ 
dition relates that Archimedes was sitting in the 
market-place absorbed in thought, and contem¬ 
plating some figures which he had drawn in 
the sand. To a Roman soldier who addressed 
him, he is related to have cried out, «Disturb not 
my circle !® but the rough warrior little heeded 
his request, and struck him down. The con¬ 
quest of Syracuse is placed in the year 212 b.c. 
On his tombstone was placed a cylinder, with a 
sphere inscribed in it, thereby to immortalize 
his discovery of their mutual relation, on which 
he set particular value. Cicero, who was ap¬ 
pointed quaestor over Sicily, found this monu¬ 
ment in a thicket which concealed it. Of the 
works of Archimedes there are extant a treatise 
on ( Equiponderants and Centres of Gravity, 5 
in which the theory of the lever and other me¬ 
chanical problems are treated; on the Quadra¬ 
ture of the Parabola ) ; on the ( Sphere and 
Cylinder 5 ; on the dimensions of the Circle ) ; 
on Spirals 5 ; on ( Conoids and Spheroids ) ; the 
c Arenarius, 5 a speculative treatise intended to 
refute the popular notion that the number of 
grains of sand on the seashore is infinite by 
showing that a definite number might be as¬ 
signed to a quantity of grains sufficient to fill 
the sphere of the fixed stars, remarkable as 
containing an anticipation of the modern dis¬ 
covery of logarithms; on ( Floating Bodies 5 ; a 
treatise called demmata, 5 of doubtful authen¬ 
ticity, on plane geometry. A very complete and 
splendid edition of the works of Archimedes 
issued from the ( Clarendon Press, 5 at Oxford, 
in 1792. Other editions appeared in 1881, and 

1897. 

Archimedes, Principle of. See Archimedes. 


ARCHIMEDES’ SCREW— ARCHITECTURE 


Ar'chime'des’ Screw, a machine invented 
by Archimedes while studying in Egypt. Ob¬ 
serving the difficulty of raising water from the 
Nile he is said to have designed this screw as 
a means of overcoming the obstacle. It con¬ 
sists of a pipe twisted in a spiral form around 
a cylinder, which, when at work, is supported 
in an inclined position. The lower end of the 
pipe is immersed in water, and when the cylin¬ 
der is made to revolve on its own axis, the 
water is raised from bend to bend in the spiral 
pipe until it flows out at the top. The Achi- 
median screw is still used in Holland for rais¬ 
ing water, and draining low grounds. The 
Dutch water-screws are mostly of large size, 
and are moved by the wind, one windmill fur¬ 
nishing sufficient motive power to keep several 
screws going at once. 

Archipelago, ar'ki-pel'a-go, a term origi¬ 
nally applied to the JEgsean, the sea lying be¬ 
tween Greece and Asia Minor, then to the nu¬ 
merous islands situated therein, and latterly to 
any cluster of islands. In the Grecian Archi¬ 
pelago the islands nearest the European coast 
lie together almost in a circle, and for this rea¬ 
son are called the Cyclades (Gr. kyklos, a cir¬ 
cle) ; those nearest the Asiatic, being farther 
from one another, the Sporades ( (( scattered^). 
(See these articles, and Cyprus; Negropont; 
Rhodes; Samos; Scio, etc.) The Malay, In¬ 
dian, or Eastern Archipelago, on the east of 
Asia, includes Borneo, Sumatra, and other 
large islands. See Malay Archipelago. 

Architecture, skilful, or at least careful, 
building; and it is in this sense that we speak 
of military architecture, naval architecture 
(qq.v.), and the like. In a general sense, build¬ 
ing which has been made interesting by artistic 
consideration, the proportions of the structure 
having been considered, its details treated in.a 
deliberate way, ornamentation applied whenever 
practicable, and the whole structure imbued with 
the artistical spirit. Of course architecture in 
this sense cannot exist without civilization, and 
the beginnings of civilization are commonly 
marked by an artistic treatment of buildings, 
such as huts for residence and larger cabins for 
the meeting of a tribe or its chief men. Build¬ 
ings dedicated to religious purposes always ap¬ 
pear early in the advance toward higher civiliza¬ 
tion : and it is mainly in temples and churches 
that architectural development appears, in any 
age. In this article it is intended to describe and 
analyze the architecture which has given rise to 
European styles, and those European styles 
themselves, from the commencement of history 
until the close of the 19th century. For the 
architecture of the Far East such as India, Far¬ 
ther India, China, and Japan, and for the prim¬ 
itive architecture of America, see separate head- 
ings. 

The most primitive races using architecture 
of which we have any knowledge, are those 
of the Pacific islands in our own time. In New 
Zealand especially the large huts have much 
decorative woodwork combined in an intelligent 
way to produce a general effect. Again in the 
islands of Micronesia the larger residences and 
the buildings of the community are designed ac¬ 
cording to a very strict and semi-religious tradi¬ 
tion. 

Now this same kind of tradition, more or 
less closely united with the pious beliefs of the 


people and with the teachings of their priest¬ 
hood, is found to have existed in Egypt at a 
time not exactly prehistoric, because we are 
gradually approaching to an accurate knowledge 
of the dates, but of an epoch not as yet exactly 
fixed — an epoch at least 5,000 years b.c. From 
that time on for many centuries the plan of a 
palace, or of a temple, or of one of those great 
buildings in which palace and temple seem to 
have been united, was a thing almost absolutely 
fixed in advance; and moreover the external 
ordonnance, the succession of pylons, the colon¬ 
naded porches, would be unchanged except as 
to minor considerations. One temple would 
have colossal statues backed up by the piers of 
the faqade; another would have a row of col¬ 
umns with enriched capitals and sculptured 
drums; all these changes would find their ex¬ 
planation in the changing fashion of the time; 
but the general disposition of the covered build¬ 
ings alternating with open courts and cul¬ 
minating in a shrine accessible only to the few, 
would be. unchanged. The origin of the forms 
of Egyptian architecture is undoubtedly to be 
found in the building with a light skeleton of 
reeds daubed with mud, but this structure left 
only its superficial appearance to the stone tem¬ 
ples which were to succeed it. In actual building 
no race was ever more thoroughly skilled in 
quarrying, cutting, transporting, and combining 
blocks of limestone, and more rarely of harder 
rocks. These materials they used chiefly to 
provide themselves with broad surfaces — some¬ 
times flat, as of a sloping wall, sometimes 
rounded, in an approximately cylindrical way, 
as in a huge column; and these surfaces they 
enriched by sculpture in low relief and especially 
in that coelanaglyphic relief in which the back¬ 
ground is not cleared away; and these reliefs 
they painted richly in brilliant colors. At a 
later time and especially for interiors the paint¬ 
ing was done upon smooth walls and ceilings, 
and a whole school of flat pattern designing was 
developed, equal in effectiveness to any deco¬ 
rative painting of more recent times. 

The culmination of Egyptian architectural 
art is to be found at a very early date. Many 
persons will think that it never again attained 
the dignified splendor of that which dates from 
the 25th century b.c. One thing at least, is cer¬ 
tain— technical perfection has never, in any 
land,, surpassed that with which huge blocks of 
granite, squared and polished and inscribed 
with complicated patterns, were used in buildings 
of that time. Still the 17th and.i8th dynasties, 
which are now dated 1610 to 1320 b.c. (Flinders 
Petrie), will seem to most students the time of 
the greatest Egyptian architecture, for it was 
then that the great buildings at ancient Thebes 
were built, including temples and palaces, where 
now stand the modern villages of Karnak and 
Luxor, on the right bank, and, on the left bank, 
Dahr-el-Medinah and Medinet-Habu, with all 
the remains of the great necropolis. All of the 
buildings here named or included by implication 
were really for residence or ceremonial, except¬ 
ing the tombs, the interiors of which are of 
surprising beauty of decoration. The famous 
Pyramids, whether the great ones of Gizeh, 
which are the oldest, or the much smaller ones 
of later times, are not architecture in the 
aesthetic sense except as they are carefully 
wrought, the slopes of their sides accurately de- 



HATHORIC COLUMN, TEMPLE OF DENDERA 

(Restored) 





































































■ 













































ARCHITECTURE 


termined, their placing by the points of the com¬ 
pass very precise, and the whole structure in¬ 
vested with a quasi-religious character. Artistic 
design is hardly to be assigned to them; indeed 
the great pyramids are nothing but cairns, that is 
to say, heaps of stone within which a couple of 
chambers have been carefully laid out; technical 
excellence is never at fault, and some astronom¬ 
ical knowledge is evident in the placing and 
shaping of the structure, but this does not con¬ 
stitute artistical building. 

The architecture which was contemporary 
with this in Syria and Mesopotamia is hardly 
known to us as yet; the results of it are trace¬ 
able in the buildings of Nineveh, dated the 8th 
and 7th centuries b.c., but even this has per¬ 
ished so generally that there has been much 
dispute as to the manner of roofing the palace 
halls. The decision of recent archaeologists 
is that these halls, long and narrow, and enclosed 
by walls of unburned bricks but of enormous 
thickness, were roofed with wagon vaults, also 
of unburned brick, curious devices being em¬ 
ployed to let in the breeze sweeping over the 
low, flat land bordering the Tigris, while ex¬ 
cluding the burning sun. The decoration of 
these buildings must have been largely by means 
of sculpture, flat slabs of alabaster which 
lined the walls being exquisitely carved in low 
relief with subjects of war and hunting, or of 
the king doing worship to his gods. Much more 
massive sculptures were carved in great blocks 
of limestone for the gate-posts, such as the 
huge winged lions and winged human-headed 
bulls of which specimens have been brought to 
the Louvre and to the British Museum. The 
characteristic of these palaces was their position 
upon the flat tops of the somewhat broad artifi¬ 
cial terraces paved at a height of 25 or 30 feet 
above the country around, from which pavement 
arose the principal rooms of the residential build¬ 
ings and the more tapering mass of the great 
temple. These temples were apt to be built with 
steps, but were otherwise pyramidal in form. 
They never reached a height approaching that 
of the Pyramids of Egypt, nor were they of 
anything like the same solidity of structure, be¬ 
ing generally built of unbaked clay in cast 
blocks, such as we call crude bricks, and faced 
with burned bricks. Such a structure crumbles 
into mud or dust when neglected, and the huge 
mounds along the Euphrates and the Tigris 
which have been opened and within which the 
treasures of Babylon and Nineveh have been 
found, are made up of this debris. 

The architecture of ancient Persia dates from 
about 500 b.c., as far as our knowledge goes. 
From this time on until the conquest by Alex¬ 
ander, 334 b.c., that ancient Persian art which 
we call Persepolitan from the famous ruins at 
the site of ancient Persepolis controlled all that 
inland country of Asia which lies immediately 
east and north of Mesopotamia. It was an 
architecture of terraced palaces and halls of 
many columns, but the terraces and platforms 
not being needed in a hilly country, were much 
lower, evidently serving merely for splendor, 
as the European palace is often raised upon an 
architectural basement. The.chief value of this 
art to European students is in the beginning of 
that wonderful system of decoration by means of 
colored patterns, both flat and in slight relief, in 
which for two thousand years the Persians 


were the masters of the world, teaching the 
races of Asia as well as of Europe what pat¬ 
tern-making and the application of brilliant col¬ 
ors to a flat surface might produce. 

Contemporary with the latest Assyrian work 
were the beginnings of Grecian architecture, and 
contemporary with Persian work as above al¬ 
luded to, came the culminating period of Greece. 
There had been at a previous time the strange 
Mykensean art which cannot be dated with any 
accuracy, and which is far more Asiatic than 
Greek, and which as we now know, was more 
fully developed in Crete and perhaps in Cyprus 
than in the mainland of Greece. Of this art we 
have little in the way of permanent buildings. 
But with the year 600 b.c. the beginnings of the 
Doric style appear, the quarries of marble and 
of softer stone are worked in an intelligent 
way and the round column with the square 
abacus is used to form colonnades. The tem¬ 
ple of those early days was that which it con¬ 
tinued to be till the fall of all Grecian civilization 
came at the close of the classical epoch. It was 
a shut-up room without windows, divided, when 
very large, with columns in two rows, and per¬ 
haps lighted from above either by sky-lights or 
by some system resembling that of the mediaeval 
clearstory, but of this we have no knowledge. 
The great eastern and western doorways were 
the only means of admitting daylight to which 
we can certainly point. Only a few temples had 
a colonnade on every side as had the Parthenon, 
the so-called Temple of Theseus at Athens and 
other buildings in Greece and in the colonies. 
By far the greater number had a portico at one 
end, the east, or one at each end; the wall of the 
enclosed chamber or naos (called cella by the 
Romans) showing at the northern and southern 
sides between the porticoes at the ends. Of 
other buildings than temples we know only porti¬ 
coes, roofed, but open on at least one side. 
Otherwise we have no knowledge of Grecian 
buildings. Gate-way buildings (propylaia) were 
roofed in part but served merely as passageways: 
when enclosed rooms were attached to them, 
these are ruined, and we know nothing of their 
ordonnance. There was also the meeting hall 
at Eleusis with many columns supporting the 
roof, but what its interior disposition was we 
do not know at all. So with dwellings, some 
little is known of the plan of a Grecian house, 
but no one has ever a reasonable theory as to 
its architectural treatment. 

The reason why Grecian architecture has 
obtained such a prodigious hold upon the im¬ 
agination of Europe is the control which its 
beauty and refinement, when in their full glory, 
exercised over the intelligence of the great Ro¬ 
man Empire. From 200 b.c. at least until 350 
a.d., all the world which was destined to become 
European in feeling and much that has not re¬ 
tained that European character, was largely con¬ 
trolled by the great influence spreading from 
the city on the Tiber; and this influence, so far 
as it was artistical, was derived in its turn from 
the cities of Greece. It was the mission of the 
Roman Empire to spread and perpetuate Hellen¬ 
ism, and it is to that combination of influences 
that the tradition and the learning of Europe 
are what they are in contradistinction to that of 
India, China, and the other ancient lands of 
Asia. The peculiar charm of Greek art was in 
its extreme subtlety of proportion, and in the 


ARCHITECTURE 


grace and refinement of its details; but in gain¬ 
ing these advantages it lost variety, movement 
and life, and deliberately shut itself off from 
much that is absolutely essential to the modern 
world. Thus no man can build a house now in 
the Greek style, because he is absolutely ig¬ 
norant of what a Greek would have done with a 
large hall, or with a group of five or a dozen 
small rooms and passages. He does not know 
how a Greek would have made a window; he 
has no knowledge at all of how a Greek would 
have put one story upon another; in other 
words, Grecian architecture remains for us as an 
astonishing piece of perfection of limited range 
and small adaptability. 

The artists and the engineers of the great 
Roman Empire inherited the Etruscan notion 
of building with the round arch built of vous- 
soirs or wedge-shaped slabs — a thing never 
used by the Greeks in architecture. The Ro¬ 
man commonwealth at its commencement was as 
much Etruscan as Latin, and this use of the 
vault, together with the free employment of 
glazed and painted earthenware for the interiors 
of buildings was perhaps common to both races, 
but was certainly familiar to the people of 
Etruria. Helbig points out that the boast of 
Augustus of <( having found Rome a city of brick 
and leaving it marble® had a more exact signifi¬ 
cance than appears on the surface, for the Rome 
of the days of Julius, the Rome which Oc- 
tavianus must have seen as a child, was really a 
city of brick houses with terra cotta ornaments. 
But the Greek invasion had begun earlier than 
the days of Julius, and he himself was destined 
to be the great introducer of the refined columnar 
architecture of Greece into his native city. Au¬ 
gustus and the following emperors and their ad¬ 
mirers and followers within and without the 
Imperial City took up this mode of building 
with the long rows of marble columns, and 
from London and the Strait of. Gibraltar east¬ 
ward to the sands of the Arabian Desert, the 
common style of beautifully ordered pillars car¬ 
rying roofs light in proportion to the substruc¬ 
ture made the cities splendid. The cities of the 
East were particularly famous for their colon¬ 
naded streets, and those of Palmyra, Gerasa and 
Antioch were unsurpassed except in the Im¬ 
perial City itself. 

The Romans developed also a totally non- 
Greek system of building with small stones laid 
in quantities of rather liquid mortar, making of 
this masonry very heavy walls, which were 
faced and rendered smooth by brickwork of 
thin, hard-baked tiles, laid also in mortar. 
These halls and passages they vaulted in the 
same materials, and made them solid and im¬ 
movable. They desired, of course, to combine 
their great porticoes with their vaulted interi¬ 
ors, and great ingenuity is shown in reaching 
an approximate success in this matter. See 
Roman Imperial Architecture. 

These two traditions struggled together in 
the work of small communities, the impoverished 
states which grew up over the ruins of the Em¬ 
pire. Christian churches had to be built in the 
East as in the West. It is curious to note that 
the West took up the colonnaded style and built 
what we call basilica churches, that is, buildings 
whose plan is a long parallelogram divided by 
rows of columns lengthwise through it; while in 
the East the vault generally prevailed, and gave 


birth to what we call Byzantine architecture. 
The fact of this Eastern preference for the vault¬ 
ed system points to what has been thought the 
probable origin of the Roman vaulting, namely, 
in Alexandria and other cities of the Macedo¬ 
nian Empire, as divided into the kingdoms of the 
Diadochi, the successors of Alexander the Great. 
No traces of it have, however, been identified. 
Round and polygonal churches were not un¬ 
known in the West. Basilica churches also ex¬ 
isted in the East, but very few, and of very 
early times, the 5th and 6th centuries; but the 
Byzantine style, based entirely upon vaulting of 
great boldness, but lighter and far less enduring 
in appearance than the Roman work, was des¬ 
tined to be, from that time on, the characteristic 
of Christian architecture of the Levant and also 
to be the inspiring thought at the bottom of the 
architecture of the Mohammedan conquerors. 
The first perfectly realized Byzantine building is 
also the greatest — the Church of Saint Sofia in 
Constantinople was finished between 532 and 537 
a.d., but partly rebuilt in 563. It may well be 
thought the most beautiful of churches, but in 
saying this one has in mind the interior only. 
All church building, even the latest and richest 
Gothic, has the exterior for its chief splendor. 
It is only true that the exterior is more entirely 
disregarded by the Byzantines and apparently 
no thought whatever given to the effect of 
the external shell. The style invented in this 
way at a single effort (a result not known to 
have been achieved anywhere else in the his¬ 
tory of art) has prevailed ever since over all the 
lands from the Red Sea northward and even over 
all the plains of Russia, if we are considering 
church architecture alone. The more recent 
buildings of Asia Minor, Armenia, The Cau¬ 
casus, Moldavia, Greece and Russia to the Bal¬ 
tic, may be without direct reference to Byzantine 
systems of design so long as they are merely low 
walled residences, or if larger and built of tim¬ 
ber ; but the church is everywhere Byzantine. 
The boundary between this and the Romanesque 
art 0f western Europe runs along the eastern 
frontier of Dalmatia and then eastward some¬ 
where near the Danube; for Hungary is gen¬ 
erally western in its church architecture, while 
the Balkan Peninsula is Byzantine. 

The Romanesque of western Europe is a 
style almost wholly based upon church building 
and characterized by an effort to be as Roman 
as possible under changing conditions. From 
the first the struggle to vault every nave and 
aisle and sanctuary in the classical Roman way 
is obvious, but also it is obvious that the small 
means and the poor skill of the people held them 
back all the time. Under these conditions there 
grew up in Italy a Latin style, partly the result 
of copying classical basilicas and partly of copy¬ 
ing the interiors of great Roman houses which 
had often been the refuge of a poor and timid 
congregation of Christians. This style is best 
known also from the churches of Ravenna and 
the oldest churches of Rome. There was also a 
Lombard style in the north of Italy, partly the 
result of the invasion of barbarians, partly of 
Byzantine invasions coming from the East. 
Again there grew up slowly the beautiful Pisan 
style of central Italy: and all these styles may 
be included in the general term Romanesque. 

In the north of Europe nothing earlier than 
the 9th century is accurately known to us, and 
even of that epoch the buildings which we know 


ARCHITECTURE.—I 



CORINTHIAN ORDZ 














































































































































































































































































































































































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. I 

























ARCHITECTURE 


are few in number and often greatly rebuilt. 
Such a building is the church at Aix-la-Chapelle 
in Rhenish Prussia, the cathedral built by Char¬ 
lemagne himself, 'but it has been altered out of 
recognition. There is a conventual church at 
Hechingen, near Stuttgart, and at Quedlinburg 
in Prussian Saxony, and these churches are 
marked by a beautiful system of quasi-classical 
sculpture with scroll-work and elaborate mold¬ 
ings, and by a system of vaulting with groined 
vaults very effective but not allowing of very 
great variety of structure. The vaults are low 
and narrow, and even under these conditions the 
history of every great church is a record of 
constant accidents befalling the vault. The 
noble cathedral of Speyer, the capital of Rhenish 
Bavaria, and the church at Gernrode belong to a 
later period, namely, the 12th century, and of the 
same time or a very little later are the church 
of St. Godehard and the church of St. Mi¬ 
chael at Hildesheim, the Cathedral of Mainz 
(Mayence), of Braunschweig (Brunswick), and 
the Cathedral at Worms. These great churches 
have held their own, unchanged in important 
details, since the time of their first building, and 
but for these and a few more we should not 
know how interesting and on the whole efficient 
a style the northern Romanesque could be. On 
the other hand the churches of middle France 
are more rich in sculpture. Nothing can exceed 
the splendor and, in a limited sense, the beauty 
of such fronts as the Cathedral at Angouleme, 
and Notre Dame la Grande at Poitiers. The 
Cathedral at Le Puy has also much beautiful 
sculpture, but is especially famous for its sur¬ 
prisingly picturesque situation and design, and 
its very beautiful polychromatic exterior. The 
Church of La Madeleine at Vezelay, and that 
of Notre Dame du Port at Clermont, are great 
steps in the development of the Romanesque 
churches leading to the Gothic style: and in the 
far south the churches at Arles, Saint Gilles, and 
Saint Saturnin at Toulouse, are examples of a 
rich and brilliant Romanesque quite different 
in character from anything in the north of 
France, or in Germany. France has also a great 
number of domed churches partaking strongly of 
the Byzantine character. 

There is beautiful Romanesque also in Eng¬ 
land, where the nave of Peterboro and. that of 
Winchester are splendid examples; and in Spajn 
some of the richest churches in Europe are of 
this style. 

The far North — Denmark and the Scandi¬ 
navian Peninsula — have also beautiful Ro¬ 
manesque, as in the Cathedral of Lund in 
Sweden; but the characteristic architecture of 
Norway is a style depending upon wood, for its 
structure and upon elaborate carving for its dec¬ 
oration. . 

The above considerations bring us to the mid¬ 
dle of the 12th century and at this point it be¬ 
comes necessary to consider the works of the 
Mohammedan nations, who were following in 
the main the Byzantine style. Some of the 
earliest of these Mohammedan churches have a 
disputed date; thus the famous Mosque of Omar 
in Jerusalem has always been a point of dispute, 
some historians putting its structure as early as 
the beginning of the 8th century. It is known 
that the early mosques at Cairo, such as that 
of Ibn Tulun were built in the 9th century. 
The architecture of a later time is more splendid 
if less massive and constructional. The Moslem 
Vol. 1—43 


architecture spread east and west in the trail 
of the conquering armies, and there is a Moham¬ 
medan style in India of extraordinary splendor, 
its chief epoch being between 1180 and 1600 a.d. 
(See India, Architecture of.) The conquest 
of northern Africa and of nearly all the Spanish 
Peninsula gave rise to what we call the Moorish 
style, never equal in dignity or beauty to the 
architecture of Cairo and Damascus, but en¬ 
riched with elaborate but fantastic carving, and 
also plaster work modeled and stamped, and all 
richly painted. The most celebrated buildings 
of this style are the Mosque of Cordova and the 
Palace of the Alhambra on the hill near Grenada. 
The tendency of the Eastern mind is seen in rich 
chromatic decorations, not only in paintings but 
also in rich enameled tiles with which large sur¬ 
faces of wall are adorned, and also at least in 
the wealthier cities, with exquisite inlays of col¬ 
ored marble. 

In the middle of the 12th century, the peo¬ 
ples of what we now call France, western Ger¬ 
many, England, and Belgium were building skil¬ 
fully and intelligently in their Romanesque style, 
but were still much harassed by the difficulty of 
the round arched vault. This difficulty was pe¬ 
culiarly great when it became necessary to carry 
a deambulatory like an aisle around a semicir¬ 
cular apse. All the ingenuity of the builders 
was put into this, and without perfect satisfac¬ 
tion to them. There was then taken up a device 
which seems simple and rather obvious, the de¬ 
vice of springing a narrow arch of very solid 
material from one pier or column or corbel to 
another, and building as many such arches as 
the space to be filled made necessary — then fill¬ 
ing up the resulting spaces with light vaulting 
which rested upon these cut-stone arches. To 
take the simplest case, if a parallelogram of 900 
square feet were to be filled, it would take a 
fairly good builder to make a groined vault 
stand; but any beginner could build four nar¬ 
row arches on the four outlines of the square 
and two other arches diagonally dividing it into 
four panels, each of about 200 square feet. Any¬ 
body could fill one of these with a thin shell of 
vaulting: and it is out of this simple device 
that there grew the great Gothic architecture. 
The diagonal arches met in the middle at a kind 
of boss. We may then consider those diagonals 
as consisting of four half arches meeting in the 
middle. Looked at in that way, irregular spaces 
could be vaulted without trouble and the plan 
of the church might be as elaborate and compli¬ 
cated as bishop or master builder might desire. 

Constructional Gothic architecture is merely 
Romanesque with this rib-vaulting and the re¬ 
sulting lightness and freedom added; but deco- 
ratively there came into it a great enlargement 
and enrichment of the Romanesque sculpture. 
The carvers grew wonderfully more learned in 
their knowledge of anatomy, and of the human 
figure in movement and in repose, and they 
learned to cast drapery in the most effective 
way, so that the culminating sculpture of the 
13th century may rank with the architectural 
sculpture of Greece in beauty. Representing 
this perfection of the style we have the Cathe¬ 
drals of Reims, Bourges, Amiens, the north and 
south flank of Chartres (for the west end is 
partly of earlier, partly of later epochs) and a 
vast number of smaller churches and fragments 
of churches; thus one of the finest apses in the 
world is that of Le Mans. The Gothic style is 


ARCHITECTURE 


French in its origin and development, but the 
English took it over at a very early date and 
built the lovely cathedrals of Salisbury and Lin¬ 
coln and the still earlier east end of Canterbury. 
In fact, English Gothic is of the most fascinating 
character, though without the vastness and dig¬ 
nity of the French and without its logical perfec¬ 
tion. There is splendid Gothic architecture in 
Spain very closely copied from the French, and 
in Germany the succeeding French styles are 
continually reproduced with modifications — the 
Germans very properly clinging to their noble 
Romanesque and only in part accepting Gothic 
achievement. 

The early development of Gothic architecture 
was checked by the civil wars in what is now 
France — the quarrels between great nobles and 
the invasion of the English kings, Edward III. 
and Henry V. claiming the crown of France. 
In this way the century from 1345 to 1453 was a 
time of almost continual disorder, and but little 
architectural change took place during that time. 
What little was built in the 14th century is of 
extreme interest, such as the Church of Saint 
Ouen at Rouen in Normandy, marking the very 
culmination of formal and regulated Gothic. In 
England, too, the Gothic style worked out its 
own evolution with singular results. The re¬ 
markable nave of Lincoln Cathedral and that of 
Litchfield were built with vaulting a little artifi¬ 
cial in that many more ribs were put in than 
were needed, and this led immediately to what 
we know as fan tracery, which marks the close 
of the 14th and the first half of the 15th cen¬ 
tury. The most splendid specimens of this are 
of the 15th century, but its earlier examples, 
such as the cloisters of Gloucester Cathedral, 
are contemporary with the English perpendicular 
Gothic and belong to the last few years of the 
14th century. Gothic art was also introduced 
into Italy; but it had no complete mastery there. 
Its nature was hardly understood by the Ital¬ 
ians, but beautiful and highly decorative 
churches and city houses resulted from their 
work with it. 

With the close of the Hundred Years’ War 
there appeared all over northern Europe the 
style which we call Florid or Flamboyant archi¬ 
tecture, but it is to be noted that the glory of 
this style is almost exactly contemporary with 
the rise of the classical Renaissance in Italy. 
From 1453 till 1525 the Florid Gothic was in the 
main undisturbed in France, and a similar style 
prevailed almost undisturbed in Germany, Flan¬ 
ders, the Low Countries and England; but all 
this time the buildings of Italy were without ex¬ 
ception built in what was intended to be the 
classical Roman style of architecture. This 
period, which should be called by the Italian 
name, the Risorgimento, is therefore to be 
studied by itself in Italy, and the style of the 
Risorgimento, beautiful in itself and full of in¬ 
terest, has this further hold on our notice that 
it was destined to prevail over all local styles 
and to turn the people of Europe toward the imi¬ 
tation of Greco-Roman art. The classical style 
of Italy has, of course, the fault of being a 
deliberate re-study of a style long before for¬ 
gotten and abandoned — that is to say, it did 
not grow naturally from the study by each mas¬ 
ter builder of the buildings of his predecessors 
and contemporaries — it was studied deliberately 
because it was felt that the remains of the great 


civilized empire of Rome must be better than 
the work of the comparatively disorganized and 
scattered peoples of mediaeval Europe. This 
fault disappeared, however, after the first few 
years of hard and persistent work, by so many 
artists all working together; and yet it is cer 
tain that in architecture there was less of a 
success achieved than in other forms of decora¬ 
tion, and in painting and sculpture conducted 
with the purpose of recording expression. What 
we call the Renaissance architecture of Europe 
was not destined to develop any new system of 
building nor any system of sculptured or painted 
decoration except as it offered room for beauti¬ 
ful separate works of art to be put into place on 
its walls and in its niches. The Italian in¬ 
fluence reached the North early in the 16th cen¬ 
tury and by 1525 it was established in France. 

The important buildings of this neo-classic 
style were in Italy very largely ecclesiastical. 
There had not been during the 13th century such 
a wonderful building of churches in Italy as in 
the North, and so when the new style came in 
there was room for more. Of the early date are 
such churches as Saint Zaccaria and Saint Fan- 
tino in Venice, the church at Montepulciano and 
the similar one at Cortona on the hillside, and 
the church of Saint Andrea at Mantua. There 
were also a number of city residences of the 
nobles, buildings which we call palazzi, and some 
of these, such as the Palazzo Rucellai, the Pa¬ 
lazzo Riccardi, the Palazzo Strozzi, and the 
Palazzo Pitti in Florence, with some of the most 
exquisite private houses in the world on the 
canals of Venice vie with the most impor¬ 
tant churches of the period. Again in the 16th 
century the architecture, though less varied and 
natural, seeming also comparatively cold and 
hard, as if the delight in it had gone out of its 
creators, is full of excellent examples for all 
students. In the North great country mansions 
were the first to receive and show the Italian 
influence, and very splendid buildings of this 
sort were built in France during the reign of 
Francis I. and Henry II.; while in England dur¬ 
ing the contemporaneous reigns, the curious 
Tudor and the still more interesting Eliza¬ 
bethan style were not showing marked Ital¬ 
ian influence and yet were evidently not sim¬ 
ply the development from the latest English 
Gothic. It is curious, however, that the use of 
Gothic details and even of Gothic building lasted 
in England far into the 17th century, though it 
was then not very general. 

By 1650 all marked separation of style be¬ 
tween the countries of western Europe had dis¬ 
appeared. All the peoples were building 
alike in the modified Roman style, with 
classical columns or studies made from them, 
and with complete abandonment of all medi¬ 
aeval forms. . The great influence over taste 
of the brilliant court of Louis XIV., the 
building of Marly and Versailles, had a 
still greater influence over the capital cities 
and royal palaces of Europe, for every sovereign 
prince (and there were hundreds of them at this 
period) felt himself obliged to try to build a 
little Versailles for himself. In this way the 
universality of the later neo-classic was estab¬ 
lished ; and this prevailed continuously down to 
the outbreak of the French Revolution. It is 
not meant that there were no changes nor that 
there was a lack of intelligence and thought, for 
there were architects of real merit and there 


ARCHITECTURfc.-O 



OBELISKS, LUXOR, EGYPT . ROCK. TEMPER. EliLORA.lKDIA 




THE £RE C THEUM. ATHENS 



TEMPI.E OK JUPITER AT OI.YMPU 



THE PARTHENON, PROPY]AA. & c ATHENS 











































































































































































































































♦ 



















1 





■ 


- 

- 


















ARCHITECTURE—II!. 




CHURCH A T RIMINI. 


PALAZZO PANBOIiFim, F'LORRNCE, 





















































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































ARCHITECTURE 


were modifications of style so decided that there 
is no difficulty in dating a good piece of archi¬ 
tecture ; but the curious fact that this univer¬ 
sally prevalent architecture observed two rules 
and not one, gave it in all its forms a marked 
characteristic. In every other strong and 
prevailing style that the world has known, 
tradition and the handing on of rules from 
master to pupil was the one cause of uniformity 
and the one route of change; but now for the 
first time there was a body of ancient learning 
and often of misinformation about the Greco- 
Roman past to which every one referred as to 
an authority greater than that even of his mas¬ 
ter and of his contemporaries. 

Since the close of the Napoleonic wars in 
1815 there has been throughout Europe and in 
the lands settled by Europeans an architectural 
situation altogether unique in history. There 
has been no universal and no generally preva¬ 
lent style except that the later neo-classic in one 
form or another has been continually in use. 
Every other imaginable attempt has been made; 
and there have been earnest and resolute studies 
in Romanesque, Gothic, Mohammedan and even 
Byzantine art, and experiments have been made 
in Egyptian, Persian and other far removed 
styles. The early Renaissance, too, both that 
of Italy which we called above that of the 
Risorgimento, and the Renaissance proper of 
France; and the English Elizabethan and Ja¬ 
cobean, and the spirited and picturesque German 
Renaissance of the 16th century, all have been 
tried. Modern architects have not merely 
sought inspiration in the buildings and in draw¬ 
ings and photographs of the buildings, but they 
have tried to copy them either complete or in 
great part, large details and small, and it is 
largely true that the 19th century was so poor a 
time for decoration because all the designers had 
their portfolios full of examples of old work 
finer than anything they could produce. _ They 
were trained to copy and adapt, and in this way 
prevented from trying to design in a natural 
way. In Bavaria the traveled and studious 
prince who was afterward King Ludwig I. (de¬ 
throned 1848) built a whole series of palaces 
and official buildings in the capital city, Munich, 
and in its neighborhood, trying in turn to repro¬ 
duce Byzantine, German Gothic, Florentine 
Renaissance, Greco-Roman and Greek as nearly 
as he dared. These buildings are permanent 
and solid structures, and a serious attempt was 
made to build up in this way a museum of archi¬ 
tectural art, a thing absolutely inconceivable to 
a sovereign in the days of living architecture. 
There has been a German classical school, of 
which the chief centre was Berlin, and there 
have been several picturesque or semi-Gothic 
schools, but none of them permanently success¬ 
ful. During the last 20 years of the 19th cen¬ 
tury two influences were seen side by side, the 
one a determined effort to revive the latest neo¬ 
classic— the Barock of the German 18th cen¬ 
tury; and the other a very realistic study of the 
requirements of the building and of natural form 
for its ornamentation. In this last mentioned 
style very beautiful effects have been produced 
by means of stucco relief combined with the 
stuccoed brick front of the large city houses 
and public buildings, and also great boldness in 
the way of wrought-iron work used as an impor¬ 
tant part of the fagade. In Belgium, especially 


in Antwerp, this use of wrought iron is 
very noticeable and effective. In England 
the Gothic revival which began as early 
as 1845 had largely a religious foundation, 
and in part a mistaken national feeling 
behind it; but in the main it was a protest 
against what was thought the artificial style de¬ 
rived from the teachings of Palladio and his 
latest imitator, Sir William Chambers, and a de¬ 
sire to return to a constructional art. It failed 
of success because at no time did it command 
the adhesion of more than a certain large frac¬ 
tion of the whole number of architects, and 
also because its advocates themselves did not 
agree as to the style which they were to de¬ 
velop. Great freedom was shown in adapting 
motives from different countries and different 
epochs. Thus the Italian Gothic, with a free 
use of color in external and internal design, 
was followed with great energy, sometimes in 
the way of close copying, sometimes in the way 
of bold adaptation. This resulted in admirable 
single buildings, but it added to the confusion 
of aim and purpose and prevented the building- 
up of a consistent school of design. 

This curious architecture, with pointed 
arches, colored material used in stripes and pat¬ 
terns, shafts of polished marble or granite, and 
architectural sculpture of very naturalistic qual¬ 
ity, has been called the Victorian style, or 
Victorian Gothic. One of its earliest examples 
was the London church in Margaret Street, 
Cavendish Square. But the masterpieces of the 
Gothic revival are such buildings as the Cathe¬ 
dral of Truro in Wales, and that of Adelaide 
in South Australia, which are really Gothic 
buildings though built in a modern way to meet 
modern requirements. In France the tradition of 
the reigns before the revolution and of the brief 
empire of Napoleon were so strong and were 
represented by so many highly trained architects, 
sculptors, decorative painters, wood-carvers, and 
stone-cutters that no serious attempt was ever 
made to change the style of the whole country. 
Individual architects and archaeologists preached 
the glory of the French mediaeval tradition and 
occasionally a great convent would build its 
church in a really vigorous and well-understood 
Gothic manner, but in general the style of the 
epoch was developed according to the teachings 
of the central school in Paris, so that while the 
long rows of handsome dwelling houses and the 
stately Prefectures and Mairies of France were 
built in what might be called an orthodox 
French neo-classic style, the exceptional build¬ 
ings are, in a curious way, harmonious with the 
general result. Thus the famous building on 
the Trocadero Hill has largely a Byzantine 
character, and yet does not strike one as wholly 
out of keeping with the neo-classic house-fronts 
near. The great Hotel de Ville of Paris, built 
after the destruction of the former one in 
1871, is of French Renaissance, or rather of 
its modifications under Henry IV., but carried 
out consistently; and yet this building also 
harmonizes well with what is near. It is only 
now and then, in a great columned building like 
the theatre at Bordeaux, and the Bourse (Stock 
Exchange) in Paris, that there seems to be a 
wholly different style employed, for Gothic build¬ 
ings are so very unusual in the cities that they do 
not count at all upon the modern aspect of the 
town. Much of this tendency in France is due 


ARCHITECTURE 


to the learned character of the criticism there, 
much less sentimental, much less swayed by 
general theories of what is right and wrong, 
far more traditional and kept in place by the 
social unity which marks French thought. As 
regards the rest of Europe, the same tenden¬ 
cies are visible which show even more plainly 
in the United States, to which we must devote 
the remainder of our space. 

Russell Sturgis, F.A.I.A., 
Author of ( Dictionary of Architecture P 

Architecture, American.—The establishment 
on a firm basis of the present national gov¬ 
ernment at Washington is nearly contempo¬ 
raneous with the beginning of the 19th cen¬ 
tury, and before many years had elapsed 
the Federal buildings in Washington attracted 
the attention of historians. Congress met in 
Washington in Nov. 1800, as if with ex¬ 
pressed determination to be in session there 
when the new century should begin. At 
that time, though the capital city had been 
for 10 years decided on and its exact loca¬ 
tion determined, the only buildings which the 
Federal government found ready for its use 
were a part of one wing of the Capitol and as 
yet incomplete buildings for the Treasury De¬ 
partment and War Department. The White 
House was not yet ready for its proposed use 
as a residence. Nor did these buildings make 
very good progress, and when they were burned 
bv the British army in 1813 but little loss was 
suffered. 

After the war with Great Britain, the Capi¬ 
tol was rebuilt rapidly, and completed in its 
original form, as many men now living remem¬ 
ber it, with a low central dome over what were 
then the wings occupied by the Senate and rhe 
House of Representatives. The White House 
also was finished in its present form, though the 
completion of the portico lingered for a time. 
The (( Octagon House,® now occupied by the 
American Institute of Architects, is reputed to 
have been used by the President during the 
building of the White House; the building is 
not octagonal, however, but of an ingenious and 
unusual plan well calculated to provide an 
agreeable residence. 

Otherwise, throughout the United States 
there was but little change or development in 
the line of architectural art. The Georgian 
epoch of design had passed, except in the con¬ 
struction of dwelling houses. A Greek taste 
prevailed, and an ambition to produce Grecian 
architecture was uppermost in the minds of all 
who undertook public buildings. The lyceums 
or town halls throughout the country, the city 
halls and court houses, and State houses or 
capitols, were generally designed with colon¬ 
nades. Of this nature is the principal build¬ 
ing of the college designed under the auspices 
of Thomas Jefferson, if not by that statesman 
himself; of this character is the old custom 
house (now the Sub-Treasury) in New York, 
which is a very faithful copy of a hexastyle 
Doric temple; and of this character are the 
Nashville State house, the capitol at Montgom¬ 
ery, and a great number of buildings, large and 
small, in the North as well as in the South, 
erected at all periods up to the middle of the 
century. At the same time, however, the dwell¬ 
ings were much more commonly in the grave 
and decent style whhh we have generally called 


<( 01 d Colonial architecture.® In this respect 
New York city was peculiarly fortunate. Whole 
quarters of the city were thickly built up with 
houses of the most satisfactory style which has 
yet been employed in domestic architecture in 
the United States — or, at least, which has re¬ 
ceived general acceptance. Many single blocks 
or isolated buildings throughout that part of 
the city which lies south of Bleecker Street still 
remain in their original condition, and in these 
is to be seen the original American domestic 
architecture of the time before 183s. Of the 
same years are many interesting houses in the 
New England towns, as well as in Maryland 
and Virginia. These houses of the 19th cen¬ 
tury are often confused with the much older 
houses which are properly ^Colonial,® and, in¬ 
deed, are distinguishable only by the student 
who will observe the architectural details with 
some care. The taste for Greek architecture is, 
it is true, traceable in them in the rather fre¬ 
quent appearance of a colonnade of four or six 
or, as in one well-known case in Farmington, 
Conn., of five columns — a nearly unique archi¬ 
tectural device. At any time between 1820 and 
1850, if a wealthy man wished to build himself 
a house of unusual stateliness, he would turn 
the simple domestic ^piazza® into a portico of 
Graeco-Roman dignity. Thus in Charleston the 
Ficken mansion has a hexastyle portico at least 
as dignified and nearly as large as that of the 
custom house, and a large mansion on South 
Battery has a Corinthian portico of four col¬ 
umns serving as its entrance porch. With the 
years beginning with 1835 the houses of the cit¬ 
ies became more often large than handsome, 
with costly mahogany doors, large rooms di¬ 
vided by colonnades of white-painted wood, and 
very ample and easy staircases — all of them 
features known to the country mansions but 
hardly to city life till that time. Here again 
New York city is the most important centre of 
interest, for the houses of Washington Square 
and those in West 8th Street (Clinton 
Place), East 9th' Street (Brevoort Place), and 
East 8th Street (St. Mark’s Place) are very gen¬ 
erally of this type, and never since that time have 
rows of street houses been so well handled or 
their interiors so well understood. The houses 
of Boston at this time were as good internally, 
and had certain peculiarities of plan recommend¬ 
ing them to the student, such as the use of the al¬ 
ley passing through and under the house to the 
back yard, of the utility of which plan much 
might be said; but their exteriors were'generally 
less noticeable. The narrow and crooked streets 
and something in the popular taste almost for¬ 
bade external display or even elegance. In Phil¬ 
adelphia, on the other hand, severity was caused 
rather by the strong Quaker influence than by 
anything in the external character of the town, 
while the easy access to white marble in con¬ 
siderable quantities made this a favorite mate¬ 
rial. Hence arose the well-known type of the 
Philadelphia house, with walls of red brick, 
white marble lintels, sills, and doorsteps, and, 
as the houses were built close to the sidewalk, 
without areas and with the entrance nearly on 
a level with the street, a display of solid white- 
painted wooden shutters which carried out the 
chromic effect to the full. 

1 he cities of the South' were less crowded, 
less busy, more decidedly marked by the distinc- 


ARCHITECTURE 



“FLATIRON” BUILDING, NEW YORK, IN COURSE OF CONSTRUCTION 















































. 























































' 




















ARCHITECTURE. 



“FLATIRON” BUILDING, NEW YORK. 







































ARCHITECTURE 


tion between elegant and humble dwellings. 
In Mobile, Charleston, and Savannah, the charac¬ 
teristic dwelling was rather a more stately man¬ 
sion standing free or nearly so, and having 
broad verandas or ^galleries® which, however, 
were not turned toward the street, but sidewise 
upon gardens. Savannah, however, has a very 
unusual plan: a succession of square, open 
“places^ from each of which four streets lead 
in four directions, giving a series of square 
corners and allowing of an irregularity of shape 
in the house-lots which is not known in our 
other cities. It is a matter of regret that this 
plan is not preserved in the newer quarters. 
The residences in Savannah commonly have 
windows along their sides opening upon a gar¬ 
den, which, if small, is private, made so by 
brick walls of sufficient height. 

The Gothic revival made itself manifest in 
the United States at an early date. Few care¬ 
fully designed buildings in the mediaeval styles 
had been built even in England, when, in 1839, 
Richard Upjohn took charge of the work on 
Trinity Church in New York, his task there 
passing almost immediately into the designing 
of a wholly new structure, which was finished in 
1846. At about the same time the Church of 
the Holy Trinity in Brooklyn, which still 
stands unaltered, was built by Lefevre, whose 
name is almost forgotten because of his death 
soon after the completion of this one important 
work. These buildings were carefully studied 
from the English Perpendicular style; and as 
English Gothic hardly included vaulting as a 
necessary feature, this was wholly omitted in 
the American examples, though unfortunate 
afterthought caused some poor imitations of 
vaulting in woodwork and plaster. Apart from 
this the churches were solidly built and with 
attention to the archaeological propriety of every 
part; the inevitable slips in this direction be¬ 
ing caused by the great lack of recorded and 
accessible knowledge in those pre-archaeological 
days. 

No form of Pointed style was in common 
use for any other buildings than churches; the 
same architects who did their best to build 
Gothic churches preferred to design private 
and business dwellings of different aspect, 
though there appeared a few buildings which, 
like Harvard College Library and Yale Col¬ 
lege Alumni Hall, were reminders of English 
collegiate Tudor architecture. Upjohn, apart' 
from his Gothic proclivities, was rather famous 
for his small Italian villas, some of which were 
of singular grace of design; and A. J. Downing, 
the landscape gardener, though he occasionally 
put pointed arches and a steep gable roof to a 
cottage, carried his Gothic efforts no further 
than this, and seems to have preferred Eliza¬ 
bethan or some other semi-classic style for the 
numerous country houses which he designed. 
The public buildings of the time just preceding 
the middle of the century (nearly always of 
pseudo-Greek style, as has been said above) 
were unimportant, and have been, in the main, 
replaced by more impressive structures. The 
country houses were also, as a general thing, 
without marked character, and the rows of 
street fronts in New York, Philadelohia, and 
Boston, and in the newer and rapidly growing 
cities of the West, were unmarked by architec¬ 
tural intelligence. 


In a very few cases a larger house was de¬ 
signed with some faithfulness, preserving a 
little of the simplicity of the bygone Georgian 
period, or carefully studied from French Pa¬ 
risian building, or the more tranquil and sim¬ 
ple city fronts of Italy. Still, the arrival of the 
year 1850 found no important architectural 
movement existing in the country; nor was this 
year followed by any very marked development. 
Two or three years later J. Wrey Mould came 
from England and began to build the Unitarian 
church in New York at the corner of Fourth 
Avenue and Twentieth Street. His design in¬ 
cluded a lofty and slender campanile, which 
has never been built; and the church was 
marked by a character of architectural and 
sculptured detail and by logical solidity of 
structure that are even now not very familiar 
to American designers. This, however, was 
Mould’s only great chance; his other buildings 
were comparatively unimportant, and his work 
in the adornment of Central Park in New York 
is undistinguishable from that of other artists 
employed upon the same terraces and bridges. 
St. George’s Church in New York was com¬ 
pleted, except for the spires, in 1853, under the 
direction of Leopold Eidlitz, who succeeded to 
his former partner and, perhaps, the first de¬ 
signer of the church. This church has since 
been injured by fire, and altered; but the origi¬ 
nal scheme, with an undivided and unbroken 
interior, and a roof supported by carefully de¬ 
signed timber trusses of two patterns, alternat¬ 
ing one with another, was one of the boldest and 
most satisfactory buildings in the United States. 
The spires were built by Mr. Eidlitz a few years 
later, and were remarkable as the only pierced 
spires of Romanesque design known to students; 
but, unfortunately, the poor quality of the stone 
caused their removal. The above-mentioned 
buildings had architectural character, but the 
greater part of even the respectable and useful 
structures of the time were comparatively de¬ 
void of it. The Boston Athenaeum, with its 
good plan and really excellent reading room; 
the New York Astor Library, the Boston Pub¬ 
lic Library on Boylston Street, finished about 
1858, and some smaller buildings which the 
Eastern cities managed to pay for during the 
decade from T845 to 1855, were generally as de¬ 
void of individuality as were the stone-faced 
hotels and State houses of the time. During the 
years from 1845 to i860 the building of the 
Southern cities and their immediate neighbor¬ 
hood was carried on much in their old lines — 
the lines of the Georgian architecture. What 
deviation there was from this was still rather in 
the direction of the supplying of obvious needs. 
Thus, the houses of Beaufort and of other 
seaside summer resorts were not unlike English 
Georgian manor houses, with this peculiarity, 
that they were large with a few spacious, open 
rooms and wide halls, giving the idea of small 
and simple English manor houses increased in 
scale — a scheme verv appropriate to the low 
latitude and the steadily warm summer weather. 
New Orleans, most conservative of American 
cities, showed no change in its outward aspect. 
The Western cities had received the inoculation 
of the very evil system of irrational ornamenta¬ 
tion which marked also the buildings of the 
East, as will be stated farther on. 


ARCHITECTURE 


About 1855, Richard Morris Hunt, having 
returned from Paris, where he had been a 
student and also assistant to a prominent Paris 
architect, built the Studio building in West 10th 
Street, and the since-destroyed private house on 
the north side of West 38th Street, putting into 
these something of that French completeness 
of plan and of exterior disposition of parts 
which the country had hardly known before. 
Hunt also established an atelier on the Paris 
plan; and half a dozen of the architects most 
successful and most reputed between 1870 and 
the close of the century were for a time inmates 
of that studio. Experiments were tried in those 
days — experiments both in material and design 
— which it is sad to see were wholly abandoned 
during the years which followed. Thus, when 
Upjohn built Trinity Building in New York, a 
business building, a mere investment for Trinity 
parish, he used terra-cotta for the cornice, and 
by this means obtained a boldness of overhang 
which he would hardly have dared to give in 
stone. Terra-cotta had to be imported in those 
days, or, if not imported, then made by means 
of a special plant and fired in furnaces erected 
for the occasion. It is easy to see why the ex¬ 
periment had no immediate results. So in de¬ 
sign the churches on Fifth Avenue — that of the 
Ascension, at the corner of 10th Street, and 
the Presbyterian church 300 feet farther north, 
together with the church at University Place and 
10th Street — were all of about this period, and 
in them was more intelligent designing than 
generally in the civic buildings of the time; 
but there was room for more originality in the 
latter, and the buildings by Hunt above named 
and a bank in Wall Street by Detlef Lienau held 
out more promise. Other business buildings of 
great importance date from this time; two of 
them were built by Eidlitz in the business sec¬ 
tion of New York, both of singular solidity and 
of thoughtful design, which cannot now be 
judged, as one has disappeared and the other 
has been altered out of recognition. 

The war came, and while some important 
enterprises took form during those tour years 
of excitement and rapid thought, but little of 
importance was brought to perfection. The con¬ 
ditions were peculiar; many of the architects 
and many of their possible employers were in 
the army; but those who were at home, although 
often for a short visit only, were full of ambi¬ 
tion. So it happened that both industrially and 
artistically the years immediately following the 
war were very active. In the Eastern cities, the 
domain of business began to encroach rapidly 
upon that which had been the residence portion, 
and whole streets were built up with buildings 
of somewhat pretentious character as to their 
outsides, the masons and stone-cutters making 
fortunes out of the simpler work unon so many 
precisely similar fronts; the residence streets 
were lined with buildings of constantly in¬ 
creasing cost, and also the construction of coun¬ 
try houses became an important employment 
for the builders in the smaller towns. A few 
years were still to elapse before the more im¬ 
portant public and private buildings took shape; 
this was the epoch of much building of less 
pretension. 

The result of the mingling of styles and the 
clashing of different tastes and fancies was 
very curious. Philadelphia buildings kept nearer 


to their old type of red brick and white marble 
and simple design; Boston buildings were far 
more often designed by architects employed, 
each one for a separate building by the owner of 
the soil. New York, following its unfortunately 
deeply-rooted habit, built itself up in long rows 
of stores and houses, each for sale to any pos¬ 
sible buyer, and therefore of necessity deprived 
of individual character. And yet the difference 
in architectural merit of the buildings in the 
three cities was not so great as might be assum¬ 
ed. The critical students of 1865 abhorred the 
New York brownstone front, with its high stoop 
and its exaggerated affectation of Corinthian 
elegance, and they envied Boston her intelligent 
Harvard graduates who owned lots and would 
build houses for themselves, and who employed 
other Harvard graduates to design those houses. 
But Philadelphia and New York, sticking to 
their traditions, produced at least less that was 
monstrous and impossible than Boston. There 
was more intelligence in the Boston buildings, 
but there was also more whim. The dreadful 
heresy of eclecticism got hold of a few of the 
Boston men, and the Gothic buttress topped by 
an Ionic pilaster, a motive which passed into 
a proverb, was only an extreme case of what 
was a serious injury to architectural growth. 
The Gothic revival in the hands of Peter B. 
Wright, J. Cleveland Cady, Calvert Vaux, Fred¬ 
erick Clarke Withers, and John Sturgis, led to 
the erection of some important buildings; the 
Boston Museum of Fine Arts, fronting on Cop¬ 
ley Square, being the most florid of these, and 
embodying the English terra-cotta building of 
the day. The Academy of Design in New York 
was the only building ever erected in America 
in which a serious effort was made to design 
an abundant sculpturesque decoration on the 
principles of the more advanced preachers of the 
gospel of medievalism. The labor and thought 
required for such work prevented any immedi¬ 
ate following of this example, and it soon ap¬ 
peared that the taste for Gothic buildings was 
not deeply rooted among the architectural stu¬ 
dents of the time. Good buildings were de¬ 
signed by the men who have been named, and 
Richard Upjohn’s admirable Trinity Chapel 
should be added to the list of Gothic churches 
deserving special praise; but the general effect 
of the taste for pointed windows and for the 
ornamentation supposed to belong to them was 
very unfortunate. It had much to do with what 
was certainly the most unsatisfactory epoch in 
American architectural designing. The years 
from 1865 to 1875 saw the erection by the hun¬ 
dred of the most insufferable country houses that 
could be imagined. All architectural sense 
seemed to have gone out of the designers. The 
posts of the verandas were cut into shapes sug¬ 
gested by nothing in the world except children’s 
toys; window-heads of hitherto unknown form 
were put into woodwork, into cast-iron, and 
even into stone; a variety of roof known 
throughout the country as the French roof, and 
consisting of a lower slope so steep as to be 
almost a vertical wall, and an upper slope so 
flat as to be a mere ^deck,® produced the ugliest 
skylines conceivable. The country was full of 
carpenters and masons who thought themselves 
architects because they had purchased and stud¬ 
ied some book containing plans and elevations 
of famous buildings. These men were trying 


ARCHITECTURE 


for originality; but this search, difficult and 
dangerous even among men who have had pre¬ 
vious training in artistic designing, becomes ruin¬ 
ous when followed by the men of an epoch and 
a country as devoid of artistic sense as those 
which we are now considering. Buildings were 
planned without any artistic perception of the 
necessities of the plan; a room was thrust out to 
the east and another to the south and another 
to the west, these different wings having no re¬ 
lation to one another or to the central mass, 
which, indeed, they might entirely conceal or 
even destroy. 

The same incongruity of design affected even 
the public buildings of the time. These were 
the days of Harvard Memorial Hall, of the first 
and accepted design for the capitol at Albany, 
of the United States government buildings, in¬ 
cluding the post-office and court rooms in the 
same huge mass, which were erected in many 
of the cities of the land, and of very numerous 
buildings which the designers, if now living, 
would with perfect propriety disclaim, classing 
them as the work of their salad days. Men who 
have since proved themselves capable of much 
better things produced the most unfortunate de¬ 
signs during those hurried years. The Tribune 
building in New York, the Boston city hall and 
court house, the earlier public buildings of Chi¬ 
cago, the Connecticut State house or capitol at 
Hartford, may all be named with those cited 
above as specimens of what ought not to 
be done in architecture, and yet as the build¬ 
ings of men who have since proved themselves 
capable and dexterous. It is, indeed, true that 
a flood of bad taste covered the land, and that 
few detached monuments of some little archi¬ 
tectural merit could be seen above it. 

A more promising condition of things was 
seen to exist when the third quarter of the cen¬ 
tury was completed. In 1875 the older men who 
were still busy had learned a great deal by ex¬ 
perience and by their own blunders; the younger 
men began to come in, more or less well taught 
in Paris — at all events certain of the fact that 
there was such a thing as 19th-century archi¬ 
tecture and that as yet the United States had 
hardly achieved it. Henry Richardson was busy 
as early as 1875, and a very few years later he 
took up definitely that Romanesque style which 
he had studied in central France — took it up, 
and built thereafter according to its doctrine, 
without forsaking it for a moment. Trinity 
Church in Boston, partly studied from Spanish 
models, was one of his Romanesque buildings 
— perhaps the earliest of them. Nearly contem¬ 
poraneous with this were three important 
churches in Boston, one of them by Richardson 
himself, the others by the younger Upjohn and 
Cummings and Sears; and several large churches 
of considerable merit were built in different 
mediaeval styles in New York. The older Up¬ 
john, the designer of Trinity Church 35 years 
before, made of St. Thomas’s Church, when re¬ 
built on Fifth Avenue, his crowning labor. 
The present writer built many college buildings 
between 1870 and 1880, and, in connection 
with George Fletcher Babb, built Battell Chapel 
of Yale College and a bank building in Albany, 
each of these in a modified Gothic style. Other 
college buildings, by George B. Post for Prince- 
Ion College, by H. H. Richardson for Harvard 
University, and by J. Cleveland Cady in several 


parts of the country, assisted greatly the advance 
of style; and Trinity College, near Hartford, 
was begun on a great scale and in a consistent 
English Gothic style from the designs of Wil¬ 
liam Burges of London. The admirable build¬ 
ings of Columbia College at 49th Street, New 
York, were built by C. C. Haight at a later 
time, and the same architect built theological 
seminaries and hospitals in and near New York, 
all in some form of English Collegiate Gothic. 
Of younger men, the firm of McKim, Mead & 
White, who had built the large and interesting 
buildings known as the Tiffany house and the 
Villard-Reid house in New York, designed 
also the Newport Casino, and in doing this 
helped much toward a development of country 
house architecture which, indeed, has constituted 
the most important artistic result of the quarter 
century. The American frame house, sheathed 
with clapboards or shingles, is, in the hands of 
architects of taste, the best thing we have yet 
to show. A few years later the firm of Carrere 
& Hastings designed the spirited Spanish-look- 
ing palaces used as hotels in St. Augustine. All 
these buildings had character; but there were 
still traces enough of the old unarchitectural 
designing, and this especially in the more im¬ 
portant buildings, as is natural. The original 
designs for the Albany capitol and for the 
Philadelphia public buildings were nearly as 
devoid of architectural merit as if they had been 
built 40 years earlier. 

Since 1885 there have been many more build¬ 
ings of cost and of great pretension — many more 
buildings which in scale reached the standard 
set by the continental nations of Europe — than 
at any previous time. Club houses of great im¬ 
portance, dwellings of such cost and dignity that 
they are really and in every sense of the word 
palaces, and national and municipal buildings, 
into the design of which some architectural am¬ 
bition has found its way, are now so common 
that even a bare list of them would fill more 
space than can here be given. If the progress 
of architecture since that time has not been all 
that could be hoped, this fact is to be ascribed 
to the rapid increase of new demands upon the 
architect’s attention. New problems have de¬ 
veloped themselves much more rapidly than the 
comparatively small number of intelligent archi¬ 
tects could work them out. The common use 
of the elevator made io-story buildings as easy 
to administer as the four-story buildings of old 
time, and the hotels and business buildings were 
at once changed in this radical way; whereupon 
it was found that the design which had served 
for a four-story building was not capable of 
ready adaptation to the new conditions. 

Hardly had this been realized and the prob¬ 
lem fairly got in hand when the introduction 
of the steel-cage form of construction revolu¬ 
tionized anew half the building of the American 
world, and the io-story front had to be recon¬ 
sidered for 16, 18, or 20 stories. Moreover, 
while the io-story building, like its predecessors, 
had been a structure of solid walls, carrying 
iron-framed floors, the steel-cage building was 
felt to be a totally different construction. Here 
was a skeleton of uprights and horizontals, and 
no thoughtful architect could jacket such a struc¬ 
ture with a thin stone-faced or brick-and-stone- 
faced wall without feeling that this was a mere 
simulacrum of building and that the real secret 


ARCHITECTURE OF TRANSITION 


of the new design had not yet been discovered. 
So, too, with the churches, although they were 
not required to be of unusual height, and al¬ 
though the steel-frame structure hardly sug¬ 
gested itself as fit for them, their condition was 
felt to be changed by the monstrous height of 
their neighbors, the insurance buildings, the 
hotels, the apartment houses. A church with a 
200-foot steeple and a 70-foot high roof-ridge 
made but a poor show alongside of a tower-like 
mass as large horizontally at top as at bottom, 
and carrying a level cornice higher than the 
steeple-cross of the church. Moreover the archi¬ 
tects whose work was of such quality as to 
please greatly the more instructed part of the 
community — a community full of a kind of lit¬ 
erary intelligence, but without much training in 
the arts which address themselves to the eye — 
those architects found themselves overwhelmed 
with work. It is not in human nature to refuse 
a $20,000 or $40,000 commission; it is not in 
human nature to confess the impossibility of 
doing so much work and doing it well. The re¬ 
sult is a general tendency toward a method of 
design which, in the best instances, is markedly 
controlled by good taste, by the abstention from 
incongruities and ill-considered details, but 
which may be almost devoid of the evidences of 
thought. The colonnade taken bodily from an 
ancient building, or a theoretical plate in an old 
book, the evenly spaced windows capped by a 
little delicate sculpture, the roof either invisible 
or of low pitch and masked by a balustrade 
copied from an Italian palazzo — these and other 
such architectural members are united without 
shock and without repulsive incongruity in 
buildings which do their appointed work quite 
well — which accommodate a family or a congre¬ 
gation, or which prove to be paying investments 
— and the community is fairly well satisfied. 
The extreme rarity of anything novel in design 
goes with this abrupt explanation of our present 
state as an architectural community. Louis Sul¬ 
livan of Chicago is left alone in his serious and 
repeated efforts to design the exteriors of lofty 
steel-framed buildings according to their nature 
and the requirement of the law and modern cus¬ 
tom. A. Page Brown, recently dead, was alone 
in having a separate and little-known national 
style in which to build his California College 
buildings. Heins and La Farge are almost alone 
in having a large church (the Cathedral of St. 
John the Divine) put into their hands to be 
slowly elaborated and perfected in design, even 
as the preparatory work progresses. Shepley, 
Rutan, and Coolidge of Boston are almost alone 
in having a chance to build a costly and massive 
structure (the west portal of Trinity Church), 
with an abundance of representative and ideal 
figure sculpture forming an essential part of the 
architectural design. Wilson Eyre has few to 
help him in his gallant effort to create a truly 
decorative system of sculpture for buildings 
which can have but little of it. Sculpture is, in¬ 
deed, added to a few of our buildings of neo¬ 
classic design, just as mural painting is used 
within, but this without modifying the architec¬ 
tural character of the structure. 

The conclusion seems to be that while the 
artistic mind of the country has well outgrown 
the period of callow haste and of ill-bred ugli¬ 
ness, it has hardly as yet entered upon a true 
architectural progress. The possibilities of such 


progress are evident; moreover, there are artists 
enough who feel the need of it; but whether the 
mind of the community, giving its best energies 
to money-making, will in the course of the next, 
century apply itself with serious purpose to< 
architectural art is, perhaps, as uncertain now as 
it was in 1850. Russell Sturgis, F.A.I.A., 
Author of ( Dictionary of Architecture? 

Architecture of Transition, that which 
shows somewhat rapid change from one impor¬ 
tant style to another. Strictly speaking, the 
architecture of all periods before the wars of the 
French Revolution was continually in a state of 
transition, though since that time it has been in¬ 
fluenced rather by sudden attempts at reviving 
styles long since forgotten. A natural transi¬ 
tion was always going on; but there were epochs 
when the changes in progress were of a spe¬ 
cially radical character. Such a time was that 
when the more stately architecture of the city 
of Rome and those towns and lands which de¬ 
pended upon it, was undergoing a change from 
the columnar character given it by the Greeks, 
to the vaulted and arcuated character resulting 
from the introduction of Eastern methods into 
Italy. This subject is treated in the general 
article Architecture, and under Roman Em¬ 
pire, Art of ; but it may be pointed out that the 
exact time of the transition cannot be fixed. 
The famous Pantheon in Rome, a round build¬ 
ing of immense solidity roofed by a cupola, 
hemispherical as seen from within, but low as 
seen from without, was long supposed the earli¬ 
est specimen of solid masonry building. The 
walls and the dome alike were built of rubble- 
stone laid in strong cement mortar, but without 
much reference to the curvature of the vault 
or the preparation for the different openings — 
doors, windows, archways. These were built up 
and the building outlined in the first place, by 
means of brickwork of very hard and perfect 
material and workmanship; then the great 
weight of the wall and vault was added, and the 
resulting building, with rough surfaces of stone 
and mortar without comely or orderly arrange¬ 
ment, was faced up, finally, with stucco or 
with slabs of marble within and without, and 
according to the place of each member in the 
completed building. The Greek columnar sys¬ 
tem, and especially the Corinthian order, was 
used as pure ornament, and for the interior 
alone; the marble columns carried no weight 
except that of the slight entablature put 

in place merely to complete the order and 

to give a finished architectural look to the 
whole. This building was long supposed to be 
the historically celebrated Pantheon of Agrippa, 
and to have been built during the princi¬ 
pality of Augustus about 25 b.c. It is now 

known that only the portico can be of that time 
and that the round building dates from the 

reign of Hadrian and is of about 120 a.d. We 
have no knowledge as to the chronological or¬ 
der of other early buildings of the same charac¬ 
ter. The thermae at Caracalla were built about 
215 a.d., the thermae of Diocletian about 290 
a.d., the basilica of Maxentius and Constantine 
about 310-20 a.d. ; and all these buildings have 
their great halls vaulted with groined vaulting 
as massive as the cupola of the Pantheon ana 
built of masonry in a similar fashion. No one 
can fix the beginning of this system, nor is it 
possible to say what buildings in the Oriental 


ARCHITECTURE OF TRANSITION 


provinces of the empire gave rise to the new 
structure. Etruscan example can hardly be 
thought very influential in this. It has 'been 
suggested that the lost architecture, at Alexan¬ 
dria and other great towns of the East of the 
time of the successors of Alexander the Great, 
would, if it could be explored, reveal this se¬ 
cret. All that we can say is that the chief build¬ 
ings of the empire from about ioo a.d. until the 
fall of the western empire in 475 a.d. were 
vaulted structures adorned by pseudo-Greek col¬ 
umns and pilasters, grouped in screens or used 
in couples or singly as apparent support for the 
vaulted structure, and the surfaces of masonry 
adorned with marble or with stucco in figured 
bas-relief, and with painting and gilding. 

It is possible, however, to mark out the 
close of this period of transition. The palace 
of Diocletian at Salona, where now is the town 
of Spalato, was built after 305 a.d., and that 
building is Romanesque in its character. This 
means that here are seen arches springing from 
the capitals of columns, exactly as they were to 
be built during the next 1,200 years, without the 
necessary interposition of the classical entabla¬ 
ture. It means also that the classical ordonnance 
and proportions, inherited from the Greek artists 
600 years before, had finally lost their hold. 
Buildings of the same epoch and others a little 
later in Syria, are of even less classical charac¬ 
ter, and even more decidedly Romanesque (see 
Christian Architecture). The recently ex¬ 
plored ruins in North Africa are frequently of 
the same style of design, with completely Ro¬ 
manesque treatment of arch and abutment. This 
character is seen, too, in buildings as early as 
the Arch of Hadrian at Athens, and the arches 
at the two ends of the famous bridge at Saint 
Chamas in southern France. In each of these 
the great arch springing from the abutment on 
either side is not in any way subordinated 
to a pair of columns or a pair of pilasters; 
columns are used, indeed, but only to adorn 
the outer edge of the piece of walling, in much 
the same way as the angle shaft of the 12th and 
13th centuries was to be used. Now, this 
early Romanesque of the 4th and 5th centuries 
is the organized style to which the great thermae 
and basilicas named above are the transition. 
The building first named above, the Pantheon, 
may be taken as a type of this transitional archi¬ 
tecture. 

An interesting art of transition is that which 
marks the growth of the Gothic style out of the 
Romanesque. The date of this may be set at 
1150-70 a.d. and the place as northern France — 
the country around Paris. In some of the 
provinces buildings even later than 1170 appear 
as transitional, for it took a quarter of a century 
before the people of the Rhine, of northern 
Spain, or, indeed, of the far south of France, 
had fully absorbed the new ideas of building. 
The famous Church of S. Remi at Reims may be 
looked upon as a type of this transitional archi¬ 
tecture, and large parts of the still better known 
Church of S. Denis near Paris are of this char¬ 
acter. These are the buildings in which the 
ribbed vault has been adopted once for all, and 
the pointed arch with it, as an almost necessary 
part of the actual structure, but where the 
round arch is still used for many of the open¬ 
ings in the walls and where the flying buttress is 
as yet far from complete. 


The most important style of all those which 
may be called Transitional is that of the close 
of the Gothic epoch. The Hundred Years War 
in France and Flanders came to an end about 
I 435 - There had been but little important work 
done on the continent during the 14th century, 
but in England the very curious Perpendicular 
style was developed, one in which the mullions 
of the windows were carried through until they 
nearly met the intrados of the arch above, so 
that the windows seemed divided up into series 
of vertical panels almost unbroken from top to 
bottom. The churches in this style are known 
by their very low roofs, nearly flat, so that they 
do not show above whatever little parapets may 
be erected upon the wall. The towers are 
square and generally flat-topped, with very sel¬ 
dom any spire or lantern and with pinnacles at 
the four corners. This style was continued into 
the period of which we now have to treat; 
and the transitional art in England, reaching even 
to the accession of Elizabeth (1558), is Perpen¬ 
dicular in its general character. Very differ¬ 
ent was the Florid Gothic of northern France. 
The Church of Notre Dame de l’fipine near 
Chalons-sur-Marne, and that of S. Jacques des 
Vignes et Soissons (ruined) are of this style, 
but are not its best specimens. For the full 
beauty of the style which we call Flamboyant, 
we must go to the Cathedral of Evreux and that 
of Narbonne. The beautiful tower of Saint-Pol- 
de-Leon, the great churches of S. Wulfram at 
Abbeville and S. Maclou at Rouen, the still 
more characteristic church at Saint Riquier, the 
west front of the Cathedral of Tours — all these 
are the faultless buildings of the Flamboyant 
style. They date from the years between 1450 
and 1500; but the style continues into the 16th 
century. Parts of the Church of S. Maclou, 
named above, are as late as 1535, and that is 
about the date of the Palais de Justice, in the 
same town. The south transept of Beauvais 
Cathedral may be even later than this, and the 
famous Church of Brou near Macon in Bur¬ 
gundy of the years 1510-36. The reader must 
constantly recall the fact that during these 
years the classical revival in Italy was at its 
very height (see Architecture and Renais¬ 
sance). The strange thing is the complete re¬ 
jection or ignoring of the classical feeling by 
the northerner, the complete adoption of it 
south of the Alps. 

The Flamboyant Gothic is not as strictly log¬ 
ical as the true Gothic of the 13th century, 
though the interior of a great church like one 
of those named above is apt to be as straight¬ 
forwardly built and as sincerely designed as at 
any epoch. The change is most marked in a cer¬ 
tain fantastical character given to the uncon- 
structional part, the window tracery, the para¬ 
pet, and the sculpture; but in England the 
extraordinary fan-vaulting, first seen in the clois¬ 
ters of Gloucester Cathedral, but carried on in 
the Divinity School at Oxford (1450) and in 
the Beauchamp Chapel, Warwick (1460), 
reached its culmination in the three famous 
buildings which we always think of when fan¬ 
vaulting is named. These are the Chapel of S. 
George at Windsor Castle, the Chapel of Henry 
VII. at Westminster Abbey, and, the most per¬ 
fect of all, the magnificent Chapel of King’s 
College at Cambridge, finished about 1510 and 
embodying in itself nearly all that the Florid 


ARCHITECTURE, EDUCATION IN 


architecture of England has to show. The in¬ 
terior is one unbroken hall lighted by huge 
windows on both sides, and by still larger win¬ 
dows at the two ends. It is 78 feet high inside, 
a considerable height for an English church; 
about 45 feet wide and about 315 feet in length; 
so that it has the characteristics of the best 
English interiors — great length as compared 
with height and width. The proportions are of 
extraordinary beauty, and there is in no place 
outside of France a more splendid ecclesiastical 
interior. 

This fine Late Gothic of England passed into 
the architecture which we call Tudor, from the 
Tudor sovereigns, Henry VII. and his succes¬ 
sors. Of this the most interesting development 
is that which we call the Elizabethan style, best 
known in the splendid country houses which 
were built during Elizabeth’s reign in different 
parts of England. The architecture of some 
great college buildings in Oxford and in Cam¬ 
bridge is also of this character,— with low (four- 
centred), pointed arches, and generally with 
low-pitched roofs; but these roofs are often 
splendidly designed within, with elaborate tim¬ 
ber-work forming a design even more varied and 
rich than the vaulting of the continent. Clas¬ 
sical details, columned porches, and the like, were 
introduced from Italy, and many of the other¬ 
wise picturesque and semi-Gothic houses of the 
period have these curious Htalianate® features. 
This architecture continued into the reign of 
James I. and disappeared in the political con¬ 
fusion of the time, to be succeeded by a classical 
style brought fresh from Italy when the condi¬ 
tions which ensued allowed of costly building 
once again. 

The Florid Gothic of France and the neigh¬ 
boring countries of the continent is accepted 
by the French writers as a part of the northern 
Renaissance; but we have to separate it very 
carefully from the Risorgimento or classical 
revival beginning in Italy about 1420. The 
reign of Louis XII. in France (1498-1515) is 
the time when we see, struggling with one an¬ 
other in the North, the classical influence from 
Italy, then nearly a century old in the land of 
its origin, and the Florid Gothic of France. 
Thus, at the famous Chateau of Blois, the wing 
named after Louis XII. is literally half way be¬ 
tween Gothic and classical. Arches are three- 
centred and therefore without points; pillars 
are either round or square in section, with pan¬ 
eled sides, or, as at the great driveway of 
entrance, are combinations of square and round 
forms; and all these pillars have fully organ¬ 
ized capitals of semi-classical character; but the 
roof is steep and is adorned with high chimneys 
and very elaborate dormer windows, and the de¬ 
sign is picturesque rather than symmetrical. A 
square tower stands at either end of this build¬ 
ing, of Louis XII., and each of these towers 
remains rather Gothic than classical to the 
hasty observer, although the avoidance of the 
chief forms of Gothic art is very marked. Al¬ 
most adjoining this stretch of building is the 
front named after Francis I. and built only 25 
years later than the building described above. 
This is not Gothic at all. The windows are all 
square and the walls have pilasters in regular 
ordonnance, while yet the lofty roof, the pictur¬ 
esque dormers, and the high chimneys remain to 


express the transitional character of the whole. 
The Church of Brou, already mentioned, is ex¬ 
ceptionally late for a building which is entirely 
Gothic in style, without classical motives of any 
sort. 

Russell Sturgis. 

Architecture, Education in. Training .— 
The ideal architect is an artist who employs 
structure as his medium of expression,— whose 
function it is to produce beautiful buildings. 

That this ideal is realized by relatively few 
of those who are called architects in our day 
is due to the fact that its embodiment under 
modern conditions involves the correlation of 
activities of very diverse nature; and few there 
are who display in just proportion the capaci¬ 
ties these diverse activities involve. These may 
be placed in three great groups, and the archi¬ 
tect’s training may be correspondingly consid¬ 
ered under three headings, namely, his artistic 
education, his technical education, his business 
education. 

The student who hopes to be an artist-archi¬ 
tect must train himself somewhat as do all 
artists in all other fields. Yet he cannot with 
his own hands bring into existence the building 
his imagination pictures; he is compelled as no 
other artist is, to rely upon the work of others 
in the realization of his artistic creations. 
Hence it becomes very important for him to 
gain a very special technical training in order 
(1) that he may learn how to indicate to his 
artisan helpers the nature of the work to be 
done, and (2) that he may become acquainted 
with the methods proper to these artisans in the 
accomplishment of their several tasks. 

But beyond this the architect who would 
reach the highest goal should prepare himself 
for a business career. For unlike other artists 
he is usually unable to express himself in his 
chosen medium unless others entrust to him the 
expenditure of large sums of money. And if he 
is to be thus trusted he must exhibit executive 
ability, a knowledge of men and capacity to 
manage them, and at the same time he must 
possess unquestioned reliability and business sa¬ 
gacity. 

In this connection it may perhaps be well to 
note that in our time there are not a few men 
who are counted as successful architects who 
are really merely good business men working 
in a special field, men without high artistic 
ideals or susceptibilities, and who gain such 
success as they attain by the mere direction of 
hired designers, and by the careful management 
of the business of their clients. The education 
of such men involves only such general training 
as is required by other business men, with the 
addition of such studies as will give them a 
knowledge of the architectural forms current 
in our time, and such a superficial acquaintance 
with the principles of architectural design as 
will enable them to choose as employees de¬ 
signers whose work will satisfy the average 
taste of their clients. 

We need not concern ourselves, however, 
with business men of this type, for they will 
not be looked upon as architects by those to 
follow us unless they combine with their busi¬ 
ness skill the other qualities demanded of the 
ideal architect, to the consideration of whose 
training we may now turn our attention. 


ARCHITECTURE, EDUCATION IN 


Apprentice System .—As is indicated by the 
etymology of his name, the architect was orig¬ 
inally a master workman; one who had arisen 
from the ranks because he had evinced skill 
and imagination in guiding the construction of 
buildings after the methods current in his time, 
and who through the exercise of this skill and 
imagination had produced buildings which were 
looked upon as beautiful by his fellows. 

The methods employed by the architects of 
antiquity are little known to us, yet as the work 
under their control became more complicated 
they must have found it necessary to employ 
assistants who at first were without doubt 
merely trade apprentices, and from among these 
the architects of the next generation would 
most naturally be chosen. 

In modern times, as the use of complicated 
drawings has become more and more impor¬ 
tant, the architect has found it necessary to 
use his assistants on special work which 
does not involve the skill acquired by arti¬ 
sans in construction; and thus the type of 
man serving as the architect’s apprentice has 
changed. While not an artisan himself he has 
learned his master’s methods, and presently we 
find men thus trained assuming the function of 
the architect without any preliminary practice 
as constructors. 

The apprentice system of education for the 
architect as thus developed was not unlike 
that adopted in the earlier days in the training 
of artists in other fields, and with such modifi¬ 
cations as are natural in relation to the com¬ 
plexity of modern life it has persisted even to 
our day in many lands. In England a large 
proportion of the eminent architects of the day 
have been educated in this manner, and until 
within a generation in this country no other 
system of training for the architect was avail¬ 
able. 

A similar apprentice system obtained in the 
training of lawyers and doctors until a late 
period when special schools of law and medicine 
became established. The success of these 
schools called attention to the fact that, from 
a certain point of view, the architect is as 
clearly a professional man as the doctor or law¬ 
yer, and that the weaknesses in the training of 
doctors and lawyers under the apprentice sys¬ 
tem, which had led to the establishment of their 
special schools, existed also in connection with 
the study of architecture. 

These weaknesses need but to be stated to be 
apparent to all. Evidently the teaching a busy 
architect can give to his pupil must vary greatly 
in quality and amount as the demands of his 
practice vary. Evidently his teaching is likely 
to be unsystematic; and it is certain to be biased 
by his individual taste, a matter w'hich is of 
importance in relation to certain subjects, to 
be referred to below, where the broadest catho¬ 
licity is of importance. 

Thus following the example set in other 
professions, there have been established schools 
of architecture in which an effort is made to 
give the student a systematic training which 
shall not vary in quality and amount from year 
to year, and which shall avoid the unfortunate 
influences which are liable to obtain under the 
apprentice system. It will be generally con¬ 
ceded that the schools as a rule have been rea¬ 
sonably successful in this effort, if general re¬ 


sults are considered, if particular instances are 
not over emphasized. 

But the abandonment of the apprentice sys¬ 
tem of training in the law and medicine car¬ 
ried with it a loss which was generally over¬ 
looked. The newer method tended to minimize 
if not to eliminate the inspiration which comes 
to the student as the result of contact with the 
living master in the active practice of his pro¬ 
fession. Nowadays students in law and med¬ 
icine appreciate this loss and are supplementing 
their school training with practice under the 
guidance of men of reputation in their special 
fields. 

But the loss to the student of architecture 
who fails to come under the influence of a prac¬ 
tising master can scarcely be overstated. For 
the artist such an influence is of vital im¬ 
portance ; under it he will absorb, as it were, 
stores of lore peculiar to his art which can 
never be expressed in the alien words of the lec¬ 
turer, or upon the pages of a text-book. Fortu¬ 
nately the architects themselves are beginning 
to see that in one way or another the archi¬ 
tectural student must be brought to feel this 
influence. What was valuable in the apprentice 
method of education, and has been in many 
cases lost, must be regained. In no inconsider¬ 
able measure it has been regained in the atelier 
system as developed in the Ecole des Beaux 
Arts in Paris, and fortunately a distinct move¬ 
ment in the same direction is noted in the later 
developments of the schools existing in this 
country. 

Granting then that there is a vital something 
of supreme importance to the architectural 
student which the school training cannot give, 
let us ask what he can gain in the schools, with 
economy of his time and labor, in connection 
with the training which we have seen to be 
desirable in the three directions above spoken 
of, which for convenience we shall treat in re¬ 
verse order. 

Business Training .—The architect’s business 
training cannot be materially advanced in the 
architectural school. The general education, 
and the influences which produce the reliable, 
accurate, and farseeing business man, can 
best be gained quite apart from the school 
course, in the practising architect’s studio. 
In this connection it may be noted that, 
while the artistic side of the architect’s 
life must always be first considered, it is 
easy to underestimate the importance of his 
business career. The student fresh from the 
schools too often thinks that he may at once 
undertake important commissions without the 
business experience which a long established 
practice brings. He will tell you that this can 
be purchased ready made by the employment of 
others to attend to this drudgery so repugnant 
to a man of artistic temperament. 

But in this view there lurks a hidden danger 
to the art of architecture itself. As has been 
said above, the confidence of the client must be 
obtained by the man who is to spend the cli¬ 
ent’s money, and if the skilled designer is not 
one who inspires this confidence the control of 
great constructions will surely go to men of less 
artistic ability, and the skilled designer will 
find himself directed, rather than the director of 
the work necessary to the embodiment in solid 
form of the ideas which his imagination cre¬ 
ates. Nothing can be more dangerous to pro- 


ARCHITECTURE, EDUCATION IN 


gress in architecture as an art than the estab¬ 
lishment of a belief that the architect’s function 
ends with the creation of designs on paper; his 
art product is in the constructed building, and 
if effective artistic result is to be gained he 
should actually direct the construction in all 
particulars and to the very end, and should 
train himself to assume all the labor and re¬ 
sponsibilities this direction involves. 

Technical Training .—We may now turn to 
the consideration of the architect’s technical 
training, which in the first place must result in 
the mastery of methods of representing his con¬ 
ceptions so that they may be understood by his 
clients, and comprehended by the workmen who 
are to be employed to embody them in material 
form. This means in the main the attainment 
of skill in technical draughting; and this can 
very clearly be better and more quickly gained 
by the concentrated effort possible in a school 
than in the course of the routine work in an 
architect’s office. The student should be warned, 
however, that a danger is connected with the 
attainment of this skill if he comes to look 
Upon his drawings, which are no more than 
tools of his trade, as works of art in them¬ 
selves ; for these drawings are necessarily on 
plane surfaces, and if he gives too much 
thought to their perfection he is liable to over¬ 
look the importance for him as an architect of 
thinking in solid dimensions. 

The general principles governing the repre¬ 
sentation of details of, and the writing of specifi¬ 
cations descriptive of, the work to be done can 
also be learned in the schools, but little more 
than these general principles; the student must 
not hope to gain facility in these important mat¬ 
ters without the experience of actual office 
practice. 

Artistic Training .— It is true of all artists, 
as it is of poets in particular, that they are 
born and not made; and surely unless all op¬ 
portunity is lacking the born architect of genius 
will show his power whatever his training may 
be. Nevertheless there are certain matters 
which even the genius must learn by his own 
often bitter experience, or else from those who 
have practised his art before him; and these 
matters may in some particulars be learned 
most quickly and surely in a school. It will be 
agreed for instance that each artist should un¬ 
derstand well the nature of the medium in 
which he is to express his measure of genius. 
The medium of the artist-architect is construc¬ 
tion in masonry, in iron, and in wood; and a 
thorough knowledge of the principles of con¬ 
struction is most important to his progress. 
This knowledge is the ground work of engineer¬ 
ing, and clearly can best be gained in a school. 
In relation to this special study it may be said, 
on the one hand, that the most thorough train¬ 
ing in engineering cannot injure an architect 
provided it does not take from the time to be 
given to other equally important matters to 
be referred to below. On the other hand it 
must not be forgotten that the architect’s func¬ 
tion is not merely building as such, but build¬ 
ing in a manner that shall stimulate in his fel¬ 
lows the sense of beauty. This molding of 
constructional forms into shapes which are 
beautiful is a matter of difficulty which has 
been attained by architects in the past only 
through numberless trials, with their failures 


and successes; through the elimination of the 
ugly, and the repetition with ever increasing 
improvement of that which has shown itself to 
be pleasing. The architect has thus always 
worked with, and upon, established modes of 
construction, and he always will; and this dis¬ 
tinguishes his work from that of the engineer, 
whose function it is to devise special modes of 
structure to meet special structural demands. 
It is apparent then that the training of the 
architect in relation to his structural medium 
differs from that to be given to the engineer, 
in that the architect does not need to gain more 
than a thorough understanding of the princi¬ 
ples of structure which he is to use in his work, 
and this does not necessarily involve so pro¬ 
longed or detailed a study of the sciences as is 
needful for the engineer. 

The Architect as a Designer .— We may now 
turn to the consideration of what is of the high¬ 
est importance to the architect, namely, his 
training as a designer. As we have suggested 
above, no amount of training can give to a 
man that measure of genius which constitutes 
him an artist. None the less the greatest genius 
will gain much if he learn the lessons taught 
by the experience of the masters of the past, and 
the man who is less than a genius were stupid 
if he did not welcome this teaching. The mas¬ 
ters of architecture of the past have left us a 
record of the forms and relations of parts which 
after long series of studies and experiments 
they have found to be most beautiful. This rec¬ 
ord is not found in written word, but in the 
great monuments which have been left to us; 
and the study of these monuments after a cer¬ 
tain method constitutes the history of architec¬ 
ture. The student should gain as thorough a 
knowledge as possible of this history, with es¬ 
pecial reference to the vital development of 
the various greater and lesser styles, giving 
particular attention to those forms in which the 
highest perfection has been attained in the 
past, and making a special study of those forms 
which appeal to him as most likely to be of 
service to him under the conditions which sur¬ 
round him. He should also gain a considerable 
acquaintance with the other arts, especially with 
those most closely related with architecture, 
namely, sculpture and painting. 

Evidently a large part of the information 
just referred to can be gained through text¬ 
books and illustrated lectures given in the 
schools. But as clearly is it important for the 
architect to study the art products themselves, 
and this can only be done satisfactorily by 
travel in the Old World, where the great archi¬ 
tectural monuments of the past exist. Where 
such travel is impossible, he may gain something 
approximating to it by studying such models of 
masterpieces of the past as are available in 
museums, and by the thoughtful use of photo¬ 
graphs of existing masterpieces. 

In all this, however, the student will have 
been merely sharpening his tools for his life 
work; all this is but preliminary to practice in 
design. Here he cannot properly content him¬ 
self with mere study of the works of other 
masters. For the conditions under which each 
generation works are always in some respects 
new, and architecture as exemplified in his 
work can only be a living art if the architect, 
while taking advantage of the artistic experi- 


ARCHITRAVE 


ARCHONS 


ence of those who have preceded him, builds 
to meet the new conditions in which he finds 
himself placed. 

In these studies in design he will necessarily 
employ drawings very largely, but he should 
never allow himself to forget that these draw¬ 
ings are merely symbols of the art product he 
aims to produce; he should use every effort to 
avoid thinking of his design on paper as the 
end of his endeavor; he should strenuously 
train himself while he works on a plane sur¬ 
face to translate into the actual material sub¬ 
stance of the building he is projecting; that is, 
to design and think in the solid. To this end 
the student should give considerable attention 
to modeling in clay, and he will find it most 
valuable to cultivate the habit of rapid and 
accurate sketching in perspective, and to acquire 
deftness in making simple small scale clay 
models of his projets. 

It is in connection with this study of design 
that the architectural student will find it to his 
greatest advantage to work under the inspiring 
influence of a practising architect whom he rec¬ 
ognizes as a master of his art; and it is most 
encouraging to note, as has been remarked 
above, that those who guide the best of our 
modern architectural schools are recognizing 
this fact, and are aiming in one way or another 
to regain the benefit to the student in this 
regard which was connected with the old ap¬ 
prentice system so carelessly laid aside in most 
of the schools as first established. 

It must be apparent to the reader of what 
has preceded this that no student should under¬ 
take the practice of architecture without facing 
the fact that he has before him a long road, and 
a life of arduous effort. In the view of the 
writer no young man should undertake this 
work unless he feels within him a very power¬ 
ful inclination to it. The modern world is all 
too full of those who choose the architect’s 
life because they think it relatively easy and es¬ 
pecially delightful. The latter it surely is; but 
the former it as surely never is. 

Conclusions .— The conclusions reached may 
now be summarized in a few words. Beyond 
such general culture as he may be able to gain, 
the most desirable special training for an archi¬ 
tectural student will be given by certain stud¬ 
ies which can best be taken in established ar¬ 
chitectural schools, supplemented by careful 
observations of monuments of architecture in the 
course of travel in Europe, and by work in the 
studio and business office of a skilled practi¬ 
tioner who is a masterful artist. 

It were well if life were so ordered that the 
acquisition of technical facility, and the study 
of design under a master, could begin in early 
youth, and continuing could fill the leisure hours 
of the student while gathering the store of gen¬ 
eral information which tends to broaden his 
life; but under existing conditions such an order 
of work is difficult to arrange. 

If choice is to be made among the archi¬ 
tectural schools, the one chosen should if possi¬ 
ble be one situated in a city where building 
operations are proceeding on a large scale, and 
especially one in which design is taught by mas¬ 
ters of architecture who are in active practice. 

Finally the student would do well who could 
manage to obtain a position in the draughting 
room and business office of some architect in 


active practice during a large proportion of the 
long school vacations so generally given during 
the summer season. See Painting, Education 
in ; Sculpture, Education in. 

Henry Rutgers Marshall. 

Architrave, ar'ki-trav, in classical archi¬ 
tecture and imitations of it, the part of an en¬ 
tablature which rests immediately on the heads 
of the columns, being the lowest of its three 
principal divisions; also the molded enrichment 
on the faces of the jambs and lintels of a door¬ 
way or window, this being a part of the en¬ 
tablature carried around the opening and mitred 
at the upper corners. 

Archives, iir'kivz (Latin archivumj , a room 
or building in which are kept the records, char¬ 
ters, and other papers belonging to any State, 
community, or family. Very frequently the 
name is applied to the documents themselves. 
The archives of the United States are now su¬ 
perintended by the heads of departments. 

Archivolt, ar'ki-volt, in architecture, the 
ornamental band, often of moldings, on the face 
of an arch and following its contour. 

Arch of Con'stantine. See Arch, Memorial. 

Arch of Septi'mius Seve'rus. See Arch, 
Memorial. 

Arch of Ti'tus. See Arch, Memorial. 

Arch of Tra'jan. See Arch, Memorial. 

Archons, ar'konz, the highest magistrates 
in Athens. There was for a long period only 
one archon, who possessed for life all the power 
and dignity of a king, and was chosen from the 
royal race of Codrus. In 752 b.c. a change was 
introduced, and the tenure of the archonship was 
restricted to 10 years, the person appointed be¬ 
ing still a member of the royal race. In 714 
the latter condition was abolished, and the ar¬ 
chonship thrown open to all the Eupatrids or 
nobles; and in 683 a still greater change was 
introduced, the office being now made annual, 
and its functions distributed among a body of 
nine. The reforms of Solon threw the archon¬ 
ship open to all who possessed a certain amount 
of property, whether noble by birth or not; and 
in 477 Aristides made it accessible to all 
Athenian citizens, without distinction. Until 
508 the mode of election was by suffrage of the 
nobles; election by lot was then introduced, and 
the person elected had to undergo a scrutiny 
before the senate and before the Agora in order 
to show that his ancestors had been citizens for 
three generations, and had to swear to obey the 
laws. The first of the nine archons was called 
(( the archon,® and sometimes the Archon Epo- 
nymus, because he gave his name to the year in 
all public records. He had the care of minors 
and orphans, and had to superintend some of 
the festivals. The second archon was called the 
King Archon. Upon him chiefly devolved the 
care of the religious concerns of the people, in 
connection with which he had to act as prosecu¬ 
tor of murderers and offenders against religion. 
The third archon had the name of Polemarch, 
and was originally entrusted with the super¬ 
intendence of military matters, though in later 
times his duties were chiefly confined to the 
protection and superintendence of the resident: 


ARCHYTAS —ARCTIC REGION 


aliens. The rest of the archons were called 
Thesmothetae, and exercised a general supervi¬ 
sion over the laws of the state. 

Archytas, ar-ki'tas, an ancient Greek, a 
native of Tarentum, a famous Pythagorean phi¬ 
losopher, renowned also as a truly wise man, a 
great mathematician, statesman, and general. 
He was the contemporary of Plato and flour¬ 
ished about 400-365 b.c., but the dates of his 
birth and death are unknown. The invention of 
the analytic method in mathematics is ascribed 
to him, as well as the solution of many geometri¬ 
cal and mechanical problems. He constructed 
various machines and automata, among the most 
celebrated of which was his flying pigeon. Plato 
is said to have borrowed some of his opinions 
from Archytas, and Aristotle also is said to have 
been indebted to him for the idea of his cate¬ 
gories and some of his ethical opinions. These 
opinions, however, appear to depend on spurious 
writings, the real remains of Archytas being of 
inconsiderable value. Horace mentions him in 
one of his poems (Carm. i. 28) as having been 
drowned on the coast of Apulia. 

Arcif'era (Latin, arcus, bow, + ferre, to 
bear, carry), a division of Anura, including the 
toads. 

Arcis-Sur-Aube, ar'se'su'rob', France, a 
town of the department of Aube on the river 
Aube. It is the birthplace of Danton, to whom 
a monument was erected here in 1886. In 1814 
a battle was fought here between Napoleon and 
the allies in which the latter, with a much su¬ 
perior force, had the advantage and afterward 
marched to Paris. Pop. 2,841. 

Ar'co, Austria, a town in the Tirol, not 
far from the Lake of Garda, on account of its 
situation and mild climate a favorite winter re¬ 
sort of invalids. Pop. 3,782. 

Arcole, ar'ko-la, a village in North Italy, 
in the province and 15 miles southeast of the 
town of Verona, on the left bank of the Alpone, 
celebrated for the battles of 15, 16, and 17 Nov. 
1796, fought between the French under Bona¬ 
parte and the Austrians in which the latter were 
defeated with great slaughter. 

Argon, ar-soii, Jean Claude Eleonore d’, a 
French military engineer: b. Pontarlier, 1733; 
d. 1 July 1800. He was received into the mili¬ 
tary school at Mezieres, 1754, and in the Seven 
Years’ war he highly distinguished himself, 
particularly at the defense of Cassel in 1761. 
In 1780 he invented the floating batteries for the 
attack of Gibraltar, which, however, were de¬ 
stroyed by the red-hot shot of the besieged. At 
the invasion of Holland under Dumouriez (in 
1793) he took several places, including Breda. 
He then went into retirement, where he wrote 
his important Considerations Militaires et Poli- 
tiques sur les Fortifications ) (1795). 

Arcona. See Arkona. 

Arcos de la Frontera, ar'kos da la fron- 
ta'ra, a town in Spain in the province of Cadiz, 
on the right bank of the Guadalete, which is 
here crossed by a stone bridge. The sandstone 
rock on which the town, in form of a bow, is 
placed, rises 570 feet above the level of the river, 
which surrounds it on three sides. The houses 
are mean looking; the streets paved, but gener¬ 
ally steep and narrow; and the ancient walls and 
defenses are in a ruinous state. On the highest 


part of the rock stands the castle of the dukes 
of Arcos, partly in ruins. Pop. (1900) 15,700. 

Ar'cot, ar-kot', the name of two districts 
and a town of India within the presidency of 
Madras. North Arcot is an inland district with 
an area of 7,256 square miles. The country is 
partly flat and partly mountainous. Pop. 1,817,- 
814. South Arcot lies on the Bay of Bengal, 
and has two seaports, Cuddalor and Porto Novo. 
Pop. 1,814,738. The town of Arcot is in North 
Arcot, on the Palar, about 70 miles west-by¬ 
south of Madras. There is a military canton¬ 
ment 3 miles distant. The town contains hand¬ 
some mosques, a Nawab’s palace in ruins, and 
the remains of an extensive fort. Arcot played 
an important part in the wars which resulted 
in the ascendency of the British in India. It 
was taken by Clive, 31 Aug. 1751, and heroically 
defended by him against an overwhelming force 
under Rajah Sahib. Pop. 11,000. 

Arc'tic, a term applied to the North Pole, or 
the pole raised above our horizon, from the 
proximity of the constellation of the Bear, in 
Greek called arktos. The Arctic circle is an 
imaginary circle on the globe, parallel to the 
equator, and 23 0 28' distant from the North Pole, 
from whence its name. This and its opposite, 
the Antarctic, are called the polar circles. With¬ 
in these circles the sun does not set during a 
part of the year, and during a corresponding part 
does not rise. 

Arc'tic Cham See Trout. 

Arc'tic Re'gion, the name given to the 
region of land and water surrounding the North 
Pole, reaching on all sides to lat. 66° 32' N. 
The Arctic or North Polar circle touches the 
northern headlands of Iceland; cuts off the 
southern and narrowest portion of Greenland; 
crosses Fox Strait north of Hudson Bay, whence 
it goes over the American continent to Bering 
Strait. Thence it runs to Obdorsk at the mouth 
of the Obi; then, crossing northern Russia, the 
White Sea, and the Scandinavian peninsula, re¬ 
turns to Iceland. 

Climate .— The most important facts now as¬ 
certained respecting the climate of the Arctic 
regions are, that the main line of extreme cold 
extends across the Polar Sea from the meridian 
of 90° W. to that of 130° E., reaching much far¬ 
ther on the Asiatic than on the American side, 
so that the winter temperature of Yakutsk (lat. 
62° 2') is 7 0 F. lower than that of Rensselaer 
harbor, in Smith Sound (lat. 78° 37'). But the 
American limit of cold oscillates much less than 
the Asiatic, the summer temperature at Rensse¬ 
laer harbor being but 62°, while at Yakutsk it is 
95° F. above that of winter. This difference is 
due to the absorption of summer heat by the 
comparatively dry plains of Siberia, while on the 
North American continent the numerous lakes 
and inlets moderate the climate throughout the 
year. To this it may perhaps be added that 
Greenland, owing to its peculiar constitution and 
position, is to. North America a source of re¬ 
frigeration which has no counterpart in the east¬ 
ern continent. This circumstance, and the hu¬ 
mid atmosphere maintained by the numerous 
lakes, somewhat moderates the severity of the 
cold, but at the same time renders it somewhat 
more constant. 

Arctic Ocean .—In its widest sense that por¬ 
tion of the ocean which extends from the Arc- 



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NORTH POLAR REGIONS 


Siinuslr 
Kctoj • rf 
Raoukoko• ’ 
Shlnsh kutan 
me kotan 


SCALE OF MILES. 


“nushir 


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oww** 


Unimak 


Ghijintk' 


Kartchinak 


Chumogln Is., 
Pt-Keprciaj- 


Gabriel 


jlnadyrd* 


Semidi Is., 


Kiakhta 


FfColynnk\ 


Baryuzinak *- 


CIRCLE 


Oleknuntl 


L. Baikal 


\ ol !/>n«k 


Balaganak 


Shiganak 


Kenaiy’cna. 


Bratak 


>tzcbue Sd 


Montague I. V 
Pr. William SdS 


JMt. A 
McKinley 


Omuliak 

U ljahu,i 


t. Wr any el 
Mt.St.EHaJ 


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IJn’cw Siberian 

OR new sun:L 

* De Lung / 

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i'agaatir 


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NiJ.Tunyuaka 


PL Harrow 


i^!. Skagivay 


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I'ukon 


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Vat Anabdrak 


Ft.Selkirk 


ba waon 


Anaberak B- 


:hunaka 


C. Pwobrtyeniaj 


'Khatangak 


Khatanya J B. 


ibeheak 


Ft'Macphcrson 


Tomtk 


rA -c 3 Mackenzie iJN. 

yc* ^ 

Esquimaux L- 

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fx Liverpool B. 
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M I N lyO/f N . 

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Dudinak 


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y'''Lonely !.• Port Dickson' 

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Surgut 


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NORTH 


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ARCTIC REGION 


tic Circle (lat. 66° 32' N.) to the North Pole, 
or more restrictedly from about lat. 70° N. As¬ 
suming the former limit, the Arctic Ocean is 
found entering deeply, in the form of gulfs, bays, 
etc., into the northern parts of the continents 
of Europe, Asia, and America. The principal 
of these indentations are the White Sea in Eu¬ 
rope ; Kara Sea, Gulfs of Obi and Yenisei in 
Siberia; and Baffin Bay in North America. It 
is united to the Pacific by Bering Strait, and to 
the Atlantic by a wide stretch of sea extending 
from Greenland to Norway. Among the princi¬ 
pal islands of the Arctic Ocean are Greenland 
(at last proved to be an island) and east of 
Greenland the extensive group known under the 
name of Spitzbergen, the small island of Jan 
Mayen, and Iceland. West of Greenland and 
divide from it by Davis Strait and Baffin Bay 
there are a considerable number of islands of 
great size but little interest. North of Europe 
are the islands of Nova Zembla; and north from 
these Franz Josef Land, an archipelago as yet 
imperfectly known. The water of the Arctic 
Ocean is extremely pure, shells being distinctly 
visible at a great depth; it also presents rapid 
transitions of color, chiefly from ultramarine to 
olive-green, the latter variations of color being 
produced by myriads of minute animals belong¬ 
ing for the most part to the Coelenterata and 
Mollusca classes. Many have adopted the be¬ 
lief in the existence of an open polar sea about 
the North Pole. But this belief is not supported 
by any positive evidence. Ice is nearly con¬ 
stant everywhere between Spitzbergen and the 
southern point of Greenland. This is called the 
main north ice. East of Spitzbergen and near 
Nova Zembla the sea is always beset, if not 
completely barred, by ice. In Baffin Bay and 
thence west to Bering Strait numerous expe¬ 
ditions have had a perpetual struggle with ice. 
The expedition of 1875-6 under Captain Nares, 
members of which reached a point 30 miles 
further north than had ever previously been 
attained, proceeding by way of Baffin Bay 
and Smith Sound, found no indications of an 
open polar sea. On the contrary the explorers 
found north of 82° 27' a sea consisting of one 
unbroken sheet of old ice of immense thickness, 
which effectually barred the further progress 
of the vessels, while the ruggedness of the ice 
rendered it impossible to reach the pole by 
sledge. Nansen more recently found abundance 
of ice in the tract of sea crossed by him. 

Arctic Current. — It seems certain that a 
current sets into the polar basin along the coasts 
of Norway and Lapland. It is probably the 
effect of prevalent southwest winds, though some 
call it a branch of the Gulf Stream. There is 
also a strong current running in at Bering 
Strait. On the other hand, along the east coast 
of Greenland and in Baffin’s Bay the movement 
is generally south. In the numerous channels 
between Baffin Bay and Bering Strait the tides 
are regular but feeble; indeed, it seems possible 
to trace across Barrow Strait the line of neu¬ 
tralized or no tide, and this, there is reason to 
suspect, is also the line of comparatively perma¬ 
nent ice. 

Minerals. — Valuable minerals, fossils, etc., 
have been discovered within these Arctic regions. 
In the archipelago north of the American conti¬ 
nent excellent coal frequently occurs. The 
mineral cryolite is mined in Greenland and car¬ 


ried to the United States. Among other fossils 
the remains of large saurians are found in the 
Lias, which extends widely over the northern 
archipelago, and ammonites collected in abun¬ 
dance prove that in lat. 73 0 north there was once 
a tropical temperature. The group of islands 
opposite the mouth of the Lena, in lat. 73 0 , are 
little more than accumulations of fossil remains 
carried down by the river, and are annually 
visited for the purpose of digging fossil ivory. 

V egetation. — The plants peculiar to the 
frigid zone are stunted more by the dry winter 
winds than by short growing seasons and long 
winters. The reduction is confined to the limbs, 
as roots are as long and penetrate as far as in 
more temperate climates. The vegetation is 
widely distributed, the species found in North 
America being practically the same as those 
found in Europe and Asia, and since trees be¬ 
come more and more scarce as the Pole is ap¬ 
proached, the prevalence of the tundra forma¬ 
tion is characteristic of the region. In respect 
to distribution, arctic plants differ from alpine 
plants (q.v.) which though otherwise simi¬ 
lar, especially in the census of cushion and 
rosette plants and plants with thick-skinned 
evergreen leaves, include many endemic species. 
Arctic perennials are noted for the high per¬ 
centage of species that develop wintering flower¬ 
ing buds which burst into bloom early in the 
spring. In the Arctic zone, less than two 
thousand species have been described, among 
them very few trees. These are mostly stunted 
willows, junipers, and birches, and beyond their 
northern limits flowering plants, grasses, mosses, 
and lichens extend as far as man has penetrated. 
Commonest among the flowering species are 
crowfoots, potentillas, poppies, saxifrages, whit¬ 
low grass ( Draba ) and scurvy grass ( Cochlea - 
ria ). Thyme and angelica, growing in shel¬ 
tered spots, are the only perfume-bearers. 

The English expedition of 1875-76 found 20 
or 30 species of phanerogamous plants between 
lat. 82° and 83°. From Churchill River on the 
west side of Hudson Bay (lat. 53 0 ), the line lim¬ 
iting the forest runs constantly to the north of 
west till it reaches Norton Sound, a little south of 
Bering Strait, larch and poplar making their ap¬ 
pearance as we go west. In Siberia, where the 
summer heat is greater, woods flourish to a much 
higher latitude within the Polar Circle. In the 
Scandinavian peninsula the red pine reaches 
lat. 69°, the Scotch fir 70°, the birch 71 °. Ani¬ 
mal life is by no means deficient within the Polar 
Circle. Species indeed are few, but the individ¬ 
uals are extremely numerous. The proof of this 
is to be found in the immense number of skins 
of fur-bearing animals, eider ducks, seals, wal¬ 
rus, etc., annually supplied to commerce. Recent 
expeditions have found the usual arctic quadru¬ 
peds and birds as far north as the land extended. 
How far north the cetaceans reach is doubtful. 
See Distribution of Animals. 

Notwithstanding this apparent abundance, the 
human being has in general a severe struggle for 
subsistence beyond 64° N. lat., although 
traces of Eskimos have been found as 
far north as 81 0 52'. The Eskimos who inhabit 
Greenland and the extreme north of America 
have a hard life of it, often pressed, and not 
seldom cut off, by famine. Under their rigor¬ 
ous skies the resources derivable from the sur¬ 
rounding abundance of animal life can support 


ARCTURUS— ARECIBO 


only a handful of men. Even in Siberia, where 
the reindeer trained to the sledge, and the great 
rivers frozen throughout the winter, add so 
greatly to the facilities of intercourse or emi¬ 
gration, whole communities are frequently cut 
off by famine or disease. Yet we see Euro¬ 
peans settled under the parallel of 73 ° at Uper- 
navik in Greenland, of 72 0 2' at Ustyarsk in 
Siberia, and of 70° 40' at Hammerfest in Nor¬ 
way, and Europeans have wintered far north 
of this. The settlements in Greenland, north¬ 
ern Siberia, Kamchatka, and the Hudson Bay 
territories are all more or less connected by 
trade with southern countries, whence they de¬ 
rive their power of endurance; and from the 
constant care required in order to guard against 
the consequences of the severe climate it is 
evident that to man the support of life within 
the Polar Circle must ever be difficult and pre¬ 
carious. Nevertheless, owing to the abundance 
of lower animal life, men have visited these 
regions for centuries to gather the exceedingly 
rich harvests of furs and oil. 

Arctic Exploration. — See Polar Research. 

The following are the farthest points of north 
latitude reached by Arctic explorers up to the 
present date: 1607, Hudson, 8o c 23'; 1773, 
Phipps, 8o° 48'; 1806, Scoresby, 81 0 12' 42"; 
1827, Parry, 82° 50'; 1874, Meyer (on land), 
82°; 1875, Markham and Parr (Nares’ expe¬ 
dition), 83° 20' 26"; 1876, Payer, 83° 07'; 1884, 
Lockwood, 83° 24'; 1896, Nansen. 86° 14'; 1900, 
Abruzzi, 86° 33'; 1906, Peary, 87° 6'. 

Bibliography. — Conway, ( The First Cross¬ 
ing of Spitzbergen 5 ; Greely, ( Arctic Service ) ; 

( Handbook of Arctic Discovery 5 ; and ‘Report 
on the Proceedings of the United States Ex¬ 
pedition to Lady Franklin Bay 5 ; Hayes, ‘Arctic 
Boat Journey ) ; Jackson, ( A Thousand Days in 
the Arctic ) ; and ‘The Great Frozen Land 5 ; 
Jones, T., ‘Natural History, Geology, and Phys¬ 
ics of Greenland and Adjacent Regions 5 ; Kane, 
‘Arctic Explorations, the Second Expedition in 
Search of Sir John Franklin 5 ; Nansen, ‘Far¬ 
thest North 5 ; Peary, ‘Northward Over the 
Great Ice 5 ; Ray, ‘Report of the Expedition to 
Point Barrow 5 ; Wright, ‘Greenland Ice Fields 
and Life in the North Atlantic. 5 

Arctu'rus, a fixed star of the first magni¬ 
tude in the constellation of Bodtes, and thought 
by some to be one of the largest of the fixed 
stars. It has a large proper motion, and is a 
noticeable object in the northern heavens. 

Ar'cus Seni'lis, a term applied to a white 
or grayish white rim on the outer edge of the 
cornea, due to the infiltration of a finely granu¬ 
lar hyaline substance, heretofore thought to be 
a form of fatty degeneration. This is probably 
not the case, since the infiltration material has 
no relation to the corneal cells. It is more prob¬ 
ably a condition due to changes in the blood 
vessels of the cornea and is frequently a re¬ 
sult of old age. It is a normal phenomenon, 
however, occurring sometimes in perfectly 
healthy people, and there is no invariable rela¬ 
tionship to fatty degeneration of the blood ves¬ 
sels, heart, or other organ. 

Ardagh, ar'da, Sir John Charles, an Eng¬ 
lish military officer: b. 1840. He entered the 
Royal Engineer Corps in 1859; and became 
major-general in 1898. He attended the Con¬ 


ference of Constantinople, Congress of Ber¬ 
lin, Bulgarian Boundary Commission, and the 
Peace Conference at The Hague, in 1899, and 
was for many years director of military intelli¬ 
gence in the British war office. 

Ardahan, ar'da-han', a village in the por¬ 
tion of Turkish Armenia ceded in 1878 to Rus¬ 
sia, 35 miles northwest of Kars. Its position 
gives it strategic importance. Its fortress was 
dismantled by the Russians in the war of 1854-6; 
in 1878 the Berlin Congress sanctioned the ces¬ 
sion to Russia of Ardahan, which had been cap¬ 
tured early in the war. 

Arditi, ar-de'te, Luigi, an Italian musician 
and composer: b. Piedmont, 16 July 1822; 
d. Hove, Sussex, 1 May 1903. Famous first 
as a violinist, then as a conductor, he went to 
London in 18^7, and from that year till 1878 
was musical director at Her Majesty’s Theatre. 
He has conducted Italian opera and concerts 
in places as remote from one another as New 
York and Constantinople; has published the 
operas ‘I Briganti 5 (1841) ; and ‘La Spia 5 
(1856) ; and is known as author of much 
popular music— songs, violin duets and waltzes, 
such as ‘II Bacio. 5 He published his ‘Remin¬ 
iscences 5 in 1896. 

Ard'more, Indian Territory, a city of the 
Chickasaws, on the Gulf, Colo. & Santa Fe, and 
Choctaw, Okla. & Gulf R.R/s, about 20 miles 
north of the Red River. It is the seat of Har¬ 
grove College. Its commercial interests are cot¬ 
ton, coal, and asphalt. Pop. (1900) 5,681. 

Are'ca, the designation of a genus of palms, 
possessing pinnate leaves, a double membranous 
sheath containing its bunches of flowers; fruit 
a one-seeded berry or drupe, with a fibrous 
rind. To this genus belongs the betel-nut or 
pinang palm (A. cathecu), a native of the 
East Indies, and cultivated there in many va¬ 
rieties. It is a very beautiful palm, with a slen¬ 
der stem often 40 or 50 feet high. Its nuts, 
called betel-nuts, are rolled into a leaf of the 
betel-pepper along with a little lime, and are 
then chewed. The nut contains at least four 
alkaloids, Arecoline, Arecaidine, Arecaine, and 
Guvacine, the former alone having known active 
properties. Arecoline is an active taeniacide 
and is widely used in veterinary practice for 
the treatment of tape worms. It is also an 
active cathartic and mydriatic. In the latter 
case it is extensively used as a stimulant. An¬ 
other palm of this genus is the cabbage palm 
( A. oleracea), one of the rrlost beautiful and 
stately of the palm tribe, with a stem rising 
often to the height of 200 feet, terminated by a 
graceful plume of waving feathery foliage. It is 
a native of Jamaica and other West India Is¬ 
lands. The so-called cabbage is the terminal 
leaf-bud, which is very tender and delicious, 
either raw or boiled. Its removal, however, 
kills the tree. 

Arecibo, a'ra-se'bo, an important commer¬ 
cial town of Porto Rico; on the northern coast; 
facing the Atlantic Ocean; 50 miles west of San 
Juan. It resembles ordinary Spanish towns in 
having a plaza, surrounded by the church and 
other public buildings, in the centre, with streets 
running from it in right angles, forming regu¬ 
lar squares. The buildings are of wood and 
brick. The harbor is poor, being exposed to 
the full force of the ocean, and having no nat- 


ARENACEOUS ROCKSAREQUIPA 


ural or artificial protection. Imports and ex¬ 
ports can be handled only by twice lightering. 
1 ributary to the town is a district of about 
30,000 inhabitants. Pop. (1903) about 12,000. 

Ar'ena'ceous Rocks, the name applied to 
a petrographic division including loose sands and 
gravels, sandstone, conglomerate, quartzites and 
such rocks^ as are mainly composed of quartz 
particles. Ihey are of mechanical origin, being 
derived from disintegration of pre-existing strata 
and removal and deposition of the materials by 
wind or water. The grains are generally water- 
worn and rounded ; in some cases, however, they 
are more or less angular, or rounded and angu¬ 
lar grains occur commingled. In older deposits, 
the grains of sand are bound together by sili- 
cious, calcareous, argillaceous, or ferruginous ce¬ 
ments. It is seldom that a rock is composed of 
quartzose materials alone; grains or particles of 
other mineral substances are frequently mingled 
with the grains of quartz. Silvery flakes of mica 
are seldom absent; often occurring in layers par¬ 
allel to the planes of stratification, thus causing 
the rock to split into thin slabs, and exposing a 
glittering surface. These are called micaceous 
sandstones. When grains of feldspar occur, the 
rock is a feldspathic sandstone. Often large 
quantities of calcareous matter, either as cement 
or as distinct grains occur; and these are called 
calcareous sandstones. In like manner we have 
silicious and ferruginous sandstones, when sil¬ 
ica and oxid of iron are conspicuously present 
as cementing or binding materials. Clay and 
carbonaceous matter, when plentifully diffused 
through the rock, give rise to argillaceous, car¬ 
bonaceous and bituminous sandstones. Green¬ 
sand, or glauconitic sandstone, is a rock contain¬ 
ing abundant grains of the dirty greenish min¬ 
eral called glauconite. Arkose is a sandstone 
composed of disintegrated granite; volcanic 
sandstone, trappean sandstone, etc., being com¬ 
posed of disintegrated igneous rocks. The 
presence of lime can always be detected by the 
effervescence which takes place on the applica¬ 
tion of hydrochloric or other acid. A sandstone 
of homogeneous composition, which may be 
worked freely in any direction, is called free¬ 
stone or liver rock. Flagstone is a sandstone 
capable of being split into thin beds or flags 
along the planes of deposition. When the sand¬ 
stone is coarse-grained, it is usually called grit. 
If it contain, more or less abundantly, grains 
large enough to be called pebbles, the sandstone 
is said to be conglomeratic; and if the pebbles or 
stones be angular, the rock is described as a 
brecciiform sandstone. Coarse-grained grits and 
pebbly or conglomeratic sandstones pass into 
conglomerate or puddingstone, which consists 
of a mass of various sized water-worn stones. 
Brecciiform sandstones frequently pass into 
breccia, an aggregate of angular and sub-angular 
fragments. Graywacke is an argillaceous sand¬ 
stone, more or less altered and sometimes semi¬ 
crystalline, met with among palaeozoic forma¬ 
tions. 

Arenales, a'ra-na'les, Juan Antonio Alva¬ 
rez de, a Peruvian patriot: b. 1775; d. 1825. 
When the Spanish army invaded Peru, Arenales 
led a body of troops against them by a long cir¬ 
cuitous route, and defeated Marshal O’Reilly, 
whom he made prisoner, 6 Dec. 1820. 

Ar'ena'ria, the name given to a genus of 
plants of the sandworts, of the Caryophyllacaxa 
Vol. 1—44 


or pink family. They number upward of 200 
species, and are usually low-tufted herbs with 
white flowers. They are very common along the 
American sea-coast and in sandy places through¬ 
out the States north of the Ohio River. Several 
species are alpine or sub-alpine in habit and are 
found on the summits of the Eastern Appala¬ 
chian. Of these the mountain sandwort ( A . 
Groenlandria) is best known. 

Areng' Palm, the name of a palm, for¬ 
merly called Areng saccharifera, but now more 
generally denominated Saguerus saccharifer. It 
belongs to the section Cocoince, grows wild in 
the islands of southern Asia, and is cultivated in 
India. It furnishes sago and wine, while its 
fibres are manufactured into ropes. 

Ar'eop'agus, the designation of the oldest 
Athenian court of justice. It obtained its name 
from its place of meeting, on the Hill of Ares 
(Mars), near the citadel. Its establishment is 
ascribed by some to Cecrops, by others to Solon; 
from the latter, however, it seems to have only 
received a better constitution and more impor¬ 
tant privileges, and it is probable that it existed 
from very remote times. Of how many mem¬ 
bers it consisted is not now known. A seat in 
it was held for life. The members were men 
who in their former capacity of archons had 
rendered themselves worthy of this honor by 
the honest and diligent execution of their of¬ 
fice, and whose character and conduct had been 
subjected to a particular examination. Aristides 
called the Areopagus the most sacred tribunal of 
Greece, and Demosthenes assures us that they 
never passed a sentence in which both parties did 
not concur. Crimes tried before this tribunal 
were wilful murder, poisoning, robbery, arson, 
dissoluteness of morals, and innovations in the 
state and in religion; at the same time it took 
care of helpless orphans. The other states of 
Greece sometimes submitted their disputes to the 
judgment of the Areopagus. Its meetings were 
held in the open air and in the night time. After 
the investigation of a case the votes were col¬ 
lected. In the time of Pericles its political in¬ 
fluence was materially lessened, but it continued 
a much venerated assemblage, and in Roman 
times its decisions still commanded respect. The 
Apostle Paul is sometimes thought to have been 
brought before this ancient court, but it is more 
likely that his famous address on Mars Hill was 
before an asemblage of philosophers there. 
See Botsford, ( The Athenian Constitution 

(1893). 

Arequipa, a'ra-ke'pa, a city of Peru, the 
capital of a department of the same name. It lies 
in a fertile valley 200 miles south of Cuzco, 
at the height of 7,850 feet above the sea. Prior 
to the earthquake of 13 Aug. 1868, which did 
not leave a single house habitable, it was one 
of the best-built towns of South America. Be¬ 
hind it rise three lofty mountains, one of which, 
called the volcano of Arequipa, or Peak of El 
Miste, is one of the most elevated summits of 
the Andes, having a height which Pentland 
estimates at 20,328 feet. It contains a cathe¬ 
dral, a college, a hospital, nunneries, convents, 
etc. Near at hand Harvard University has an 
observatory, at an altitude of over 8,000 feet. 
It is subject to frequent earthquakes, but this 
evil seems to be overbalanced by the mildness 
of the climate, and the beauty and fertility of 


ARGALL — ARGENTINA 


the country round about. Islav was formerly 
the port of Arequipa, but it has been superseded 
by the neighboring port of Mollendo, connected 
by railway with Arequipa. Pop. (1901) 35,000. 

Argali, Sir Samuel, seaman and American 
colonial official: b. Walthamstow, Essex, Eng¬ 
land; d. 24 Jan. 1626. He was a type of the 
founders of English colonial dominion — ener¬ 
getic, resourceful and masterful; his further re¬ 
pute as a sort of unprincipled buccaneer and 
tyrant is due to sentiment and partisanship. In 
May 1609, he was sent with a small barque to 
the new settlement at Jamestown, Va., to trade 
and fish on behoof of the owner. He seems to 
have found a shorter route than usual, and soon 
established a reputation for unprecedentedly 
quick passages. The next year he took out Lord 
Delawarr to Jamestown, arriving just in time 
to prevent the entire colony, with the governor, 
Sir Thomas Dale, leaving for Newfoundland to 
avoid starvation. He was sent to the Bermudas 
for swine to replace those the colonists had 
eaten up, but was driven by storms to Cape Cod, 
where he found good fishing and returned in Au¬ 
gust ; established a corn trade with the Indians 
above Jamestown, and early in 1611 returned to 
England with Delawarr, whose health was bad. 
In September 1621, he was again at Jamestown 
after the then swift passage of 51 days, and the 
rest of the year he and Dale spent in corn¬ 
hunting among the Indians. Powhatan had a 
number of English prisoners in his hands, and a 
quantity of weapons and implements; and Argali, 
hearing that the chieftain’s daughter Pocahontas 
was with her uncle (( Powtownec® (Potomac), 
had the happy thought of securing her to ex¬ 
change against them, a feat accomplished by 
threats and the offer of a copper kettle to her un¬ 
cle. The stock denunciation of him for this (( ne- 
farious treachery® is best answered by the fact 
that no one was harmed, all parties were bene¬ 
fited, and a most desirable aim was achieved. 
Pocahontas herself considered it a piece of rare 
good fortune, would not leave the whites, and 
soon after married one of them, while the pris¬ 
oners were released, and peace restored to the 
colony. Argali handed her over to Sir Thomas 
Gates and explored the east shore of Chesapeake 
Bay, fishing and trading. Later in the year he 
was sent with a vessel of 14 guns to destroy the 
French settlements on the north coast, regarded 
as infringing on the Virginia patent. He cap¬ 
tured Mount Desert, St. Croix, and Port Royal 
(N. S.), carried off the settlers as prisoners to 
Jamestown, and on the way forced the command¬ 
ant at New Amsterdam to recognize English 
suzerainty by hauling down the Dutch flag and 
running up the English. In 1614 he sailed for 
England, and was put on his defense for these 
high-handed acts, but completely justified him¬ 
self. In May 1617, he was made deputy-gover¬ 
nor of Virginia, and remained two years in a 
broil with part of the citizens, but justified by 
others. He was accused of illegal trade with 
the West Indies, and repeatedly ordered to re¬ 
turn to England for trial, a command which he 
ignored for a time, possibly in reliance on the 
Earl of Warwick, who financed and shared his 
ventures. In 1620 he served against the Algerine 
pirates with a 24-gun merchant vessel, under Sir 
Robert Mansell. He was knighted in 1622. In 
1625 he was admiral of a squadron cruising after 
a hostile Dunkirk fleet, and took some prizes. 


On 3 October of that year he embarked with the 
squadron in the expedition against Cadiz under 
Lord Wimbledon, with Lord Essex on board as 
vice-admiral and commander of land forces; 
Argali’s flagship was the Swiftsure. He report¬ 
ed the fortress too strong to be taken without a 
siege, the merchant vessels were ill supplied and 
unpaid, and after waiting till December for re¬ 
lief from Charles I. they went home. Argali 
died the next month, it was said from a broken 
heart because the captain of the Swiftsure was 
(< very backward and cross® to him. (Argali’s 
own narrative comes down to 12 May 1613.) 

Argenteuil, ar-zhan-te-y, a town in France, 
on the right bank of the Seine, seven miles below 
Paris. It supplies much wine, fruit, and vege¬ 
tables for the Parisian market. The famous 
Helo’ise was abbess of its now ruined priory 
from 1120. Pop. (1896) 15,126. 

Argentina, ar'jen-te'na, or the Argentine 
Republic, the second in size of the South Am¬ 
erican countries, extends from Bolivia, in the 
torrid zone, to Cape Horn, in the frigid zone. 
A just idea of its great length and climatic range 
may be given by comparison with the United 
States. The distance from its northern boun¬ 
dary to the equator is much less than from the 
equator to Florida; the territory of Tierra del 
Fuego is as near to the South Pole as Prince of 
Wales Island, Alaska, is to the North Pole. In 
its tropical north are valuable mines and forests 
of hardwoods; in the extreme south the col¬ 
lecting and storing of natural ice is a profitable 
industry. All the central provinces and terri¬ 
tories have the climate of the temperate zone, 
and lie in one vast plain stretching from the 
Andes to the Atlantic. Above Buenos Ayres, 
however, the eastern limit of Argentina is not 
the ocean, but a river system exceeding in vol¬ 
ume that of the Mississippi,— the Parana and 
Uruguay rivers furnishing an outlet for the 
products of the region bordering on Uruguay, 
Brazil, and Paraguay, and finally uniting in the 
great Rio de la Plata. 

History .— A Spanish captain named Juan de 
Solis discovered the Rio de la Plata several 
years before Magellan saw it (1520), and, ac¬ 
cording to the account of Pigafetta, one of 
Magellan’s companions, the (( gigantic natives 
called canibali ate De Solis and 60 men who had 
gone to discover land, and trusted too much to 
them. 5 Again, in 1535, the Indians destroyed a 
colony that Pedro de Mendoza attempted to 
establish on the site of the modern city of 
Buenos Ayres, no permanent settlement being 
made at that place before 1580. In 1661 the 
king of Spain created a high court in Buenos 
Ayres, and appointed a governor and captain- 
general for the provinces of the Rio de la Plata. 
The provinces increased in importance to such 
an extent during the century which followed 
that in 1773 the King’s representative became a 
viceroy. British forces, sent to capture Buenos 
Ayres in 1806 and 1808, were defeated by the 
natives, unaided by the viceroy; the resignation 
of the latter was demanded on 25 May 1810, 
and the patriotic movement did not cease until 
independence was achieved. A junta composed 
of nine members, assuming the reins of gov¬ 
ernment, despatched revolutionary expeditions 
into Paraguay, the northern provinces of Ar¬ 
gentina and Alto Peru (now Bolivia) ; for it 
was evident not only that the power of Spain 



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AEGENTIKE REPUBLIC 
PARAGUAY, URUGUAY 
and CHILE. 


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'i'^ATERRITOKYj 


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Population of places is indicated 
by different lettering, thus; 

200,000 and over_.BUENOS AIRES 

100,000, to 200,000_Valparaiso 

50,000, to 100,000. 

10,000 to 50,000 
Smaller Towns.. 


/Sola no B- 
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BUENOS AIRES 

SCALE OF uu.es 


Puerto 8. Julian 
|Pta.De8engano 


Lag.l/vlee, 


|C.S. Francisco de Pi ula 


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'Puerto de Sta.Cruz 


Mad re de DiosXw 
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Duke of York I. AXnJ 

Cambridge 


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Week hr; 
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|Jm\C.Nombn 
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V -IJJjan Sebastian jo. 

1/0.800 Sebastian 
'IERn'Xi.Rjo Chico 
■ meL^r&Mittiyn Sta. 
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\ Diego Ramirez Is 1 


Copyright 1W8, by The American* Company 


Longitude 61 


Greenwich 


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JU Vied 

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ARGENTINA 


could not be broken without the united efforts 
of the patriots who were scattered throughout 
the southern portion of the continent, but also 
that Argentina was the natural leader in such 
enterprises. 

During seven years the issue remained in 
doubt: all the advantages that the Argentine 
general, Belgrano, gained at first seemed to be 
lost when he suffered defeat at the hands of 
Gen. Peguela in Dec. 1813. But six months 
afterward the nearest and most threatening 
Spanish stronghold, the fortress of Montevideo, 
was captured. Independence was declared, 9 
July 1816, at a congress representing the dif¬ 
ferent provinces; then Gen. San Martin led 
across the Andes a force of 5,000 Argentina sol¬ 
diers recruited largely from the hardy plains¬ 
men and cowboys (gauchos ). His little army 
of (< rough riders,® by defeating the Spanish 
troops in the battle of Chacabuco, gave inde¬ 
pendence to the Chilean people. San Martin 
was also successful against the Spaniards in 
Peru, entering Lima as a liberator in 1821. 
Though urged to accept the civil government of 
the countries he had freed, this soldier of splen¬ 
did ability refused the rewards, honors, or offices 
in civil life, which those men fulfilling similar 
missions in other lands have almost without ex¬ 
ception consented to receive. Moreover, the 
attitude of the Argentine revolutionists in gen¬ 
eral was characterized by disinterestedness in 
this crisis; and subsequently, when Brazil 
sought to annex Uruguay, Argentina appeared 
as the champion of the smaller state. A war 
lasting three years (1825-8) was required to 
convince Brazil that Uruguay’s independence 
must be guaranteed by both her great neighbors. 
But the bright prospects of Argentina herself 
suffered eclipse from 1829 to 1852. Juan Man¬ 
uel de Rosas succeeded in establishing a virtual 
dictatorship, maintaining himself in power de¬ 
spite repeated attempts to oust him, until the 
year last mentioned, when he was defeated by 
Gen. Urquiza in the battle of Caseros. Taught 
by experience, the people now resolved to safe¬ 
guard their rights and privileges for the future. 
A constitution closely resembling that of the 
United States (though president and vice-presi¬ 
dent hold office for six years, and senators for 
nine, and other interesting adaptations were 
made) was promulgated 25 May 1853. In 
1862-8 we see Argentina, allied with Brazil and 
Uruguay, engaged in resisting Paraguay’s claim 
to ownership of the territory El Chaco. The 
allies were successful in the field; nevertheless 
the dispute was referred to the President of the 
United States, Mr. Hayes, as arbitrator. Such 
respect for law, as superior to force of arms, 
was shown during Gen. Bartolome Mitre’s term 
of office. Significant administrations were those 
of Senor Sarmiento, who succeeded Gen. Mitre, 
of Senor Avellaneda, and of Gen. Roca. The 
first of these was familiar with the United 
States, where he had resided as Argentina’s 
diplomatic representative, and the efforts he 
made to bring the institutions of his own coun¬ 
try into harmony with those he had studied at 
Washington — especially in the matter of pop¬ 
ular education — helped progressive Argentina 
to earn the title of the <( Yankee-land of South 
America.® General Roca, as minister of war 
during Avellaneda’s presidency, extended the 
southern frontier so that it included a large 


part of Patagonia; his first term of office as 
President is memorable on account of the ex¬ 
tension of the railway system, the erection of 
many public school buildings, the formal selec¬ 
tion of the city of Buenos Ayres as the capi¬ 
tal of the republic, and the foundation of the 
city of La Plata (1882). A financial crisis that 
afflicted the country caused the resignation of 
President Celman, who succeeded Gen. Roca in 
1886. The people, convinced that the Presi¬ 
dent’s policy was responsible for the (< hard 
times,® practically forced him out of office by 
the pressure of public opinion. This may be 
regarded as a striking demonstration of the 
power of unfeigned and non-partisan disap¬ 
proval, inasmuch as a revolutionary movement 
was first attempted and proved a failure. Vice- 
President Pelligrini brought so much skill to 
the tasks thus devolving upon him as Cel- 
man’s successor, that he guided the country 
safely out of its troubles. The question of lim¬ 
its with Bolivia, Chile, and Brazil continuing 
to occupy the attention of the Argentine foreign 
office during the presidency of Pena (suc¬ 
ceeding Pelligrini, 12 Oct. 1892), the pref¬ 
erence for deciding boundary disputes by arbi¬ 
tration without a preliminary war, was strongly 
manifested, as was but natural after the El 
Chaco affair. President Roca (re-elected) was 
able to report the satisfactory financial condi¬ 
tions in 1902, to which reference will presently 
be made; also the decision of the question of 
the boundary between the Argentine Republic 
and Chile by the award of the arbitrator, King 
Edward VII., dated at the court of St. James, 
20 Nov. 1902. 

Immigration and Population .— The Consti¬ 
tution of Argentina provided that (( The federal 
government shall encourage European immigra¬ 
tion, and shall not restrict . . . the entry 

. . . of foreigners who come for the purpose 

of engaging in the cultivation of the soil,® etc. 
The greater part of the land of the republic be¬ 
ing devoted to grazing and the production of 
live stock, while its value for agricultural pur¬ 
poses is still greater, immigrants have been at¬ 
tracted by a liberal policy which both the federal 
and provincial governments adopted: the for¬ 
mer, in addition to free grants of land, has 
advanced capital (oxen, tools, etc., to the value 
of $1,000 for each farmer) to be paid back in five 
years. There were 125,951 immigrants in 1901, 
the nationalities represented being as follows: 
Italians, 58,314; French, 21,788; Spaniards, 18,- 
066; Austrians, 2,714; Syrians, 2,159; Russians 
(chiefly Poles), 2,086. The area of lands under 
cultivation shows such an increase as might 
be expected —17,174,250 acres in 1902, as 
against only 7,478,700 acres in 1880. The total 
population of the Republic 1 Jan. 1902, was 
4,749,149. _ 

The city of Buenos Ayres, with 821,291 in¬ 
habitants, ranks as the eleventh city of the 
world in respect to population. 

Education .— For both boys and girls between 
the ages of 6 and 14 years education is com¬ 
pulsory and gratuitous. There is one school for 
each 1,000 inhabitants. Cordoba and Buenos 
Ayres have universities. Military and naval 
academies, a national observatory, trade schools, 
and an academy of mining engineers, have al¬ 
ready been established, and it is the govern¬ 
ment’s purpose to add to these practical 


ARGENTINA 


schools for the instruction of laborers in rural 
industries and forestry near the capital or prin¬ 
cipal city of each province. Primary education 
is under the direction of a national board of 
education, which has practically full control 
of the public schools and enjoys an income of 
its own. The matriculates in different grades 
in 1901 numbered 69,958 in the city of Buenos 
Ayres alone. There are more than 200 pub¬ 
lic libraries in the country, the government add¬ 
ing an equal sum to any endowment by private 
gift. 

Public Spirit .— Enthusiasm for the public 
good and national advancement is an Argentine 
characteristic. One of the 20 daily news¬ 
papers published in Buenos Ayres devotes a 
large part of its costly building to public uses 
for the glory of the city. At its own expense 
it provides a free consulting room, where a phy¬ 
sician and five assistants minister to the sick; 
a law office where indigent persons secure 
free legal advice; a museum of the products and 
manufactures of the republic; a library open to 
students without payment; a great hall for pub¬ 
lic meetings; a charming salon des fetes, where 
literary, charitable, and scientific meetings are 
held; even a palatial suite of apartments for the 
reception of distinguished foreigners. The trait 
illustrated by this liberal undertaking differenti¬ 
ates the people of Argentina somewhat from 
other nations of the continent; yet they have 
their full share in the common Latin-American 
love of amusements. 

Railways .— The enormous extent of flat coun¬ 
try (Argentina’s total area being 1,118,000 square 
miles), favors the construction of railways. More 
than 20 lines, having an extension of about 9,000 
miles in the aggregate, are in actual working 
order, while a score of new lines are being 
built. The capital invested amounts to about 
$553,ooo,ooo gold. Of the 20 lines com¬ 
pleted before 1900, 16 were English and 

4 belonged to the Argentine government. 
The accommodations for passengers are ex¬ 
cellent. In December 1901, the Argentine Con¬ 
gress granted a concession for an important 
railway which is to cross the Territory of 
Misiones, form the connecting link between the 
Brazilian and Argentine systems, and constitute 
a section of the grand chain of railroads which 
will eventually traverse North and South 
America. The Buenos Ayres and Valparaiso 
Transandine Railway is the end of a long series 
of lines destined to be a fraternal as well as a 
commercial tie between the Chilean and Argen¬ 
tine republics. The telegraph lines of the re¬ 
public have a length of 15,074 kilometres and 
represent an invested capital of about $5,000,000. 

Sanitation .— The water-works and sewerage 
systems of the city of Buenos Ayres engaged 
the best engineering skill available. The cost 
of the latter even before 1890 was $34,000,000 gold. 
The city’s death rate is 17 for every 1,000 in¬ 
habitants, as against 18.4 for the city of New 
York. Public hygiene is the object of govern¬ 
ment aid in the Argentine ports. 

Capital City .— Whereas long ago the mer¬ 
chants of Seville sent every commodity to 
Buenos Ayres, the Argentine capital now takes 
little or nothing from Spain. It has lost its 
Spanish aspect, a preference being shown for the 
French style in architecture and the interior 
furnishings of the houses. The bustling activity 


in its business streets, the vitality, enterprise, 
and ambition of its inhabitants, are character¬ 
istically American. The foreign population 
numbers over 200,000, and the influence of Ger¬ 
man and English customs has also been felt. 
In fine, it is a cosmopolitan town; its people 
are not only devoted to the theatre and the race 
track, but are intelligent and much interested in 
the education of their children. Modern docks 
extending three miles along the city’s front 
have been constructed at a cost of $25,000,000. 
Among the noteworthy buildings are the hall of 
justice, artillery arsenal, mint, stock exchange, 
Colon theatre, museum of natural history, and 
cathedral (begun in 1580; rebuilt in 1752). An 
English syndicate has acquired the concession 
of an underground electric road, to connect Vic¬ 
toria Place, at the centre of the city, with the 
Western Railroad station — a distance of about 
two and a half miles. Palermo Park, always 
beautiful, is especially so at night when illumi¬ 
nated by its arches of electric lights. The city 
and suburban street railway system has about 
600 miles of track. It has been developed 
chiefly by English capital. 

Provinces .— La Plata, a spacious, handsome 
city of 50,000 inhabitants, is the capital of the 
province of Buenos Ayres. The area of this 
province is greater than that of the State of 
New York; its population 1 Jan. 1902 was 
1,140,067; its soil is a rich alluvium above clay 
— the latter being used largely in the manufac¬ 
ture of pottery. Almost the entire province is 
laid out in cattle farms, and immense quantities 
of salted beef, hides, and tallow are exported. 
It has been estimated that there are 200 sheep, 
20 cows, and 6 horses to every inhabitant. The 
province of Entre Rios (population, 343,684) 
produces the best wheat. Cordoba province 
(population, 419,072) produces copper, silver, 
gold, marble, lime, etc., as well as cattle, horses, 
and sheep. In general we may say that the 
chief mining regions are near the northern and 
western boundaries of the republic. Thus, 
Jujuy, the most northwesterly province, has 
mines of gold, silver, copper, mercury, salt, and 
asphalt. Its capital, the city of Jujuy, though 
still a small place, has a complete system of 
educational institutions — public schools, normal 
schools, and a national college. It is connected 
with Buenos Ayres by railway. Other mining 
districts are: Province of Salta (area, 45,000 
square miles; pop. 131,938), which produces 
kaolin, besides the minerals found in Jujuy; but 
hitherto less attention has be£n given to mining 
than to the cultivation of sugar-cane, tobacco, 
wheat, maize, and rice. Similarly the provinces 
of Catamarca, Rioja, and San Juan, which also 
border on Chile, have mountainous characteris¬ 
tics and abundant mineral products. Mining is 
the principal industry of San Luis. Especially 
interesting are the province and city of Tucu- 
man — the former called <( The Garden of the 
Republic,on account of the beauty of its 
scenery and the prosperity of its inhabitants; 
the latter, <( The Cradle of the Republic, J> for the 
reason that the Congress which issued the dec¬ 
laration of independence held its sessions there. 
The products of this small province are oranges, 
lemons, timber, cheese, and leather; pop. 249,- 
433. Other provinces that take their charac¬ 
teristics from the great plains (Pampas) are: 
Santiago del Estro (pop. 180,612), which has 


ARGENTINE 


but one hill in all its 31,500 square miles; Santa 
Fe (pop. 523,236, one third foreign), which also 
controls most of the export and import trade of 
the provinces north of Buenos Ayres. Its prin¬ 
cipal city is Rosario on the Parana River. The 
province of Mendoza (pop. 141,431), is moun¬ 
tainous in its western part, with rich plains in 
the centre and east. Its products are wines, 
olives, grapes, figs, and the ordinary cereal 
crops. Oil wells have recently been discov¬ 
ered. In 1861 its capital was almost completely 
destroyed by an earthquake, and over 10,000 
persons perished in the ruins. The new city of 
Mendoza has a national college, two normal 
schools, an agricultural school, and 20 public 
schools. 

Rapid Industrial Development. — Up to the 
year 1875 Argentina’s exports were limited to 
products of the pastoral industry, while the 
country was dependent upon other lands for all 
manufactured articles. But nearly all the im¬ 
portant branches of human industry are rep¬ 
resented in the period of development that be¬ 
gan after the year just mentioned. To such an 
extent is this true that Argentina not only 
produces for home consumption a great variety 
of articles formerly imported, but actually ex¬ 
ports such articles in large quantities. In 
Buenos Ayres alone there are nearly 8,000 in¬ 
dustrial establishments, including those for 
spinning, for preparing hides, for working tim¬ 
ber and metals, for cereals, for the manufacture 
of articles of glass and wax, chemical products, 
grocery products, liquors, cigars, etc. Factories 
for making chocolate have been started in va¬ 
rious parts of the country, the product being so 
abundant and of such excellent quality that the 
importation of chocolate has almost ceased. 
Over 50,000 men are employed in the wood¬ 
working industry; 25,000 persons in the manu¬ 
facture of boots and shoes; there are 17 hat fac¬ 
tories, and cloth and underwear are produced 
at a number of mills. 

Cattle and Sheep. — The greatest indus¬ 
try, however, is still the raising of cattle 
and sheep. Argentina has more sheep than 
Australia, and exports 240,000 tons of wool 
annually. In 1899 there were 22,000,000 cattle, 
5,000,000 horses and mules, and 85,000,000 
sheep distributed among the various prov¬ 
inces. The general exportation of cattle 
products in that year was valued at $115,547,000 
gold, or more than 62 per cent of the total ex¬ 
ports of the country. Argentina’s chief meat 
market is England. The total value of all kinds 
of cattle was estimated at $1,136,780,411 in 1895, 
and since that time the horned cattle, horses, and 
sheep have increased in numbers and improved 
in quality through the importation of full- 
blooded animals from the first breeders of Eu¬ 
rope and the United States. By the year 1902 
the dairy industry had become important: there 
were 523 dairies with four or five thousand cows 
in the largest establishments, and 1,300 tons of 
butter were sent abroad, chiefly to England. 

Grain. — Before the war with Paraguay, the 
people of Argentina imported nearly all their 
flour from Chile, but during that war farmers 
found a good market for their products, and the 
cultivation of grain was encouraged. Wheat is 
now one of the chief articles of export to Eu¬ 
rope. Owing to exceptionally advantageous 
conditions Argentine crops of wheat and In¬ 


dian corn represented a per capita production of 
42.33 bushels, against 42 in the United States 
and Denmark, 30 in Canada, 23 in Sweden, 20 in 
Russia, 19 in France, and 8 in Great Britain. 
The value in gold of the various Argentine har¬ 
vests in 1899 was: wheat, $95,000,000; Indian 
corn, $23,000,000; lucern, $90,000,000; flax, $27,- 
000,000; vineyards, $9,500,000; sugar-cane, $4,- 
750,000; tobacco, $3,900,000; other cultures, 
$21,560,000. 

Immense forests, producing varieties of hard 
wood which are useful for building and cabi¬ 
net-making, are found in the provinces of San¬ 
tiago del Estero, Salta, Tucuman, and Corrien- 
tes, as well as on the national lands of Chaco, 
Formosa, and Misiones. During the years 
j 895 - 99 about 8,000 tons of wood were exported, 
while the production increased greatly during 
1900. Exploitation of these wooded regions is 
facilitated by a system of rivers which all flow 
into Rio Parana. Each season witnesses, not 
only the development of the standard industries 
which have been mentioned, but the establish¬ 
ment of new enterprises. Among the latter the 
silk-worm culture in Santa Fe province and the 
evaporated fruit-industry in Cordoba province 
may be mentioned as recent examples. The 
largest items among imports from the United 
States are agricultural implements (amounting 
to about $2,000,000 in 1902) and mineral oils, 
refined or manufactured. During the years 
1896-1901, inclusive, the total values of exports 
to and from the United States were as follows: 


Imports from U. S. Exports to U. S. 

Year 1896, Amt. $8,361,195. Amt. $7,072,825 

“ 1897, “ 5,942,912. “ 14 , 759,730 

1898, “ 8,066,573. 5,723,969 

“ 1899, “ 12,378,866. “ 6,164,961 

1900, “ 14,852,813. “ 8,441,495 

“ 1901, “ 13,174,140. “ 9,950,862 


The total foreign trade of Argentina is on 
a vastly greater scale. At the beginning of this 
century its exports to all countries (taking the 
average of several years) amounted to about 
$175,000,000 annually; its imports from all coun¬ 
tries being about $114,000,000 annually. During 
the first six months of 1902, Argentina’s total ex¬ 
ports rose to $105,203,781, and the total value of 
imports was less than half that amount. These 
figures show, first, the relatively small inter¬ 
change of products between the United States 
and Argentina, and, second, the enormous bal¬ 
ance of trade in favor of the Argentine Republic. 

Financial Situation. — The Bankers’ Clear¬ 
ing House of Buenos Ayres in 1900 showed 
transactions aggregating 3,402,660,743.12 pesos 
(pesos = $0,965), although several of the banks 
do not settle their operations through the clear¬ 
ing house. The financial situation of the re¬ 
public in 1901 was fairly encouraging, the gov¬ 
ernment’s receipts being $38,244,638 in gold and 
$62,341,306 in paper currency, and the expendi¬ 
tures somewhat less. On the last day of 1901, 
the consolidated interior debt amounted to $17,- 
863,000 in gold and $83,610,983 in paper currency. 
The foreign debt amounted to $386,451,295 in 
gold, but of this total the sum of $46,000,000 
was owed by individual provinces. 

Marrion Wilcox, 
Authority on Latin-America. 

Argentine, Kansas, a city in Wyandotte 
County, about three miles from Kansas City, on 
the Atchison, T. & St. Fe. R.R. It has extensive 














ARGENTINE — ARGON 


smelting interests, and several grain elevators. 
Pop. (1900) 5,875. 

Ar'gentine, the name of a group of small 
smelt-like fishes, living in the open seas of the 
north temperate zone, and distinguished by the 
brilliant, silvery appearance of their scales. 
Some ascend rivers to deposit their spawn, 
where they are caught in large quantities and 
eaten as a delicacy. 

Argentite (from the Latin, argentum, <( sil- 
ver®), a native sulphide of silver, belonging in 
the galena group, crystallizing in the isometric 
system and having the formula Ag 2 S. It is 
opaque and has a metallic lustre and a dark, 
leaden gray color. Its hardness is from 2 to 2.5, 
and its specific gravity is about 7.3. Argentite 
occurs in many countries and when found in 
quantity is a valuable ore of silver. It occurs 
in crystals (often distorted), massive, in crusts, 
and in thread-like aggregates. Choice specimens 
occur in the silver mines of Joachimsthal, 
Bohemia, and Freiberg, Saxony; in Bolivia, 
Chili, and Peru, and notably at Batopilas, Mex¬ 
ico ; also in many silver mines in Colorado, 
Nevada, and elsewhere in the United States. 
Argentite is often called <( silver glance® by 
miners. 

Argentoratum, an Old Celtic word, mean¬ 
ing <( atones of Argantos,® the Old Roman 
name for Strasburg. 

Ar'gilla'ceous Rocks, a petrographic divi¬ 
sion including those rocks that are largely com¬ 
posed of clay. They owe their origin to the 
disintegration and decomposition of other rocks 
and hence are always of secondary nature. 
Among the common varieties belonging to this 
class are ordinary brick-clay, fire-clay, potter’s- 
clay, kaoli.n, mudstone, shale, and marl (qq.v.). 
Clay rocks are easily influenced by metamorphic 
agencies, yielding shale, mica-schist, graywacke, 
and other hard rocks. See Sedimentary Rocks. 

Arginusae, ar'ji-nu'se, the name of several 
small islands southeast of the Island of Lesbos, 
a province of Asia Minor. In their vicinity the 
Athenians, under Conon, 406 b.c., defeated the 
Spartans under Collicratidos, in a hard-contested 
naval battle. 

Ar'gives, or Argivi, the inhabitants of 

Argos; a term used by Homer and other ancient 
authors as a generic appellation for all Greeks. 

Ar'go, the important southern constella¬ 
tion of the Ship, which is nearly 75 degrees in 
length, and contains over 800 stars visible to the 
naked eye. 

Ar'go. See Argonauts. 

Argob, the name of a district in Bashan, 
referred to in Dent. iii. 4, as the kingdom of 
Og, and containing threescore walled cities. 
Its precise location has not been determined. 

Ar'gol (origin of the word unknown), a 
term applied to the crude acid tartrate (or bi¬ 
tartrate) of, potassium, as deposited on the sides 
of the vats in which wine is fermenting. It 
exists in the grapes from which the wine is 
made, but is precipitated from solution in the 
vats by the alcohol formed during the fermen¬ 
tation. Like many other precipitates, argol 
brings down more or less of the coloring matter 


in the solution from which it is deposited, and it 
is white or red, according to the color of the 
wine from which it is formed. When purified 
by re-crystallization from its solution in hot 
water, argol is known in commerce as (( cream 
of tartar.® The purified salt is extensively used 
in baking powders and to a lesser extent in 
medicine. 

Ar'golis, a peninsular state of ancient 
Greece; between the bays of Nauplia and ^Egina, 
now forming with Corinth, a monarchy or de¬ 
partment. Argolis was the eastern region of 
Peloponnesus, and its inhabitants were often 
called Argives. According to the monuments 
of Greek mythology, Argolis was peculiarly 
rich, and early cultivated. Here reigned Pelops, 
an emigrant from Asia Minor, from whom the 
peninsula derives its name. It was afterward 
the seat of government of Atreus and Agamem¬ 
non, Adrastus, Eurystheus, and Diomedes. In 
the earliest times it was divided into the small 
kingdoms of Argos, Mycenae, Tiryns, Trcezene, 
Hermione, and Epidaurus, which afterward 
formed free states. The chief city, Argos, has 
retained its name since 1800 b.c. Its inhab¬ 
itants were renowned for their love of the fine 
arts, particularly of music. Some vestiges re¬ 
main of its ancient splendor, and it has at 
present about 9,000 inhabitants. Near it is the 
capital of Argolis, Nauplia, or Napoli di Ro¬ 
mania, with an excellent harbor, and the most 
important fortress of the peninsula. On the 
site of the present village of Castri, on the 
Higean Sea, formerly lay the city Hermione; 
opposite is the island of Hydra. Pop. of prov¬ 
ince of Argolis and Corinth (1896) 157,578. 

Ar'gon (Greek, ^inactive,® in allusion to 
its entire lack of chemical affinity), a gaseous 
substance, presumably an element, discovered in 
the earth’s atmosphere in 1894 by Lord Ray¬ 
leigh and Prof. William Ramsay. For some 
years previous to this discovery, Lord Ray¬ 
leigh had been engaged in a careful determina¬ 
tion of the densities of certain gases, and con¬ 
sistent results had been obtained for all of 
them save nitrogen. This gas, when prepared 
from air by the abstraction of all other known 
components, was found to be heavier by about 
one part in 200, than the nitrogen prepared 
from ammonia. There could be no doubt 
about the reality of the difference, because the 
same experimental methods, when applied to 
other gases, gave results that were consistent 
with one another to about one part in 10,000. 
In studying the cause of the discrepancy, Lord 
Rayleigh prepared nitrogen from ammonium 
nitrite, from urea, and from nitric and nitrous 
oxides; and found that all specimens of the 
gas that were prepared from nitrogen com¬ 
pounds agree with one another in density, but 
that the specimens of nitrogen that he pre¬ 
pared from air were uniformly and consistently 
heavier, by the same constant amount of one 
part in 200. Provisionally, therefore, he recog¬ 
nized two kinds of nitrogen, which he called 
(( chemical nitrogen® and (( atmospheric nitrogen,® 
respectively, to indicate the sources whence they 
were obtained. He then published a letter in 
( Nature,* narrating these facts, and calling for 
suggestions from chemists as to the cause of 
the systematic difference in density. No ideas 
of value were elicited. The possibility that 


ARGON 


<( chemical® nitrogen might be contaminated with 
hydrogen, and that the experimental methods 
failed to eliminate the last traces of this very 
light gas, was tested by adding hydrogen to 
^atmospheric® nitrogen, and then submitting the 
mixture to the same process employed for re¬ 
moving any hydrogen that might have existed in 
the (( chemical® nitrogen. If the hydrogen theory 
of the discrepancy had been true, it would have 
been found that ^atmospheric® nitrogen, when 
treated in this way, would ultimately agree in 
density with <( chemical® nitrogen; but the test 
showed that ^atmospheric® nitrogen, after the 
addition and subsequent removal of hydrogen, 
returned to its original state of higher density, 
thus proving the adequacy of the experimental 
methods, and disproving the hypothesis that the 
difference in density was due to hydrogen. The 
suggestion was also made that the (( atmo- 
spheric® nitrogen had partly polymerized into an 
allotropic state analogous to ozone, or that the 
^chemical® nitrogen had partially dissociated 
into monatomic molecules. These possibilities 
were tested by subjecting both kinds of nitrogen 
to the action of the silent electric discharge, 
in an apparatus designed for the production of 
ozone from oxygen. It would certainly be ex¬ 
pected that the difference in density would 
partially or wholly disappear under this treat¬ 
ment if there were any basis to the polymeriza¬ 
tion or dissociation hypotheses; but it was 
found that both kinds of nitrogen retained 
their initial densities, so that the original differ¬ 
ence persisted undiminished in amount. Fur¬ 
thermore, if the lightness of (( chemical® nitrogen 
were due to a partial dissociation induced by 
the method of preparation, it would be reason¬ 
able to expect that the molecules would re-com¬ 
bine in time with a resulting return of the 
density to that observed in <( atmospheric® ni¬ 
trogen. Specimens of (< chemical® nitrogen that 
were allowed to stand for eight months, how¬ 
ever, were found to retain their characteristic 
lightness. At this stage in the investigation, 
Prof. Ramsay asked permission to co-operate 
in the investigation, and his services were gladly 
accepted. The hypothesis was made that (( chem- 
ical® nitrogen contains an unknown gas, lighter 
than true nitrogen; or that <( atmospheric® nitro¬ 
gen contains some similar gas that is heavier 
than true nitrogen. In spite of the many analy¬ 
ses that had been made of the air, it was thought 
more probable that the unknown gas would be 
found in (( atmospheric® than in (( chemical® nitro¬ 
gen ; and hence the experimenters turned their 
attention to the problem of removing (( true® 
nitrogen from the <( atmospheric® nitrogen, with 
the idea of obtaining a possible residuum, which 
would at least contain the unknown gas in 
concentrated form. For this purpose it was 
proposed to take advantage of the known fact 
that at a red heat nitrogen will combine with 
metallic magnesium, with the formation of mag¬ 
nesium nitride. «Atmospheric® nitrogen, care¬ 
fully freed from all known impurities, was 
therefore passed through a long tube of hard 
glass filled with magnesium shavings and heat¬ 
ed in a furnace. The first experiment of this 
sort was made in May 1894, and gave encour¬ 
aging results, the “atmospheric® nitrogen show¬ 
ing a slight but unmistakable increase in den¬ 
sity. A more elaborate experiment of the same 
sort followed, in which “atmospheric® nitrogen 


was caused to pass over hot magnesium for 
more than two weeks. By this means its den¬ 
sity, originally about 14 (that of hydrogen being 
1), was increased to 19.09, and the bulk of the 
gas under examination was diminished until not 
much more than one per cent of it remained. 
Plainly a great concentration of the unknown 
gas has been effected. To remove the last traces 
of true nitrogen, pure oxygen was next added, 
and the mixture exposed to a rain of electric 
sparks in the presence of caustic soda. When 
so treated the experimental gas contracted, in¬ 
dicating that the nitrogen was being withdrawn 
in the form of nitrate of sodium. When con¬ 
traction was no longer noted, the nitrate of 
sodium and the excess of oxygen were re¬ 
moved, and it was found that the remaining 
gas had a density about 20 times as great 
as that of hydrogen. When subjected to the 
electric spark and examined by the spectro¬ 
scope, this residual gas was found to exhibit 
certain characteristic groups of red and green 
lines that did not correspond to any element 
previously known. The experimenters, there¬ 
fore, felt reasonably sure that a new element 
had been discovered, and this conclusion has 
been borne out by all subsequent investigations. 
The discovery of this element (to which the 
name <( argon® and the chemical symbol <( A® 
have been assigned), was formally announced to 
the public in Aug. 1895, and for it Lord 
Rayleigh and Prof. Ramsay were awarded the 
Hodgkins prize and also the grand prize of the 
Smithsonian Institution. See Air. 

As it was found that air contains 0.937 of 
one per cent (by volume) of argon, it is nat¬ 
ural to ask why the new element had escaped 
detection in the vast number of air-analyses that 
have been made in the past. The answer is 
that argon shows no chemical affinity whatever, 
and as nitrogen is also inert in comparison 
with most elements, the two were very easily 
confused. Chemists have almost invariably esti¬ 
mated the nitrogen of the air <( by difference®; 
that is, by removing all such constituents as oxy¬ 
gen, carbon dioxid, and ammonia, and taking it 
for granted that the inert remainder is nitrogen. 
It might be thought that the spectroscope would 
betray the presence of argon, when the spectra of 
“atmospheric® and “chemical® nitrogen were 
compared; but the curious fact has been estab¬ 
lished that when argon and nitrogen are mixed, 
the argon does not reveal itself to the spec¬ 
troscope unless the mixture contains at least 
37 per cent of argon. Upon looking over the 
work that had been previously done upon air, 
it was found that Cavendish had isolated nearly 
pure argon as long ago as 1785, but without 
recognizing its real nature. Thus, knowing that 
air contains a considerable quantity of nitrogen, 
he raised the question whether all of the ap¬ 
parently nitrogenous part of the air (( could be 
reduced to nitrous acid, or whether there was 
not a part of a different nature from the rest 
which would refuse to undergo that change.® 
To decide this point he added excess of oxygen 
to air and passed electric sparks through the 
mixture (precisely as Rayleigh and Ramsay did) 
until no further diminution of volume occurred. 
He then removed the excess of oxygen, together 
with the oxids of nitrogen that had been formed, 
and found that only a small bubble remained 
unabsorbed, which, he says, was not more than 


ARGONAUT 


one one hundred and twentieth of the bulk of 
the original nitrogen. The bubble that he thus 
obtained and whose nature he did not further 
question must have been nearly pure argon. 

Argon having been discovered, chemists at 
once undertook to ascertain its chemical proper¬ 
ties, but here they met with an obstacle that has 
not yet been overcome, and which constitutes 
one of the strangest facts known to chemistry. 
It was found, namely, that argon cannot be 
made to enter into chemical combination with 
any substance whatsoever. Thus Rayleigh and 
Ramsay have stated that <( argon does not com¬ 
bine with oxygen in presence of alkali under the 
influence of the electric discharge, nor with 
hydrogen in presence of acid or alkali, nor 
when sparked, nor with phosphorus at a bright 
led heat, nor with sulphur. Tellurium may be 
distilled in it and also sodium and potassium. 
Red hot sodium peroxid has no effect. Persul- 
phids of sodium and calcium have no effect at a 
red heat. Platinum sponge does not absorb it. 
Aqua regia, bromine water, bromine and alkali, 
and potassium permanganate are all without in¬ 
fluence. Mixtures of metallic sodium and silica, 
or of sodium and boric acid, are likewise with¬ 
out influence, and hence also nascent silicon 
and boron.® Moissan further, found that fluorin 
does not act upon it at any temperature. In 
short, it may be said that every reagent that 
the previous experience of chemists indicated as 
likely to combine with argon has been tried 
without success, and hence the chemical proper¬ 
ties of the element (if, indeed, it has any such 
properties), are as yet quite unknown. Several 
announcements of the existence of compounds 
of argon have been made, but no really con¬ 
vincing evidence of such combination has been 
given. For example, Berthollet subjected a mix¬ 
ture of argon and benzene to the action of 
the silent electric discharge for a long time, 
and observed a diminution in the volume of the 
argon, which he attributed to its combination 
with the benzene. Benzene when treated in 
this way forms a resinous mass, which coats 
the walls of the tube, and it is not improbable 
that the small quantity of argon which disap¬ 
pears is held mechanically by the gummy de¬ 
posit, either in solution or by absorption. At 
all events the original quantity of argon is re¬ 
stored, unchanged, by heating the resin. It 
cannot be positively affirmed that no compound 
of argon exists, but there is no previously 
known element (not even the metals of the 
platinum group) that could withstand the ac¬ 
tion of the substances whose activity has been 
exerted without effect upon argon. The only 
promising result that has yet been reached is 
that announced by Villard, who states that at 
32 0 F., and at a pressure of 150 atmospheres, ar¬ 
gon forms a crystalline hydrate with water, 
which dissociates again into argon and water 
at a pressure of 105 atmospheres. Even this 
result requires confirmation, since Villard did 
not really prove the presence of argon in the 
crystals that he obtained. Until some compound 
can be formed we shall therefore have to infer 
the atomic weight of argon from determinations 
of the density of the gas, taken in connection 
with Avogadro’s law. The best determinations 
made up to the present time indicate that the 
density of argon is 19.80 times that of hydrogen. 
If the molecules of argon are diatomic, then 


19.80 is the atomic weight of the element, but 
if they are monatomic, we must double this 
estimate and conclude that the atomic weight is 
39.60. (See Atomic Theory; also Gases, 
Kinetic Theory of.) To settle this doubtful 
point experiments were made to find the ratio 
of the two specific heats of the gas, and it 
was found that the specific heat of argon at 
constant pressure is about 1.65 times as great 
as the specific heat at constant volume. This 
indicates that the molecule of the gas contains 
but one atom, and hence it is necessary to con¬ 
clude that the atomic weight of argon is 39.60, 
the atomic weight of hydrogen being taken as 
1. Argon has been liquefied and solidified. Its 
critical temperature is 179 0 F. below zero, and 
its critical pressure is about 52.9 atmospheres. 
Liquid argon boils (under ordinary atmospheric 
pressure) at about 303° F. below zero, and at 
about 306° below zero it freezes. The density 
of liquid argon is about 1.212 times as great as 
that of water. Four other elements, associated 
with argon in the air and closely resembling it 
in properties, have been discovered as the re¬ 
sult of researches suggested by the discovery of 
argon. They are called, respectively, helium, 
neon, krypton, and xenon (qq.v.). Hundreds 
of papers dealing with argon and the other 
gases just mentioned have appeared in the scien¬ 
tific periodicals, so that no bibliography of the 
subject can be attempted here. Ramsay’s book, 
( The Gases of the Atmosphere > (1896) gives an 
excellent account of the chemistry of the air, 
from the earliest times down to 1896. It must 
be remembered, however, that our knowledge of 
argon and its allies is growing rapidly, so that 
some of the statements that Ramsay makes can 
be no longer admitted to be true. For example, 
he states that helium (which had already been 
discovered when his book was written) does not 
occur in the air, but it has since been shown 
that it is a component of the air, forming from 
one to two one millionths of its bulk. Travers’ 
( The Experimental Study of Gases > may also be 
consulted with advantage. 

Ar'gonaut, the appellation of an eight¬ 
armed oceanic cephalopod, closely allied to the 
octopus, and having the same power of swim¬ 
ming backward by forcing water through its 
funnel. Though called <( paper nautilus® is is en¬ 
tirely different from the true nautilus (q.v.), 
and although, since the earliest days, it has been 
said to sail upon the surface of the ocean, in its 
shell as a boat, with two web-like arms spread 
for. sails, this belief is pure fable. Argonauts re¬ 
main in deep water except in spawning season, 
and then come to the surface only at night. The 
male is a naked octopod, and the (( boat® of the 
female has no organic connection with her body, 
but is a mere receptacle for holding eggs, re¬ 
tained in place by the two dorsal arms, which 
are membranous and secrete it from their inner 
surfaces. It is not chambered like that of the 
true nautilus, but has a radially fluted, semi¬ 
transparent spiral shell, enveloping the body 
as far as the base of the tentacles, increasing in 
size with the growth of the animal, and attain¬ 
ing a length of six inches. The male is only 
about an inch in length; one of its very short 
arms is specialized into an organ of genera¬ 
tion, called a (( hectocotyle,® which detaches it¬ 
self from, the male body, and, having independ¬ 
ent locomotory powers, attaches itself to the 



ARGONAUTS; ARGONAUTS OF ’49 


female, and in some manner unknown fertilizes 
the eggs. Only a single species is known 
(A. hians), representing the family Argonautidcu. 
See Nautilus. 

Ar'gonauts, the name given in Greek 
legends to the sailors, who, in a ship called the 
Arg;o, made a hazardous voyage to Colchis un¬ 
der the leadership of Jason, in quest of the gold¬ 
en fleece. Jason’s uncle Pelias had usurped 
the kingdom of Iolcos and would resign it only 
on condition that Jason should first bring from 
Colchis the golden fleece suspended in a conse¬ 
crated grove at Colchis. Among Jason’s com¬ 
panions were Hercules, Castor and Pollux, 
Peleus, Admetus, Meleager, Orpheus, Telamon, 
Theseus, and his friend Pirithous, Hylas, and 
Lynceus. Having sailed from the promontory 
of Magnesia, in Thessaly, they reached the har¬ 
bor of Lemnos, where they remained two years. 
The women of Lemnos, instigated by the of¬ 
fended Aphrodite (Venus), had slain all the 
males among them, except Thoas, and they 
detained among them the welcome strangers. 
At length they proceeded to the Troad, where 
Hylas and Hercules were left behind. After 
various adventures they approached the dreaded 
Symplegades, rocks which closed together and 
dashed in pieces vessels passing through them. 
According to instructions previously received, 
they caused a dove to fly through before them, 
and followed, rowing with all their strength, 
while Orpheus played on his lyre. The rocks 
stood firm, and the danger was escaped. The 
last adventure awaited them at the Island of 
Aretias. Here they found the Stymphalides, 
birds which shot their feathers like arrows, and 
from which the heroes could only protect them¬ 
selves by a violent clashing of weapons. On 
their arrival at Colchis King .ZEetes did not re¬ 
fuse absolutely to deliver the golden fleece, but 
charged Jason with three dangerous labors, thus 
hoping to destroy him. Jason was to yoke 
the two fire-breathing bulls of Hephaestus to a 
ploughshare of adamant, and to plough with 
them four acres of land consecrated to Ares 
(Mars), and never before turned up. He was 
then to sow in the furrows the remaining ser¬ 
pents’ teeth of Cadmus, in the possession of 
.ZEetes, and to kill the armed heroes which they 
produced; at last, to fight with and slay the 
dragon that guarded the golden fleece. All 
three labors he was to accomplish in a single 
day. With the help of Medea, the daugh¬ 
ter of ^Eetes, these tasks were accom¬ 
plished and the fleece obtained. Jason then 
fled with Medea, but the fugitives were 
pursued and on the point of being overtaken 
when Medea averted the danger by killing her 
brother Absyrtus, and strewing on the road his 
mangled limbs. The unhappy father quitted the 
pursuit to collect the bloody limbs of his son 
and the fugitives escaped. The return of the 
Argonauts is variously told, but after many 
perils they reached Iolcos and gave the fleece to 
Pelias. 

Argonauts of ’49, a literary name (the 
colloquial one being ^Forty-niners®) applied to 
the California pioneers. The first discovery of 
gold was in January 1848, but it was not gen¬ 
erally realized till April; from thence till the 
following winter California itself (recently ob¬ 
tained by the United States from Mexico) was 


partially depopulated outside the mining camps, 
even soldiers and sailors deserting in great num¬ 
bers and rushing to the mines, while execu¬ 
tive authority was paralyzed. These local 
changes of place, however, did not constitute 
a. (( voyage for the Golden Fleece® from far 
distant regions, which is what the term im¬ 
plies. The excitement, spread by official reports 
and intensified by journalistic inventions, had 
fully roused the East by winter; from January 
onward the great sea routes were thronged. 
By the end of the year the new province (it 
never was organized as a Territory, entering 
the Union as a State from a condition of legal 
nullity or permitted trespass) contained 
toward 100,000 people. The imperfect State 
census of 1852 showed 264,435, nearly all Ar¬ 
gonauts proper. 

Much the greater portion came by sea; the 
favored route being by the Isthmus of Panama. 
The passengers landed at Chagres, took boat up 
that river to Cruces, then crossed over by horse 
or mule conveyance to Panama, where they took 
such coasting steamers or sailing craft as came 
along. The crowds which flocked thither by all 
sorts of Atlantic vessels far outran the Pacific 
fleet's capacity, and large numbers had to wait 
many weary weeks for a passage. At one time 
3,000 were collected at Panama, so wild with 
impatience that several small companies unsuc¬ 
cessfully attempted to make the voyage to San 
Francisco in the natives’ log canoes. An as¬ 
semblage of several hundred to a thousand was 
common; and at one time they enlivened the 
tedium by issuing a newspaper. But a far more 
terrible foe than ennui had to be faced: the 
cholera and Panama fever, which carried off 
great numbers of the emigrants and a quarter 
of the inhabitants of Panama. Before the ex¬ 
citement had begun, two new steamers, the Cali¬ 
fornia and Oregon, were assigned to this route 
to run monthly. The fare was $300, and the 
competition for space was so great that double 
price was sometimes paid. The California 
reached San Francisco on her first trip 28 Feb. 
1849. When she came up the west coast after 
rounding the Horn to reach Panama, the gold 
fever had just reached Peru, and 75 Peruvians 
took passage. This preoccupation of space so 
enraged the 1,000 or so of waiting Americans 
that they induced the commandant of the United 
.States forces in California, who was waiting 
with them, to issue a proclamation ejecting the 
Peruvians as intending trespassers on United 
States public lands not yet opened for settle¬ 
ment. As they refused to go, however, no one 
dared use force. In one case some 300 intend¬ 
ing passengers drew lots for the 52 steamer 
tickets on sale. Many gold-seekers crossed at 
Nicaragua, at the isthmus of Tehuantepec, or at 
central Mexico. Many thousands, however, 
chose the cheaper and unbroken but time-wast¬ 
ing sailing voyage of several months around 
Cape Horn. The vessels on this route were 
miscellaneous and often unfit and ill manned; 
the food was poor and insufficient, and the voy¬ 
age full of hardship. There was also a large 
overland emigration across the plains, through 
the Great Basin and its alkali deserts, and over 
the Coast Range. This journey, too, was full 
of suffering from lack of food, lack of water, 
lost trails, and exhaustion; and sometimes after 
a summer of endurance to the last gasp, the 


ARGONNE — ARGUMENT 


pilgrims saw the snows close up the mountain 
passes before them, and either wintered or died 
on the eastern flank, or lost themselves trying 
to penetrate through the snow. This overland 
body had two strongly distinguishing marks 
from the immigrants by sea. First, it contained 
nearly all the families among the Argonauts, as 
distinguished from the solitary masculine ad¬ 
venturers; and therefore nearly all the women. 
Second, it was nearly all a Northern and free- 
labor element — an important point in the strug¬ 
gle to make new States free or slave then going 
on between the sections. 

The characteristics of the Argonauts as a 
body were these: First, they were mostly 
men, with a few low-caste women, and their 
moral sense was not therefore quickened by the 
presence and needs of family life; though fami¬ 
lies and reputable women were by no means so 
utterly absent as the exaggerated myths of the 
old-timers would make it appear. Second, few 
intended to remain longer than was needed to 
acquire a fortune and return East. This did 
not make their settlement in the least less en¬ 
during or desirable; but with the paucity of 
family life, it prevented them for some time 
from feeling a proper responsibility for public 
order and the creation of solid institutions, and 
spasms of illegal violence were expected to do 
the work of steady legality. Third, they were 
from all sections of the country, at a time when 
North and South were daily becoming hostile 
races. Though the free-State people were 
largely in the ascendant, the Southerners were 
the political leaders and the State was steadily 
Democratic. Yet the former class had no idea 
of letting sectional politics rule their general 
action: home issues were too pressing and na¬ 
tional ones too academic; and while California 
as a free State sympathized with and furnished 
splendid help to the Union, her politics have never 
been affected by the issues either of slavery or 
of reconstruction. Fourth, along with men of 
character and ability, since prominent as busi¬ 
ness and professional men, State officials, edi¬ 
tors, etc., there were of course great numbers of 
blacklegs, desperadoes, and refugees from jus¬ 
tice. These not only defied all law in their re¬ 
lations with each other, but frequently outraged, 
plundered, and murdered the native Spanish in¬ 
habitants, and required an amount of time and 
effort to keep them in order, which the decent 
element — who were in a great majority — were 
unwilling to give. Hence society again and 
again seemed on the verge of being dominated 
wholly by its criminal classes, and the fear of 
an occasional uprising of the orderly element 
did not countervail its being only occasional 
and the chance of escaping it. (See Vigilance 
Committees.) But the best praise which can 
be given to the essential soundness of the Ar¬ 
gonauts is that in a remarkably short time they 
rose to the same sense of their responsibilities as 
older commonwealths, and the California of 
i860 was not inferior to any of its companions. 
See Royce, ( History of California* (1891) ; H. 
H. Bancroft, ( History of California,* 4 vols. 
(1884-90); Shinn, ( Mining Camps ) (1885); 
Bayard Taylor, ( Eldorado ) (1850) ; Burnett, 
( Reminiscences of an Old Pioneer ) (1880). 

Argonne, ar'gun', a district of France, now 
contained in the departments of Marne and 
Ardennes, The wood of Argonne is celebrated 


for the campaign of Dumouriez against the 
Prussians in 1792, and was also the scene of sev¬ 
eral events in the Franco-Prussian war. 

Ar'gos, an important city of ancient 
Greece. The conquest of Argos by the Dorians 
forms the first really authenticated event in its 
history. Argos was now a Doric city, though it 
retained with part of its Achaean population some 
of its ancient habits, particularly the worship 
of Hera (Juno). It had also a temple of pe¬ 
culiar sacredness to Apollo. It was long the 
first Dorian city in Greece, Sparta being the 
second, and Messene the third. From the time 
of the ascendency of Sparta, Argos was divided 
between a democratic and an oligarchic party, 
the former of which inclined to the Athenian, 
the latter to the Spartan alliance; but the gen¬ 
eral spirit of the city tended toward enmity to 
Sparta. In 362 Argos fought with Thebes 
against Sparta and Athens. The celebrated 
Pyrrhus was killed in an invasion of Argos in 
272. In 229 Argos joined the Achaian League, 
to which it continued to adhere till its over¬ 
throw by the Romans. The town of Argos is 
a straggling modern place, with houses mostly 
surrounded by gardens, and few buildings of 
importance. The chief relic of the ancient city 
is the theatre. There is an acropolis, 1,000 feet 
high, crowned by a ruined castle. Pop. 10,000. 

Argostoli, ar'gos-td'le, an important city 
of the Ionian Islands, the capital of Cephalonia. 
Its harbor is considered the best in the Ionian 
Islands, and there are excellent quays. The 
town is the residence of a Greek bishop. Pop. 
(1890) 9,241. 

Argot, ar'go', a French term denoting the 
jargon, or peculiar phraseology of a class or 
profession. It originally referred to the con¬ 
ventional slang of thieves and vagabonds, in¬ 
vented for the purpose of disguise and conceal¬ 
ment. 

Argout, ar'goo', Antoine Maurice Apol¬ 
linaire, Count d\ a French statesman and 
financier: b. in Isere in 1782; d. in 1858. He 
was governor of the Bank of France, 1834-48. 

Arguelles, ar'ga'lyas, Augustin, a Spanish 

statesman: b. in Rivadisella in Asturias in 1776; 
d. in Madrid, 23 March 1844. On the outbreak 
of the war of independence in 1808 he attached 
himself to the patriotic party, and, as representa¬ 
tive of his native province in the Cortes, gained 
a high reputation for eloquence (1812-14). On 
the restoration of Ferdinand VII., Arguelles 
was arrested, and suffered several years’ im¬ 
prisonment in the galleys till the revolution of 
1820 restored him to freedom. On the fall of 
the Constitution (1823) he fled to England, 
where he remained till the amnesty of 1832. On 
his return to Spain, being nominated to the 
Cortes, he was repeatedly made president and 
vice-president of the Chamber of Deputies, and 
always showed himself a moderate but unwaver¬ 
ing reformer. 

Ar'gument, a term sometimes employed 
as synonymous with the subject of a discourse, 
but more frequently appropriated to any kind of 
method employed for the purpose of confuting 
or at least silencing an opponent. Logicians 
have reduced arguments to several distinct 
heads, of which the only one that can be said 
to have truth only for its object is the argumen- 


ARGUMENTATION 


turn ad judicium, founded on proof and ad¬ 
dressed to the judgment. See Logic. 

Argumentation is the process of proving or 
attempting to prove a given proposition the 
truth of which is doubtful or disputed. It is, 
in many respects, the converse of the process of 
inference which is reasoning from premises to 
a conclusion. In arguing, the conclusion be¬ 
comes a thesis and the facts or premises from 
which it was inferred become the reasons by 
which it is proved. Inference is a forward 
movement from the premises to the conclusion; 
arguing is a backward movement, or reference, 
from the thesis to the grounds which support 
it. Inference is the process by which we our¬ 
selves reach a conclusion or belief; arguing is 
the process by which we seek to induce belief 
in others. 

Proof requires that the proposition to be 
proved be brought within the scope of an accept¬ 
ed law or principle, a law or principle being de¬ 
fined as every general proposition that includes, 
or may be applied to, unascertained cases. This 
may be done by setting forth evidence, that is, 
facts observed by those sought to be convinced, 
or established to their satisfaction, which show 
the relation between the two. In practice ar¬ 
gumentation is usually elliptical. The whole of 
the proof is seldom stated in full. The advo¬ 
cate is usually content to state one or more 
facts, leaving it to those addressed to supply the 
presuppositions in the light of which alone such 
facts may be interpreted. Implications which 
may be readily supplied are usually omitted. 
Thus, if it be argued that <( Congress is in ses¬ 
sion® for the reason that <( the flag is flying over 
the Capitol,® it is clear that the assertor relies 
not only on the fact given as a reason but also 
on an implied assumption which may be ex¬ 
pressed as a general proposition: (( Whenever 
the flag is flying over the Capitol Congress is in 
session.® Every valid argument, then, when 
fully expressed, consists of a proposition to be 
proved which may be called the T hesis, and two 
proving propositions usually called the reasons 
or the proof, one of which is a general proposi¬ 
tion and may be called the Principle, and the 
other is a statement of evidence and may be 
called for distinction the Reason, and shows that 
the thesis is brought within the scope of the 
principle. A thesis is said to be proved, (i) 
if the reason and the principle are known or ad¬ 
mitted to be true, and (2) if the thesis is con¬ 
tained, involved, or implied in them. An argu¬ 
ment mav be compared to a lever; the thesis 
is the weight to be lifted, the principle is the 
fulcrum and the reason, the power. The first 
requirement of proof has reference to those 
sought to be convinced. The advocate must 
found his thesis on something which they .recog¬ 
nize to be true. If the reason or principle be 
not accepted, the proof remains incomplete until 
the disputed proposition is itself proved by ref¬ 
erence to another reason and principle, and so 
on until some holding ground is reached some 
reason and principle which will be unchallenged. 
The second requirement is concerned with the re¬ 
lation of the thesis to the other propositions ot 
the argument. If the principle and the reason 
are both expressed, the question whether or no 


they imply the thesis is manifest in most cases 
on simple inspection. 

Proof may be either conclusive or probable. 
To prove a proposition means strictly to estab¬ 
lish its truth conclusively and beyond all doubt. 
In practice, however, a proposition is said to be 
proved when its truth is shown to be probable 
or highly probable, or so probable that we do 
not hesitate to act as if it were true. Thus, in 
a criminal trial a prisoner's guilt is said to be 
proved if it be established beyond a reasonable 
doubt; and in a civil trial the plaintiff’s case is 
said to be proved if there is a mere preponder¬ 
ance of evidence in its favor. There are many 
principles that connot be asserted or accepted as 
true universally, but only generally, or in most 
cases, and when such a principle is relied on as 
the foundation of an argument the thesis can 
only be asserted as probably true. So if the 
leason can only be asserted as probable, the 
thesis can have no higher certainty. In most 
cases it is only possible to establish a disputed 
question with more or less probability, to afford 
a presumption of its truth, and to shift the bur¬ 
den of proof on him who maintains the con¬ 
trary. 

Proof is said to be direct when the reasons 
directly imply the thesis, and indirect when they 
imply the falsity of all possible alternatives, and 
hence indirectly imply the truth of the thesis. 
Thus, if we argue that a given straight line, AB, 
is equal to another given straight line, CD, we 
employ the indirect mode of proof if we show 
that AB is not greater than CD, and that it is 
not less. The only possible alternative is that 
AB is equal to CD. 

Argumentation includes also the processes of 
disproof and of refutation which, however, are 
fundamentally processes of proof, since disproof 
consists in proving that a given thesis is false, 
and refutation consists in proving that a thesis 
for which reasons have been given is not proved 
by them, having regard to the requirements of 
proof. 

Principles may be divided according to their 
source into two general classes, namely, those 
derived from Experience and those derived from 
Authority. Principles derived from Experience 
include the laws of nature, scientific truths, and, 
in short, all general propositions which are sug¬ 
gested or confirmed by experience, as for ex¬ 
ample, <( all men are mortal®; (< the air has 
weight®; ^unsupported bodies fall to the 
ground®; <( division of labor increases its ef- 
fiency.® 

Principles derived from Authority include 
civil laws, rules of action and other general 
propositions, declared, enacted, or promulgated, 
usually for the guidance or government of a 
class or community, by a legislature,, church, 
judge, lawgiver, teacher, inspired writers, or 
by any man or body of men having or assuming 
authority, as for example: <( every person who, 
being a witness in a judicial proceeding, makes 
a statement under oath which he knows to be 
false is guilty of perjury and is liable to a pen¬ 
alty® ; <( it is wrong to commit murder®; (< all 
men are created free and equal®, all who be¬ 
lieve will be saved.® 

Arguments may be divided into two .general 
classes, according as the principle on which they 


ARGUMENTATION 


are based is derived from Authority or from 
Experience. This division is similar to that 
adopted by lawyers when they speak of issues 
of law and issues of fact. The following is an 
example of an argument where the principle is 
an enacted law: 

Thesis: This prisoner is guilty of perjury and 
is liable to a penalty. 

Reason: Because being a witness in a judicial 
proceeding he made a statement under oath 
which he knew to be false. 

Principle: Because every person who, being a 
witness in a judicial proceeding, makes a 
statement under oath which he knows to be 
false, is guilty of perjury and is liable to 
penalty. 

Arguments based on principles derived from 
Experience may be conveniently divided into 
eight general classes, namely: arguments to 
prove Facts of Causation, arguments from Ex¬ 
ample, from Analogy, from Cause to Effect, 
from Effect to Cause, from Testimony, from 
Sign, and from Circumstantial Evidence. 

Facts of Causation .—That one thing is the 
cause or the effect of another may be proved by 
reference to one of the five principles first for¬ 
mulated by John Stuart Mill, which are as 
follows: 

(a) Agreement.—When two or more in¬ 
stances of the phenomenon under investigation 
have only one circumstance in common the cir¬ 
cumstance in which alone all the instances agree 
is the cause (or effect) of the given phenome¬ 
non. 

(b) Difference.—If an instance in which the 
phenomenon under investigation occurs and an 
instance in which it does not occur have every 
circumstance in common save one, that one oc¬ 
curring only in the former, the circumstance in 
which alone the two instances differ is the effect 
or the cause or an indispensable part of the 
cause of the phenomenon. 

(c) Joint Method.—If two or more in¬ 
stances in which the phenomenon occurs have 
only one circumstance in common, while two 
or more instances in which it does not occur 
have nothing in common save the absence of 
that circumstance; the circumstance in which 
alone the two sets of instances differ is the 
effect or the cause or an indispensable part of 
the cause of the phenomenon. 

(d) Residues.—Subduct from any phenom¬ 
enon such part as previous induction has shown 
to be the effect of certain antecedents and the 
residue of the phenomenon is the effect of the 
remaining antecedents. 

(e) Concomitant Variations.—Whatever phe¬ 
nomenon varies in any manner whenever an¬ 
other phenomenon varies in some particular 
manner is either a cause or an effect of that 
phenomenon or is connected with it through 
some fact of causation. 

These five principles may be reduced to two, 
which are: negatively, that none of the ante¬ 
cedents of an effect that can be dispensed with 
without preventing the effect is the cause, and 
positively, that every antecedent of an effect 
that cannot be dispensed with without prevent¬ 
ing the effect is the cause or part of the cause. 
These principles may be proved by reference to 
two principles which are the ultimate founda¬ 


tion of all arguments from Experience. These 
are the law of Universal Causation which may 
be expressed by saying that (< Every event has a 
cause,® and the law of the Uniformity of 
Causes which may be expressed by saying that 
(< Like causes produce like effects in like circum¬ 
stances.® 

It is in accordance with these principles that 
investigations are carried on in every branch of 
science that has to do with tracing the relation 
of cause and effect, and establishing principles 
based thereon. 

Example .—We use the argument from Ex¬ 
ample when we cite as a reason for the truth 
of a general proposition a number of observed 
or known facts similar to those summed up in 
the thesis, the facts set forth being examples of 
the general truth they are cited to prove. Thus, 
we argue that all horned animals are ruminant 
because the ox, the sheep, the deer, and other 
horned animals are ruminant. In an argument 
of this kind the reason is seldom stated in full 
and the principle is seldom stated at all. When 
the proposition to be proved is universal, the 
advocate relies on the implied assumptions that 
no negative example has been found and that 
the search has been exhaustive. He is usually 
content to state one or more positive instances 
and shift on his opponent the burden of show¬ 
ing an exception, or that the search has not been 
complete. The argument may be stated in full 
as follows: Thesis: All horned animals are 
ruminant; Reason: Because A, B, C, and a 
number of other horned animals are ruminant, 
and no horned animal has been found, after due 
search, that is not ruminant; Principle: What¬ 
ever has been found tc be true in a number of 
instances of a phenomenon and never found to 
be false, after due search, in any, is true of all. 

In like manner we may argue that all men 
are mortal, that unsupported bodies fall to the 
ground, that food is necessary to animal life, 
that the price of protected manufactures tends 
to decline. 

Analogy .—In an argument from Analogy 
points of resemblance between two things are 
relied on to prove that the resemblance extends 
further than is actually known or observed. 
Thus, when we argue that a given specimen of 
handwriting was written by a particular person 
because it resembles handwriting that is known 
to have been written by that person, we employ 
an argument from Analogy. -The principle upon 
which this argument is based may be stated as 
follows: <( Whatever is true of a thing is true 
of what essentially resembles it.® It is some¬ 
times said that no thesis can be proved conclu¬ 
sively by analogical evidence, but if essential re¬ 
semblance can be shown, if, in other words, the 
analogy is complete, the argument may be as 
conclusive as any other. In many cases in 
which the argument from analogy is employed 
it is impossible to show essential resemblance, 
and, of course, the thesis cannot be asserted as 
more than probably true. Thus, in the argu¬ 
ment that Mars is inhabited because of its many 
points of resemblance to the earth it is im¬ 
possible to say that the thesis is even probably 
true, since there are so many points of essential 
difference and so many essential points as to 
which it is unknown whether Mars resembles 




ARGUMENTATION 


the earth or not. To justify a probable conclu¬ 
sion there must be more points of resemblance 
than of difference and the points as to which 
we do not know whether the two things com¬ 
pared agree or differ should be considered as 
points of difference. Moreover, of all possible 
points of resemblance and of difference only 
those should be considered which are essential, 
that is to say, which have a direct bearing on 
the question to be proved. The principle upon 
which we rely in using a probable argument 
from analogy may be stated as follows: (( When 
two things resemble in a preponderating num¬ 
ber of essential particulars what is true of one 
is probably true of the other.® 

The arguments from Example and from An¬ 
alogy depend in the last analysis upon causation. 
The uniformity of the facts in the one case 
and the essential similarity of the facts in the 
other lead us to infer a cause which, although 
not known, is assumed to exist to account for 
the fact or class of facts to be proved. 

Cause to Effect .—An argument from cause to 
effect is one in which the existence of a known 
cause is given as a reason to prove an effect, as 
when we argue that a man will die because he is 
afflicted with a particular disease. Such an 
argument may be only probable since the action 
of every cause is liable to be frustrated by other 
agencies, and it approaches to conclusiveness in 
so far as it can be shown that no other agency 
is operating or will operate to prevent the ef¬ 
fect. When an argument of this kind is em¬ 
ployed the assumptions relied on are that the 
circumstance given as a reason has been found 
to be adequate to produce the alleged effect, that 
its action cannot be frustrated and that it will 
be followed by its effect in this case as in the 
former case or cases, or in other words, that 
like causes produce like effects. The argument 
may be expressed in full as follows: T: A will 
die; R: Because he is afflicted with X, a cause 
of death that cannot be frustrated; P: Every 
cause that cannot be frustrated will be followed 
by its effect. The argument may be stated more 
simply by using as a principle the law of the 
particular effect: T: A will die; R: Because 
he is afflicted with X; P: Because all who are 
afflicted with X die. In like manner we may 
argue from motives to actions which they tend 
to produce. 

Effect to Cause .—An argument from Effect 
to Cause is one in which the existence of an 
effect is given as a reason to prove a cause that 
is known to be adequate to produce that effect. 
Such an argument may only be probable since 
the same effect may be produced by two or 
more causes, and it approaches to conclusiveness 
in so far as all the causes but one can be shown 
not to be operative. Thus, when we argue that 
it has rained because the streets are wet we use 
an argument from an effect (the wet street) to 
a cause (rain), and it is conclusive in so far 
as we show that no other cause operated which 
might produce the effect, as for example, a 
heavy dew, melting snow, the sprinkling cart, 
the bursting of a water main, etc. 

The principle relied on in arguments of this 
kind may be stated as follows: when any cir¬ 
cumstance is known to be adequate to produce a 
given effect, that effect having appeared and no 


other cause having operated to produce it, the 
effect in question was preceded by that circum¬ 
stance. 

Testimony .—An argument from Testimony 
may be regarded as an argument from an effect 
to a condition, the giving of the testimony being 
the effect and the reality of the fact testified to 
being a more or less probable condition of the 
effect; in other words we argue that the testi¬ 
mony would not have been given if the fact tes¬ 
tified to were not true. The assumption relied 
on in every argument from testimony is that the 
witness is trustworthy, and the principle on 
which we rely is: what a trustworthy witness 
testifies to is true. An argument from testimony 
may be stated formally thus: T: A assaulted 
B; R: Because C, a trustworthy witness, testi¬ 
fies that he saw him do it; P: Because what a 
trustworthy witness testifies to is true. It is 
assumed both in the courts of justice as well 
as in the ordinary affairs of life that a witness 
is trustworthy unless the contrary is shown, in 
much the same way that an accused person is 
presumed to be innocent until he is proved to be 
guilty, and the burden of showing that he is not 
trustworthy is usually upon him who asserts his 
untrustworthiness. 

Sign .—An argument from sign is one in 
which the fact to be proved and the fact cited 
as a reason, although not related as cause and 
effect, are associated through some fact of caus¬ 
ation, usually as joint effects of a common 
cause either known or assumed to exist. Thus, 
when we argue that it will rain because the mer¬ 
cury is falling in the barometer, or that this ani¬ 
mal is a ruminant because it is horned, or that 
Congress is in session because the flag is flying 
over the Capitol, we use arguments from sign. 
Arguments from Testimony, from Cause to Ef¬ 
fect, and from Effect to Cause, are also some¬ 
times called arguments from sign, but it is con¬ 
venient to use the term in the sense above indi¬ 
cated. In a wide sense all arguments are argu¬ 
ments from sign since sign is only another name 
for evidence. The principle relied on in this ar¬ 
gument is usually a law already established by 
the argument from Example. 

Circumstantial Evidence .—In this argument 
the reason consists of a number of facts or cir¬ 
cumstances any one of which taken by itself 
may have little evidential force, but which taken 
together form a body of evidence that is often 
stronger than the direct testimony of witnesses. 
It is in the nature of an argument from cause 
to effect or from effect to cause or from sign, 
or it may contain elements of all three. An ex¬ 
ample of the establishment of a thesis by cir¬ 
cumstantial evidence may be taken from almost 
any criminal trial. In one case the house of a 
License Inspector, who had aroused the hos¬ 
tility of liquor sellers by a strict enforcement of 
the law, was wrecked by some explosive. Short¬ 
ly after the explosion, which happened about 
one o’clock in the morning, marks of footsteps 
in the fresh snow were found leading from the 
place of the explosion to one of the hotels, not 
by the most direct route, but circuitously around 
a block and through a back alley to the rear 
entrance of the hotel. In one of the rooms was 
found a pair of boots which coincided with the 
footmarks made in the snow, and under the 


ARGUMENTATION 


mattress of the bed there were two sticks of 
dynamite and an unused dynamite fuse. The 
owner of the boots who occupied that room was 
unable to give any satisfactory explanation of 
these facts, and he was tried and convicted of 
the crime. The reason in an argument of this 
kind is seldom stated in full. The advocate re¬ 
lies on an implied assumption that the facts 
stated as evidence cannot be accounted for in 
any reasonable way except on the truth of the 
thesis. The proof of incriminating facts has 
the effect of shifting upon the accused the bur¬ 
den of showing that the facts can be explained 
or accounted for in some other way. The prin¬ 
ciple upon which an argument of this kind is 
based may be stated as follows: (< Every thesis 
that is exclusively sufficient to explain a given 
set of facts is true,® and the whole argument 
may be stated formally as follows: T: A 
caused the death of B; R: Because that thesis 
is exclusively sufficient to explain the facts A, 
B, C, D, etc.; P: Every thesis that is exclu¬ 
sively sufficient to explain a given set of facts is 
true. The same kind of argument is employed 
in a great variety of other cases, as for exam¬ 
ple in proving the existence of a glacial epoch 
in prehistoric times, or that Sir Philip Francis 
wrote the letters of Junius. 

Arguments from Example, from Analogy, 
and to prove Facts of Causation are usually 
classed as Inductive Arguments and all others 
as Deductive. For the distinction between In¬ 
duction and Deduction see the article on Logic. 

Disproof, like proof, may be direct or indi¬ 
rect. It is direct when the reasons directly 
imply the falsity of the thesis, and it is indirect 
when the reasons imply the truth of any one al¬ 
ternative, or of any fact inconsistent with the 
truth of the thesis. Thus, the thesis in a crim¬ 
inal trial that the prisoner at such a time and 
place committed a certain offense may be dis¬ 
proved indirectly by the proof that the prisoner 
at that time was elsewhere, usually called prov¬ 
ing an alibi. A general proposition may be dis¬ 
proved indirectly in two ways, first, by proving 
exceptions called exceptive disproof; secondly, 
by showing that a proposition manifestly absurd 
is logically deducible from it, called a reductio 
ad absurdum. 

Refutation consists in showing the fallacy of 
an argument having regard to the requirements 
of proof. This may be done in two ways, first, 
by showing that the reason or the principle re¬ 
lied on, whether express or implied, is untrue. 
Thus, an argument from Testimony may be re¬ 
futed by showing that the witness is untrust¬ 
worthy, as for example, that he lacked the 
means or opportunity for accurately observing 
the facts testified to, that he was biased by in¬ 
terest or hostility, that his testimony is incon¬ 
sistent with itself or with other facts better 
known or better established, that his memory is 
defective, that he is known to be untruthful, etc. 
An argument from Example may be refuted 
by showing exceptions to the general law sought 
to be proved, or by showing that the search for 
negative examples has no 1 been exhaustive. An 
argument from Analogy may be refuted by 
showing points of essential difference between 
the things compared; an argument from Cause 
to Effect, by showing the operation of other 


causes to prevent the effect; and an argument 
from Effect to Cause, by showing the operation 
of other causes to produce the same effect. The 
common fallacy committed in arguments to 
prove facts of causation is to argue that one 
thing is the effect of another merely because it 
follows that other— -post hoc ergo propter hoc — 
other antecedents of the effect besides the al¬ 
leged cause being overlooked. In an argument 
from circumstantial evidence there is an implied 
assumption that the facts given as a reason 
cannot be explained or accounted for in any 
reasonable way except on the supposition that 
the thesis is true. The argument may be re¬ 
futed by showing that the facts may be other¬ 
wise explained. The so-called ^theory of the 
defence® in a criminal trial is usually a thesis 
by which the facts may be accounted for consist¬ 
ently with the prisoner’s innocence. 

Secondly, an argument may be refuted by 
showing that the principle and the reason, even 
if true, do not imply the thesis. Fallacies of 
this kind all involve some form of irrelevancy. 
Thus, in the fallacy of (( evading the issue,® the 
reasons imply an irrelevant conclusion, or in 
other words, the conclusion proved is not the 
question in dispute, but is either (i) a thesis 
that is like it and is intended to be mistaken for 
it; or (2) a thesis that is entirely different from 
the question at issue, the argument being often 
employed to distract attention from the real is¬ 
sue, or as it is sometimes expressed, <( to draw 
a herring across the trail.® The argument ad 
hominem which is addressed, not to the merits 
of the case, but to the character, principles or 
conduct of an opponent; the argument ad pop- 
ulrnn or ad captandam, which consists in mak¬ 
ing an improper appeal to the feelings of those 
addressed; the argument ad verecundiam (rev¬ 
erence) which invokes the authority of a great 
name as concluding the question; the tu quoque 
argument—are all forms of the fallacy of evad¬ 
ing the issue, as opposed to the argument ad 
rem, which is addressed to the matter in dis¬ 
pute. This fallacy is often committed in refu¬ 
tation when our opponent by way of answer 
elaborately disproves a proposition which we 
never maintained, a process which is sometimes 
called “setting a man up only to knock him 
down.® In like manner the reason or the prin¬ 
ciple or both may be irrelevant through am¬ 
biguity of language or othqrwise. 

1 he fallacy of (( begging the question® con¬ 
sists in attempting to prove a thesis by itself 
which in the course of the argument is either 
tacitly assumed to be true or, if expressed as a 
reason, is disguised in an equivalent form of 
words. 

The fallacy of non sequitur (it does not fol¬ 
low) really includes all the foregoing fallacies 
of the second class, but the name is usually 
restricted to loosely constructed arguments, for 
which no appropriate name has been found. 
Professor De Morgan gives the following ex¬ 
ample: “Episcopacy is of Scripture origin; the 
Church of England is the only Episcopal Church 
in England; therefore, the Church established 
is the Church that should be supported.® 

Bibliography.— Bain, ( Logic Deductive and 
Inductive > ; Baynes, ( Analytic of Logical 
Forms ) ; Boole, ( Logic ) ; Bosanquet, ( Essentials 


ARGUS—ARGYRODITE 


of Logic ) ; Bowen, ( Logic 5 ; Bradley, Princi¬ 
ples of Logic ) ; Creighton, introductory 
Logic 5 ; Day, ( Art of Discourse ) ; DeMorgan, 

< Formal Logic ) ; Fowler, ^Deductive Logic/ 
inductive Logic ) ; Hamilton, c Lectures on 
Logic ) ; Hibben, inductive Logic ) ; Hill, Prin¬ 
ciples of Rhetoric ) ; Hyslop, ( Elements of 
Logic/ ( Logic and Argument ; Jevons, ( Les- 
sons in Logic/ Principles of Science ) ; Mc- 
Cosh, ( Logic 5 ; McGregor, c System of Logic 5 ; 
Mill, ( System of Logic ) ; Minto, ( Logic, In¬ 
ductive and Deductive 5 ; Sidgwick, ( Argu¬ 
ment/ Pallacies ) ; Sigwart, ( Logic ) ; Spencer 
Principles of Psychology 5 ; Thomson, Out¬ 
line of the Laws of Though/ ; Venn, ( Empirical 
Logic 5 ; Whateley, c Elements of Logic/ ( Ele¬ 
ments of Rhetoric ) ; Wills, ( Circumstantial Evi¬ 
dence/ ’ 

Edwin Bell, L.L.B., 
of the Canadian Bar. 

Ar'gus, a personage represented in Greek 
mythology as having ioo eyes, or as having his 
whole body covered with eyes, half of these be¬ 
ing always awake while the rest were closed in 
sleep. The jealous Hera made him keeper of 
the unhappy Io; but Hermes lulled him to sleep 
with the sound of his flute, and cut off his head. 
Hera afterward took his eyes to adorn the tail 
of the peacock. 

Argyle, ar-gfl', Campbells of, the designa¬ 
tion of a distinguished Scottish family. Among 
its most noted representatives are: Archibald, 
the second Earl, who was killed at the battle 
of Flodden, 1513. Archibald, fifth Earl, at¬ 
tached himself to the party of Mary of Guise, 
and was the means of averting a collision be¬ 
tween the reformers and the French troops in 
1559. He was commissioner of regency after 
Mary’s abdication, but afterward commanded 
her troops at the battle of Langside, and died 
in 1575. Archibald, eighth Earl and Marquis, 
b. 1598, was a zealous partisan of the Covenan¬ 
ters, and was created a Marquis by Charles I. 
It was by his persuasion that Charles II. visited 
Scotland, and was crowned at Scone in 1651. 
At the restoration he was committed to the 
tower, and afterward sent to Scotland, where 
he was tried for high treason, and beheaded in 
1661. Archibald, ninth Earl, son of the pre¬ 
ceding, served the king with great bravery at 
the battle of Dunbar, and was accordingly ex¬ 
cluded from the general pardon by Cromwell 
in 1654. On the passing of the Test Act in 
1681 he refused to take the required oath except 
with a reservation. For this he was tried and 
sentenced to death. He, however, escaped to 
Holland, whence he returned with a view of aid¬ 
ing the Duke of Monmouth. His plan, however, 
failed, and he was taken and conveyed to Edin¬ 
burgh, where he was beheaded in 1685. Archi¬ 
bald, tenth Earl and first Duke, son of the pre¬ 
ceding, died in 1703- He took an active part 
in the revolution of 1688-9, which placed Wil¬ 
liam and Mary on the throne, and was rewarded 
by several important appointments and the title 
of Duke. John, second Duke, and Duke of 
Greenwich, son of the above, was born in 1678 
and died in 1743- He served under Marlbor¬ 
ough at the battles of Ramifies, Oudenarde, and 


Malplaquet, and assisted at the sieges of Lisle 
and Ghent. In 1715 he fought an indecisive 
battle with the Earl of Mar’s army at Sheriff- 
muir, near Dunblane, and forced the pretender 
to quit the kingdom. George John Douglass 
Campbell, eighth Duke, Baron Sundridge and 
Hamilton, was born in 1823 and died 24 April 
1900. He early took a part in politics, especially 
in discussions regarding the Presbyterian Church 
of Scotland. In 1852 he became lord privy seal 
under Lord Aberdeen, and again under Lord 
Palmerston, in 1859; postmaster-general in i860; 
secretary for India from 1868 to 1874; again 
Lord privy seal in 1880, but retired, being un¬ 
able to agree with his colleagues on their Irish 
policy. He was the author of ( The Reign of 
Law 5 (1866); ( Primeval Man 5 (1869); ( The 
Burdens of Belief 5 (1894) J ( Organic Evolu¬ 
tion (1878). John Douglass Sutherland, 
ninth Duke, eldest son of the preceding, was 
born in 1845. He married Louise, the fourth 
daughter of Queen Victoria, in 1871, and as 
Marquis of Lome was governor-general of Can¬ 
ada 1878-83. He is the author of ( A Trip to the 
Tropics ) (1867); ( Guido and Lita 5 (1875); 
( The Psalms Literally Rendered in Verse 5 
(1877); ( Canadian Pictures 5 (1885); Hmperial 
Federation 5 (1885). 

Argyllshire, ar-gll'shir, an important 
county in the highlands of Scotland, consisting 
partly of mainland and partly of islands belong¬ 
ing to the Hebrides group. The area is 3,213 
square miles, or 2,056,400 acres. The greatest 
length of mainland is about 115 miles. From 
the windings of the numerous bays and creeks 
with which the land is everywhere indented it is 
supposed to have more than 600 miles of sea- 
coast. The chief towns are: the capital, In¬ 
verary, Campbeltown, Oban, Dunoon, Loch¬ 
gilphead, and Tobermory. For a long time this 
county scarcely formed part of the kingdom, 
being subject to the Macdonalds of the isles, 
who assumed regal and independent sway over 
it. The estates, titles, and jurisdiction of the 
latter, however, subsequently fell to the Camp¬ 
bells, whose present representatives, the Duke 
of Argyle and the Earl of Breadalbane, are the 
chief landed proprietors. The chief articles of 
export are sheep, cattle, horses, fish, slate, and 
granite. One of the most important branches 
of industry is the fishing of herring, cod, and 
ling. The principal manufactures are whisky 
and coarse woolens. Among the antiquities of 
Argyllshire are the celebrated monastery of 
Iona, and the remains of a Cistercian priory in 
Oronsay. The most noted of its natural curi¬ 
osities are the basaltic columns and cave of 
Staffa (q.v.). Pop. (1901) 73,665. 

Argy'ria, or Silver Poisoning. See Toxi¬ 
cology. 

Argyr'odite (Greek, (( like silver 55 ), a min¬ 
eral first observed at Freiberg, Saxony, and 
found upon analysis to contain a previously 
unknown metallic element, to which the name 
(( germanium 55 has been given. Argyrodite has 
the formula 4AG 2 S.GeS 2 , and crystallizes in the 
isometric system. It has a hardness 2.5 and a 
specific gravity varying from 6.08 to 6.26. It has 


ARI THORGILSSON —ARIEGE 


a metallic lustre, and fresh fractures show a 
gray color tinged with red or violet. Its crystals 
are usually small and it also occurs massive. 
Large crystals have been found in Bolivia. 

Ari Thorgilsson, a're-tor'gel-son, the 
father of Icelandic literature: b. in 1067; d. in 
1148. He was the first Icelander to use his 
mother tongue as a literary medium. His ( Is- 
lendingabok, 5 a concise history of Iceland from 
its settlement (about 870) until 1120 is preserved 
only in an abstract. Later Icelandic writers 
modeled their style upon his. 

Aria, a're-a or a'ria, a term in music. See 
Air. 

A'riad'ne, the daughter of Minos, king of 
Crete, who, having fallen in love with Theseus 
when engaged in his attempt to destroy the 
Minotaur, gave him a clue of thread, which 
served to guide him out of the labyrinth after 
having slain the monster. Theseus, on leav¬ 
ing the island, took with him Ariadne, but de¬ 
serted her on the Isle of Naxos. 

A'rianism is the name given to the doc¬ 
trine of the person of Christ advocated by Arius 
and his followers. It contained nothing essen¬ 
tially new, but it crystallized certain modes and 
tendencies of thought which had been more 
or less prevalent in the Church for three or 
four generations. (See Christology.) The 
views of Arius and the strict Arian party may 
be summarized as follows: (1) The Son was 
created out of nothing, and is therefore different 
in essence from the Father. He is Logos, Wis¬ 
dom, Son of God, but so only by the grace of 
God and not in and of himself. (2) There was 
(before time began) when he was not; that is, 
he is a finite being. (3) He was created be¬ 
fore everything else, and through him the uni¬ 
verse was created and is administered. (4) 
The Logos became the soul of the historical 
Christ, and the human elements in the character 
of Jesus belonged to the Logos. (5) Although 
the incarnate Logos is finite and hence is not 
God, he is to be worshipped, since he is exalted 
far above all other creatures, and is both Ruler 
and Redeemer. 

The discussions at the Nicene Council re¬ 
vealed the fact that there were three parties pres¬ 
ent : the strict Arians, the semi-Arians, and the 
Alexander-Athanasian party. The latter party 
with the help of Constantine and the western 
bishops, secured the adoption of a creed (see 
Creeds) which no strict Arian could subscribe 
to, since it declared that the Son is identical in 
essence (homoousian ) with the Father. The 
semi-Arians, although they maintained that the 
Son was not identical in essence, but of similar 
essence (homoiousian) with the Father, were 
finally constrained to sign the document. Soon 
after the closing of the council the semi-Arians 
began to assail the Nicene creed, and finally, 
through the influence of Eusebius (q.v.), they 
secured the recall of Arius and his companions 
and the deposition and banishment of Athan¬ 
asius. The sons of Constantine continued to 
favor the semi-Arian party, which included a 
large majority of the eastern bishops; but the 
western churches generally adhered to the Ni¬ 
cene creed. But the death of Constantius II. 
in 361, and the accession of Julian left the Arian 
party without imperial support, and Athanasius 


and his followers regained considerable influence 
in the east. The accession of Valens in 363, 
however, reversed the governmental policy and 
led to the fanatical persecution of the Nicenes. 
But the distracted condition of the Orient, due 
to the war with Persia, and the demoralized 
state of many of the bishoprics under Arian 
leadership, made it relatively easy for Theodo¬ 
sius the Great to espouse and support the Ni¬ 
cene party. A second oecumenical council held 
at Constantinople in 381 reaffirmed the Nicene 
creed with slight additions and curtailments, 
thus completing the victory of Nicara in favor 
of the full deity of the Son. Arianism was soon 
suppressed within the empire, but it continued 
for a long time to prevail among the barbarians. 
The conversion of Clovis, king of the Franks, 
to the orthodox faith in 496 was followed by a 
rapid decline of Arianism among the Teutonic 
peoples. See Arius. 

Edwin Knox Mitchell, 
Hartford Theological Seminary. 

Ariano, a're-a'no, an Italian town in the 
province of Avellino, 44 miles northeast of Na¬ 
ples, in one of the most frequented passes of the 
Apennines. It is the seat of a bishop, and con¬ 
tains a handsome cathedral. Pop. (1901) 17*650. 

Arias, a'ri-as, Montanus Benedictus, an 

Oriental scholar: b. Ferexenal, Spain, in 1527; 
d. there in 1598. He accompanied the Bishop of 
Segovia to the Council of Trent, and on his re¬ 
turn secluded himself in a cloister among the 
mountains of Andalusia. Philip II. drew him 
forth from his seclusion to prepare a new edi¬ 
tion of the Polyglot Bible, printed at Antwerp 
by the celebrated printers Plantin. Of his nu¬ 
merous writings the best known is his < Jewish 
Antiquities, 5 attached to the Polyglot, and also 
published separately. 

Arica, a-re'ka, a seaport of Chile, 30 miles 
south of the town of Tacna, with which it is 
connected by railway. It is still a port of some 
consequence, but has suffered much from earth¬ 
quakes. During the war between Chile and 
Peru it was bombarded by the Chilean forces, 
and it passed into the possession of Chile in 
1883. The chief exports are silver and silver 
ore, copper, bark, chinchilla skins, and alpaca 
wool. From this port the silver from the mines 
of Potosi used to be shipped for Europe. Pop. 
about 4,000. 

Arimathea, a town in Judea and, accord¬ 
ing to Saint Jerome, not far from Lydda. It 
is mentioned in the Gospels as the home of 
Joseph, a member of the Sanhedrin, who had the 
honor of giving the burial place for the body of 
the crucified Christ. Joseph of Arimathea is 
also mentioned in the Arthurian legends as hav¬ 
ing brought the Holy Grail from Jerusalem. 

Ar'icite, a mineral more correctly known 
as Gismondite (q.v.). 

Ar'id Lands. See Deserts. 

Ariege, a're-azh', a French department, 
separated from Spain by the Pyrenees. The 
arable land is small in quantity, but a consider¬ 
able number of sheep and cattle are reared. 
The manufacturing industry is considerable, but 
lead, copper, etc., are abundant. The chief town 
is Foix. Area, 1890 square miles; pop. (1901) 
210,527. 


ARIOSTO — ARISTOPHANES 


Ariosto, Ludovico, an Italian poet: b. Reg¬ 
gio 8 Sept. 1474; d. Ferrara 6 June 1533. His 
father, who was commander of the citadel of 
Reggio, proposed that he should study law, but, 
as he showed no indication of being fitted for 
this profession, he was finally permitted to fol¬ 
low his own inclinations. These led him to the 
study of literature, especially the classics, and 
he soon developed so much ability as a poet 
that, as early as 1495, he wrote several comedies. 
Two of them were acted about 1512, and they 
attracted the attention of Cardinal Ippolito 
d’ Este, who sent him as an ambassador to the 
court of Pope Julius II. In 1517 he offended 
the cardinal by refusing to accompany him to 
Hungary, but he immediately entered the service 
of Alfonso, Duke of Ferrara, by whom he was 
appointed governor of Garfagnana, a position 
which he filled successfully for several years. 
The last years of his life were spent in writing 
comedies and in completing his principal work, 
a romantic epic, ( Orlando Furioso, 5 which has 
been called (< the greatest poem of its kind in any 
language.® Flis Satires 1 * in the Horatian style 
were not published until after his death. 

Ar'isti'des the Just, an Athenian states¬ 
man : b. near the middle of the 6th century b.c. ; 
d. about 468 b.c. He was one of the ten gen¬ 
erals of the Athenians when they fought against 
the Persians at Marathon, 490 b.c. According 
to the usual arrangement the command of the 
army was held by each of the generals in rota¬ 
tion for one day. But Aristides prevailed on 
his colleagues each to give up his day to Mil- 
tiades; and to this, in a great measure, must 
be ascribed the victory of the Greeks. 

Aristides, Quintilianus, a famous Greek 
grammarian of the 1st century whose treatise on 
music is esteemed the most valuable of all 
ancient writings upon that theme. 

Aristip'pus, a disciple of Socrates, and 
founder of a philosophical school among the 
Greeks, which was called the Cyrenaic, from his 
native city Cyrene, in Africa; flourished 380 b.c. 
His moral philosophy differed widely from that 
of Socrates, and was a science of refined volup¬ 
tuousness. His fundamental principles were — 
that all human sensations may be reduced to 
two, pleasure and pain. Pleasure is a gentle, 
and pain a violent emotion. All living beings 
seek the former and avoid the latter. Happiness 
is nothing but a continued pleasure, composed 
of separate gratifications. 

Aristolochia, a-ris'to-lo-ki'a, a term denot¬ 
ing the type genus of plants of the natural 
order Aristolochiacea. The order includes 
nearly 200 species, mainly shrubs (some climb¬ 
ing), and herbs, natives of warm countries and 
especially numerous in tropical South America. 
A. Sipho (macrophylla of some botanists), the 
Dutchman’s pipe or pipe vine, a native of the 
southeastern States, is perhaps the best known 
species grown in America. It is hardy as far 
north as Detroit. A. californica, a silky-haired 
Californian species with U-shaped flowers, and 
A. tovientosa, a small very hairy species with 
yellow flowers, found from North Carolina to 
Missouri and southward, are also grown out of 
doors to some extent. A. clematitis, the com¬ 
mon birthwort, a perennial herb,- is a European 
common weed as far north as latitude 50°, and, 
Vol. 1—45 


like A. rotunda and A. longa, two other herba¬ 
ceous species, native to southern Europe, was 
formerly believed to be of service in childbirth, 
and the latter are still believed to be valuable 
as emmenagogues. 

Ar'istoph'anes, the greatest of the Greek 
comic dramatists: b. in Athens probably about 
the year 448 b.c. ; d. about 385 b.c. He appeared 
as a poet in 427 b.c., and having indulged him¬ 
self in some sarcasms on the powerful dema¬ 
gogue Cleon was accused by the latter of having 
unlawfully assumed the title of an Athenian 
citizen. The same accusation was twice re¬ 
newed against him, but he succeeded in repelling 
it both times. In 424 he again attacked Cleon in 
his comedy of ( The Knights, 5 in which he him¬ 
self acted the part of the Athenian demagogue, 
because no actor had the courage to do so. The 
earliest of his extant plays was ( The Achar- 
nians, 5 which was brought out in 425. Aris¬ 
tophanes was distinguished among the an¬ 
cients by the appellation of <( The Comedian,® 
as Homer was by that of <( The Poet.® Of 54 
comedies by him only 11 remain; but in order 
fully to enjoy them, and not to be offended by 
the extravagances and indecencies with which 
they are bound, we must be intimately acquainted 
with ancient customs and opinions. The purity 
and elegance of his language, which is regarded 
as a model of the Attic Greek dialect, the skill 
and care displayed in the plan and execution of 
his pieces, the wealth of lyric power displayed in 
his choral odes as well as the overflowing rich¬ 
ness of his comic genius, and the various other 
excellences of his dramas, have gained for Aris¬ 
tophanes the fame of a master. His wit and 
humor are as inexhaustible as his boldness un¬ 
restrained. The Greeks were enchanted with 
the grace and refinement of his writings; and 
Plato, the comedian, said the Graces would have 
chosen his soul for their habitation. On both 
political and moral grounds he was a strong 
advocate for ancient discipline, manners, doc¬ 
trines, and art; hence his sallies against Soc¬ 
rates in ( The Clouds, 5 and against Euripides in 
( The Frogs ) and other comedies. The freedom 
of ancient comedy allowed an unbounded degree 
of personal satire, and nothing which offered a 
weak side escaped his ridicule. He feared the 
Athenian populace so little that he personated 
them under the figure of a wretched old man 
called Demos. He incessantly reproached them 
for their fickleness, their levity, their love of 
flattery, their foolish credulity, and their readi¬ 
ness to entertain extravagant hopes. Instead of 
being irritated, the Athenians rewarded him 
with a crown from the sacred olive-tree, at that 
time considered an extraordinary mark of dis¬ 
tinction. Aristophanes produced, under the 
name of his eldest son, the ^ocalus, 5 his last 
play. With this what is known as the <( middle® 
comedy began, to be followed afterward by the 
(( new.® The names of his extant plays are ( The 
Acharnians 5 (425 b.c.) ; ( The Knights 5 (424) ; 
( The Clouds 5 (423) ; ( The Wasps 5 (422) ; ( The 
Peace 5 (421) ; ( The Birds 5 (414) ; ( Lysistrata 5 
(411) ; ( Thesmophoriazusse, 5 ( The Frogs 5 
(405) ; ( Ecclesiasuz3e 5 (393) : ( Plutus 5 (388). 
Among editions of his comedies may be men¬ 
tioned those of Bergk (1867) ; Blaydes (1886) ; 
Holden (1887). English translations of excel¬ 
lence are those by Frere, Mitchell, Rogers, and 
Kennedy. 


ARISTOPHANES OF BYZANTIUM — ARISTOTELIANISM 


Aristophanes of Byzantium, Greek gram¬ 
marian: b. about 262 b.c. ; d. about 185. He was 
educated at Alexandria, and became the chief 
librarian of the great Alexandrian library. 
Ancient critics rank him among the most cele¬ 
brated critics and grammarians. He deserves 
great credit for his services to the Greek lan¬ 
guage and literature. With Aristarchus, he was 
the principal expert in determining the so-called 
Alexandrian canon of the classical writers of 
Greece. He invented a series of critical signs, 
and greatly improved the notation employed in 
prosody, including accent, quantity, and breath¬ 
ing. His publications include important critical 
editions of Greek writers, particularly of Homer 
— the first of its kind — Hesiod, and the lyri¬ 
cists Alcaeus and Pindar. For the plays of the 
tragic and comic poets he wrote introductions. 
Little of what he wrote is extant, save frag¬ 
ments in the scholia of the poets, some argu- 
menta to the dramatic writers, and a part of the 
Atijeis ( < Glossary ) ). Consult Nauck, ( Aristoph- 
anis Byzantii Fragmenta 1 * (1848). 

Aristophanes (The English), a name fre¬ 
quently applied to Samuel Foote (q.v.), also 
called (< The Modern Aristophanes, )> because of 
his abundant good spirits and skill in unsparing 
ridicule. Garrick was a common object of his 
wit. 

Aristophanes (The French), a name 
sometimes applied to the French dramatist, 
J. B. P. Moliere (q.v.). 

Aristophanes’ Apology, a poem by Rob¬ 
ert Browning (q.v.), published in 1875; the title 
being in full, ( Aristophanes’ Apology; Including 
a Transcript from Euripides: Being the Last 
Adventure of Balaustion.* It is a sequel to the 
poem ( Balaustion’s Adventure.■* A long work 
in blank verse, it commemorates the defence 
made by Aristophanes of his comic art, on 
learning through Sophocles of the death of 
Euripides, the tragedian. An extensive article 
on it may be found in Berdoe’s ( Browning 
Cyclopaedia 1 * (1892), with a glossary of terms, 
etc. 

Aristotelianism. Aristotle is the first 
philosophical writer to make a strict separation 
of the branches of philosophy. His writings, in 
terms of their subject matter, fall into the fol¬ 
lowing groups: Logic, Metaphysics, Physics, 
Ethics, Politics, and the Philosophy of Art. A 
classification made by Aristotle, but not ap¬ 
plied to the arrangement of his writings, is: 
(1) theoretic philosophy; (2) philosophy of 
conduct; (3) philosophy of production, that is, 
of art. The analysis of the problems and subject 
matter of philosophy and science begins with 
him. In Plato’s writings the various problems 
are fused together and treated integrally and 
synthetically in an ethico-metaphysical system. 

Logic .— For Aristotle logic is a methodology 
of science, a propaedeutic to the other disciplines. 
It is not strictly a science, because science has 
some essence or aspect of reality for its subject 
matter, while logic is concerned with the forms 
of knowing. Formal logic was founded by Ar¬ 
istotle and almost completely developed by him. 
Its chief feature is the doctrine of the syllogism, 
the process of reaching scientific or apodictic con¬ 
clusions. The syllogistic process is a deductive 
process, that is, it derives particular conclusions 
from general principles or accepted premises. 
The possibility of deriving such conclusions rests 


upon the axiomatic principles of contradiction 
and the excluded middle, that is, two contradicto¬ 
ries cannot at the same time and in the same ref¬ 
erence be true; and of two contradictory proposi¬ 
tions, one must be true and the other false, and 
a third intermediate proposition is excluded. 
The logical treatises were grouped together by 
Aristotle’s successors and called the Organon or 
instrument of science. The several treatises con¬ 
sist of the Categories, the Hermeneutics, the An¬ 
alytics, and the Topics. The Categories discuss 
simple terms; the Hermaneutics discuss the com¬ 
bination of terms with a predicate, that is, the 
judgment or proposition; and the Analytics and 
Topics discuss the combination of propositions in 
the syllogism. The syllogistic conclusion is the 
derivation of one judgment from another by 
means of a middle term. The notion, judgment 
and conclusion are the three elements with which 
formal logic operates. The categories, or gen¬ 
eral notions under which reality is viewed are 
enumerated by Aristotle as substance, quantity, 
quality, relation, place, time, position, possession, 
action, passion. These ten categories are evi¬ 
dently not derived from any single principle and 
are neither exhaustive nor mutually exclusive. 
Aristotle’s main interest is in the syllogism; 
simple terms or notions and the judgment are 
scantily treated. His treatment of the syllogism 
is practically exhaustive. Modern logic has sup¬ 
plemented his work by adding to his theory of 
the categorical conclusion, which was his chief 
interest, the theory of hypothetical and disjunc¬ 
tive conclusions; further, by adding a fourth 
figure to his three, and lastly by developing the 
theory of inductive logic and the method of the 
sciences. Aristotle regards deductive logic as 
the only method that can furnish demonstration 
or apodictic conclusions. Science, however, 
would not be possible with syllogistic demonstra¬ 
tion alone, for if all our premises had to be 
proven we should be forced into an endless re¬ 
gress. Therefore, science must accept certain 
fundamental principles as its axiomatic postu¬ 
lates. From these accepted postulates scientific 
proof proceeds by deduction. In addition to this 
Aristotle mentions the further method of induc¬ 
tion without elaborating it, saying, however, that 
universal principles are secured by it from par¬ 
ticular instances and that it has the advantage 
over deduction by being nearer to our sense ex¬ 
perience and therefore more generally intelli¬ 
gible. On the other hand, he insists that a com¬ 
plete knowledge of particulars is necessary to a 
completely certain induction .and this, owing to 
the multiplicity of particulars, being rarely pos¬ 
sible, induction lacks in its conclusions the co¬ 
gency of the deductive syllogism. 

Metaphysics .— First Philosophy (the term 
Metaphysics is not used by Aristotle, but is a 
word applied to the First Philosophy on account 
of its being placed after the treatises on Physics 
by the early editor of the works) is the philoso¬ 
phy of first principles as such ; second philosophy 
or physics is the philosophy of these princi¬ 
ples applied to concrete phenomena, the phe¬ 
nomena of motion and matter. Aristotle is a 
disciple of Plato and, like his master, he viewed 
the world from the standpoint of teleology. The 
cosmic processes are determined by final causes. 
He makes more of facts than Plato does, has 
a much larger mass of empirical data for his 
constructions and is more catholic in his scien¬ 
tific interests. His metaphysics, however, like 


ARISTOTEL 7 .ANISM 


Plato s, is based on high speculative ideas and 
he explains the world-order by means of these 
general and ultimate principles, so that he is not 
a realist in the sense of confining reality merely 
to particular facts. Like Plato, he sought the es¬ 
sence of phenomena in the concept and law, but 
unlike Plato he sought it in a concept given in 
the phenomena as their inner principle of de¬ 
velopment and not in a transcendent principle. If 
there is no concept or universal there can be no 
scientific knowledge. The concept is not, how¬ 
ever, an idea isolated from particular things, but 
as the universal reality it is immanent in par¬ 
ticulars (universalia in re not ante rent), the in¬ 
dividual being the only self-existent real. 
Against Plato’s doctrine of ideas Aristotle brings 
the following criticisms: (i) The Platonists fur¬ 
nish no adequate proof of the existence of ideas 
as hypostasized entities; (2) The Platonic ideas, 
because transcendent, cannot explain the phe¬ 
nomenal world, which is left without a principle 
of motion; (3) The world of ideas is only a 
reduplication of the world of sense in its generic 
aspect; (4) The explanation of the relation of 
the ideal to the sensible world by the terms 
archetype, pattern, image, etc., is only meta¬ 
phorical. The universal is real as the formative 
principle in things, giving to them their generic 
character, while matter is the principle of indi¬ 
viduality. Form and matter are explanatory of 
genus and individual. In every particular thing, 
with the exception of God or the Prime Mover 
(who is pure form), the two principles of form 
and matter are present; form making the class¬ 
ification of things and scientific knowledge pos¬ 
sible, and matter making possible the concrete¬ 
ness of objects. Form and matter are two as¬ 
pects of individual things and are not really, but 
only notionally, separable. Everything is both 
form and substrate, idea and matter, significance 
and stuff, soul and body, with the single excep¬ 
tion of the Supreme Being. Form is the moving 
principle of development and matter is the pas¬ 
sive potentiality. Plastic stuff or matter is 
moulded after generic patterns. In nature’s 
processes Aristotle calls them energy and poten¬ 
tiality. The real is an explication of a prior 
potential. The transition of a thing from a con¬ 
dition of potentiality to a condition of actuality 
is accomplished by some form of motion. Mo¬ 
tion in turn (which is of several kinds: spatial, 
that is, locomotion ; qualitative, that is, transmu¬ 
tation of substances; quantitative, that is, 
growth) implies a moving cause, and any given 
moving cause an antecedent cause and so the 
causal regress would be endless, were we not to 
posit a Prime Mover or uncaused First Cause. 
The First Cause is the origin and source of all 
motion and life. As motion is eternal, so 
the Prime Mover is eternal; it is also 
immaterial, passionless, and motionless, for the 
Prime Mover causes motion merely as an 
ideal toward which matter strives in the 
processes of nature, analogously to the power 
of attraction in beauty. The activity of 
God is pure thought or thought turned upon 
itself, which theoretic life is for Aristotle the 
perfect type of life. Between God, as pure form, 
and matter, as formless stuff,— the extreme cos¬ 
mic principles, — Aristotle places the world of 
natural phenomena, which are all composites of 
the two principles. His doctrine of the Prime 
Mover is a direct product of his philosophy and 
is the first attempt to found a theistic theory on 


a philosophical basis. Aristotle specifies as the 
four causes operative in nature the formal, final, 
efficient, and material. But as form contains 
within itself the principles of efficiency, purpose, 
and meaning, these four causes are reducible to 
his dualism of form and matter. As an exam¬ 
ple of his application of the four causes, a statue 
presupposes: (1) matter, for example, clay, wood 
or marble; (2) a form or idea in the artist’s 
mind; (3) an efficient cause, such as the energy 
applied to tools; (4) a motive or purpose. 

Physics .— While the metaphysics treats of 
being as such, of the unconditioned, of the ulti¬ 
mate principles explanatory of reality, Physics 
treats of the contingent, the conditioned, and of 
the quantitative and qualitative relations of 
things. In the philosophy of nature’s phenom¬ 
ena, the concept of motion plays the chief role, 
effecting the transition of potentiality to actual¬ 
ity and having its ultimate source in the Prime 
Mover. The whole of growth and development 
proceeds from one form of being to another form 
of being, but not from nothing to something, or 
from non-existence to existence. For Aristotle 
as for all the Greek philosophers the maxim 
holds: ex nihilo nihil fit. Inert matter is 
the most formless element in nature and man is 
the stage in which the highest form manifests 
itself. Between these nature exhibits a graded 
scale of development, that is, from the most inor¬ 
ganic to the highest organism. This scale itself 
is static and not a scale of evolution in the 
modern sense. The scale of beings is a fixed 
cosmic hierarchy, not determined by protoplas¬ 
mic conditions plus environment. The Aristo¬ 
telian world is a teleological system, the eternal 
forms working themselves out in plastic and 
contingent matter with reference to fixed final 
goals, the whole exhibiting plan, not planless, 
as Aristotle says, “ like a bad tragedy.” As the 
Prime Mover is perfect so the world shows that 
degree of perfection which is possible with the 
contingency and imperfection of matter. God is 
both in the world and outside of it as the trans¬ 
cendent cause of its order, just as the discipline 
of an army is in the army and outside of it in the 
person of the general. The universe is con¬ 
ceived by Aristotle to be spherical in form, not 
infinite. Its periphery consists of the region of 
the fixed stars, which revolve in a perfectly cir¬ 
cular motion. They do not move freely in space, 
but are attached to the ethereal body of the outer 
heaven and move as a rider in a chariot. Their 
motion is caused immediately by the Prime 
Mover and being nearest to him, their motion is 
most perfect. The earth is at the centre of the 
universe and is fixed. Between the centre and 
the circumference are the seven planets, includ¬ 
ing the sun and moon. The motion of these, 
although concentric with the circumference, is 
less perfect, deviating from an exact circle. The 
earth is the region of rectilinear motion. The 
general presuppositions of motion are space and 
time. Space is, in Aristotle’s conception, strictly 
speaking, only place, that is, it is the room occu¬ 
pied by body, and time is the measure of motion 
with reference to earlier and later. Motion being 
endless, time as the measure of its discrete 
moments is infinite. Space is finite, for there is 
no space outside the corporeal world. The ele¬ 
ments in the cosmos are fire, earth, air, water, 
and ether. Of these the first four are sublimary. 
The celestial spheres consist of pure ether. 

Psychology. — Aristotle defines soul as the 


ARISTOTELIANISM 


“ complete realization of a body endowed with 
the capacity of life.” Every body, therefore, 
that has life, has soul, and psychology in the 
narrow sense would be a branch of biology. The 
physical world, according to Aristotle, is di¬ 
vided into two realms, the inorganic and the or¬ 
ganic. The characteristic mark of the latter is 
the possession of life, or “ soul.” Soul is syn¬ 
onymous with the principle of life, by virtue of 
which a thing is endowed with the power 
of self-movement. Life is the universal form of 
organic activity, feeling and reason are specific 
forms of the same power. The highest manifes¬ 
tation of psychical activity is rational thought. 
There are four main forms in which life mani¬ 
fests itself: (i) Nutrition, growth, decay and 
the power in things to reproduce, each after its 
kind, whereby the continuity of life is main¬ 
tained; (2) locomotion; (3) sensation; (4) rea¬ 
son. These various types of life are forms of 
self-movement. The first form is found in the 
plant world as well as in the animal world, the 
last three only in the animal world. Soul as life 
is found in every part of the body, to which it 
is related as form to matter. The heart as the 
anatomical and physiological centre is also 
the life-centre. The heart, therefore, and not the 
brain, is the organ of consciousness, for con¬ 
sciousness is one of the forms of life. The pro¬ 
cesses of knowing or conscious life are developed 
in these stages: (1) sensation; (2) imagination, 
the power of using images of absent objects, 
combined with memory; (3) rational thought. 
Reason, according to Aristotle, is twofold, crea¬ 
tive and passive. All knowledge, in the last 
analysis, is derived from sense-perception. The 
mass of sense-perceptions which are held to¬ 
gether by memory and stored in the central sense 
(sensorium ) are the passive reason, that is, they 
constitute the matter which the creative reason 
transforms into conceptual knowledge. The 
two stand related to each other, therefore, as 
form to matter, actuality to potentiality. 

Ethics. — The ethics of Aristotle consists 
mainly in a theory of the final end of conduct or 
the summum bonum and an account of the indi¬ 
vidual virtues. The chief good is happiness 
(well-being), which is defined as <( activity of 
the reason in accordance with virtue in a com¬ 
plete life.® This conception of happiness as 
consisting in theoretic activity is based on the pe¬ 
culiar function of man. Reason being the differ¬ 
ential mark of man, his peculiar good should be 
discoverable in the activity of reason. Further, 
the good consists in the realization of the ra¬ 
tional self in an ethical life that is complete and 
not of fragmentary duration, for (( one swallow 
does not make spring.® The virtues of an indi¬ 
vidual are divided into ethical and dianoetic. 
The ethical virtues are liberality, temperance, 
justice, courage, friendship, high-mindedness, 
gentleness, veracity. The dianoetic virtues are 
wisdom, art, insight, cleverness, and such excel¬ 
lencies as attach to the theoretic activity, while 
the moral virtues are reasonableness expressed 
in action. Virtue is the power or persistent 
quality in an individual which enables him to 
perform his function well. Aristotle otherwise 
defines it as a (( moral habit based on a life of 
deliberation, and expressed in the observance of 
a rational mean.® The connecting link between 
ethics and politics is found in the social virtue 
of friendship. 

Politics. — Aristotle gave to politics the posi¬ 


tion of an independent science, which he based 
on the study of over 150 actual constitutions. 
Politics, as the architectonic science, considers 
the complete good of man, for it is only in the 
state that man’s full realization is attained, and 
man is by nature a Apolitical animal.® Ethics is, 
therefore, a branch of politics. Although the state 
is notionally prior to the household and village, 
it is preceded by them in the order of develop¬ 
ment. The state is such an aggregation of house¬ 
holds and villages as to be self-sufficing. While 
it comes into being primarily for the sake of life, 
its growth is determined by the interests of a 
good and complete life. The individual is not 
self-sufficient. The end of the state is not 
power, nor the protection of life, property or 
industry, but the promotion of noble life in its 
citizens and of the happiness that springs from 
such life. The function of the state is educa¬ 
tional and moral. One has to keep in mind that 
the Aristotelian state is a city-state and not an 
empire. The various forms of good constitu¬ 
tions are: royalty (rule of one), aristocracy 
(rule of few), polity (rule of the entire people). 
The corresponding corrupt forms are tyranny, 
oligarchy and democracy. The best constitution 
under most actual conditions is the polity, a con¬ 
stitutional democracy, which more than any form 
of government embodies the principle of the 
mean and on the average best meets the demands 
of the greatest number. Under completely ideal 
conditions monarchy is the best form of govern¬ 
ment. 

Art. —Art has for its function partly the sup¬ 
plementing of nature and partly the imitation of 
nature. Nature has left man naked and defense¬ 
less, but provided him with the <( tool of tools,® 
a hand. The useful arts serve the interests of 
life, imitative and decorative arts serve the ends 
of noble pleasure and relaxation. The Aris¬ 
totelian exposition of the philosophy of art is 
confined almost entirely to the extant fragment 
of the Poetics, in which scarcely more than the 
theory of tragedy has survived. The function 
of tragedy is described as catharsis. The conclu¬ 
sion of a tragic representation that is true to the 
principles of art has the cathartic effect on the 
spectator of purifying his emotions by the instru¬ 
ments of pity and fear. 

History of Aristotelianism. — Aristotelianism 
was continued in the peripatetic school (the 
name peripatetic came from Aristotle’s method 
of giving instruction while walking, or from the 
walks— TrepliraroL — in the Lyceum’s grounds) 
down to 529 a.d., when the' Emperor Justinian 
closed all the Athenian schools. During the 
early Middle Ages it was kept alive by the 
works of Boethius and the Isagoge of Porphyry. 
Later by its fusion with the theology of Thomas 
Aquinas it became practically the offical philoso¬ 
phy of Roman Catholicism, which it still con¬ 
tinues to be. The Arabs in Spain were the 
bearers of Aristotelianism to mediaeval Europe, 
and by 1220 almost all of Aristotle’s works had 
been translated from the Arabic into Latin. A 
little later, by the efforts of Thomas Aquinas, 
they were translated from Greek originals, and 
Aristotle’s authority in science became well-nigh 
absolute. With the rise of Humanism Aristo¬ 
telianism began to wane, and with the develop¬ 
ment of modern science and the Cartesian phi¬ 
losophy his influence outside the Catholic Church 
was to a large extent nullified. Within the 


ARISTOTLE 


Church, however, during the last quarter of a 
century, through the efforts of Leo XIII., the 
influence of Thomism and Aristotelianism has 
increased. 

Bibliography. —Stahr, ( Aristotelia ) (2 vols., 
1830-2) ; Grote, ( Aristotle ) (2 vols., 2d ed., 
1880) ; Grant, ( Aristotle ) (1874) ; Lewes, Aris¬ 
totle, a chapter from the History of Science 1 * 
(1864) ; Siebeck, ( Aristoteles* (1899) ; Prantl, 
( Geschichte der Logik im Abendlande* (4 vols., 
1 855-70) ; Zeller, Aristotle and the earlier Peri¬ 
patetics* (2 vols., 1897). 

William A. Hammond, 
Professor of Ancient and Mediaeval Philosophy, 
Cornell University. 

Aristotle, Greek philosopher, and one of 
the greatest thinkers and scientific investigators 
and organizers the world has ever seen. 

Life .— Aristotle was born in 384 and died 
322 b.c. His birthplace was Stagira (hence he 
is often called (( the Stagirite**), a city on the 
Thracian peninsula known as Chalcidice, which 
was at that time a thoroughly Hellenic coun¬ 
try, enjoying all the advantages of Greek cul¬ 
ture. His father, Nicomachus, was the court 
physician and friend of the Macedonian king 
Amyntas. The medical profession is said to 
have been hereditary in his family, and the sci¬ 
entific and medical atmosphere in which he grew 
up probably helped to form his mind in those 
habits of accuracy and exactness for which he 
is famous. Both parents having died, his edu¬ 
cation was directed by Proxenus of Atarneus. 
In 367 b.c., when in his 18th year, Aristotle 
came to Athens, and became a member of the 
Academy, the school of Plato (q.v.). Here he 
remained until the death of Plato, 20 years 
later. Before this time, he had become re¬ 
nowned for his scholarship and brilliant writ¬ 
ings, as well as through his public lectures on 
rhetoric. Doubtless he had also already devel¬ 
oped to some extent his own philosophical 
views. There seems to be no truth in the 
charges that were brought against Aristotle by 
later writers, that he was guilty of ingratitude 
and active hostility toward his teacher, Plato. 
As we have seen, he remained a member of the 
Academy until Plato’s death, and in his later 
writings, although criticising with keen insight 
certain Platonic doctrines, he speaks of his 
master with the greatest reverence and affec¬ 
tion (cf. Zeller, Aristotle and the Earlier Peri¬ 
patetics, ) Vol. I., Chap. I.). 

After Plato’s death, Aristotle resided for 
three years at the court of Hermias, ruler of 
Atarneus, who had been at one time a member 
of the Academy, marrying there Pythias, the 
niece, or, as some say, the daughter of the 
prince. Hermias, however, was treacherously 
put to death by the Persians, and Aristotle 
withdrew to Mitylene. Soon after (343) Aris¬ 
totle was called by Philip of Macedon to under¬ 
take the education of his son Alexander, the 
future conqueror of the world, then a boy of 13 
years. Nothing is known regarding the nature 
of the education which Aristotle gave to his 
distinguished pupil. The regular instruction of 
the prince must have ceased three years later 
when he was made regent by his father and 
entrusted with military duties. Aristotle re¬ 
mained in the north engaged in scientific work, 
though probably still retaining some connec¬ 


tion with the prince and the Macedonian court. 
When Alexander set out upon his campaign in 
Asia, Aristotle went to Athens and founded 
there his school. Its place of meeting was the 
Lyceum, a gymnasium attached to the temple 
of the Lyceian Apollo. He was accustomed to 
talk to his pupils as he walked to and fro in 
the gardens of the Lyceum, and from this cus¬ 
tom the school became known as the <( Peripa- 
tetic** (Trepnrareiv, to walk up and down). 

Here Aristotle taught and directed the vari¬ 
ous scientific activities of the school for twelve 
years (335-323). This school was not merely 
an institution for imparting instruction. It 
was also an intimate association of scientific 
workers, many of them, like Theophrastus (who 
succeeded Aristotle in the leadership), mature 
men and ripe scholars. The organization and 
direction of the investigations as well as the 
fruitful utilization of materials and synthesis of 
results were, however, the work of the master. 
During these years, Aristotle systematized the 
knowledge of the past, and thus defined the 
limits and laid the foundations of the sciences 
of the western nations. But he did more. He 
carried on investigations and extended the 
boundaries of knowledge in almost every field. 
In logic, metaphysics, ethics, and politics, he 
reached conclusions that are of great and per¬ 
manent significance for all time. Moreover, in 
psychology, zoology, physics, astronomy, aes¬ 
thetics, and also in his historical investigations, 
his work is of the greatest value and impor¬ 
tance for all the subsequent developments of 
these sciences. See Aristotelianism. 

After the death of Alexander the Great, the 
Greek states, with Athens at their head, at¬ 
tempted to free themselves from the Macedo¬ 
nian power. Aristotle’s former relation to Alex¬ 
ander, and his friendship for Antipater, the 
Macedonian governor, made him at once an 
object of attack. The charge of Atheism was 
brought against him, as it had formerly been 
brought against Anaxagoras and Socrates, and 
he retired to Chalcis in Euboea, where, in the 
following year (322), he died. 

Writings .— The writings that have come 
down to us under the name of Aristotle do not 
by any means represent his complete literary 
activity. It is nevertheless known that the 
writings of Aristotle which were lost included: 
(1) Certain popular works published by Aris¬ 
totle probably during the time of his connec¬ 
tion with the Academy. He himself refers to 
these as the ^exoteric,® or popular writings- 
They were written generally in dialogue form, 
and modeled, both in subject matter and style, 
after the works of Plato. (2) Compilations of 
scientific, historical, and political materials, 
which were used by Aristotle as data in the 
preparation of his theoretical works. To this 
class belongs the Constitution of Athens,* for¬ 
tunately discovered in nearly complete forrn a 
few years ago and published in 1891 (English 
translations, by F. G. Kenyon and E. Poste, 
both London, 1891). 

The works which have survived are those 
which set forth Aristotle’s system m more com¬ 
plete and systematic form, and which were used 
within the school. The writings which have 
been known to tradition as those of Aristotle, 
appear to have come essentially from the edi¬ 
tion of Aristotle’s works prepared and arranged 


ARISTOTLE’S LANTERN — ARISUGAWA 


by Andronicus of Rhodes about the middle of 
the ist century b.c. Of present-day editions of 
Aristotle’s works that of the Berlin Academy 
(1831-70) may be mentioned. These writings 
may be classified in the following way: 

(a) Treatises on Logic. — These were later 
collected under the title of the ( Organon. 5 This 
included the Categories' ( De Interpreta- 
tione 5 (on the parts and kinds of propositions) ; 
the ( Analytics, 5 prior and posterior (consisting 
of two books each, and developing the doctrine 
of the syllogism and dealing with scientific 
methods in general) ; the ( Topics 5 (dealing with 
probable conclusions) ; and on ( Sophistical 
Elenchi ) (which discusses certain fallacies and 
the ways of refuting them). The Bohn Library 
gives an English translation of these works in 
two volumes by O. F. Owen. 

( b ) The c Rhetoric 5 and the ( Poetics . 5 —The 
former consists of three books, of which only 
the first two are regarded as genuine. (English 
translation by T. Buckley in Bohn Library.) 
The ( Poetics 5 has been preserved only in a very 
incomplete and fragmentary condition. An Eng¬ 
lish translation is given in S. H. Butcher’s 
( Aristotle’s Theory of Poetry and the Fine 
Arts ) (3d ed., 1902). 

(c) The Work <On the First Philosophy 5 
— our < Metaphysics ) —which Zeller describes 
as a torso arbitrarily bound up with a number 
of other fragments, some genuine, some spuri¬ 
ous. (English translation in Bohn Library, by 
J. H. McMahon, 1889.) 

( d ) The Works on Natural Science. — To 
this class belong (1) the ( Physics, 5 with the 
connected works, ( On the Heavens, 5 ( On 
Growth and Decay, 5 and the ( Meteorology 5 ; 
and (2) the zoological treatises, ( The History 
of Animals, 5 ( On the Parts of Animals, 5 ( On 
the Movement of Animals, 5 and ( On the Gener¬ 
ation of Animals 5 ; (3) the psychological writ¬ 
ings, including the ( De Anima, 5 and the smaller 
treatises known as the ( Parva Naturalia. 5 Of 
these works ( The History of Animals 5 is trans¬ 
lated by W. Cresswell in the Bohn Library; 
( On the Parts of Animals 5 by J. Ogle (1882) ; 
the ( De Anima 5 by E. Wallace (1882), and 
W. A. Hammond (1902). The latter writer 
under the title ( Aristotle’s Psychology 5 has 
given also a translation of the ( Parva Nat- 
uralia. 5 

( e ) The Ethics and Politics. — Aristotle’s 

treatise on ethics is known as the ( Nicomachean 
Ethics. 5 It has ten books, of which books V. 
to VII. are largely made up of additions from 
the ( Eudemian Ethics. 5 This latter work is a 
revision of the Aristotelian ethics by Eudemus, 
of which only a part has been preserved. The 
< Nicomachean Ethics 5 has often been trans¬ 
lated into English. Two of the most recent and 
best translations are those of F. H. Peters (4th 
ed. 1891), and J. E. C. Welldon (1892). The 
( Politics, 5 in eight books, was left in an incom¬ 
plete and fragmentary condition. (English 
translations by B. Jowett and J. E. C. Well¬ 
don.) J. E. Creighton, 

Professor of Philosophy, Cornell University 

Aristotle’s Lantern, the complex dentary 
apparatus or oral skeleton and associate soft 
parts of a sea-urchin (q.v.). The oral skeleton 
attains its highest development in the Echinidea 
in the Aristotle’s lantern of the sea-urchins. 
The lantern is composed of 20 principal pieces 


— five teeth, five alveoli, five rotulse, and five 
radii — of which the alveoli are again divided 
into four pieces each, and the radii into two, 
thus making a total of 40 pieces. This complex 
apparatus has, beside the inter-alveolar muscles, 
protractor, 'oblique, transverse, and retractor 
muscles. A somewhat similar but less compli¬ 
cated oral skeleton is found in the Clypeastroida. 

Aristoxenus (Greek, '‘ApuTrS^evos , Aristox- 
enos ), a Greek musician and philosopher of 
Tarentum, flourished about 350-324 b.c. He 
was one of the oldest writers, and probably was 
the greatest of Greek students of the science of 
music and all its branches. He. was a son of 
Spintharus, who taught him music, having him¬ 
self studied under Socrates and being possessed 
of a great knowledge of musical matters. After 
having received his elementary education he 
went to study music under Lamprus of 
Erythne, and later became a student of philos¬ 
ophy under the Pythagorean Xenophilus of 
Chalcidice. He afterward went to Athens to 
study philosophy under Aristotle, and made such 
rapid strides that, upon the death of Aristotle, 
he aspired to be his successor and head of the 
philosophical school; Theophrastus was, how¬ 
ever, appointed in his stead. He founded a 
school of musicians, who were called, after him, 
Aristoxeneans. The main difference between the 
systems of the Pythagoreans and the Aristox¬ 
eneans lay in the fact that the latter judged of 
the notes in the diatonic scale exclusively by the 
ear, while the former determined these mathe¬ 
matically. The only one of his works of any 
value now extant is a treatise on music, ( The 
Elements of Harmony. 5 It was published in 
three volumes by Meursius in 1616. 

Arisugawa, a're-soo-ga'wa, the title of a 
noble Japanese family founded in the 17th cen¬ 
tury and prominent in civil and military affairs. 
This ancient family was founded by the seventh 
son of the Mikado Go-Yozei, during his reign 
from 1587 to 1611. The members of the family 
did not, however, attain much prominence until 
January 1868, when Arisugawa Taruhito (b. 
Kioto 1835; d. 1886), who was the uncle of the 
mikado, was appointed supreme administrator 
and commander-in-chief of the army. It was 
at this time that the duarchy of Mikado and 
Shogun was abolished and the present form of 
government established, with the Emperor Mut- 
suhito as dictator with undivided power. Upon 
taking office he at once reorganized the army to 
put down the rebellion in the north, led the 
imperial troops against the rebels, completely 
routing them and saving Yeddo from destruc¬ 
tion. After this he began military operations 
in the north, and by his skilful maneuvers soon 
brought the rebels to terms and the war to a 
quick conclusion. The next year, in 1869, he 
returned the sword of justice and the brocade 
banner, which he had received at the beginning 
of his campaign against the rebels, to the em¬ 
peror, thus signifying that he had brought the 
empire to a state of complete subjugation. In 
1875 he became president of the senate, and 
again in 1877 was placed in command of the 
forces sent to suppress the Satsuma rebellion, 
under the leadership of Saigo Takamori. This 
was a long and severe test of his military ability, 
and his success, though only won after seven 
months of hard fighting and the sacrifice of 
20,000 soldiers and $50,000,000, showed him to 



ARISTOTLE 





















ARITA — ARITHMETIC 


be a leader born of the highest order of military 
genius. For this great service the emperor dec¬ 
orated Arisugawa with the Order of the Chrys¬ 
anthemum and appointed him field-marshal and 
junior prime minister. His brother, Arisugawa 
I akehito (b. 1862; d. 1895) traveled in Europe, 
studying the various military systems, for a 
time serving as midshipman on H. B. M. ship 
Iron Duke. Upon his return to Japan he was 
adopted by the emperor, as he was without heir, 
and immediately entered the navy as captain, 
serving throughout the war with China in 
1 894 - 5 > and dying in the service. His portrait 
appeared on the first memorial postage stamps 
ever issued in Japan. 

Arita, a-re'ta, a Japanese town in the west¬ 
ern part of Kyushu, famous for its pottery 
works, dating from the end of the 16th century. 
The Arita porcelain is highly esteemed. 

Arithmetic. This word has been and still 
is used in two quite distinct senses. It for¬ 
merly signified merely the science of numbers 
(see Arithmetic, History of), and treated such 
numeral properties as seemed mysterious or 
peculiar. With the invention of algebra it was 
often taken to include such portions of that 
science as referred to the operations and to the 
number theory. In this sense it is still used 
in Germany and France to-day, the art of com¬ 
putation being indicated by the names Rech- 
nung and Calcul. In English, however, the 
term early came to be applied to both the sci¬ 
ence of numbers and the art of computation. 
As the former branch developed the advanced 
portion was given the distinctive name of The¬ 
ory of Numbers (q.v.), leaving the name Arith¬ 
metic to apply to calculation and its application 
to business problems. With the recent relega¬ 
tion of the progressions and the roots to algebra, 
this is the sense in which the word is used in 
the United States to-day. With this under¬ 
standing of the term, the leading topics relating 
to the subject will be considered. 

I. Notation and Numeration .—The former, 
referring to the number symbols, is from the 
mediaeval Latin notce, meaning the numeral 
characters (see Numerals), and the latter, re¬ 
ferring to number names, is from numerus, 
number. The distinction between the terms is 
coming, however, to be less marked than for¬ 
merly, the word numeration being used for 
both. The writing and reading of numbers gen¬ 
erally refers to positive integers, common frac¬ 
tions (or vulgar fractions, so called to distin¬ 
guish them from the fractiones physic as or 
astronomicce, the old sexagesimal fractions still 
met in angle measure), decimal fractions, com¬ 
pound numbers, and surd numbers. Of these 
the positive integers are known as natural num¬ 
bers, the others as artificial numbers. Negative 
numbers, also belonging to the artificial group, 
have until recently been excluded from arith¬ 
metic. They have, however, so many practical 
applications that they are beginning to find a 
place, and in time they will probably be treated 
in arithmetic so far as necessary for cases in¬ 
volving numbers of opposite nature, like debt 
and credit, opposed forces, and contrary direc¬ 
tions. 

The distinctive feature of our present nu¬ 
meral system (see Numerals) is its place value. 
The characters for 5 and 1, written in juxtapo¬ 


sition, indicate addition in the Roman system 
(VI.) ; but in the Arab-Hindu notation (51) 
they indicate 5 tens and 1 unit, the 5 having a 
place value showing that it represents tens. 
Thus by means of only 10 characters we are 
able to write numbers of any desired magnitude, 
and by means of the simple device of decimal 
fractions we are also able to represent any 
numbers, however small. 

II. Scales .—Because man has a natural 
counting apparatus in his 10 fingers (see Finger 
Notation) the world has come to write num¬ 
bers on a scale of 10, and to give them names 
based upon a decimal system. We might use 
other scales, and the duodecimal (scale of 12) 
would be better on several accounts, although 
a change is not practicable. There has always 
been some tendency to use the scale of 12, as is 
seen in such tables as 12 in. == 1 ft., 12 oz. = 1 lb. 
troy. The superiority of the duodecimal over the 
decimal scale lies in the fact that 12 has more 
exact divisors than 10 has. Therefore the frac¬ 
tions most commonly employed could better be 
represented on the scale of 12, as is here shown: 

Scale of 10 Scale of 13 


. 0.5 0.6 

Vs . 0.333... 0.4 

Vs . 0.666... 0.8 

V\ . 0.25 0.3 

V\ . 0.75 0.9 

Vs . 0.125 0.16 

V12 . 0.08333... O.I 


In the tables of denominate numbers the 
tendency formerly was to adopt a varying scale, 
but at present it is entirely toward a uniform 
scale, as in the metric system (q.v.) : 


Uniform scale 
10 mills=i cent 
10 cents=i dime 
10 dimes=i dollar 


Varying scale 
2 pints=i quart 
8 quarts=i peck 
4 pecks=i bushel 


III. The Fundamental Operations. —These 
are now commonly considered as four in num¬ 
ber, although formerly as many as nine species, 
atti, or passioni, as they were called, were given. 
They sometimes included doubling ( duplatio ), 
because a common method of multiplication was 
by successive duplations. They also included 
halving (mediatio) , this operation being often 
used in effecting a division. The Rule of 
Three, Evolution, and Progressions were also 
commonly included. The fundamental opera¬ 
tions may more scientifically be classified as 
follows, each direct process having two in¬ 
verses : 


Direct 

Addition: 2+3=5. 
Multiplication: 2X$3=$6. 
Involution: 2 3 =8. 


Inverse 

Subtraction: 5—2=3, 

5 — 3 = 2 . 

Division: $6 -t-2=$3. 

$ 6 =$ 3 = 2 . 
Evolution: 2=^8. 

Logarithms: 3=log 2 8. 


Of these the primitive one is addition, mul¬ 
tiplication by a positive integer arising when 
the addends are equal, and involution to a 
positive integral power arising from multiplica¬ 
tion when the factors are equal. Arbitrarily, 
elementary arithmetic has usually excluded evo¬ 
lution beyond the cube root, and logarithms. 
It is now tending to relegate cube root to 
algebra on account of its difficulty and lack of 
applications. The exclusion of logarithms 
(q.v.) is due to their relatively late invention, 
since, if the theory of their computation is ex- 









ARITHMETIC 


eluded, the subject is simple of presentation and 
valuable in application. 

From the primary operations with natural 
numbers have been derived operations, desig¬ 
nated by the same names and subject to the 
same laws, involving the artificial numbers. 
For example, 2 X $3 = $6 means that $3 is taken 
2 times as an addend, thus: $3 + $3. But f X f 
cannot mean that 7 is taken as an addend § of 
a time. It means that f of f is taken, or that 
| of f is taken 2 times. It is, however, con¬ 
venient to broaden the definitions so as to use 
the same phraseology and symbols as in the 
case of positive integers. Similar considerations 
fix a meaning for — 2X — 3 — H"6, V2X V3 — 
■j/ 6 , and 1/-2 X-i/-3 = — -j/ 6 . In certain cases 
an operation is so difficult that it is more con¬ 
venient to substitute for it another which gives 
the same result. This is seen in the case of 
the division of fractions, where to divide f 
by f it is easier to multiply | by | than to 
reduce to a common denominator as was for¬ 
merly done, and then divide, thus : f -r- f = 

2 l _s_ 2JL - 2 

9 * 9 " ' 21 * 

Of the four common operations, addition is 
the simplest of comprehension, although not in 
actual work. In fractions it is usually easier 
to multiply than to add, as in the case of 
f X if compared with f -{- With integ- 
gers, both addition and multiplication require 
the learning of 45 combinations of numbers 

(1+2, 1+3, _ 1X2, 1X3 _), and the 

mere memorizing of these facts is as easy in one 
operation as the other. Subtraction does not 
require memorizing a table, since it is merely 
the inverse of addition, and if taught by the 
<( making change® method it uses the addition 
table, as division uses that of multiplication. 

IV. Checks .—An important consideration in 
all computations is the checking of the work, to 
be reasonably sure that no error enters. Checks 
should be applied at every opportunity so that 
an error may be discovered as soon as it is 
made, and not vitiate the further work. The 
most important check in addition is the repeat¬ 
ing of the work in the opposite direction, adding 
downwards if the first addition was upwards. 
The psychological reason for this is that like 
stimuli tend to produce like reactions, and if an 
error has been made it is liable to be made 
again if the numbers are soon met in the same 
order. Hence the order is reversed to counter¬ 
act this tendency. In subtraction the best 
check is that of adding the subtrahend and 
remainder. If the remainder was obtained by 
the ^Austrian® or <( making change® method, this 
addition should be performed in the opposite 
direction as in the check for addition. The best 
check for multiplication and division is that of 
(( casting out nines.®. This ancient Oriental 
method was of especial value when the sand- 
board form of the abacus (q.v.) was used, since 
the numbers were so frequently erased as to 
render a general review of the work impossible. 
This check has gone out of use in American 
schools, but it is so simple and valuable that it 
will probably be revived. The check depends 
upon two propositions: (1) The excess of 9’s 
in a number (that is, the remainder arising from 
dividing a number by 9) is the same as the 
excess in the sum of the digits. In the case 
of 1247 the sum of the digits is 14, and this 
divided, by 9 gives a remainder of 5. It is 


customary to cast out the 9’s as the digits are 
added, thus: 7 P 4 = 11; cast out 9 and 2 is 
left; 2 + 2 + 1—5, the excess. 

(2) The excess of 9’s in the prod¬ 
uct equals the excess in the prod¬ 
uct of the excesses of the factors. 

In the case here given, the ex¬ 
cesses in the factors are 5 and 3, indicated in 
the right and left angles of the cross. The 
excess in their product (15) is 6, indicated in 
the upper angle. The excess in the product, 
26187 is 6, indicated in the lower angle. The 
upper and lower numbers in the cross are the 
same, showing that the result is probably correct. 
In division, the excess of 9’s in the dividend 
equals the excess in the product of the excesses 
of the divisor and the quotient, plus that in the 
remainder. Of course, the check of 9’s fails to 
detect an error involving a multiple of 9. There 
is a somewhat similar check by casting out n’s, 
requiring slightly longer time, but in some re¬ 
spects more liable to detect errors. 

V. Short Processes. —There are numerous 
short processes of performing operations, or 
rather of securing results by substituting simpler 
operations than those to be performed. Thus 
to multiply by 12X it is often easier to annex 
two zeros (or move the decimal point two places 
to the right) and divide by 8. In the same way 
it is easier to multiply by 100 and divide by 4 
than to multiply by 25. Such processes depend 
upon simple number relations of the following 
kind : i2|=if-°, 25=1^, 33j =i f-> 125=1^, 75% 
=f, 125% = 1 j, 66|%=§. The publication of 
extensive tables and the perfecting of calcu¬ 
lating machines (q.v.) have rendered obsolete 
most of the short processes involving other 
kinds of multipliers and divisors. 

VI. Compound Numbers. —The four funda¬ 
mental processes with compound numbers were 
formerly considered of much importance, since 
before the introduction of decimal fractions most 
tables of denominate numbers were on a vary¬ 
ing scale. Within a century, however, the 
metric system (q.v.) and various monetary ta¬ 
bles have so decimalized denominate numbers as 
to take from compound numbers most of their 
former importance. The only case in which 
several denominations are commonly used in 
writing a number to-day is that of English money. 
In most countries the whole subject is obsolete. 
The United States still uses the British system 
except in the monetary table, but it has greatly 
simplified it, rarely using more than two denom¬ 
inations in the same number. Indeed, within a 
single generation the metric system has come 
to be used exclusively in this country in scien¬ 
tific laboratories, and the efforts now being 
made to secure a large foreign trade will make 
the system more and more known in commercial 
and industrial affairs. 

VII. Methods of Solving Problems. — There 
are five general methods of attacking an ap¬ 
plied problem, as follows: 

(1) We may study typical problems and 
thus acquire the habit of solving others of the 
same nature. This is the oldest method, and 
was practically the only one in use before the 
17th century. At present it is coming into 
renewed prominence in American schools, the 
type problem being attended (as was not former¬ 
ly the case) by a large number of exercises. 

(2) We may commit to memory rules for 


1247 

21 


1247 _ 
2494 3 
26187 





ARITHMETIC 


all general classes of problems liable to be met. 
Historically, this is the second method of attack, 
and it characterizes the American text-books 
until nearly the close of the 19th century. The 
rules were usually inductively inferred from 
type problems, and pupils committed them to 
memory. Since in practical life we never de¬ 
pend upon a verbatim rule, this method is 
rapidly becoming obsolete. In mediaeval times 
there was much effort expended in searching for 
a general rule that would solve all arithmetical 
problems. Hence arose the Rule of Three (see 
Arithmetic, History of), the Rule of False 
Position, and other rules of less importance, 'all 
of which lost their chief value when algebraic 
symbolism was invented. Of these general rules 
only the Rule of Three has survived, being now 
recognized in the form of Proportion. 

(3) We may learn formulas instead of 
rules. This method was received with some 
favor for a time, but it has been discarded as a 
general plan. It has all of the defects of the 
method of rules, with the added difficulty of an 
unnecessarily confusing algebraic symbolism. _ 

(4) We may analyze each problem as it 
arises, simply applying common sense to the 
solution. When problems are, as they always 
should be, properly graded to the understand¬ 
ing of the pupils, this plan is better than any 
of the preceding ones. It establishes a habit 
of independence and of confidence that is wholly 
wanting in the older methods. 

(5) We may bring >.0 the aid of analysis 
the representation of the unknown quantity by 
the familiar algebraic symbol x. This material¬ 
ly simplifies the analysis, and most writers on 
arithmetic at the present time advocate the 
plan. The concept of the linear equation with 
one unknown is a very simple one, and it greatly 
clarifies the analysis in many cases. 

VIII. Nature of the Problems in Arithmetic. 
—The interests of the ancient and mediaeval 
philosophers were not at all commercial. . These 
men were attracted rather by considerations of 
the properties of numbers and by puzzles which 
were imagined to sharpen the wit. The rise 
of commerce in the later Middle Ages and at 
the time of the Renaissance, brought into the 
science a large number of applied problems 
representing actual business conditions. Princi¬ 
ples of conservatism have tended to keep these 
ancient problems from generation to generation, 
strengthened by the feeling that mental dis¬ 
cipline was as well secured from an obsolete 
as from a modern problem. It is therefore only 
recently that the question has arisen, What 
should be the nature of the problems set for 
children studying arithmetic? In answer to this 
question teachers seem to be tending to observe 
the following principles: 

(1) A problem that pretends to set forth 
a business custom should state the real business 
conditions of the present. This excludes obso¬ 
lete business problems, it being the opinion that 
better mental discipline can be secured from a 
question relating to genuine commercial matters 
of the present, than from one relating solely 
to forgotten customs. 

(2) Problems should appeal to the interests 
and understanding of the children in their re- 
spcctivc school years. Arithmetic was formerly 
taught only to boys who could read and wi ite 
and who were preparing for business. When 


the subject found its way into the earlier school 
years it carried many difficult problems of busi¬ 
ness down to immature minds. The modern 
tendency is to replace such problems by others 
that relate to children’s interests. Thus in the 
primary grades there should be the study of 
home purchases, of the application of number to 
the large interests of the country, especially such 
as appeal to a child’s love of nature and of the 
heroic, and such as relate to the sources of food 
and clothing. Later, the problems should refer 
to the more detailed features of the national 
and world life, to the great industries, trades, 
and transportation facilities. Finally they 
should relate to the details of the industrial and 
commercial life, thus preparing both the boy 
and the girl for earning a livelihood. In all this 
there should be an effort to make arithmetic 
interesting, since when the interest of the pupil 
is secured the work is prosecuted with more 
zeal and is attended with better and more per¬ 
manent results. 

(3) In the effort to modernize the problems 
care must be taken to avoid the extreme of 
withdrawing from arithmetic all topics involving 
effort, thus making the subject insipid from 
its very lack of fibre. 

IX. Sequence of Topics .—Formerly arith¬ 
metic was taught from a single book, each im¬ 
portant topic being met but once. Then came 
the two-book series, the second book covering 
the ground of the first, but with more difficult 
examples, thus forming a spiral of two revolu¬ 
tions. In this way there arose the so-called 
Spiral Method of treatment, which certain dev¬ 
otees have carried to the extreme of return¬ 
ing to each topic every few days. Between the 
older topical method and the radical spiral meth¬ 
od there has been considerable strife. The lat¬ 
ter asserted that the former encouraged for¬ 
getfulness because of a lack of review, while 
the former asserted that the latter gave the 
pupil no feeling of mastery of any subject. The 
result has been a compromise, as is seen in all 
modern American courses. Such important top¬ 
ics as percentage are treated several times, with 
progressive difficulty, applications like simple 
interest offering new features on each succeeding 
occasion. On the other hand, such relatively 
unimportant chapters as that on longitude and 
time (semigeographical) are met but once. In 
the same spirit, the fundamental operations with 
integers, decimal fractions, and those common 
fractions often met in business, are frequently 
reviewed, while compound numbers and frac¬ 
tions involving unusual numerators and de¬ 
nominators are less emphasized. The techni¬ 
calities of business, including the study of 
investments, insurance, banking, and exchange, 
are reserved until the last years of the grammar 
school, when a child beginning to look forward 
to being self-supporting is prepared to under¬ 
stand them. 

X. Methods .—Various methods have been 
suggested for presenting arithmetic to children, 
especially in the primary grades. The serious 
consideration of this phase of the subject began 
towards the close of the 18th century, particular¬ 
ly in Germany and Switzerland. With it are 
connected such names as Trapp, von Busse, 
Kranckes, Pestalozzi, Tillich, Grube, Tanck, 
Knilling, and Kaselitz. Each of these writers 
stood for some principle which he carried to 


ARITHMETIC, HISTORY OF 


such an extreme as to render the method gen¬ 
erally unusable. Pestalozzi, for example, did 
great good in his judicious use of objective 
illustration, but he went to an unwarranted ex¬ 
treme in his emphasis of the unit and in his 
devotion to abstract work. Tillich suggested 
a valuable set of number blocks, but his follow¬ 
er 1 ? went to the extreme of eliminating all other 
material. Grube wrote a condensed manual for 
teachers, and systematically treated numbers 
in concentric circles of progressive difficulty, but 
he went to several extremes that made the sys¬ 
tem so absurd that it is now nearly forgotten. 
On the other hand, every prominent writer of 
this class has usually suggested some slight im¬ 
provement which has gradually worked its way 
into the schools. It has been the universal ex¬ 
perience that no advocate of a single method 
has been able to impress this method on any 
considerable number of followers. The best 
teacher has been the one who, being interested 
in the subject, has imparted that interest to the 
pupils, who has not been limited to any one set 
of objects or to any peculiar device, who has 
made arithmetic modern in its applications, and 
who has followed the best curricula of the day. 

XI. Time Required for the Subject in the 
Schools. —There has been a gradual diminution 
in the time allowed to arithmetic in American 
schools for a number of years past, on account 
of the demands of more modern studies for a 
place in the curriculum. As a result there has 
been decreased attention to the subject, there is 
less ability on the part of pupils to grapple with 
problems, and the question has arisen as to the 
amount of time necessary to secure a reasonable 
facility in the arithmetical processes. Although 
the text-books and the teaching have both im¬ 
proved, the curtailment of time and the scatter¬ 
ing of the pupils’ attention over more subjects 
have left the results far from satisfactory. It 
has even been urged that arithmetic be not 
taught before the third nor after the seventh 
school year, thus allowing five instead of eight 
years to the subject. But although it is true 
that the necessary parts of arithmetic can be 
covered in five school years, it is equally true 
that the child has as much delight in his work 
with numbers in his first school year as he has 
in the other subjects studied, and quite as much 
need for this work. It is also true that the 
number facts are more easily impressed on the 
memory if the work is begun, as Pestalozzi ad¬ 
vised, when a child first enters school. It is 
therefore better to allow arithmetic to extend 
throughout the elementary grades, combining 
with it, if the class is well advanced, some con¬ 
structive geometry and the first steps in algebra 
in the eighth school year. 

Bibliography. — Smith, ( The Teaching of El¬ 
ementary Mathematics 5 (New York 1900) ; 
( The Outlook for Arithmetic in America 5 (Bos¬ 
ton 1904) ; Brooks, <The Philosophy of Arith¬ 
metic 5 (Philadelphia, 2d ed., 1901) ; Unger, <Die 
Methodik der praktischen Arithmetik 5 (Leipsic 

David Eugene Smith, 

Frofessor of Mathematics, Teachers College, 
Columbia University, New York. 

Arithmetic, History of. Among the an¬ 
cients there were two distinct sciences now 
called by the name arithmetic. One had to do 
with the science of numbers and the other with 


the art of computation. The former was called, 
by the Greeks, arithmetic (apidfj.eTi.K-fi), and the 
latter logistic ( XoyLaTLKr) ). Logistic was taught 
to boys going into trade, and among the most 
ancient peoples it probably involved the use of 
the abacus (q.v.) and commercial rules relating 
to rents, loans, exchange, and the settlement of 
accounts. The nature of the problems being 
simple, and abacus computation depending 
largely upon manual training, the instruction in 
this art seems to have been entirely oral. On 
this account no ancient work upon the subject 
is extant, and our knowledge concerning it is 
derived from such sources as the Babylonian 
cylinders, early Cretan remains, certain frag¬ 
ments of Egyptian papyri, and the occasional 
references of literary writers. In the Middle 
Ages the instruction offered by the Church 
schools was so meagre from the commercial 
standpoint that arithmetic schools (Rechen- 
schulen ) were established, and in these logistic 
( Rechnung ) was taught. A number of manu¬ 
scripts of the 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries 
are extant showing the nature of the problems 
then considered necessary, but extant treatises 
on counter reckoning (see Abacus) are mostly 
confined to the first century of printing. Not a 
few of the problems of importance at that time 
still survive in the arithmetics of to-day, al¬ 
though substantially obsolete from the commer¬ 
cial standpoint. 

The Greek arithmetic, or theory of numbers, 
begins with Pythagoras (q.v.), about 530 b.c., 
who taught their mystic properties, and to 
whose school is probably due most of their 
ancient classification. The fundamental divi¬ 
sion of numbers seems to have been into odd 
( Aprioi ) and even ( irepiTTol ), the former be¬ 
ing masculine, divine, lucky, and the latter fem¬ 
inine, earthly, unlucky. The expression (( There 
is luck in odd numbers, 55 appears in Vergil as 
(( Numero Deus impare gandet , 55 and probably 
goes back to the Pythagoreans. The odd num¬ 
bers were, on account of their geometric rep¬ 
resentations, also called gnomons ( yv6p.oves ), 
and it was well known that the sum of the first 
n of these gnomons, including 1 (which was 
not generally considered a number until the 
17th century), was a square ( rerpdywvos ). The 
side ( irXevpd ) of the square was called by the 
later writers radix (root, whence radical). It 
is therefore evident that the Greeks looked 
upon arithmetic from the standpoint of ge¬ 
ometry. Following out this plan, they stud¬ 
ied triangular numbers, formed by arranging 
dots in the form of a triangle, as in the 
case of 3 (.•.), 6, 10, etc., and also pentagonal 
and other dgurate numbers, solid as well as 
plane. Many other classifications were sug¬ 
gested by the Greeks, some of which have re¬ 
mained in our school books until quite recently. 
Such, for example, included perfect numbers 
( rAeioi ) , which are equal to the sum of 
all possible factors, including 1 (for example, 
28=1 + 2 + 4 + 7+ 14), and amicable num¬ 
bers ( <pL\ioi ), each of which equals the sum of 
the possible factors of the other, including 1 
(for example, 220 and 284). Euclid (q.v.) 
(c. 300 b.c.) emphasized the ancient arithmetic 
in his books II., V., VII., VIII., IX. and X., 
although II., V., and X. are nominally geo¬ 
metric. Soon after, Eratosthenes (q.v.) (c. 225 
b.c.) made a particular study of primes, and 


ARITHMETIC, HISTORY OF 


invented a <( sieve w ( k6<tkipov ), which bears his 
name, for the purpose of sifting out the com¬ 
posite numbers. In the next century Hypsicles 
(c. 180 b.c. ) made a more extensive study of 
progressions than had before been attempted. 
It is, however, to Nicomachus (q.v.) (c. ioo 
a.d. ) that we owe the first great treatise on 
arithmetic ( Elo-ayw'yrj &pidp.-qTiKri) , a work which 
sought to do for that subject what Euclid had 
done for geometry, and which actually succeeded 
in turning the attention of the later Greeks 
from the science of form to the science of num¬ 
ber. The next great arithmetician was Dio- 
phantus (q.v.), who wrote probably in the 4th 
century. His arithmetic ('Apidp.-qTi.Ka) professes 
to be in 13 books, but only six (seven in one 
Vatican MS.) are extant. In the main, how¬ 
ever, this treatise relates rather to algebra. 

The greatest difficulty of the ancient arith¬ 
meticians and calculators lay in the treatment 
of fractions. This is seen in the oldest mathe¬ 
matical treatise of any note as yet deciphered, 
a papyrus copied by one Ahmes, an Egyptian 
scribe of c. 1700 b c., from an earlier MS., prob¬ 
ably dating from c. 2300 B.c. Here all of the 
fractions, save f, have 1 as a numerator. For 
example, was written, in hieratic characters, 

as tV zt this meaning that the sum of these 

unit fractions equals x 2 y The Akhmim papyrus, 
written more than 3,000 years after the original 
of the Ahmes work, gives the same treatment of 
fractions, thus testifying to the difficulty of the 
subject. While the Greeks and Romans simpli¬ 
fied the subject and improved the symbolism, 
it is to the Hindus and Arabs that we are in¬ 
debted for our present convenient forms. 

The Romans contributed but little to the 
theory of numbers, although their mercantile 
spirit doubtless led them to improve the abacus. 
Their only writer of prominence was Boethius 
(q.v.), who, early in the 6th century, did much 
to make the ideas of Nicomachus known in 
western Europe, and whose treatise was the 
standard in the Church schools for many cen¬ 
turies. 

Of the early Hindu arithmeticians but little 
is known. There are, however, several works 
extant that set forth the theory and practice 
of numbers in the period following the intro¬ 
duction of the zero and the consequent per¬ 
fecting of the system of place value. (See 
Numerals.) It is in this period that the foun¬ 
dations for our common arithmetical operations 
were laid. From the Hindus the Arabs of the 
Bagdad school (c. 800 a.d.) drew their inspira¬ 
tion. The earliest Arab writer to make exten¬ 
sive use of the Hindu numerals, in a text-book 
on arithmetic, was A 1 Khowarazmi (q.v.). So 
prominent was his treatise that his name became 
a synonym for the Hindu arithmetic, even 
as Euclid became synonymous with geometry. 
The early Latin translations, one of which was 
made by Adelard of Bath (q.v.) (c. 1120 a.d.), 
went by such names as ( Liber AlgoritmP 
(<The Book of A 1 KhowarazmP ), whence 
comes our word algorism (algorithm, in Chau¬ 
cer augrim), a name for a long time used to 
mean the arithmetic of the Hindu numerals. 

The Arab arithmetic became known in Chris¬ 
tian Europe chiefly through.tht ( Liber abaci* 
of Leonardo Fibonacci of Pisa (q.v.), in 1202. 
In the 13th century the great revival of trade 
brought into prominence the commercial aspect 


of the subject, and from this time on the theo¬ 
retical treatment as exemplified in the works 
of Nicomachus and Boethius gradually lost 
ground. 

The first printed arithmetic appeared anony¬ 
mously at Treviso, in Italy, in 1478. In Ger¬ 
many the first one to appear from the press 
was published at Bamberg in 1482. The com¬ 
mercial supremacy of Italy and Germany was 
such that their works for the next century were 
largely mercantile, the arithmetics of the Boe- 
thian type being published more often in Paris 
than elsewhere. It was quite late in the 16th 
century before France produced many commer¬ 
cial arithmetics, and when these did appear the 
tendency to unite some of the features of the 
Boethian arithmetic gave their books considerable 
influence. The first arithmetic to be printed in 
England was the prolix theoretical work of 
Bishop Tonstall (1522), and it was not until 
about the middle of the century that Recorde 
(q.v.) began to publish his popular commercial 
text-book. Owing to the great mercantile activ¬ 
ity of Holland between 1575 and 1650, a large 
number of arithmetics appeared in that country 
early in the 17th century, and materially influ¬ 
enced the text-books of England. To this cre¬ 
ative period of arithmetic is due a large amount 
of matter once of importance but now quite 
obsolete. An extended treatment of compound 
numbers and of certain forms of exchange was 
more necessary then than now; barter was of 
great importance; partnership accounts were 
settled by a process quite different from that of 
to-day; alligation was of real use in the numer¬ 
ous mints then existing; proportion (usually in 
the form of the Rule of Three, Regula de tre, 
Regeldetri ) was much more often used in prac¬ 
tice than at present. The first arithmetic to be 
printed in America was Hodder’s popular Eng¬ 
lish work, which was republished in Boston in 
1719. 

The symbolism of arithmetic amounted to 
very little before the 19th century, when the 
symbols invented for algebra (q.v.) between 
1550 and 1650 were rather injudiciously adopted 
in elementary arithmetic. The greatest advance 
since 1600 has been the invention of decimal 
fractions, a feature which revolutionized busi¬ 
ness arithmetic, making percentage simple and 
common, and rendering tables practicable. 

The operations of arithmetic were formerly 
performed on some kind of abacus (q.v.). At 
the time of the invention of printing our present 
forms of addition and subtraction were quite 
common. There were, however, several meth¬ 
ods of multiplication, although our present form 
was already in favor. The present method of 
division did not come into general use until the 
17th century, although it appears in rare cases 
in the 15th. 

Bibliography. —Unger, ( Die Methodik dev 
praktischen Arithmetik ) (Leipsic 1888) ; Can¬ 
tor, ( Vorlesungen fiber Geschichte der Mathe- 
matik* (Leipsic 1880-1900, 3 vols., various 

editions) ; Sterner, ( Geschichte der Rechen- 
kunsU (Munich 1891) ; Fink, ‘History of Math¬ 
ematics* (trans. by Beman and Smith ; Chicago 
1900) ; Peacock, article on (( Arithmetic® in the 
Encyclopaedia Metropolitana.* 

David Eugene Smith, 

Professor of Mathematics, Teachers College, 

Columbia University, New York. 


ARIUS 


Arius, an Alexandrian theologian and con¬ 
troversialist, the father of Arianism (q.v.) : b. 
in Libya, .North Africa, about 256 a.d. ; d. Con¬ 
stantinople, 336. He was educated under Lucien 
at Antioch and later went to Alexandria, where 
several years afterward he so severely suffered 
from the Diocletian persecution. He was or¬ 
dained deacon by Peter, Bishop of Alexandria, 
whom he had joined in the Meletian Schism; 
then joined the schismatics and in consequence 
was excommunicated; later repented and was 
restored to his former good standing; and about 
311 was advanced to the priesthood and placed 
in charge of a suburban church. 

In 318 Arius became involved in a contro¬ 
versy with Alexander, Bishop of Alexandria, 
about the doctrine of the person of Christ, the 
latter contending that there was only a single 
essence, whereas Arius denied that Christ was 
an unoriginated being, but was created out of 
nothing and therefore in essence must be dif¬ 
ferent from the Father. He also affirmed that 
though Christ were the Son of God, he was 
not so in and of himself, but only so by the 
grace of God the Father; and that, were he in the 
truest sense a son, he must have come after the 
Father, therefore the time obviously was when 
he was not, and hence he was a Unite being. 
These doctrines, emanating from a man of so 
great personal popularity and so highly re¬ 
garded as a presbyter, though they contained 
nothing essentially new or original in thought 
and had been more or less 2. reva l ent in the 
Church for three or four generations, soon 
gained many adherents. Alexander, fearing the 
spread of the so-called heresy, in 321 called a 
council of 100 Egyptian and Libyan bishops, and 
Arius was immediately excommunicated. 

Arius then retired to Nicomedia, under the 
protection of one of his supporters, Eusebius, 
Bishop of Nicomedia, who, notwithstanding 
Alexander’s exhortations to exclude the her¬ 
etic, absolved him, and at a local synod in 323 
brought about an endorsement of his opinions 
and actions. The dispute soon attracted the 
attention of Constantine, who had become em¬ 
peror in 323. Thinking to avert further con¬ 
troversy he sent his ecclesiastical adviser, Ho- 
sius, Bishop of Cordova, to Alexandria, in an 
effort to arrange, through concessions by both 
parties, a doctrine to which both would sub¬ 
scribe. This attempt at reconciliation being 
barren of results, Constantine in 323 called a 
general council of all the bishops of the Church 
at Nicaea, in Bithynia, Asia Minor. This was 
the first oecumenical council and the attendance 
has been variously estimated. Gibbon places the 
number of bishops at 318; Eusebius at 250; and 
others at 300 and 320. About 2,000 other rep¬ 
resentatives of the Church throughout the East 
also attended the sessions. The Eastern bishops 
attended in person; the Western Church was 
represented by seven delegates, the most im¬ 
portant of whom was Hosius, Bishop of Cor¬ 
dova, who presided over the sittings, which con¬ 
tinued for about two months. 

The conference developed into three distinct 
parties. (1) The strict Arians, led by Arius 
himself, who claimed that Christ was a pre¬ 
existent, divine, finite being and was different in 
essence (heteroousios ) from the Father; that 
he was created by the Father out of nothing, 


but that he himself was the creator of the world 
and the incarnate Saviour; (2) The semi- 
Arians, who maintained that Christ was not 
identical in essence, but was of similar essence 
(homoiousios ) with the Father; and (3) the 
Athanasians, led by Athanasius (q.v.), a young 
deacon of Alexandria, as Alexander’s personal 
representative, who contended that the Son was 
identical in essence (homoousios) . There were 
two other parties present, those of Eusebius of 
Nicomedia, and those of Eusebius of Caesarea, 
the latter of which formulated a compromise 
creed, which was not, however, adopted. These 
two favored Arius and were classed as heretical, 
but later both signed the creed as adopted. 
After much discussion of the doctrines of Arius, 
his creed was torn in pieces and he himself 
ejected from the council, and the Athanasians 
succeeded, with the help of Constantine and the 
western bishops, in securing the adoption of a 
creed to which the Arians would not subscribe. 
The council declared that it was and always had 
been the teaching of the Church Apostolic, in 
conformity with the apostolic tradition in all the 
churches, that Jesus Christ was ^consubstantial® 
.—in essence the same—with the Father. Thus 
in the Nicene Creed will be found the words 
consnbstantialis patri, an exact rendering of 
the Athanasian claim homoousios. The creed 
reads: (( We believe in the God, the Father Al¬ 
mighty, maker of all things visible and invisi¬ 
ble; and in one Lord Jesus Christ the 
only-begotten Son of God, begotten of • the 
Father (that is of the essence of the Father) 
before all worlds God of God, Light of Light, 
Very God of Very God, begotten, not made, 
being one substance ( homoousios ) with the 
Father,® etc. This was somewhat abridged in 
the Nicaeno-Constantinopolitan creed of 381 a.d. 
In consequence of refusing to sign the creed 
as adopted, Arius and two of his companions 
were excommunicated and banished to Illyria. 

Soon after the Nicene Council had concluded 
its work, the semi-Arians began to assail the 
creed, and during the next few years Arius him¬ 
self carried on propaganda work against it, cor¬ 
responding with several prominent bishops, with 
the result that in 331, through the influence 
of Eusebius and Constantia, sister of the em¬ 
peror, Arius was recalled to court. Constantine, 
upon being convinced that the creeds of Arius 
and Athanasius were substantially alike, ordered 
Athanasius to receive Arius into the communion 
of the Church. Athanasius refused, was de¬ 
posed by a synod of bishops at Tyre in 335, and 
sent to Gaul. A second synod, convened at 
Jerusalem in the same year, remitted the de¬ 
cree of excommunication against Arius and his 
followers, but even this did not establish him in 
his former exalted position nor cause his doc¬ 
trines to be accepted by the followers of Atha¬ 
nasius. Disappointed and disheartened, Arius 
in 336 returned to Constantinople, where, again 
convincing Constantine of his orthodoxy, orders 
were issued to Alexander, Bishop of Constan¬ 
tinople, to administer the holy communion to 
him the following Sunday, but on the Saturday 
preceding his expected restoration, he was sud¬ 
denly taken ill and died. See Arianism ; 
Christology : Council : Creeds ; Eusebius op 
Nicomedia; Eusebius of Cesarea ; Incarna¬ 
tion; Nic.ea,Council of; Nicene Creed; etc. 


ARIZONA 


Arizona (from the former Papago locality 
of Arizonac, or Arizonaca, probably meaning 
<( place of small springs,a few miles from the 
present Nogales, where some celebrated nuggets 
of silver were discovered in 1736-41. It has no 
connection with (( arid zone,® etc.). A Terri¬ 
tory of the United States (Western or Pacific 
group),^bounded by Utah and Nevada on the 
north, New Mexico on the east, Mexico on the 
south, Nevada, California, and Lower Cali¬ 
fornia on the west. It extends from lat. 31 0 
20' to 37 0 N. and from long. 109° 2' to 114 0 
35' W. Area, 113,020 sq. mi. (72,332,800 acres), 
thus ranking sixth in size among the States and 
Territories. (See Territories.) 

Topography and Geology. — Topographically 
the Territory presents two great divisions: a 
plateau region in the north, made up of approxi¬ 
mately horizontal strata, and the mountainous 
region in the south, consisting of uplifted strata 
plicated and folded with minerals rocks and in¬ 
trusive veins. These mountain ranges are nu¬ 
merous and have a general northwest and 
southeast trend, with intermediate broad valleys 
often 20 to 30 miles wide. The chief mountain 
masses are the Castle Dome, Big Horn, Eagle- 
tail, Chocolate, Dome Rock, Palomas, Harqua- 
hala and Harcuvar in the southwest; the 
Aquarius and Colorado in the west; the great 
plateaus rising in what are sometimes called the 
Northside mountains in the northwest; the San 
Francisco and Black in the north central; the 
Carrizo, Lukachukai, and Tunicha in the north¬ 
east; the Z-uni, White, Mogollon, and Apache in 
the east; the Gila, Peloncillo, Pinaleno, Dra¬ 
goon, Galiuro, Santa Catalina, Huachuca, and 
Baboquivari in the southeast and south. The 
isolated volcanic San Francisco mountain, 
above Flagstaff, is the highest of all, rising in 
its greatest height to 12,794 feet, and in Hum¬ 
phrey peak to 12,562 feet. The other important 
peaks in the Territory are Thomas, 11,496 feet; 
Escudillo, 10,691; Graham, 10,516; Ord, 10,266; 
and Greens, 10,115, while many others exceed 
5,000 feet. To the south the surface falls 
sharply to low ridges, mostly volcanic; thence 
by terraced mesas to a great desert plain little 
above sea-level, cut by gullied stream-beds 
drawing the occasional rainfall to the broad and 
shallow Gila. The great northern plateau, or 
series of plateaus, range in altitude from 5,000 to 
r,5CO feet; rising from them are numerous moun¬ 
tain spurs, buttes, and the cones of extinct vol¬ 
canoes, while the Colorado river has cut 
through 6,000 feet of strata, exposing for¬ 
mations down to Carboniferous and Ter¬ 
tiary marine strata, underlying Tertiary lake 
sediments and later alluvium; indeed it has 
been said that every period of the world’s 
history since the dawn of life is repre¬ 
sented in the geology of Arizona. The surface 
of the land as it lies was formed by a huge 
Eocene uplift, the water action afterward cut¬ 
ting the gorges and shaping the mesas and 
buttes; another took place in the Miocene, with 
eruptive volcanoes. Near Holbrook, Navajo 
County, is a wonderful chalcedony forest (see 
Forest, Petrified), with trunks four feet thick 
•cracked into exquisitely colored blocks. Every¬ 
where a feature of the landscape in the northern 
section are the great isolated mesas of sand¬ 
stone with scarped and pinnacled sides, often 


more than a thousand feet in sheer height. 
Most of the stream courses are dry save in the 
rainy season, and even then their flow is some¬ 
times swallowed by the sands. The one con¬ 
siderable river is the Colorado (q.v.) which flows 
generally southwest from Utah for 400 miles 
through the famous Grand Canon of Arizona 
(q.v.), one of the wonders of the world, then 
turnings south, forming the western boundary of 
the Territory until shortly before it reaches the 
Gulf of California. Its chief affluent in the Ter¬ 
ritory is the Gila, which flows entirely across 
its southern portion; other tributaries are the 
Virgin, which crosses the extreme northwest 
corner ; the Colorado Chiquito or Little Colo¬ 
rado in the north, and Bill Williams fork, in 
the west. Important tributaries of the Gila are 
the Salado, or Salt, and the Verde from the 
north, and the San Pedro from the south. 

Climate. —Arizona is entirely within the arid 
region, but owing to the difference in altitude of 
the northern and southern portions there is a 
wide range in temperature, as likewise in pre- 
cipation between the two sections. The aver¬ 
age annual precipitation at Flagstaff from 1859 
to 1902 was 24.65 inches, that of Yuma 2.84 
inches; while the mean temperature is 45 0 in 
the north and 69° in the south. The sandy 
plains of the southwestern part are the hottest 
region north of the Isthmus of Panama, 120° 
in the shade being frequent in summer; but 
even in this lower area, owing to the dry¬ 
ness of the atmosphere, the heat is not very 
oppressive in summer, while the winter climate 
is usually delightful. Heavy snows occur in the 
mountainous country of the north, and sharp 
frosts are frequent even in the Salado and Gila 
valleys; but nowhere are the mountains per¬ 
petually snow-capped. In recent years Arizona 
has become a popular resort for those suffer¬ 
ing from pulmonary tuberculosis and catarrhal 
ailments. 

Minerals and Mines. — Arizona is rich in 
minerals and its mining industry is of prime 
importance. In 1901 it was third among the 
States and Territories in copper production, 
130,778,611 lbs. having been mined; it was also 
fifth in silver (2,812,400 fine ozs., commercial 
value $1,687,440), and sixth in gold (197,515 
fine ozs., commercial value $4,083,000). Of 
lead 4,045 short tons were mined, and the in¬ 
dustry is steadily increasing. The value of 
clay products was $92,986. There are also de¬ 
posits of coal (as yet but little worked), fluor¬ 
spar, mica, molybdenum, nickel ores, limestone, 
marble, granite, sandstone in limitless quantities, 
chalcedony, tungsten, turquoise, vanadium, gar¬ 
net (pyrope), and other minerals, and there are 
numerous hot and mineral springs. 

Soil, Agriculture , Forestry. —Of the 72,332,800 
acres in the Territory, only 5,200,000 acres are 
privately owned (the remainder being either 
public or reservation lands), and of this area 
only 254,521 acres are actually cultivated. The 
valley lands, however, are marvelously fertile, 
experiment demonstrating that in the southern 
part, under favorable conditions, the yield per 
acre is 2,150 lbs. for wheat, 4,000 to 5,000 lbs. 
for potatoes, 12.300 lbs. for tomatoes, 5,000 lbs. 
for strawberries, 27,000 lbs. for melons, and 
1,735 lbs. for corn. Lack of water has been 
more or les.<= a hindrance to the development of 


ARIZONA 


t'.ie agricultural sections, but with the construc¬ 
tion of storage reservoirs, recently undertaken 
by the Government, it is estimated that a total 
of 10,000,000 acres, or 40 times the present area 
under cultivation, will be reclaimed. The staple 
crops are alfalfa, barley, wheat, sorghum, kaffir 
corn, root crops, sugar beets, green vegetables 
and small fruits of every variety, apricots, 
grapes, oranges, lemons, figs, almonds, olives, 
etc. Experiments in the cultivation of Egyptian 
cotton are also being made, and it is expected 
that vast tracts of alkali lands in the south, 
hitherto believed to be waste, can be utilized 
for date-culture. In 1899 honey and wax valued 
at $67,489 were produced. 

The mountains and mesas of the northern 
part are generally covered with nutritious 
grasses, forming excellent pasturage for cattle 
and sheep, while irrigated pastures in the south 
afford means of fattening for market. In 1900 
there were 742,635 neat cattle, 924,761 sheep, and 
125,063 horses. In 1903 there were slaughtered, 
for home consumption, 41,803 cattle, while 
78,846 were exported. In the same year 250,000 
sheep (valued at $2.50 each) were sold. The 
wool clip aggregated 3,500.000 lbs., valued at 
13c. Ostrich farming has become a profitable 
industry; there are about 1,000 birds, some of 
which yield a pound of feathers every eight 
months, the maximum market value being 
$125 per pound. 

The southern plains and parts of the north 
have a dress of sagebrush, greasewood, yucca, 
cactus, and other desert growths. Cottonwoods 
line almost every stream. Mesquite, the giant 
cactus or saguaro, paloverde, ironwood, Jerusa¬ 
lem thorn, and other trees are indigenous to 
the southern plains, and vast mountain areas 
throughout the Territory are covered with pine, 
cedar, juniper, and other valuable timber. An 
important lumbering industry has been devel¬ 
oped in the vicinity of the San Francisco moun¬ 
tains, but vast tracts of timber in this and other 
sections have been set aside by the Government 
at the San Francisco, Black Mesa, Prescott, 
Santa Rita, Santa Catalina, Mount Graham, 
Chiricahua, and Grand Canon forest reserves. 

Manufactures and Commerce. —These are both 
in their infancy, the chief manufactures consist¬ 
ing of smelting and mining ($17,286,517 in 1899), 
lumber, etc., and carshop work. The value of 
imports (port of Nogales) in 1903 was $8,469,899; 
of exports, $4,534,388, a large part being free of 
duty. Duty collected, $123,805. Internal revenue 
collected, $45,052. 

Railroads, Post-Offices, Periodicals. — In 1903 
there were 1,766 miles of steam road, against 
1,094 in 1890 and 349 in 1880. The principal 
lines are the Santa Fe Pacific (393 mi.) across 
the northern and the Southern Pacific (383 mi.) 
across the southern portion. At the close of 
1903 there were 248 post-offices and 53 periodi¬ 
cals (16 daily, 35 weekly, and 2 monthly). 

Finances. —Assessed valuation in 1903, $43,- 
088,004 (distributed by counties as below) ; in 
1897, $30,613,703. Public debt, net, $1,064,593. 
Average tax, $1.05 per $100. In the same year 
there were 11 national banks (capital, $602,500; 
surplus, $257,631; outstanding circulation, $292,- 
600; deposits, $3,730,784), and 22 Territorial 
banks (capital, $773,310; surplus, $301,195; de¬ 


posits, $4,750,569). There are six building asso¬ 
ciations with loans of $731,817 on real estate. 

Education. — The Territory has a good pub¬ 
lic school system and is energetic in extend¬ 
ing its facilities to its children despite the 
scattered population. Education is compulsory. 
The school population in 1903 (6-21 years) was 
25,951; enrollment, 20,008; daily attendance, 
47 per cent. School libraries contain 15,366 
volumes; value of buildings and furniture, $727,- 
182; teachers employed, 115 men (average sal¬ 
ary, $80.33), 359 women (average salary, $67.53). 
In teachers’ salaries Arizona is exceeded only by 
California and Nevada. Cost of maintenance, 
1885,_ $138,164; in 1903, $415,243. There is a 
Territorial university at Tucson, normal schools 
at Tempe and Flagstaff, and high schools at 
Phoenix, Prescott, and Mesa. There are also 
numerous private schools and 22 sectarian 
schools (see below). The Government main¬ 
tains boarding and day schools for Indians 
among the various tribes, as well as at Phoenix, 
Tucson, and Rice Station. These had a total 
enrollment of 3,195, with 488 teachers and other 
employes, the cost exceeding $286,000 in 1901. 

Religions. — Owing to the large number of 
persons of Spanish descent and to the activity 
of the early Jesuit and Franciscan missionaries, 
the population is largely Roman Catholic. Fol¬ 
lowing are the statistics: 


Denomination 

Churches 

1 

Ministers 

Members 

1 

Sunday 

schools 

Other schools 

Property 

Catholic. 

31* 

23 

27,000 

26 

IS 

$249,400 

Mormon. 

34 

146+ 

6,264 

44 

4 

111,724 

Methodist. 

21 

21 

1,170 

27 

.... 

128,000 

Presbyterian. 

23$ 

20 

2,112 

25 

3 

126,000 

Episcopalian .... 

5 

IO 

1,680 

9 



Methodist 







(Southern).. 

11 

IO 

757 

J 3 

• • • • 

42,200 

Lutheran**. 

• • • • 

2 

58 

3 

.... 

4,400 

Disciples of 







Christ. 

5 

2 

300 

4 

. • • • 

8,000 

Others. 

13 

18 

567 

■4 

.... 

I5i55° 


* Including cathedral at Tucson. There is also an acad¬ 
emy, hospital, and sanitarium at Tucson. 

+ Returns incomplete. 

X Also five missions. 

** Among Apache Indians only. 

Charitable, Penal. — The Territory maintains 
an asylum for the insane near Phoenix, a peni¬ 
tentiary at Yuma, and an industrial school for 
juvenile offenders at Benson. 

Population and Divisions. —The first separate 
census was taken in 1870, giving, exclusive of 
Indians, 9,658; in 1880, 40,440; in 1890, 59,620 
(excluding tribal Indians but including 1,326 
others) ; in 1900, total, 122,931 (71,795 males, 
51,136 females, 98,698 native born, 24,233 foreign 
born, 26,480 Indians, 1,848 negroes, 1,419 Chinese, 
281 Japanese). The principal Indian tribes are: 
Navaho, about 16,000; Papago, 3,900; Pima, 
4,400; San Carlos Apache, 2,542; White Moun¬ 
tain Apache, 1,952; other Apache, 600; Mohave, 
2,635; Hopi, 1,841; Walapai, 573; Maricopa, 350; 
Chemehuevi, 250; Havasupai, 243. There are 































u-jy 


Luii frit ude 


Green wh 


it.Geonro 


BunktrvilUi 


Diamond 

Butte 


North Side tit. 


Mesa Butte 


Grand C 

Canyon 


MOQUl INO. RES. 


Algert 


Cocon in i 


Eldorado Canyon 


Oraibi 


Anita 


3 WhIUhllU 


^Ktam* 

Canyon 


HUALPAI INO. RES. rA 


.Michael* 


Pottery Hllle 


niton 4 


Trinity Pk. 
Pineueta Pk. 
Floyd Pk 1 . 


Kendrick Pk. ( 

? 0L 5> 

'PQ /7 s' Humphrey 
Sitareaues Ph ..* 


Chloride 


Mineral Park\ 

V\ ^ Union 

\\ Pyramid 

& ° McConni^dA 

r^ ev y f «*//Hancock 

Mohave City 1^(0/ i ^ 


Cerbat 


10 Butte 


'iUiams\Mt. 


Milton Jp 
Woodeid* 
zp Babbitt* 


Meath j 


Hualupai/rk. 


Drake 


Mt.Nutt 


1 Gemini Pk, V— 


■ ygnus 


.Needles' 


P^ATCH. 


‘Davi* 


^AComvill 


,Sultan . 


Dewey 

Prescott l 

llMcCabe J 

MulUltln . 
Kin* o 


Concto/^^^St.Jolia'sj 


Bakers 
\Butte 


Aubrey Pk. 


,St')d<Jard , 

DC *. Squaw Pk. 


Heber 


r ~~^lTiU«uZe/ Placcri ta l 
°£%t?‘cJ£kf Wa lnutgrovc o l 
i, I yaVrmell ° Crowe 
«J.l °Octare 
I A yStanton 
CongrewA \Conttellati 


lontory ■ 

Suita/ 


Jfrnedalc 


Rtchvdl 


Adair 


'innehaha 


SpringeyVUN 


■Bring* t 

CoUtmb'i < 


’Parka 


ung 


fTonto 


>RADO 


/ Kutrioso 

Sirs.' V 

\Thomas Pk.' 


Harcuvar Mts. B "? ck Tank ML 


Mt^Buford 


A ncha 


^fr HarouAjJal* 


Picacho ~ 
Colorado \v 

Apache/Mts. 


Fort A|x 
J NT AIN 


6/ ficarrfilqJS^ 

/ Marinetti 


lartseite 


[Peoria 


>\Chron,o SutiaNatanei Butte 

2 .T—'d / 


1 Scottsdale 
[dale I o r-VATTOi 

HOKMX- 


'Ehrenbi 


Cold water. 
.Liberty / 

=*T 'Si 

1 . C 


,P ( >nal 


\lhambrt 


oLehl 

‘Mth« 


PRIETO'PARK 


SllTerklog \ 
^ta.Sup. -y)> 


r alklai 


Cathedral 

.Rock 


San (Carlos 


J Dewey * 
j Turnbull 


'arkers Pk. 


Sentinel 

Mt. 


Montezuma - 
& Head 
Chimney Ph. c®. 
A*tr*lla^~~s 


e* CirsSe Dome 
* Rock 


Clifton 


.1*2 .RES. 

aricopa 


GeronimtfcC 
Fort Thomas' 


Florence 


8qAdks 


\yua Calientc 


I udJejvUn 


•.t Water 


xfuthSiX 

Coronado' 


Mohawk 


CaaagrandeNvd rizola 


Coronation 


nlap 

Cedar 


Desert Pffi. 


*ioacho 




ItaiLN. C >. tV 

l lianeh • \ 

•SO Mile TaakOrang, 


Jpt.o 

Schultz 


Graham 
inV> *o Pk. 


Picacho Phi 


liny ton 


/ ailroad Pees, 




wuieoj 


Stock ham 

fsjccsoy 


Yukon HiU. 




Wilmot 


Neuie 


Jiadmoii mjiifJ 


loscmont I St. Darid' 
* Land J 

.rriMo 


lelveUa, 




SCALE OF MILES 


i'CharU*) 


Playa* 


.rjivac&O 


Bucuot Ayr** 


\Lewisy 


Qobota 


'l.iluachuc* 

Bar 

luachuca 
R*J. P‘ 


Papago 


Population of places is indicated by 
different lettering, thus- 

00 and over- TUCSON 

oo to o.ooo-Prescott 

DO to 1,000 ——_______Florence 


Pon Lu is^S 
For*tC^~~~ 


labasa* U 


Boto V*rd*' 


Quitofac o 


Cabullona. 


Prfidio | 
of San Pedro. 


Enc\na ^ Sant a Crus 


Palo* 

Blanco* 


Calient* 


100 to 000-.. 
Smaller Places 


Batura o 


Agua 


Los Pinto* 
Mine* 


oSoquetc 


Adamant a 


Cajito* o 


Railroads 


San L’ilano 


State Capitals shown tnus. 
County Seats shown thus— 


Zubutama, 


t'umcral 


Mica ray 


Altar 0 c g c,, ft 


Copyright, I90i by The Americana Company. | 

5 ' llH 















































































































































































































ARIZONA 



i 


The San Francisco Mountains 


O 


The Needles 













































































ARIZONA, UNIVERSITY OF —ARK 


13 counties in the Territory, as follows, with 
their county seats, population, etc.: 


County 

Area 
sq. mi. 

Population 

1900 

Assessed 

valuation 

1903 

County seat 

Population 

1900 

Apache.... 

10,736 

8,297 

$1,003,905 

St. Johns.. 

. 

Cochise ... 

6,147 

9.251 

5 , 753,138 

3 , 677,959 

Tombstone 

646 

Coconino... 

19,322 

5,514 

Flagstaff .. 

1,271 

Gila. 

Graham ... 

4 , 54 2 

6,500 

4.973 

14,162 

I , 54 I , 9 2 4 

3 , 953.255 

Globe. 

Solomo ns- 

1,495 

Maricopa... 

8,816 

20,457 

10,3x5,111 

ville. 

Phoenix... 

629 

5,544 

Mohave.... 

I 3 . 42 X 

3.426 

1,263,568 

1,387,960 

Kingman.. 

• • • • • 

Navajo .... 

9,826 

8,829 

Holbrook . 


Pima. 

9.424 

14,689 

3,898,347 

Tucson.... 

7,531 

Pinal. 

5.324 

7.779 

i, 653 . 97 i 

Florence .. 

• •. • • 

Santa Cruz. 

1,212 

4,545 

1,560,307 

Nogales ... 

1,761 

Yavapai ... 

7,863 

13,799 

5,801,017 

Prescott... 

3,559 

Y uma. 

9.787 

4,145 

I , 2 77 , 57 I 

Yuma. 

1,519 

San Carlos 
Indian 
Res’n .... 

. 

3,065 


V 


* Area included in that of Gila, Graham, and Navajo 
counties. 


In addition to the towns above named, Je¬ 
rome, in Yavapai county, is a flourishing mining 
settlement of 2,861 inhabitants. 

History .— The first white men to enter Ari¬ 
zona were probably Juan de la Asuncion and 
Pedro Nadal, two friars of whom little is 
known, who penetrated the region in 1538. Fray 
Marcos of Niza and his negro companion Este- 
vanico, in 1539, journeyed from Mexico to the 
sources of the Rio San Pedro, thence across the 
southeastern part of the present Territory to the 
Province of Cibola. (See New Mexico.) In 
the following year Niza served as guide to Fran¬ 
cisco Vasquez Coronado, who, with a considera¬ 
ble force, visited Cibola and sent two small ex¬ 
peditions which discovered the Hopi villages 
(called Tusayan) and the Grand Canon of the 
Colorado. Meanwhile other parties went from 
the settlement which Coronado established on 
the Rio Sonora, northwestern Mexico, explored 
the region, later known as the Papagueria (from 
the Papago Indians), to the mouth of the Colo¬ 
rado, where letters had been buried by Hernando 
de Alarcon who commanded a joint expedition 
by sea and went up the Colorado for 85 leagues. 
Antonio de Espejo visited the Hopi villages in the 
northeastern part in 1583, as did Juan de Onate, 
the first governor and colonizer of New Mexico, 
in 1598, the latter also passing entirely across the 
Territory to the mouth of the Colorado and 
back in 1604-5. The first missions were estab¬ 
lished among the Plopis by Franciscans in the 
summer of 1629, which, barring the killing of 
some of the missionaries by the Indians, were 
successfully continued until Aug. 1680, when, in 
a general uprising of the Pueblos, the mission¬ 
aries were murdered and little effort made 
thenceforth to introduce Christianity. From 
1687 the Jesuits, particularly Padre Eusebio 
Kino, made various journeys into southern Ari¬ 
zona, establishing the missions of San Xavier del 
Bac in 1699 or 1700, and that of Guevavi in 1732. 
The present church of San Xavier was begun 
about 1783 and finished in 1797. In 1752 a pre¬ 
sidio was established at Tubac, but in 1776 R 
was removed to a rancheria of about 80 families 
of Pima, Papago, and Sobaipuri Indians, known 
as San Agustin de Tucson (the present Tucson) 
a few miles northward, at which a few Span¬ 


iards may also have settled after 1763. The mis- 
sions and their visitas lead a precarious exist¬ 
ence after 1750-3, during which years the Pimas 
were at war against the Spaniards, killing sev¬ 
eral priests and plundering the missions, in¬ 
cluding that of San Xavier. The Jesuits were 
expelled in 1767 and were followed by Francis¬ 
cans, who rehabilitated the mission settlements 
and conducted explorations in unknown or for¬ 
gotten regions. For many years before and 
after, the Apache tribes were at almost constant 
war with the more sedentary Indians of southern 
Arizona, raiding their settlements, killing the 
men and carrying off the women; nor did the 
white settlements fare much better, notwith¬ 
standing the presence of the presidios. At the 
time of the conquest of New Mexico in 1846 by 
Gen. S. W. Kearny, Arizona formed a part of 
that territory. By the treaty of Guadalupe Hi¬ 
dalgo in 1848 the section north of the Gila was 
ceded by Mexico to the United States, while 
that south of the river was obtained through the 
Gadsden Purchase (q.v.), approved in 1854. 
Raids continued, various military expeditions 
were conducted and outposts established, and 
rich mineral deposits were discovered during the 
next few years. By act of Congress approved 
Feb. 24, 1863, Arizona was erected into a sep¬ 
arate Territory, and on Dec. 29 it was formally 
organized at Navaho Springs. The withdrawal 
of troops from the frontier at the beginning of 
the Civil War left the country practically at the 
mercy of Apaches, who continued their depreda¬ 
tions ; mines were abandoned and settlements 
deserted, but with the re-establishment of the 
military posts the development of the Territory 
was renewed and has since continued. Unsuc¬ 
cessful efforts have been made for several years 
to admit Arizona as a state, notably in 1906, 
when the statehood bill was defeated. 

Throughout Arizona are the remains of pueb¬ 
los and cliff and cave dwellings which were 
occupied in prehistoric times by the ancestors 
of the present Pueblo Indians or allied tribes. 
Noteworthy among the pueblo ruins is the 
famous Casa Grande in the Gila Valley, 
near Florence, which was in much its present 
condition when Father Kino said mass within 
its walls in 1694. In the northeast, especially in 
the Canon of Chelly, are numerous cliff dwell¬ 
ings, remarkably well preserved. 

F. W. Hodge, 

Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. 

Ar'izo'na, University of, a co-educational 
institution in Tucson, established by act of legis¬ 
lature in 1885, but not opened till 1891. In 1905 
there were 28 instructors and 200 students; 
its library contained 10,000 volumes and its in¬ 
come from the United States government and 
the Territorial government was $65,000. 

Ark, (1) the vessel in which Noah and his 
family were preserved during the deluge; (2) a 
term applied to a chest for the safe keeping of 
valuables. 

The Ark of the Covenant, in the Jewish 
synagogue, was the chest or vessel in which the 
tables of the law were preserved. This was 
3 feet 9 inches in length, 2 feet 3 inches in 
breadth, and the same in height. It was made 
of shittim wood, overlaid within and without 
with gold. 


































ARKANSAS 


Arkansas, ar'kan-sa, <( The Bear Stated a 
south-central State of the United States (No. 
12 in order of admission) ; bounded north by 
Missouri, south by Louisiana, east by Missis¬ 
sippi River, west by Indian Territory, south¬ 
west by Texas; a block 3 0 30' north to south, 
about 250 miles land measure, breadth 175 to 
275 miles; area 53,850 miles (No. 23 in United 
States), 805 water; pop. 1,311,564 (No. 18 in 
United States), or 24.7 to square mile (No. 29 
in density). White, 944,580; colored, 366,984. 

Topography. — The eastern side is the Mis¬ 
sissippi alluvium, swamps, <( lakes,® and bayous, 
overflowed by the rises of the great river despite 
a vast system of levees or dikes; in the centre 
it slopes west and south to the rolling uplands 
and the many east-and-west divisions of the 
Ozark Mountains (q.v.)—a broken range of 
low hills with some peaks as high as 3,200 feet, 
as, for instance, Magazine Mountain, in Logan 
County. This and other mountains, including 
the Ouachita Hills, are in the southern part of 
the State. The most extensive range is that 
known as the Boston Mountains, in the north¬ 
western part of the State. The upper mountain¬ 
ous, forest, and mineral lands may be separated 
from the northeast corner of the State to Little 
Rock, thence south 100 miles, thence to the 
southwest corner of the State. East of this line 
the country is hilly, thickly covered with pines, 
oaks, and other trees until the alluvial soil is 
reached, extending from the Mississippi west¬ 
ward from 40 to 50 miles in width. 

River Systems. — The State is evenly divided 
by its great name-river (q.v.). Just above its 
mouth and connected with it by a bayou through 
the bottoms, the White River, 800 miles long, 
also enters the Mississippi; rising in northwest 
Arkansas, it flows through southern Missouri 
and returns to its own State, receiving at Jack- 
sonport the Black of 400 miles, and near Claren¬ 
don the Cache. Farther north the St. Francis 
of 450 miles comes from Missouri, winds through 
the delta plains for a long distance nearly paral¬ 
lel to the Mississippi, and enters it just above 
Helena; the space between them is a mass of 
cypress swamps and bayous. The southern half 
is drained by the Ouachita of 500 miles, feeding 
the Red in Louisiana, and in the extreme south¬ 
west by a bend of the Red. 

Climate and Sanitary Conditions. — The east¬ 
ern river bottoms are hot and malarious; but 
the rest of the State is unsurpassed for health¬ 
fulness, and the Ozarks are a noted sanatorium 
for lung diseases. Mean winter temperature 
about 38.5; summer, 80. Mean rainfall, in the 
centre, 50 to 60 inches; in the extreme west, 
46.5 inches. The drouths of the farther West 
and the severe northers of Texas are alike un¬ 
known. 

Geology, Minerals, and Mining. — The Ozarks 
are the western extension of the Appalachian 
system, formed at the same time by the same 
forces: their basis is Palaeozoic,— Lower Silu¬ 
rian in the north, Sub-Carboniferous on the 
south,— with a patch of Cretaceous in south¬ 
west. The southern portion of the State, a part 
of the great Atlantic belt of coastal plain, lies 
upon a foundation of Tertiary, overlaid with 
Quaternary sands and clays. The former make 
the State one of remarkable richness in mineral 
wealth. The Ouachitas furnish the silicious 
novaculite, whence are made the famous (( Ar¬ 


kansas® or <( Ouachita® oilstones, the finest for 
sharpening tools in the world; quarried in, Hot 
Springs, Garland, and adjoining counties since 
1840; the coarser grades of which and quartz¬ 
ites supply common whetstones, grindstones, 
burr millstones, etc. They also contain bauxite, 
a granular clay-ore now the principal source of 
aluminum, used also for alum and crucibles; 
building, porcelain, and fireclays. In the north¬ 
west are quarried limestone for lime, quartz 
sand for glass, building sandstone, granite, and 
slate; and a valuable pink marble called (< St. 
Clair limestone.® In the north centre around 
Batesville, manganese ore is mined for eastern 
steel works. There is a rapidly increasing pro¬ 
duction of semi-anthracite coal, which, almost 
neglected prior to 1885, had risen to $1,687,000 
in 1900; lignite has been found, and petroleum, 
and natural gas. Phosphates, mineral ochres, 
and salt are found. There are large deposits of 
marble of many colors in the north part of the 
State. A railway will soon make these, as well 
as zinc extracted from valuable and numerous 
mines in the same section, extensive articles of 
commerce. There are also in the southern por¬ 
tion of the State large deposits of asphalt, graph¬ 
ite, and inexhaustible deposits of that species of 
chalk from which Portland cement is made, 
which is now manufactured on an extensive 
scale. Zinc ore is an article of some export, 
and galena, gold, copper, and nickel exist in some 
quantity, as well as limonite iron ore and salt. 
More valuable at present are the mineral springs, 
of which those at Hot Springs have developed 
a celebrated sanatorium and town. 

Soils, Agriculture, and Forests. — Agricul¬ 
turally the most valuable soil is found in the 
river bottom-lands, and as the surface rises from 
these the soil becomes less productive. There 
are large submerged tracts that only require 
proper drainage to make them valuable to the 
farmer. 

The extreme fertility of the soil in most 
parts renders agriculture highly profitable. A 
raw, sparsely settled State at the time of the 
war, with less than a third its present popula¬ 
tion, and that mainly along the great navigable 
streams, most of it had no old industrial system 
to be wrecked and remade, but was virgin soil; 
hence it recovered much faster than other south¬ 
ern States, and when railroads opened it up, the 
new free-labor system developed it with few ob¬ 
stacles, and the improved farm land has in¬ 
creased from about one twentieth to about one 
fifth of the entire area, or from some 1,700,000 
to close on 7,000,000 acres, one eighth of it in the 
last decade; two fifths of the State is in farms 
and half of their acreage improved. It has been 
a growth almost wholly in small farms; from an 
average in i860 of nearly 250 acres, it has sunk 
in 1900 10 93. A part of this is no doubt due 
to the small patches rented by the negroes, 
whose farms average only half the size of the 
whites, and who comprise one fourth of the 
farmers. 

The northwestern Ozark region has a thin, 
sandy soil,- poor relatively to the rest, which 
range through the clays and loams of the lime¬ 
stone uplands, the sandy loam of the western 
Arkansas valley, and the day and sand of the 
eastern valley, to the deep black soil of the bot¬ 
toms, the famous buckshot soil (the incredibly 
fertile cotton land), and the sticky red <( gumbo v ’ 


ARKANSAS 


clay of the Red River valley. Yet the first- 
named section is a superb fruit district, two 
northwestern counties raising in 1899 1,173,642 
of the total 2,811,182 bushels of apples (an al¬ 
most fourfold increase in the decade), and 3,500,- 
000 of the 44,000,000 bushels of corn, and two 
others (one the same) more than half the 12,667,- 
740 quarts of strawberries. Of the other fruit 
crops for which the State is becoming famous, 
the peach crop of 333,642 bushels was raised in 
the southwest, over one sixth in one county 
just below the Ouachitas; the same counties 
chiefly grew the plums, prunes, and grapes, the 
latter 3,621,000 pounds. Dried and canned fruits 
amounted to 2,045,910 pounds. Potatoes and 
sweet potatoes are grown all over the State, but 
about one fourth came from three counties in 
the western Arkansas valley. But of course the 
chief crop is cotton, grown mainly in the south, 
and of which the crop was 705,928 bales in 1899, 
and 819,000 in 1900, making the State No. 5 in 
the United States. Hay and forage play a con¬ 
siderable part; these imply animals, and nat¬ 
urally horses, asses, and mules, for farm work, 
have multiplied rapidly with the farms; swine 
also have increased, but neat cattle, milch cows, 
and sheep have fallen off. Sorghum, though 
still a considerable crop, has diminished two 
fifths in the decade. An important industry is 
rose-culture for perfume, and flowers for seed. 

The forested area of the State is three 
fourths its entire surface — more than 40,000 of 
its 53,850 square miles, and of a vast variety of 
hard and soft woods: dense tracts of pine, white 
and other oaks, hickory, black walnut, horn¬ 
beam, locust, pecan, ash, elm, willow, papaw, 
etc. The St. Francis valley, once a continu¬ 
ous swamp, has been reclaimed and is 
covered with a heavy growth of cypress, 
gum, oak, hickory, and sycamore. In the Ar¬ 
kansas valley are red cedar, cottonwood, maple, 
and various oaks. In all forest products the 
State has a great industrial future: the value of 
raw and manufactured forest products in 1900 
was about $28,700,000. 

Manufactures. — Though this branch of in¬ 
dustry is relatively small in Arkansas as yet, its 
rapid increase,— more than doubling in the dec¬ 
ade, from $17,275,192 in 1890 to $37,006,409 in 
1900,— and the great forest and mineral basis 
for it, foreshow a great future. Naturally, over 
two thirds of it was of wood products; $23,959,- 
983 in lumber and timber, $2,266,522 in planing- 
mill stuff, sash-and-blind work, wheel parts, 
staves, shingles, cedar posts, etc. These were 
but $8,943,052 and $1,761,932 in 1890. Next to 
this is the group of cotton industries,— ginning, 
and making cottonseed oil and cake; the latter 
produced a value of $2,874,864, against $1,881,- 
668 in 1890, the former of $1,261,097. though in 
1890 only $153,226. Flouring and grist-mill 
products were $3,708,709, against $2,498,168 in 
1890; steam-car construction and repair-shop 
work, $2,095,447, against $1,299,558. Brick and 
tile formed another important item. There were 
altogether 4,794 establishments, employing 28,- 
150 persons, paying $9,937,3^7 in wages, and 
having an output of $45,197,731. The internal 
revenue collections on taxable manufactures now 
amount to about $300,000 per annum. 

Commerce and Navigation. — The immense 
extent of its internal waterways, in which it 
exceeds every other State, compensates Arkan- 
Vol. 1—46 


sas for lack of a seaboard. The Mississippi is 
equal to one, however, giving it deep-water com¬ 
munication with the ocean and with the other 
States of the valley. The Arkansas is navigable 
its entire course in the State, some 400 miles* 
the White for 250 miles or so to Jacksonport; 
the Ouachita and the Red rivers also afford 
navigation. The real port of Arkansas is New 
Orleans, and its exports are lumber and cotton. 

Railroads and Street Railways. — The slen¬ 
der population of Arkansas and its concentra¬ 
tion along the rivers made railways long un¬ 
necessary and undesired, and the first one was 
under construction when the Civil War broke 
out, with only 38 miles built; in 1870 there were 
but 256, in 1880 859. The next decade was its 
real creation as a serious system, and in 1890 it 
had risen to 2,203.44; slackening for a few 
years,—2,439.20 in 1895,—it was 3,082.27 in 
1899, and in the next two years 158 more were 
built, making 3,240.33 in 1901. There are 39 
lines in the State, or one to every 16 square 
miles and 310 people. The rates are controlled 
by a State railroad commission. 

There are five lines of street railway oper¬ 
ating 200 miles of track. 

Banks. — In 1902 there were seven national 
banks in Arkansas, with $1,070,000 capital, $336,- 
000 outstanding circulation, $3,108,000 deposits; 
$1,003,000 reserve; 39 State banks with $1,243,000 
capital, $6,604,000 assets, and $4,464,000 deposits. 
There is one clearing-house in the State at Lit¬ 
tle Rock; exchanges in 1901, $34,808,284. 

Finances. — The assessed valuation in 1901 
was $127,062,903; in 1897, $117,873,253. Annual 
tax rate, 1.19 mills. Recognized public debt, 
$1,271,000 at 3 per cent, of which $1,113,000 is 
permanent school fund, not properly an indebt¬ 
edness as it can never be paid; unrecognized, $8,- 
706,773. In 1900 a twenty years’ dispute with 
the United States over its holding of Arkansas 
bonds, to which the State claimed an offset of 
damages by failure of the United States to patent 
273,000 acres of swamp land to it, was settled 
by paying to the United States $160,000 and 
guaranteeing titles to settlers. 

Education. — The interest on the permanent 
school fund (see preceding paragraph), a 2-mill 
State school tax, and other revenues, amounted 
in 1900 to about $500,000, the district taxes to 
$805,000, and the poll tax to $163,000; total, to¬ 
ward $1,500,000, of which only $1,369,000 was ex¬ 
pended. There are upwards of 5,000 schools, 
with over 7,000 teachers, three fifths males, the 
largest percentage in the United States. But the 
support is inadequate, the terms average only 
70 days yearly,— among the lowest in the coun¬ 
try,— and there is no general school superin¬ 
tendence, each locality managing its own and 
the quality fluctuating, with its wealth and pub¬ 
lic spirit. The almost wholly rural character of 
the population, here as everywhere, makes the 
school problem difficult from the dispersion of 
the pupils. From all these causes, in 1900, of 
319,742 white children from 5 to 17, only 185,- 
490 attended school even for the short terms; 
and of 123,242 colored children, only 50,386. 
Yet Arkansas has 10 other States below it in 
illiteracy. There are 48 public high schools 
and 24 private secondary schools, besides 7 pri¬ 
vate normal schools (there are no State ones), 
and 9 universities and colleges, some co-educa- 
tional, as follows: Arkansas College, Presby- 


ARKANSAS 


terian (1872) ; Arkansas Industrial University, 
n.~s. (1872) ; Philander Smith College, Metho¬ 
dist (1877) ; Hendrix College, Southern Meth¬ 
odist (1884) ; Ouachita College, Baptist (1886) ; 
Arkadelphia College, Methodist (1890), Arkan¬ 
sas Cumberland College, Presbyterian (1891) ; 
Mountain Home College, Baptist (1893) ; 
and Central Baptist College for Women, at 
Conway. 

Churches. — The Methodist, Roman Catholic, 
Episcopalian, Presbyterian, and Baptist are the 
leading church bodies in Arkansas, as in most 
other southern States. 

Charitable and Penal Institutions. — The only 
ones of the first class are a lunatic asylum and a 
deaf-mute school; of the latter, a penitentiary in 
Pulaski County. There is no reform school for 
juvenile offenders, who are confined with the 
older criminals. 

Post-offices and Periodicals. — There were 
1,859 post-offices of all grades in 1900, and 259 
periodicals, 21 daily, 212 weekly. 

State Government. — The Constitution is of 
1874, amended 1893. Suffrage requires a year 
in the State and payment of poll tax. Office¬ 
holding and being witness in court require belief 
in God. The governor, State officers, and State 
representatives hold for two years. The gov¬ 
ernor has $3,500 salary; his veto is overruled 
by a majority in each House; if he dies within 
a year from election a fresh one is held, if later 
the president of the Senate fills out his term. 
The legislature meets biennially, session limited 
to 60 days,— but a two thirds vote of each House 
may extend it, and the governor may call a spe¬ 
cial session; the representatives must be at least 
one from each county, and not exceed 100; the 
Senate has 30 to 35 members (at present 32), 
four-year terms; both receive $6 a day and mile¬ 
age. The Supreme Court has five members 
elected for eight years; there are circuit courts 
with judges elected for four years; and the usual 
county and probate courts. The legislature has 
power to establish new ones or extend the 
jurisdiction of old. 

State Militia. — There are 1,900, 1,600 being 
infantry. No county may have over four com¬ 
panies. 

Representatives in Congress. — There are sev¬ 
en, under the apportionment of the census of 
1900, previously six. 

Politics. — The State is overwhelmingly Dem¬ 
ocratic. 

Population and Divisions. — At the first cen¬ 
sus, of 1820, Arkansas had 14,273 people; 1830, 
30,388; 1840, 97,574; 1850, 209,897; i860, 435,- 
450; 1870, 484,471; 1880, 802,525; 1890, 1,128,- 
179; 1900, 1,311,564. The colored population of 
366,984 has increased 75 per cent since 1880, 
against about 60 per cent for the white. The 
foreign population is inconsiderable. Only 6.9 
per cent of the people live in towns of 4,000 and 
over, and only 9 per cent in those of 2,000 and 
over. 

There are 75 counties in Arkansas, as fol¬ 
lows, with their county seats: 


Arkansas, Dewitt. 
Ashley, Hamburg. 
Baxter, Mountainhome. 
Benton, Bentonville. 
Boone, Harrison. 
Bradley, Warren. 
Calhoun, Hampton. 
Carroll, Berryville. 


Chicot, Lake Village. 
Clark, Arkadelphia. 
Clay, Corning. 
Clebourne, Heber. 
Cleveland, Rison. 
Columbia, Magnolia. 
Conway, Morrillton. 
Craighead, Jonesboro. 


Crawford, Vanburen. 
Crittenden, Marion. 

Cross, Vanndale. 

Dallas, Princeton. 

Desha, Arkansas City. 
Drew, Monticello. 
Faulkner, Conway. 
Franklin, Ozark. 

Fulton, Salem. 

Garland, Hot Springs. 
Grant, Sheridan. 

Greene, Paragould. 
Hempstead, Washington. 
Hot Springs, Malvern. 
Howard. Centerpoint. 
Independence, Batesville. 
Izard, Melbourne. 

Jackson, Newport. 
Jefferson, Pine Bluff. 
Johnson, Clarksville. 
Lafayette, New Lewisville. 
Lawrence, Powhatan. 

Lee, Marianna. 

Lincoln, Star City. 

Little River, Richmond. 
Logan, Paris. 

Lonoke, Lonoke. 

Madison, Huntsville. 
Marion, Yellville. 

Miller, Texarkana. 


Mississippi, Osceola. 
Monroe, Clarendon. 
Montgomery, Mt. Ida. 
Nevada, Prescott. 

Newton, Jasper. 

Ouachita, Camden. 

Perry, Perryville. 

Phillips, Helena. 

Pike, Murfreesboro. 
Poinsett, Harrisburg. 

Polk, Mena. 

Pcpe, Russellville. 

Prairie, Desarc. 

Pulaski, Little Rock. 
Randolph., Pocahontas. 

St. Francis, Forrest City. 
Saline, Benton. 

Scott, Waldron. 

Searcy, Marshall. 
Sebastian, Greenwood. 
Sevier, Locksburg. 

Sharp, Evening Shade. 
Stone, Mountainview. 
Union, Eldorado 
Van Buren, Clinton. 
Washington, Fayetteville. 
White, Searcy. 

Woodruff, Augusta. 

Yell, Danville. 


Chief Cities .— There are only eight places 
of 4,000 and over, the three largest being on the 
Arkansas. The one considerable city is the 
capital, Little Rock, 38,307; a manufacturing 
and railroad centre, on the first high ground 
above the Arkansas bottom lands. The chief of 
the remainder are Fort Smith, 11,587, where the 
river emerges from Indian Territory; Pine 
Bluff, 11,496, half way from Little Rock to the 
mouth of the river; Hot Springs, 9,973, a noted 
sanatorium, in the western centre just north of 
the Ouachita; Helena, 5,556, on the Missis¬ 
sippi below Memphis; and Texarkana, 4,914, in 
the southwest on the border of Texas. 

History .— It has almost none till the 19th 
century. De Soto’s expedition furnished the first 
white men to set foot on it, and De Soto himself 
was not improbably buried in Arkansas River. 
The first French explorers found here an In¬ 
dian tribe called the Arkansaw, which they 
spelled in French fashion, Arkansas. In 1685 
Bienville’s Frenchmen camped for a while at 
Arkansas Post, in the Arkansas River bottoms 
near the White and the Mississippi. In 1720, 
as part of John Law’s famous ^Mississippi 
scheme,® he was granted by the Regency 12 
square miles on the Arkansas Rive>r, on condi¬ 
tion of settling 1,500 Germans there and pro¬ 
tecting them against the Indians; but the scheme 
ended with Law’s failure, and the few who did 
come settled elsewhere. The district when 
finally dotted with a few settlements was in 
French hands till the Louisiana Purchase in 
1803, of which it formed part; in 1812 it was 
made part of Missouri Territory, and in 1819 
organized as Arkansas Territory, which includ¬ 
ed Indian Territory. At this time the entire 
population, including Indians, was not above 
10,000; yet in November 1819 the Arkansas Ga¬ 
zette was founded at Little Rock; and settlers 
began at once to flow in. On 15 June 1836 it 
was admitted to the Union as a slave State, 
paired with Michigan as a free State, though the 
latter’s formal admission was a few months later. 
Though slave and of southern settlement, the 
hill-country farming divided it in sentiment in 
i860, and there was a violent struggle between 
the Union and secession element; but in Janu¬ 
ary 1861 the latter succeeded in calling a se¬ 
cession convention, by 27,412 to 15,826. The 



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/ ciNiw^l fX / 

JMUIMii ftorfhl“Unua 

«• . r^r.Uim /UlrMu 

W Rk*"* '?/ Ju„ 

c “ ir * /Kldori 

4jy** 0 N/LaMrl 

^^^Au/ofA'tnaJW \CoryOo 

i-oV 


Population of places is indicated 
by different lettering, thus: 

25,000 and over_LITTLE ROC 

6,000 to 25,000 _Fort Smi 

1.000 to 5,000_Clarend 

500 to 1,000_Belle* 

Smaller Places_ Quern 

State Capitals shown thus- 

County Seats shown thus- 


fe Bi> P n 0 tr fBelmont 

« eSr-A FA VT'E’TTJ 

y •/ JCanfield 

«,J . iFroatvill* 


Mruahey 


I u N s Ain ci 


J Brxate\ 
i Harman * 

o I oMnulUm' 

Toiler -Moril 


~~ Crosseit 
yPetersburg 

to fZx 

o ^MawU 


I G la age 
> Bradley 


■ettfork' 


Wi7m#ij 


Urau 

Stertij 


Railroad: 


- Ulan, karri Sp) 


Copyright, 1904, by The Americana Company. 


mm 































































































































































ARKANSAS CITY — ARKWRIGHT 


State officers anticipated them by securing Fort 
Smith, and the Federal arsenals at Napoleon and 
Little Rock; but on Lincoln’s call for troops, 
the convention met and on 6 May passed a se¬ 
cession ordinance. In 1862 the Confederate 
forces were defeated at Pea Ridge, 6-7 March, 
and Prairie Grove 7 Dec.; Helena and Arkansas 
Post fell into Union hands, and 4 Sept. 1863, 
Little Rock was captured and the State reclaimed 
for the Union. The loyalists then held a con¬ 
vention in January 1864, framed a constitution, 
adopted it by a purely loyalist vote, elected con¬ 
gressmen and State officers, and organized a reg¬ 
ular government; but Congress refused to accept 
it or admit the State again. Under the Recon¬ 
struction Act of 1867, a constitution was adopt¬ 
ed in March 1868, and the State readmitted 22 
June. Several counties were again put under 
military rule in 1868. The anarchy under the 
carpet-bag regime culminated in a civil war in 
April 1874, in which the United States was in¬ 
voked. A new constitution was adopted in 1874, 
under which the State now works. 

U. M. Rose, 

Ex-President American Bar Association. 

Ar'kansas City, Kan., a city of Cowley 
County, near the southern border of the State, 
on Arkansas River, near the Walnut River, and 
furnished with water power by a canal uniting 
them. It was settled 1870, and incorporated 
1872. It manufactures agricultural implements, 
windmills, wire mattresses, flour and lumber; 
and has a large trade with Indian posts and 
agencies in Oklahoma and Indian Territory. 
It contains a United States Indian School. 
Pop. (1900) 6,140. 

Ar'kansas Post, Ark., a village in Ar¬ 
kansas County; on the Arkansas River; 117 
miles southeast of Little Rock. It is on a high 
bluff and was the site of the first settlement made 
within the present limits of Arkansas by French 
missionaries in 1685. Its elevated location gave 
it. considerable military importance during the 
Civil War. The Confederates established strong 
works here, which were reduced by a combined 
assault of a portion of the Federal army, un¬ 
der Gen. McClernand, and a naval command 
under Admiral Porter, on 11 Jan. 1863. 

Ar'kansas River, the largest affluent of the 
Mississippi save the Missouri; length, nearly 
2,000 miles; area of basin, 189,000 square miles; 
mean discharge, 63,000 cubic feet. It rises in the 
central Colorado; flows east with a rapid cur¬ 
rent through deep, narrow canons, and over a 
rocky bed till it emerges on the naked, arid plains 
of eastern Colorado and western Kansas; runs 
east several hundred miles in Kansas, and turn¬ 
ing southeast leaves it near Arkansas City. It 
then cuts a cantle off Oklahoma and Indian Ter¬ 
ritory,— where it receives the Cimarron and the 
broad shallow Canadian from the west, with the 
Verdigris and Neosho from the north,— and be¬ 
comes navigable 650 miles to its mouth in Ar¬ 
kansas (which it bisects). 

Ar'kansas Stone, a name given to the 
oilstones made from two grades of novaculite 
quarried in Hot Springs, Garland County, and 
also in adjoining counties in Arkansas. The 
rocks cover a large area and yield the finest 
whetstones. From them the highest grades of 
both whetstones and razor hones are made. 


Ar'kansas, University of, a State institu¬ 
tion organized in 1872, with academic and tech¬ 
nical departments in Fayetteville; law and medi¬ 
cal departments in Little Rock, and a normal 
school for colored students in Pine Bluff. At 
the close of 1901 it had 37 professors and in¬ 
structors, 1,150 students and 681 graduates. It 
has a library of 10,000 volumes, and an income 
of $70,000, while its grounds and buildings are 
valued at $300,000. 

Ark'low, Ireland, a town in the county 
of Wicklow, 14 miles south-southwest of the 
town of that name, on the right bank of the 
Avoca, which falls into the sea about 500 yards 
below the town, and is here crossed by a bridge 
of 19 arches. It is inhabited principally by 
fishermen. There are remains of an old monas¬ 
tery, and of the castle of the Ormonds, the lat¬ 
ter destroyed by Cromwell in 1649. Here in 
1798 the United Irishmen suffered a defeat. 
Pop. (1901) 4,172. 

Arko'na, the northeast promontory of the 
German island of Rugen, in the Baltic. Its 
chalk cliffs rise to a height of 177 feet, topped 
with a lighthouse, built in 1827, from which 
the Danish island of Moen, 33 miles north¬ 
west, can be seen. Here stood the famous for¬ 
tification (Slavonic, Urban ) so long impregnable, 
and the temple of the Wend deity Swantewit, 
the most sacred sanctuary of the Slavs of north¬ 
ern Germany. 

Arkose. See Sandstone. 

Ark'wright, Sir Richard, a famous Eng¬ 
lish inventor: b. in Preston, Lancashire, 23 Dec. 
1732 ; d. 3 Aug. 1792. He was the youngest of 
13 children, and was bred to the trade of a bar¬ 
ber. His residence in a cotton-spinning district 
(Bolton), drew his attention to the operations 
of that manufacture; but he was 35 before he de¬ 
voted himself to consideration of the subject. 
The spinning-jenny, invented in 1767 by Har¬ 
greaves, gave the means of spinning 20 or 30 
threads at once with no more labor than had 
previously been required to spin a single thread; 
but the thread spun by the jenny could not, how¬ 
ever, be used as warp, being destitute of the firm¬ 
ness required. Arkwright supplied this defi¬ 
ciency by the invention of the spinning-frame, 
which spins a vast number of threads of any de¬ 
gree of fineness and hardness, leaving the oper¬ 
ator merely to feed the machine with cotton, 
and to join the threads when they happen to 
break. His invention introduced the system of 
spinning by rollers, the carding, or roving as it 
is technically termed (that is, the soft loose strip 
of cotton), passing through one pair of rollers, 
and being received by a second pair, which are 
made to revolve with three, four or five times 
the velocity of the first pair. By this contriv¬ 
ance the roving is drawn out into a thread of the 
desired degree of tenuity, a twist being given to 
it by the adaptation of the spindle and fly of the 
old flaxwheel to the machinery. The precise 
date of his invention is not known; but it is 
most probable that the idea of spinning by roll¬ 
ers had occurred to his mind as early as the pe¬ 
riod when Hargreaves was engaged in the inven¬ 
tion of the jenny. He removed to Nottingham 
in 1768, in order to avoid the attacks of the law¬ 
less rabble who thought his machines would 
deprive many workmen of a livelihood. Ark¬ 
wright erected his first mill, which was driven 


ARLBERG —ARM 


by horses, at Nottingham, and took out a pat¬ 
ent for spinning by rollers, in 1769. He built 
a second factory on a much larger scale at 
Cromford, in Derbyshire, in 1771, the machin¬ 
ery being turned by a waterwheel, and having 
made several additional discoveries and im¬ 
provements, took out a fresh patent for the 
whole in 1775, thus completing a series of in¬ 
genious and complicated machinery. When the 
importance of his inventions became known ef¬ 
forts were made to have the patent set aside, 
and in 1781 Arkwright commenced actions 
against a number of persons for invading his 
patent. Only one cause was tried, that against 
Col. Mordaunt in the Court of King’s Bench in 
July 1781; and in that the verdict went against 
Arkwright on the ground of defective specifica¬ 
tion. In February 1785, a second action was 
tried in the court of common pleas, in which 
Arkwright brought a number of persons to 
prove that they could make machines from his 
specifications, in consequence of which he ob¬ 
tained a verdict in his favor. This producing 
great alarm among many who had erected ma¬ 
chines for cotton spinning, and from whom a 
royalty was demanded, in order to settle the dis¬ 
pute a suit was brought against Arkwright in 
the Court of King’s Bench, in which the whole 
question was argued, not only as to the intelligi¬ 
bility of his specification, but on the less techni¬ 
cal and more important ground of his not being 
himself the inventor of the machines for which 
he had obtained a patent. After a long and 
ably-conducted trial a verdict was given against 
Arkwright, and in November 1785 the patent 
was cancelled. None of Arkwright’s most in¬ 
timate friends, or those best acquainted with his 
character, ever had the slightest doubt with re¬ 
spect to the originality of his invention. In 
1786 Arkwright received the honor of knight¬ 
hood from George III., and unlike many invent¬ 
ors, he amassed a large fortune by his inven¬ 
tions. 

Arlberg, a mountain pass between the 
Rhsetian and the Lech Alps, in the west of Ty¬ 
rol ; between it and Vorarlberg, pierced by the 
third longest railway tunnel in the world. It is 
six and one half miles long, was finished in No¬ 
vember 1883, and connects the valley of the Inn 
with that of the Rhine, and the Austrian Railway 
system with the Swiss railways. 

Arles (ancient, Arelate), a town in France 
on the Rhone, about 25 miles from its mouth. 
It stands on a rocky limestone eminence, slop¬ 
ing to the river, and has irregular streets, 
presenting many interesting features. In a 
large square is an ancient granite monolith, and 
among other remarkable objects are the Ro¬ 
manesque Cathedral of Saint Trophimus, with 
a fine portal and some good paintings and 
sculptures; and especially numerous ancient re¬ 
mains, of which the most conspicuous are those 
of a Roman amphitheatre, which accommodated 
24,000 spectators, and those of a Roman the¬ 
atre. It has railway workshops, but its manu¬ 
factures are unimportant, though its trade is 
important. Arles was founded several centuries 
before the Christian era and was the chief col¬ 
ony of Massilia (Marseilles). In the 4th 
and 5th centuries several church councils met 
here. From 897 to 1150 it was the capital of a 
kingdom bearing its name. Pop. (1901) 15,506. 


Arlincourt, ar'lan-koor', Charles Victor 
Prevot, Vicomte d’, a French poet and novel¬ 
ist: b. in 1789; d. in 1856. His chief poetical 
work is ( Charlemange, or the Caroleid-* (1818), 
an epic; and of his novels the most successful 
was ( Le Solitaire* (1821), which was trans¬ 
lated into all European languages. Among sev¬ 
eral pamphlets, written in support of the Legi¬ 
timist cause in 1848, one entitled ( God Wills 
ID went through 64 editions. 

Arlington, Henry Bennet, Earl of, an 
English politician: b. in 1618; d. in 1685. He 
was a member of the ®Cabal® ministry and as 
Secretary of State was of much influence in 
public affairs. 

Arlington, Mass., a town in Middlesex 
County, about seven miles northwest of Boston. 
It contains several fine buildings, among which 
is a library given to the town by Mrs. Eli Rob¬ 
bins at a cost of $200,000. The town has elec¬ 
tric lights and car service to Boston. It was 
settled about 1650 and received its present name 
in 1867. Pop. (1900) 8,603. 

Arlington Heights, a range of hills in 

Fairfax County, Va., on the Potomac, opposite 
Washington. They were strongly fortified dur¬ 
ing the Civil War. Gen. Robert E. Lee’s es¬ 
tate here is now the site of a national soldiers’ 
cemetery. 

Arlon, ar'loii, a town in Belgium, the 
capital of the province of Luxembourg, in the 
midst of the woods and mountain ridges of the 
Ardennes. It is a thriving place, with manu¬ 
factures of ironware, leather, tobacco, earthen¬ 
ware, and clay pipes. It appears in the Antonine 
Itinerary, and from the coins, inscriptions, and 
other antiquities found, must have possessed 
some importance even in the time of the Ro¬ 
mans. It is mentioned under its present name 
in 870, in connection with the partition of Lor¬ 
raine. Pop. (1899) 7,997. 

Arm, a term technically applied to that 
portion of the upper extremity of the body ex¬ 
tending from the shoulder joint to the elbow, 
but popularly used to denote both arm and fore¬ 
arm. The arm proper has one large and strong 
bone, the humerus, covered by strong muscles, 
which protect the blood vessels and nerves. The 
upper end of the humerus fits into the head of 
the scapula and with the clavicle forms the 
shoulder joint. The head of the humerus is held 
in the joint partly by ligaments, but mainly by 
the muscles attached to it. The motions of 
the arm are many. Those muscles that move the 
arm inward toward the chest are known as the 
adductors. These are the pectoralis major, cora- 
co brachialis, which also flex the arm, and the 
latissimus dorsi and teres major, which also ex¬ 
tend the arm. The arm is moved away from 
the body by the deltoid, a large muscle on the 
outer side, and the supraspinatus, a smaller mus¬ 
cle going from the scapula. The arm is ro¬ 
tated outward by the infraspinatus and the teres 
minor, and rotated inward by the subscapularis. 
All of these muscles are fastened about the 
upper part of the humerus. The greater mass 
of the muscles of the arm are those that go 
to the forearm and that move that member. 
Those that flex the forearm, or bend the el¬ 
bow, are the biceps, the brachiates and the 
brachio-radialis, the former being the most im¬ 
portant. It also aids in turning the forearm. 



SIR RICHARD ARKWRIGHT. 


FAMOUS FOR INVENTIONS IN COTTON SPINNING, 
















































. 



































































































♦ 































ARMADA — ARMADILLO 


palm downward. The muscles that extend or 
stretch the forearm are the triceps and the an¬ 
coneus. There are other movements of the fore¬ 
arm. The arm having two bones, the radius 
and ulna, one turns on the other and the move¬ 
ments of pronation and supination are produced. 
Pronation is accomplished by two muscles, the 
pronator teres and the pronator quadratus; 
the supinator makes the movement outward. 
The movements of flexion and extension take 
place in the elbow joint, which is hinged like 
those of pronation and supination, just below 
the elbow joint, the radius moving on the ulna. 
The union of the radius and ulna with the bones 
of the wrist make a hinge-like joint, the wrist 
joint. Movements at the wrist are in four direc¬ 
tions, flexion and extension, abduction and ad¬ 
duction. These movements, as well as those of 
the fingers, are made by a large group, of mus¬ 
cles some 20 in number. There are in all 48 
muscles concerned in the movements of the 
arm, forearm, and hand. The blood supply of 
the arm is derived from the brachiocephalic of 
the right side and from the arch of the aorta on 
the left (see Aorta) in a single main trunk that 
divides at the bend of the elbow. The first por¬ 
tion is called the subclavian and is not in the 
arm proper, the axillary, or second portion, be¬ 
gins at the outer border of the first rib and be¬ 
comes the brachial just about the armpit, where 
it may be felt and compressed. The brachial 
artery is the great trunk of the arm. It may be 
felt just inside of the inner edge of the biceps 
muscle about the middle and there may be read¬ 
ily compressed in case of hemorrhage. At the 
bend of the elbow the brachial artery divides 
into the radial and ulnar, which supply the outer 
and inner sides of the forearm respectively. 
The radial artery is the one most frequently 
felt in determining the pulse; the ulnar may be 
used but as it lies deeper it is felt less easily. 
In the hand these arterial branches anastomose 
to form a superficial and a deep palmar arch 
from which branches go to supply the fingers. 
Hemorrhages in the palm of the hand can be 
controlled therefore only by controlling both 
radial and ulnar arteries, or better, by. con¬ 
trolling the brachial just above the bifurcation in 
the elbow. This may be done by strongly flex¬ 
ing the forearm or something held against the 
artery. The principal veins of the forearm are 
the ulnar, the median, and the radial; of the 
arm the cephalic and the basilic. . 1 hese empty 
into the axillary vein, and this into the sub¬ 
clavian. The nerve supply of the arm is de¬ 
rived from the spinal cord from the fifth, sixth, 
seventh, and eighth cervical, and the first, second, 
and third thoracic nerves. These form a com¬ 
plex plexus, the brachial plexus. The mam 
branches going to the different muscles and 
supplying the skill areas are the median, ulnar, 
musculo spiral, musculo cutaneous, and circum¬ 
flex. Their distribution is extremely complex. 


Armada, ar-ma'da or ar-ma'da, the Span¬ 
ish name for any armed force, especially a naval 
force. The term Spanish Armada is applied to 
that great naval armament which Philip IT, m 
1588, fitted out under the command of the Duke 
of Medina-Sidonia and Martinez de Recaldo, 
against Queen Elizabeth, with the view of con¬ 
quering England, which Pope Sixtus V. had 
bestowed upon Spain. The.fleet consisted of 131 
p-reat and many smaller ships of war, and car¬ 


ried 19,000 marines and 8,000 sailors. The 
ships had scarcely quitted Lisbon on 29 May 
1588 when they were scattered by a storm and 
had to be refitted in Corunna. Advancing in the 
form of a half-moon of seven miles in extent, 
it came in sight, off Plymouth, of the English 
fleet, scarcely numbering 80 sail, and com¬ 
manded by Lord Howard, who, endeavored by 
dexterous seamanship, and the discharge of well- 
directed volleys of shot at alternately long and 
short distances, to damage the vessels of the 
enemy. Some of these, including the galleon 
laden with treasure, fell into the hands of the 
English or were destroyed. Arrived at length 
off Dunkirk, on the 7 August the armada 
was becalmed and thrown into such confusion 
by the arrival in the fleet of eight fire-ships sent 
by the English admiral, that on the morning 
of the 8th Lord Howard was enabled to at¬ 
tack it on several sides. Notwithstanding a 
brave resistance, many of the Spanish vessels 
were destroyed or fell into the hands of the 
English and Dutch, and in consequence the 
Duke of Medina-Sidonia resolved to abandon 
the enterprise, conceiving the idea of conveying; 
his fleet to Spain by a voyage round the north 
of Great Britain. A hurricane which now broke 
forth with tremendous violence on the already 
dispirited Spaniards, scattered their ships in all 
directions. Some went down on the cliffs of 
Norway, others in the open sea, and still others 
on the Scottish coast. About 30 vessels reached 
the Atlantic Ocean, and of these several were 
driven by a west wind on the coast of Ireland 
and wrecked. In all, the armada is said to 
have lost in the open sea 72 large vessels, ex¬ 
clusive of smaller craft, and 10,185 men, while 
every family of distinction in Spain had to mourn 
the loss of one or more of its members. Only 
about 50 vessels reached Spain on the return 
voyage. 

Bibliography .— Corbett, ( Drake and the Tu¬ 
dor Navy-* ; Creasy, ( Fifteen Decisive Battles ) ; 
Froude, ( The Spanish Story of the Armada ) ; 
Gardiner, ( Historical Biographies: Drake ) ; 
Green, Hlistory of the English People ) ; Mot¬ 
ley, ( History of the United Netherlands. 5 

Ar'madale, the title of a novel by Wilkie 
Collins (1866). The plot of this, like that of 
c The New Magdalen,* and other of its au¬ 
thor’s later novels, is a gauntlet of defiance to 
the critics who had asserted that all the interest 
of his stories lay in the suspension of know¬ 
ledge as to the denouement. The machinery is 
in full view, yet in spite of this disclosure, the 
reader’s attention is held until he knows whether, 
the villain or her victims will come out victori¬ 
ous. 

Ar'madil'lo (Sp. dim. of armada, armed, 
referring to its bony shell). 1. A. edentate 
mammal of the family Dasypodidcu, found in 
South and Central America and notable for its 
defensive armor. This armor consists of small 
roundish bony plates, ossified within the skin, 
and united to form solid shields, one over the 
shoulders, one over the haunches, and, between 
these two, transverse bands of movable plates, 
which protect, but leave freedom of motion, to 
the trunk of the body. These plates are over¬ 
laid by a thin, horny pellicle, and between them 
grow hairs varying in length and amount with 
the species, from almost none in some to a coat 
in others, hiding the shell; and the unarmored 


ARMADILLO — ARMATOLES 


ventral surface is also hairy. The head is pro¬ 
vided with a shield entirely separate from that 
of the shoulders, and in some species even the 
tail is protected by bands of plates. The various 
forms of armadillos are distinguished largely 
by the number of movable thin bands of plates 
lying between the large fixed anterior and pos¬ 
terior shields, up to as many as a dozen in the 
cabassous (Xenurus). This armor serves the 
purpose of defense, and some of the tribe (only 
those of the genus Tolyp elites, however), in¬ 
crease its value by exercising the power of roll¬ 
ing themselves up into a ball so that the tender 
under parts of the body may be completely pro¬ 
tected. This ability depends upon the number of 
bands in the central portion of the armor-case. 
Although true Edentates, these animals have a 
few small, useless teeth, without true roots; the 
tongue is covered with a sticky fluid like that 
secreted by the tongue of an ant-eater, but it is 
not protrusile. 

The armadillos are timid, nocturnal animals, 
living on insects, carrion, and vegetable matter; 
their legs and claws are adapted to burrowing, 
and, when pursued, they usually bury them¬ 
selves more quickly than the pursuer can follow 
them. Only one species ( Dasypus villosus ) is 
sufficiently adaptable to hold its own when a 
wild region is settled; the others soon disappear. 
One of the most interesting of them all is the 
pichichago ( Clilamydophorus truncatus), found 
in Argentina, which lives entirely under¬ 
ground like a mole, and exhibits a peculiar 
structure in many ways, the body having an 
appearance of truncation, as if the hinder part 
had been cut squarely off, instead of ending in 
curved lines. It is very small, only five to six 
inches long, while the giant armadillo ( Priodon 
gigas ) measures three feet, exclusive of the tail. 
Some of the armadillos range north and south 
as far as Texas and Argentina; among these is 
the peba, or nine-banded armadillo ( Tatusia 
novemcincta) . The family is divided into sev¬ 
eral genera and the species are numerous and 
are known as peludos, cabassous, apars, etc., 
elsewhere described. They are eaten by the 
South Americans and even esteemed delicate, but 
their flesh is usually so flavored by the insects 
and decayed matter which they eat that only a 
few vegetable-eating species are inoffensive to 
an unaccustomed palate. 

Many forms of fossil armadillos are known 
from both North and South America, a fossil 
species of Dasypus having been six feet long. 
Another genus was Eutatus, which had a 
shield formed of 36 distinct bands, of which the 
last 12 were soldered together. These lead back 
to the large group Gravigrada. (See also 
Glyptodon ; Mylodon.) Good accounts of the 
armadillos are given in both the Standard 1 * and 
the ( New (RoyalNatural Histories. Consult 
also Hudson’s ( Naturalist on the La Plata ) 
(1892) ; Alston’s ( Biologia Americana CentralP ; 
^Mammals*, (1879-82), with colored plates; 
Azara’s ( Historia Natural de los Paxaros del 
Paraguay ) (Madrid, 1805) ; ( Mammals of Uru- 
guay ) in the Proceedings of the Zoological So¬ 
ciety of London for 1894. 

Ar'madil'lo, in entomology. See Wood-lice. 

Armageddon, ar ; ma-ged'don. the great 
battlefield where occurred the chief conflicts be¬ 
tween the Israelites and their enemies. The 


name was applied to the tableland of Esdraelon 
in Galilee and Samaria, in the centre of which 
stcod the town Megiddo, on the site of the 
modern Lejjun; used figuratively in the Apoca¬ 
lypse to signify the place of <( the battle of the 
great day of God.^ 

Armagh, ar-ma', a county of Ireland, in 
the province of Ulster. The northern part of 
the county, bordering on Lough Neagh, con¬ 
sists principally of extensive bogs of great depth, 
with a remarkably black soil. The manufacture 
of linen is carried on very extensively. The 
chief towns are Armagh, Uurgan, Portadown, 
and Newry. Armagh is the county town. Pop. 
(1901) 125,238. 

Armagh, a city of Ireland, capital of the 
county of Armagh. It contains two cathedrals, 
a Protestant and a Roman Catholic; county 
court-house, prison, infirmary, lunatic asylum, 
linen hall, music hall, a public library and an 
observatory. In the Middle Ages Armagh was an 
extensive and populous city, and celebrated for 
its learning, having at one period, according to 
Irish historians, 7,000 students at its college. It 
is the see of an archbishop of the Anglican 
Church, who is primate of all Ireland. Pop. 
(1901) 7,438. 

Armagnac, ar'ma-nyak', Counts of, an an¬ 
cient French family, said to have sprung from 
a branch of the Merovingians. Many of its 
members hold a prominent place in the history 
of France. One of the most celebrated was 
Bernard VII., son of John II., surnamed the 
Hunchback. He succeeded his brother, John 
III., in 1391, and greatly extended his terri¬ 
tories by the most unscrupulous means, putting 
several of his relations to death because they 
stood in the way of his ambitious schemes. An¬ 
other of the family, John V., grandson of the 
above, who succeeded his father, John IV., in 
1450, made himself notorious for his crimes. 
On a pretended dispensation from the Pope he 
married his own sister, by whom he had three 
children. 

Ar'magnac', the title of a former district 
of France now included in the department of 
Gers. Its inhabitants figured largely in the wars 
of the Middle Ages, one of their contests being 
known as the “Armagnac War,» in which the 
Armagnac mercenaries of the Emperor Fred¬ 
erick III. were defeated by the Swiss, 26 Aug. 
1444. See Berthault’s < L’Armagnac ) (1899). 

Armagnac War, The (Bellum Armenia - 
cum; in German called frequently Armegecken- 
krieg), the struggle between the Swiss and the 
Armagnac mercenaries of Frederick III. in 1444. 
The war was concluded by the defeat of the 
Armagnacs at Saint Jacob on the Birs 26 Aug. 
1444. See Armagnacs, The. 

Armagnacs, The, mercenary bands, de¬ 
rived chiefly from the district of Armagnac in 
southern France, and largely trained in the 
army recruited in 1410 by Count Bernard of 
Armagnac for his contest with the Duke of Bur¬ 
gundy. They made themselves extremely op¬ 
pressive in France through their plundering; 
and when the Emperor Frederick III. requested 
auxiliary troops from Charles VII., to assist in 
the conquest of the Swiss, the latter gladly de¬ 
spatched the Armagnacs. Doubtless the king 
believed he might at the same time be able to 


ARMADILLOS AND ANT-EATERS 



1. Pangolin (Manis pentadactyla). 

2. Three-banded Armadillo (Tolypentes tricinctus) 

3. Aard-Vark (Orycteropus afra). 


4. Pichiciago (Chlamydophorus truncatus) 

5. Tamandua (Tamandua tetradactyla). 

6. Great Ant-Eater (Myrmecophaga jubata) 

















ARMANCON — ARMAMENT OF THE WORLD 


gain control of territory on the left bank of the 
Upper Rhine. What is known as the Armagnac 
war ensued. In Germany the word Armagnac 
was converted into armer Geek ( (( poor fool®), 
and the war frequently styled Armegeckenkrieg. 
One band of 20,000 Annagnacs proceeded by 
way of Lorraine, another of 30,000 to southern 
Alsace, whence it marched against the Swiss. 
At Saint Jacob on the Birs, 26 Aug. 1444, it was 
badly defeated, with a loss of 6,000, by 2,000 
Swiss. It then retired to Alsace, and on 28 Oc¬ 
tober a treaty (that of Ensisheim) was con¬ 
cluded between France and the Swiss Confed¬ 
eration. The Armagnacs continued for a time 
to work havoc in Alsace and Swabia, where the 
peasantry retaliated by condemning to death an 
Armagnac whenever they caught one. In 1445 
the remnant was in part dismissed by Charles 
VII., in part incorporated with other companies 
of soldiery. Consult the article by Barthold in 
Raumer’s ( Historisches Tascherbuch,* 2d series, 
Vol. III. (1842); Wiilcker, ( Urkunden und 
Schreiber, Betreffend den Zug der Armagna- 
ken ) (1873)- 

Armangon, a river of France, in the Seine 
basin. It rises about 3 miles south of Pouilly- 
en-Auxois (Cote-d’Or), flows about 170 miles 
in a general northwesterly direction, and empties 
into the Yonne at La Roche. From Buffon it 
is followed by the Burgundian Canal. Its trib¬ 
utaries are the Brenne and the Armance. 

Armament of the World. Arrange¬ 
ments made for defense with small arms and 
artillery belong to what is termed the armament. 
With small arms it is complete when the ban¬ 
quette and the interior and superior slopes are 
properly arranged to enable the soldier to de¬ 
liver his fire with effect, and to mount on the 
parapet to meet the enemy with the bayonet. 
The armament with artillery is, in like manner, 
complete when suitable means are taken to allow 
the guns to fire over the parapet or through 
openings made in it, and when all the required 
accessories are provided for the service of the 
guns. The manner of placing artillery and its 
employment must be regulated by its relative 
importance, under given circumstances, with re¬ 
spect to the action of other arms. In the de¬ 
fensive, the principal part is usually assigned to 
the artillery; and the positions taken up by the 
other arms will, therefore, be subordinate to 
those of this arm. In offensive movements, the 
reverse generally obtains. Unless the batteries 
are on points which are inaccessible to the en¬ 
emy’s cavalry and infantry, they must be placed 
under the protection of the other troops, and be 
outflanked by them. Preparations should be 
made to receive the enemy on every point; the 
batteries must be distributed along the entire 
front of the position occupied, and on those 
points from which they can obtain a good sweep 
over the avenues of approach to it; the guns 
being masked, when the ground favors, from 
the enemy’s view, until the proper moment ar¬ 
rives for opening their fire. Field artillery, used 
fn the operations of an army in the field, must 
have the essential quality of mobility. The light 
pieces are constructed to follow the rapid move¬ 
ments of light troops and cavalry. The heavy 
pieces are employed to follow the movements of 
heavy troops, to commence an action at long 
distance, to defend field-works and important 
positions on the field of battle, etc. Field artil¬ 


lery is used in combination with infantry and 
cavalry, or with both to augment their fire and 
to weaken that of the enemy. It prepares the 
way for subsequent operations by its fire upon 
the enemy before he comes within reach of other 
weapons; it supports the movements of the 
various arms, and forms points of support and 
assembly for troops when driven back. The 
armament, small arms and field artillery, in the 
various countries, now used or, at this time, 
commended and undergoing experiment with a 
view to adoption, is set out in detail in this 
article. 

Austria-Hungary. —The infantry is armed 
with the model 1895 repeating rifle. The tech¬ 
nical troops, the field and foot artillery, and the 
enlisted personnel of the subsistence branches, 
carry the model repeating carbine (Repetier- 
Stutzen). The cavalry has the model 1895 re ' 
peating carbine (Repetier-Karabiner). All these 
arms are of the Mannlicher system and have a 
caliber of 8 millimeters. The Hungarian House 
of Representatives recently passed a law to arm 
the landsturm with 8 millimeter repeating rifles. 
The officers, cadets, and sergeants of the pio¬ 
neers are armed with revolvers and are inde¬ 
pendent and capable of defending themselves. 
Experiments are now being made with the Roth 
automatic pistol with a view to its replacing the 
repeating revolver, model 1898, at present in use 
in the infantry. This pistol is provided with a 
hammerless firing mechanism and a breech clos¬ 
ure composed of two rigid and symmetrical 
locking lugs and can receive 10 cartridges. The 
cavalry is partly armed with the model 1870-74 
revolver, of the Gasser system, and partly with 
the model 1898 revolver transformed, this latter 
being adopted experimentally. Trials have taken 
place in Austria of machine guns for use with 
cavalry and for mountain warfare. The gun for 
the cavalry has a wheel mounting, drawn by a 
horse. In the mountain section the gun is car¬ 
ried by mules, one animal for the gun itself and 
two for the ammunition and mounting, and in 
action is used upon a tripod, variable in height 
and having a seat for the gunner upon the leg 
behind the breech. The mountain guns are 
upon the Maxim-Nordenfelt system, and fire the 
ordinary infantry cartridge with a rapidity of 
500 rounds per minute, and sights graduated 
from 200 to 2,000 metres. The supply of ammu¬ 
nition carried with the two guns upon the mules 
provides for 11,000 rounds. Austria-Hungary is 
experimenting with new artillery material. The 
long recoil system has been adopted on principle, 
but the special model has not yet been decided 
upon. Some batteries of guns submitted by 
Ehrhardt and Skoda are at present in the hands 
of the troops. The type of the carriage and 
whether the caisson should be armored, are two 
questions now being carefully considered. The 
gun has been determined to be of 75 mm. cali¬ 
ber, with long recoil on the carriage, and is 
provided with shields and hinged portions and 
the interrupted-screw fermeture. With regard 
to the carriage, very complete and satisfactory 
tests have held with telescope-trail carriages of 
the Ehrhardt-Mannesmann system, and with 
carriages of the Skoda system. Both of the 
models have been modified and highly improved 
in the course of the experiments. It is believed 
that the Austrian War Department, adopting the 
idea that in battle the caissons will be under 
cover in rear of the line of pieces in battery, will 


ARMAMENT OF THE WORLD 


give up the idea of introducing armored cais¬ 
sons. 

Belgium .—The infantry, technical troops, cav¬ 
alry, and civil grades are armed with the 7.6- 
millimeter, model 1889, Mauser rifle. The non¬ 
commissioned officers and trumpeters of the 
mounted arms and the drivers of the field artil¬ 
lery have the Nagant revolver. The officers of 
the entire army and the noncommissioned 
officers, ^brigadiers,® and enlisted men of the 
gendarmerie carry the Browning automatic pis¬ 
tol. The field artillery consists of 34 regular 
and 6 reserve batteries, all with 6 guns. They 
are divided into field and horse artillery bat¬ 
teries. The field batteries, armed with 8.7-cm. 
guns, are attached to the army divisions; the 
gorse artillery batteries accompany the cavalry 
divisions and are armed with 7.5-cm. guns. The 
first and third field artillery regiments each 
consist of a staff of 8 regular and 1 reserve bat¬ 
tery, plus another reserve battery for furnish¬ 
ing 3 ammunition columns and a depot. The 
second and fourth regiments each consist of a 
staff, 7 regular field and 2 regular horse artillery 
batteries; of 2 reserve field batteries, plus 1 re¬ 
serve battery, for providing 3 artillery ammuni¬ 
tion columns and a depot. Up to the present 
the Belgian field artillery has consisted of guns 
of the 1878 Krupp model of 2 calibers — one of 
2.95-inch for the horse artillery, and one of 3.42 
for the foot artillery. At the beginning of 1900 
a committee was formed to decide on the best 
type for new guns, and as a result of the com¬ 
mittee’s deliberations a battery of guns of a 
new type was ordered from the John Cockerill 
Nordenfeldt Company, at Seraing, in order that 
the guns might be put to the test of actual use 
in the army. In these guns the barrel and car¬ 
riage form, for the purpose of firing, one rigid 
piece; and this type of gun would probably have 
been selected for the Belgian artillery had not 
the new French gun prevented the committee 
from coming to a final decision. The principle 
of the French gun is the very opposite to the 
Cockerill gun, as in its case the barrel slides 
backward and forward on the carriage. 

Brasil .—At the present time the troops carry 
the 7 millimeter, model 1893, Mauser rifle. Ex¬ 
periments are going forward with a view to par¬ 
tial rearmament, particularly with a view to the 
adoption of an automatic pistol. Competitive 
trials were held in 1902 between the Krupp and 
Creusot types, and according to Brazilian reports 
these tests have demonstrated the superiority of 
the German model. Further trials, however, of 
other types are in progress. Creusot, Krupp, 
Vickers, and Ehrhardt being in competition. 

Bulgaria .—The infantry is armed with the 
8-mm. Mannlicher rifle of the 1888 patterns. 
Each rifle is supplied with 200 cartridges, ico 
being carried by the soldier, 50 in the regimental, 
and 50 in the artillery park transport. Officers 
and sergeant-majors are all armed with the 
Smith & Wesson revolver and a Russian-pattern 
sword. The militia are armed with Berdan 
rifles and have 80 cartridges per rifle. The cav¬ 
alry is armed with the Mannlicher carbine and 
a Russian dragoon sword. Each carbine has 60 
cartridges. The Parabellum automatic pistol, 
model 1903, is being substituted in place of the 
Smith & Wesson revolver, for officers. Bulgaria 
has taken no recent steps for rearmament of her 
artillery. The present field artillery has 8.7-cm. 
Krupp guns with 120 shots per gun. The re¬ 


serve artillery has 75-mm. guns with 149 shots 
per gun, and 90-mm. bronze Russian guns. The 
mountain artillery has 75-mm. guns with 133 
shots per gun. The gunners are being armed 
with carbines. 

Chile .— Like Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia and 
Uruguay, the troops are armed with the 7-milli¬ 
meter, model 1893, Mauser rifle; but experiments 
are now going forward with a view to partial 
rearmament. Chile seems content with its pres¬ 
ent field artillery material. This is a light field 
gun of the Krupp system, with elastic trail- 
spade, and is well adapted to the local condi¬ 
tions of the country. 

Denmark .—The troops are armed with the 
8-millimeter, model 1889, repeating rifle of the 
Krag-Jorgensen system. During the course of 
1901 the Copenhagen militia was armed with 
8-millimeter, model 1889, rifles, having hitherto 
had the models 1867-96 breech-loading rifles. A 
machine gun, invented by a Danish lieutenant 
and adopted in the Danish army and navy, has 
a caliber of 6.5 millimeters and a weight of 6 
kilograms; the initial velocity is 720 meters. 
The rapidity of fire is attained by means of a 
loading frame holding 30 cartridges, which can 
be fired in two seconds. The rate of fire is thus 
300 rounds per minute, including the time re¬ 
quired to substitute full loading frames for the 
empty ones. Experiments of new field guns 
have been completed, and the firm of Krupp 
has been commissioned to deliver the new ma¬ 
terial, excepting the ammunition. The gun is 
75 mm. caliber, on the <( Rohrrucklauf® carriage, 
with shield. The weight of the projectile is 
6.75 kgs.; initial velocity, 500 meters per sec¬ 
ond. Rapidity of fire, 15 to 20 shots a minute. 
Weight of carriage is 1,000 kgs. Weight of 
gun, including ammunition and limber (44 
rounds), 1,800 kgs. The ammunition carts are 
armored. 

France .—The troops are armed with the 8- 
millimeter, models 1886 and 1893, rifles and car¬ 
bines. At the normal firing school of the forti¬ 
fied camp of Chalons-sur-Marne experiments 
were made in the summer of 1902 for the pur¬ 
pose of improving the firearms of the infantry. 
The object was to do away with the exceedingly 
sensitive repeating mechanism and to substitute 
for it a loader which, without impairing the 
rapidity of fire, would preclude any possibility 
of the weapons being rendered unserviceable. 
The latest invention, which is said to have at¬ 
tained good results, is a new projectile called 
<( bullet D.® Very satisfactory experiments were 
carried out with this bullet. Preparations are 
being made for the manufacture of 30,000 car¬ 
bines of a new model for the colonial army. It 
is intended to substitute this new weapon for 
the models 1886-93 rifles and the model 1892 
carbine in the colonial infantry and artillery. 
The rifle has proved too heavy and cumbersome 
for the difficult and fatiguing service which 
these troops have to perform on their extensive 
expeditions. The old carbine has not shown 
itself equal to requirements. Not to mention 
its heavy recoil, in certain cases it does not pro¬ 
duce sufficient intensity of fire and therefore 
does not inflict as heavy losses on the enemy as 
are necessary. It has, therefore, been decided 
to adopt a mixed model in which the ballistic 
qualities of the Lebel rifle and the present 
cartridge are retained but a different repeating 
mechanism is used. The experiments with au- 


ARMAMENT OF THE WORLD 


tomatic rifles are being continued uninterruptedly 
in France. In the spring of 1902 experiments 
were made with the Mondragon automatic rifle 
and carbine on the firing grounds of Hotchkiss 
& Co., at St. Denis, and gave complete satis¬ 
faction and proved the superiority of the 
weapon over all others tested theretofore. 

However much opinions may differ regarding 
the military utility of automatic rifles, there is 
certainly a manifest tendency toward increas¬ 
ing the rapidity of fire of small arms to cor¬ 
respond with the improvements that have re¬ 
cently been made in rapid-fire cannon. The 
automatic rifle bids fair to become the weapon 
of the future. Germany and Italy already have 
a model which is by no means inferior to the 
Mondragon rifle as a military weapon. These 
models, however, are being carefully preserved 
in arm depots. The authorities are ready to 
begin their manufacture and to arm the troops 
with them as soon as France has set the ex¬ 
ample. Most foreign officers have acknow¬ 
ledged the superiority of the automatic rifle, 
but its adoption is being indefinitely deferred 
because it would entail an enormous burden on 
the military budgets of the European countries. 

The French field batteries have been armed 
with the new 75 mm. rapid-fire material since 
1897. This is a long recoil field gun with pro¬ 
tective shields and was manufactured with 
great secrecy in the government work shops at 
Brouges. Although the secret of the details of 
construction is not divulged, it is nevertheless 
known that this gun possesses great ballistic 
power, and that its projectiles weigh somewhat 
more than those of similar guns constructed 
elsewhere. Its only disadvantage appears to be 
the weight of gun and carriage. Criticism has 
also been made of the shields used, as present¬ 
ing rather a reduced amount of surface for the 
protection of the cannoneers. The pneumatic 
recuperator is about to be given up for a light 
rapid-fire gun suitable for the horse artillery. 

Germany .— The marine infantry, the infantry 
regiments of the East Asiatic brigade of occu¬ 
pation, the guard corps, and parts of the first to 
seventh, ninth, eleventh, twelfth, fourteenth, 
and eighteenth army corps, and of the non¬ 
commissioned officers’ schools are armed with 
the model 1898 rifle. The issue of the model 
1898 carbine has been begun. A new weapon 
(a sort of carbine) will be purchased for the 
foot artillery after the rearmament of the in¬ 
fantry is completed. All the remaining organ¬ 
izations of the German army now carry the 
model 1888 rifle or carbine. The small-arms 
and ammunition factory of Adolph Loesche at 
Magdeburg, has placed a target rifle on the 
market which is in use in several infantry regi¬ 
ments with great success. Three kinds of 
cartridges are adapted to this rifle. Experi¬ 
ments are now in progress with the Borchardt, 
Mauser, Mannlicher, Parabellum and Browning 
automatic pistols. 

Germany is now inclining to the new long 
recoil system in artillery. Although the minis¬ 
ter of war maintains his opinion before the 
reichstag of the superiority of the German elas¬ 
tic trail-spade type over the French long recoil, 
Germany, nevertheless, continues the process 
of transformation or suppression of the model 
1896. The necessity for rearmament is appre¬ 
ciated and desired, but such haste was made in 
adopting the model 1896 material with elastic 


trail-spade that financial considerations prevent 
Germany from undertaking at present a com¬ 
pletely new rearmament of the field artillery. 
1 he result is that trials are now going on to 
change the field guns, model 1896, into long 
recoil guns by an adaptation of recoil on the 
carriage to the present gun, that is to say, while 
keeping the gun itself, a carriage has been de¬ 
signed with a cradle for the piece. The carriage 
has also been fitted with protective shields. The 
guns thus modified do not possess the double¬ 
laying arrangement applied to the cradle or top 
carriage. The gun itself retains the rear sight 
and fore sight, and the changes that have been 
made affect principally the carriage. According 
to the German press, the results have been sat¬ 
isfactory both in regard to acting during firing 
and in maneuvering facilities. In spite of the 
added weight of the shields, the total weight 
does not exceed the usual limits. Thirty-six of 
these altered guns are in the hands of troops, 
attached in part to the guard at Berlin, three 
batteries, and in part to the Field Artillery 
Shooting School at Juterbog. Five batteries 
have taken part in last autumn’s maneuvers and 
have given satisfaction. In addition to the 
foregoing, Germany is also engaged in con¬ 
ducting trials of new long recoil types. The 
Ehrhardt new model, 1899, has been found in¬ 
adequate and Krupp’s model, 1900, has proved 
better. Two of these guns were tested in 1902 
by an artillery commission and resulted in or¬ 
ders being given for seven trial batteries, which 
were thoroughly proved under service condi¬ 
tions in 1903, and were found to be very satis¬ 
factory, but the design was modified slightly and 
submitted for further test. The Krupp gun 

chosen is similar in all particulars to that 

adopted by the Swiss, and like that model con¬ 

stitutes one of the best of the recently con¬ 
structed rapid-fire systems. 

Great Britain .—The European and the great¬ 
est part of the Indian native troops carry the 
7.7-millimeter Lee-Metford rifle, model 1889-91, 
and the models 1895 Lee-Enfield rifle; the 
remainder of the Indian native troops are 

still armed with various old models, among 
which are the Martini-Henry and Snider rifles, 
while certain select corps and the military police 
on the northwest frontier carry Mauser rifles 
captured in South Africa. The unmounted 
officers of the foot troops carry the Lee-Enfield 
carbine, while the other officers are armed 
with the revolver. The contemplated improve¬ 
ments in the Lee-Enfield rifle shown to be 
necessary in the South African war appear 
to be essentially as follows: The barrel will be 
shortened by 127 millimeters and will thus be 
the shortest barrel possessed by any rifle yet 
adopted. In order to compensate for the de¬ 
creased stability of the projectile caused by 
this shortening of the barrel, the seven rifling 
grooves are to be given a somewhat higher 
pitch, so that the trajectory will remain similar 
to the previous one. The Mauser breech-clos¬ 
ing mechanism has been adopted, with some 
improvements enabling it to be taken apart 
without the use of a screw-driver. It will be 
fed by means of a loading clip containing five 
cartridges. The sight has been improved and 
provides for an allowance for wind and tem¬ 
perature. A triangular dagger bayonet 35 cen¬ 
timeters long and slightly heavier than the 
present one has been adopted. In order to 


ARMAMENT OF THE WORLD 


lighten the weapon holes are bored longitudi¬ 
nally through the handguard and transversely 
through the stock, the butt plate being of alu¬ 
minum. The total reduction of weight amounts 
to .530 kilogram, leaving the weight of the rifle 
4.12. kilograms. Experiments with the Ross 
straight-pull breech closure, the Harris maga¬ 
zine, and the Hylard rifle do not appear to have 
resulted favorably. Canada has, however, de¬ 
cided to adopt the Ross rifle, and both rifle and 
ammunition are to be manufactured in the gov¬ 
ernment factory at Quebec, the number of rifles 
to be turned out yearly being from 12,000 to 
15,000. The length of the Ross rifle without 
bayonet is 1.22 meters, and with bayonet 1.44 
meters; the weight without bayonet is 3.43 kilo¬ 
grams ; with bayonet 3.74 kilograms. The Aus¬ 
tralian colonies appear to have decided to adopt 
the Ross rifle. Major Woodgate, of the Brit¬ 
ish army, has recently invented a new system of 
automatic rifle, which is very simple and capa¬ 
ble of adjustment to rifles already in service, in¬ 
cluding the Lee-Enfield. The chamber of this 
rifle has a capacity for 20 cartridges (10 being 
the normal number), so that the number of 
rounds per minute can be brought up to 200. 

In artillery England has 18 batteries of.Ehr- 
hardt rapid-fire guns, of 3-inch caliber, firing a 
projectile weighing 14 pounds 15 ounces. The 
carriage has a hydraulic buffer with .spring re¬ 
cuperators for returning the piece in battery, 
and a telescopic trail. After several years of 
experiment, a long recoil gun, combining the 
best qualities of recent designs by Armstrong 
and Vickers, and much superior to the former 
15-pounder, has been adopted. The new gun 
is exceptionally powerful and efficient. The 
improved time fuse permits of effective shrap¬ 
nel fire at a range of 6,000 yards, an enormous 
advance on anything possible with the old type 
of field gun. There are four special points in 
which the new type surpasses the old. These 
are simplicity of the breech action, in which 
the interrupted screw is abolished, increased 
range, vastly increased rapidity of fire, and 
perfect absorption of the recoil. In the old 
type of gun a coned steel block carrying an in¬ 
terrupted screw thread was used to close the 
breech, and intricate and comparatively delicate 
mechanism was necessary to work jt quickly, 
while the danger of barring or injuring the 
screw threads when inserting the shell necessi¬ 
tated an amount of care which materially in¬ 
terfered with the loading of the gun. 

Greece .—The infantry is armed with the 
11-millimeter, model 1871, Gras rifle; but ex¬ 
periments are in progress to decide upon a re¬ 
armament with a small caliber rifle. For finan¬ 
cial reasons, Greece has not made any decision 
as regards the rearmament of field artillery. 

Italy .—All the infantry of the line and the 
mobile militia are armed with the model 1891 
rifle, the cavalry with the model 1891 carbine, 
and the special arms with the model 1891 car¬ 
bine (Stutzen), all of the 6.5 millimeter caliber. 
The territorial militia carries the modified Vet- 
terli rifle, caliber 10.4 millimeters. A new pis¬ 
tol, embodying all the latest improvements, has 
been adopted for the officers of the army in 
place of the 10.35-millimeter, model 1889, re¬ 
volver. It has an automatic mechanism, is of 
small caliber, and fires smokeless powder. The 
loading is done in the same manner as the 
model 1891 rifle. The field gun question in 


Italy has long been a subject of controversy. 
Discussion of the question of the proper type of 
new material has been vigorously conducted on 
both sides by critics and leading military writ¬ 
ers, but the Italian army, it seems, is the one 
that has remained for the longest time averse to 
the idea of a field gun with long recoil on the 
carriage. As is known, the Italian field artil¬ 
lery consisted of two calibers of guns, the 
87 mm. B, of steel, forming the armament of the 
larger part of the batteries, and the 75 mm. B, 
of bronze. In 1896 and 1897 when France and 
Germany effected the transformation of their 
field material a partial transformation was de¬ 
cided upon in Italy. For the material 87 mm. 
B, the cast-iron shrapnel was retained, and the 
changes made were confined to limiting the re¬ 
coil of the piece by the addition of a trail-spade, 
and to increasing the rapidity of loading by 
improvements in the breech mechanism. 

Japan .—All the infantry is armed with the 
6.5 millimeter. 30 Meiji rifle, and the cavalry 
with the Meiji carbine. The weight of pro¬ 
jectile of the new rifle is 10.3 grams, and the 
velocity of the bullet at 25 meters from the 
muzzle is 706 meters. The Mourata guns 
of the 1880 and 1887 types arm the troops 
of the second line. The new gun of Col. 
Arisaka, model 1897, manufactured at the 
Tokio works, like the Russian gun, is a 
repeater of small calibre (.25 inch) with 
a central magazine for five cartridges. It 
belongs to the Mauser type. The barrel is 31 
inches in length and is provided with six 
grooves turning from left to right. The breech 
sight is mounted upon it by means of a long 
sleeve, the upper part of which, flattened and 
hollowed, forms its foot. The prismatic muzzle- 
sight is secured to a small hoop surrounding 
the barrel. The movable breech is of the bolt 
system, and turns back upon the side. The 
magazine, closed at its lower part by a cover, 
contains an elevating plate actuated by a spring. 
The recharging is done by means of a brass 
charging plate provided with five cartridges. 
The breech sight, without steps, is graduated 
from 400 to 2,000 yards. A sabre-bayonet hav¬ 
ing a 21-inch blade, with bevelled and hollowed 
sides, is attached in the usual manner. The 
cartridge weighs 336 grains. The initial ve¬ 
locity is 2,378 feet and the pitch of the trajectory 
is 387 feet at 500 yards. The gun, with the 
bayonet, is 5.44 feet and weighs 9.6 pounds. 
The Japanese foot soldier carries 120 cartridges, 
partly in two cartridge boxes and partly in 
boxes in the knapsack. Japan seems very well 
satisfied with their Arisaka gun for artillery 
use, and nothing has appeared of any steps 
being.taken towards the introduction of a new 
material. 

Mexico .—The infantry is armed with the 
7-millimeter, model 1893, Mauser rifle, and the 
cavalry with the 7-millimeter Mauser carbine. 
There are probably about 10,000 modified Rem¬ 
ington rifles (arranged for Mauser ammunition) 
and 15,000 Remington rifles of larger caliber on 
hand. It is doubtful whether the rifle, which 
was first manufactured in the French rifle-fac¬ 
tory at Saint Etienne, really possesses the Qual¬ 
ities attributed to it, namely, absolute reliabil- 
lty, accuracy, and a rate of fire of 60 rounds 
per minute when used automatically. Accord¬ 
ing to trustworthy reports a rate of fire cf 13 
to 15 shots per minute was attained during ex- 


ARMAMENT OF THE WORLD 


periments made in Mexico with the Mondragon 
rifle used as a repeater in aimed fire; in filling 
the magazine the marksman had to place the 
rifle against his thigh, probably in order to 
overcome a strong resistance of the lock mech¬ 
anism. When used as an automatic arm a rate 
of 31 shots per minute was attained only once, 
which resulted in injuring the breech mechan¬ 
ism. The latter is said to get out of order 
very easily, and, moreover, the muzzle jumps 
at every shot, so that the accuracy cannot be 
very great during automatic rapid fire. In ar¬ 
tillery Mexico has carried out long competitive 
trials and at their conclusion, after having or¬ 
dered four batteries of guns from Creusot in 
1902, asked Saint diamond in 1903 to submit a 
model of the Saint Chamond-Mondragon type 
modified according to the desires of the Mex¬ 
ican commission. If this type proves satisfac¬ 
tory, eight batteries are to be ordered at once. 

Montenegro .—This principality has 30,000 
Russian three-line repeating rifles and 80,000 
rifles of various other systems, principally Ber¬ 
dan and Werndl rifles. The enlisted men of 
the first seniority are armed in peace with one 
new and one old rifle each. The field artillery 
consists of the Krupp steel gun, caliber 75 mm. 

Netherlands .—All troops are armed with the 

6.5-millimeter, model 1895, Mannlicher rifle and 
the 9.4-millimeter, model 1873, revolver, Chame- 
lot-Deloigne system. The 6.5-millimeter rifle 
fires a bullet weighing 10.15 grams with an in¬ 
itial velocity of 723 meters. The present field 
artillery dates from 1878, and no longer fulfills 
the ballistic and other technical requirements of 
the present day. The necessity of rearmament 
was taken under consideration in 1901 and mod¬ 
els were entered by Ehrhardt, Schneider-le- 
Creusot and Krupp. It has been determined 
that Krupp’s 75 mm. long recoil gun deserved 
the preference and the same has been recently 
recommended for adoption and a contract for 
204 field guns of this type is now pending. The 
adopted type is the Krupp nickel-steel field gun 
with long recoil on the carriage; its length is 
30 calibers, and it is provided with nickel-steel 
shields 3 to 4 mm. thick. It fires shrapnel 
and explosive shell weighing 13.2 pounds, fixed 
ammunition being used. The muzzle velocity is 
1,640 f. s., rapidity of fire 20 shots per minute. 
The shrapnel contains 270 bullets, each weighing 
11 grams. The extreme range is 7,000 yards, 
and that for shrapnel with time fuse 6,125 yards. 
The unlimbered gun weighs with shields and 
complete equipment not quite 2,200 pounds. 
Each gun with its limber and 3 caissons counts 
336 rounds. The introduction of this material 
will be completed by the end of 1906. 

Norway .—The infantry is armed with the 

6.5-millimeter, model 1894, Krag-Jorgensen rifle, 
which fires the model 1896 cartridge. Experi¬ 
ments, concluding in 1891, were made with 
models of long recoil guns > from Armstrong, 
Hotchkiss, Nordenfelt-Cockerill, Saint diamond, 
Schneider-le-Creusot, and Ehrhardt, and finally 
gave preference to the last named. The pro¬ 
gram of the tests was very thorough and severe. 
It included firing 350 rounds from each gun, 
transportation over long distances both by rail 
and in ordinary carts over mountainous coun¬ 
try, in which the material received much rough 
treatment, more firing tests and finally a long 
march over difficult country and under varied 
conditions. The final firing showed that the 


material was in good condition, all the parts 
functioned well, and the hydro-pneumatic brake 
was in perfect order. Norway has obtained 
132 guns of the Ehrhardt system and 72 cais¬ 
sons. As in the case of France, the adopted 
gun has the disadvantage of being rather heavy, 
2,209 pounds, without any shields. The ques¬ 
tion of shields has only been considered after 
the guns were ordered, so that its weight makes 
the problem of providing it with shields a dif¬ 
ficult one. 

Portugal .—The infantry of the active army 
and of the first reserve is armed with the 6.5- 
millimeter, Mannlicher rifle; the infantry of the 
second reserve is armed with the 8-millimeter, 
model 1886 Kropatschek rifle; and the colonial 
infantry and artillery and the cavalry carry the 

6.5-millimeter Mannlicher carbine. The only 
modern field artillery Portugal possesses are 
two horse batteries having guns with elastic 
trail-spade carriages. The government sent a 
special commission some time ago to different 
countries to gather information from the promi¬ 
nent gunmakers. This commission has sub¬ 
mitted its report, on the strength of which it 
has been decided to make conclusive trials in 
Portugal with some proposed constructions by 
Krupp and Schneider. 

Russia .—The active and reserve troops are 
armed with the three-line rifle (7.62 milli¬ 
meters), model 1891, and the cavalry with the 
7.62-millimeter, model 1896, Cossack carbine. 
The 7.62-millimeter Nagant six-shooter, non¬ 
gas-leaking revolver has been officially adopted 
and is manufactured in the Belgian arm-factory 
by Leon Nagant at Luttich. The extensive 
small arm factories in Russia are those of Tula, 
Sestrorietsk, and Ijevsk. They not only manu¬ 
facture rifles, but all other kinds of war stores. 
The 3-line (.275-inch) gun of the 1891 model 
is the invention of Col. Mossine of the Rus¬ 
sian artillery and is a repeating arm with a 
central magazine for five cartridges. The bar¬ 
rel has four grooves directed from left to right 
and is 30 inches in length. The breech box, 
screwed to the rear of the barrel, is provided 
on the side to the left with a piece that acts 
as cartridge shell ejector and isolator. The 
movable breech is of the bolt type and swings 
back at the side. The magazine contains the 
elevating mechanism, formed of a lever joined 
to the cover and a plate jointed to the lever. 
It receives a loader provided with five car¬ 
tridges. The breech sight is stepped and pro¬ 
vided with a slider, which is held in place by a 
spring and serves for indicating distances. The 
bayonet comprises a quadrangular blade and 
remains fixed to the end of the barrel, even 
during firing. The cartridge weighs 590 grains. 
The initial velocity is 2,035 feet and the pitch 
of the trajectory at 1,970 feet is 72 feet. The 
length of the gun with bayonet is 5.7 feet and 
weighs 9.5 pounds. The Russian soldier car¬ 
ries 120 cartridges, partly in two cartridge 
boxes and partly in the knapsack. After 
protracted experiments Russia has provisionally 
chosen for the field artillery a type of gun 
and carriage designed by General Engel- 
hart. A large part of the Russian field artil¬ 
lery has been armed with this new gun con¬ 
structed at the Poutilov works. The gun, 
together with the cradle that supports it, re¬ 
coils on the lower carriage, and the recoil is 
controlled by a glycerine brake, and a column 


ARMAMENT OF THE WORLD 


of rubber buffers fitted in the trail. These rub¬ 
ber cushions act as return springs to return the 
gun in battery. This gun is of great ballistic 
power, but the same objection is raised against 
it as in the case of the French and Norwegian 
material, its great weight. Nor is the carriage 
provided with shields. Whether the caissons 
are to be armored is not known, though the 
regulations prescribe placing them beside the. 
pieces in action. 

Servia .—The infantry carries the 7-milli¬ 
meter, model 1899, Mauser rifle, and million 
rounds of ammunition for this rifle has been 
purchased. The engineers, fortress artillery, 
and militia have a reserve of Berdan and Pea¬ 
body rifles. The cavalry carry Mauser-Kota 
carbines and swords. The artillery is armed 
with 80 mm. de Bange guns, and has, in addi¬ 
tion, 60 Krupp and 40 mountain guns. The 
gunners are armed with the same rifle as the 
infantry. The siege artillery has 90 guns of six 
different types, and in the fortress artillery the 
difference of the systems is even more marked. 
Up to the present time, the trials contemplated 
in Servia have been only with a battery of 
Skoda guns. They were being begun at the 
time of the assassination of King Alexander. 
Additional trials are now contemplated. 

Spain .—The Spanish army is armed with the 
7-millimeter Mauser rifle. In artillery Spain 
after prolonged trials ordered three years ago 
from Saint Chamond and from Krupp 120 guns 
of a transition type. The carriages are equipped 
with hydraulic brakes, have a trail-spade, and 
there are spring recuperators under the body 
of the carriage. This material was delivered 
about two years ago. At about the same time 
24 field pieces with long recoil on the carriage 
were ordered from Creusot, which were ac¬ 
cepted only after much delay due to the failure 
of the material to meet the requirements of the 
Spanish artillery. Recentlv the Spanish gov¬ 
ernment opened a new competition for guns 
with long recoil on the carriage, but it seems 
that no decision has been arrived at as to the 
type to be adopted for the field artillery. It is 
reported that the idea of experimenting at home 
has been given up, and a special board of in¬ 
formation has been sent to France, England 
and Germany. 

Sweden .—The infantry is armed with the 6.5 
millimeter, model 1896, rifle, and the cavalry 
with the model 1896 carbine, both of the 
Mauser system. In order to replenish the sup¬ 
ply, 350,000 rifles and 50,000 carbines of the 
above-mentioned models are to be purchased 
for the Swedish army. When recent artillery 
trials began in Sweden, Cockerill and Krupp 
were the only competitors. The two French 
firms, Schneider and Saint Chamond, found it 
impossible to fill the specifications as to the 
weight of the unlimbered gun. The Krupp 
long recoil material was adopted for the field 
artillery, and Sweden has ordered 132 guns 
and 66 caissons from Essen. For the horse ar¬ 
tillery the Krupp short recoil material was 
chosen, and 24 guns with elastic trail-spade have 
been bought from the Krupp works. 

Switzerland .—The infantry has the 7.5-milli- 
meter, model 1889-96, Schmidt-Rubin rifle; the 
cavalry carries the 7.5-millimeter, model 1893, 
rifle, with Mannlicher breech closure; the posi¬ 
tion artillery, fortress troops, telegraph com¬ 
panies, balloon company, and cyclist detachment 


are armed with the 7.5 millimeter, model 
1889-1900, short rifle; the cadets have the 7.5- 
millimeter, model 1897, cadet rifle; the officers 
carry the 7.65-millimeter, model 1900, pistol; the 
noncommissioned officers and buglers of the 
elite cavalry and artillery are provided with 
model 1882 revolvers; the remainder have 
the model 1878 revolvers. A spirited con¬ 
troversy has arisen in regard to the qual¬ 
ities of the recently adopted model 1900 
automatic pistol (Parabellum). The arguments 
advanced are specially worthy of interest as 
affording an idea of how the Parabellum pistol 
behaves in actual service, Switzerland and Bel¬ 
gium being the only countries that have thus 
far adopted an automatic pistol to any great 
extent. The general impression gained is that 
in changing from a revolver to a pistol the 
troops did not perhaps receive adequate instruc¬ 
tions as to the management of the latter, so 
that a number of accidents occurred which 
were rather due to the ignorance of the posses¬ 
sors regarding the weapon than to any inherent 
defect in the weapon itself. From a circular is¬ 
sued by the chief of artillery forbidding the 
making of any changes in the pistol by private 
armorers it appears probable that the accidents 
which have occurred are attributed to such 
changes. In the recent Swiss trials of artillery 
nearly all the leading gun factories of Europe 
competed and Cockerill, Ehrhardt, Krupp, 
Schneider and Skoda furnished their latest 
models. Saint Chamond accepted the invita¬ 
tion to compete, but did not deliver its gun in 
time and did not participate in the trials. Later 
on this gun was inspected at Saint Chamond 
but without result. In fact, the artillery com¬ 
mission on field artillery rearmament has dur¬ 
ing the last six years submitted all the models 
that it has been able to procure and experiment 
with, to most searching examination and most 
thorough tests under all conditions. The final 
trials commenced in 1901, and in March 1903 
the commission submitted its report declaring 
that the Krupp 75 mm. long recoil model was 
not only the most satisfactory in all respects 
and the best of all the models tested, but that 
it was the best adapted for service in the field. 
The Federal Council addressed a message to 
the Federal Assembly on 1 May 1903, deciding 
on the adoption of the new gun, and in that year 
the Swiss government ordered from Krupp 288 
guns, with which it is proposed to arm 72 bat¬ 
teries of 4 pieces each. This does not include 
reserve material and that for instruction pur¬ 
poses. The material adopted, officially desig¬ 
nated (( field artillery material, 1903, M is Krupp’s 
latest design of long recoil field gun with spring 
recuperator and shields. The question of the 
exact dimensions of the shield is deferred for 
the time being; the size may be reduced and the 
side wings dispensed with. It was decided by 
the commission to armor the caisson bodies, 
Fixed ammunition is used. The larger part 
will consist of shrapnel with combination fuses, 
that being considered the principal projectile, 
but the batteries will also be provided with ex¬ 
plosive shell with percussion fuses. All pro¬ 
jectiles will have the same weight. The ammu¬ 
nition supply will be 800 rounds per gun. Th«s 
commission also studied the question of fields 
howitzers, making trials of different models sub¬ 
mitted by Krupp and Skoda, and decided its 
favor of one of 12 cm. caliber, but the particular 


ARMAMENT OF THE WORLD 


model is still to be selected. The commission 
was of the opinion that the introduction of a 
howitzer for the Swiss artillery should not be 
made at the price of reducing the number of 
field guns. It estimated that there was neces¬ 
sity for the purchase of 8 batteries of 4 pieces 
each, constituting 4 groups of 2 batteries. For 
the howitzers, the ammunition supply will be 
500 rounds per gun. In regard to mountain 
guns, the commission has conducted several 
tests of a Krupp gun of a system similar to that 
of the field material, 1903. Although the re¬ 
sults obtained thus far have been satisfactory, it 
has been thought best to continue the experi¬ 
ments with two pieces in which certain modifica¬ 
tions of details have been made. 

Turkey .—The cadres of the European army 
corps (first, second, and third) are armed with 
the 7.65-millimeter Mauser rifle, the fourth 
corps (Asia Minor) has the 9.5-millimeter 
Mauser magazine rifle, and the troops of the 
other corps carry the 11.4-millimeter Martini- 
Henry and Peabody rifle. The manufacture of 
the 7.65-millimeter Mauser rifles in Turkish 
shops has encountered difficulties, for, accord¬ 
ing to authentic reports, 200,000 rifles of caliber 
7.5 mm. were ordered in Germany at the end 
of 1902. The Turkish field artillery consists 
of 248 batteries, of which 18 are field, 178 horse, 
46 mountain, and 6 howitzer batteries. It is 
said that 9 more batteries are in course of for¬ 
mation. Without having any recent trials at 
home, Turkejr has ordered from the Krupp 
works 184 guns with which it is intended to 
equip 16 batteries of 6 pieces each, and 22 bat¬ 
teries of 4 pieces. These guns are of the mod¬ 
ern long recoil system. The order included all 
accessories, caissons, battery wagons, ammuni¬ 
tion and harness. The government is now urg¬ 
ing the delivery of the first six batteries con¬ 
structed. Turkey has in the past sent several 
delegations to Essen and on two occasions also 
to other workshops. A military commission of 
prominent officers of the sultan’s army is now 
in France visiting the establishments of Creusot 
and Saint Chamond in order to study the most 
recent models of long recoil rapid-fire guns. 

United States .—The new Springfield maga¬ 
zine rifle, possessing numerous improvements on 
the Krag-Jorgensen rifle, is now under construc¬ 
tion and will be placed in the hands of all 
troops, regular army and National Guard, as 
rapidly as possible. The principal points of its 
difference from the Krag-Jorgensen are the use 
of two lugs instead of one for holding the bolt 
against the rearward pressure of the powder, 
with resulting increase of strength sufficient to 
enable a velocity of 2,300 feet per second to be 
obtained; the housing of the magazine in the 
stock directly below the chamber instead of 
having its project to one side. In addition to 
these there are various changes of details which 
both improve the rifle and cheapen and acceler¬ 
ate its production. The arm is supplied with 
a cleaning rod which can be partially pulled 
from its place below the barrel and held with a 
catch so as to form a bayonet. Its great ad¬ 
vantage is that it lightens the weight made up 
of the gun, bayonet, and bayonet scabbard, and 
by dispensing with the latter two as separate 
articles to be carried permits the soldier to 
carry with him an intrenching tool of sufficient 
size and weight to be serviceable. There are 


differences of opinion as to the value of the rod 
bayonet; although less effective as a bayonet 
alone than the one now in use in the service, it 
is undoubtedly of some value in converting the 
musket into a pike, and in view of the increas¬ 
ing prominence of the intrenching tool and the 
decreasing occasion for the use of the bayonet 
its experimental substitution is in line with ap¬ 
parent progress in subordinating the latter to 
the former. The piece is centrally fed by means 
of clips, each of which holds five cartridges. It 
has a caliber of .30 inch, and the rifling is made 
up of four grooves of a depth of 0.004 inch, the 
twist being one turn in 10 inches. The bullet 
weighs 220 grains, which is the same as that 
of the Krag-Jorgensen, but the powder charge 
has been raised from 37.6 to 43.3 grains. In 
spite of the considerable increase in its power 
the weapon has been greatly reduced in weight; 
for while the Krag-Jorgensen rifle weighs 10.64 
pounds, the Mauser 10.5 pounds, and the Ger¬ 
man military rifle 11.54 pounds, the new weapon 
weighs only 9.47 pounds. It follows, as a mat¬ 
ter of course, that, with such high velocity and 
fairly heavy bullet, the trajectory is correspond¬ 
ingly flat, the maximum ordinate of the 1,000- 
yard trajectory being only 20.67 f ee t as against 
25.8 feet for the Krag-Jorgensen gun, a very 
material difference. The cartridge for the .30 
caliber arm consists of the case, bullet, primer 
and charge of smokeless powder. The case has 
a flanged head, primer seat, conical body, shoul¬ 
der, cylindrical neck, and is made of brass. The 
bullet is lubricated, and has a core of lead and 
tin composition jacketed with cupro-nickel; it 
has three grooves, and the mouth of the case is 
crimped into the front groove to secure the 
bullet in place. The core is composed of 1 part 
of tin and 25 parts of lead by weight; this pro¬ 
portion is varied slightly in order to keep the 
weight of the finished bullet constantly at 220 
grains. The primer is composed of a cup, made 
of cartridge copper and containing the compo¬ 
sition, a water-proofed paper disk, and a brass 
anvil. In plan, the anvil is a circle with two 
small semicircular portions removed from op¬ 
posite sides; these two openings form vents for 
the passage of the flame from the composition to 
the powder. The powder is of the nitroglycerine 
type. Up to the present time three different 
powders have been used (Peyton, Du Pont and 
Laflin & Rand, W. A.). The charge varies 
with the powder used from 35 to 42 grains. The 
primer composition is known as H-48, and con¬ 
sists of 8.63 per cent sulphur, 25.12 per cent 
antimony sulphide, 49.61 per cent potassium 
chlorate, and 16.64 P er cent glass crystals. The 
weight of the cartridge complete varies from 
435 to 442 grains. The standard instrumental 
velocity, at 53 feet from the muzzle, of this am¬ 
munition in the rifle, is 1,960 feet per second, 
with an allowed variation of but 15 feet per 
second on either side of the standard. This in¬ 
strumental velocity at 53 feet corresponds to a 
muzzle velocity in the rifle of about 2,000 feet 
per second. The velocity in the carbine is 80 
feet per second less than in the rifle. Experi¬ 
ments with automatic pistols and their trial in 
the hands of troops are in progress, but the con¬ 
flicting reports of the advantages and disad¬ 
vantages of the weapons issued for trial have 
not been such as to warrant the abandonment of 
the present service revolver for any of the tynes 
tried. 


ARMAND — ARMATOLES 


Work upon the lately adopted 3-inch field 
artillery material is progressing rapidly. There 
are under construction 25 batteries for the regu¬ 
lar service and 16 for the militia. The caisson 
for the material differs from that in use with the 
3.2 inch B. L. rifle in being a metal fabrication, 
and in having a single chest, instead of two, 
upon the caisson body, and the omission of 
means for carrying spare wheels, these latter 
being transported on the combined forge and 
battery wagon. The manufacture of 90 moun¬ 
tain guns, carriages and pack outfits of the 
Vickers Sons & Maxim system, with several 
suggested improvements, is in progress. The 
aparejo to be used is a modification of the for¬ 
mer regulation pattern, with a view to facilitat¬ 
ing packing and general adaptability. Experi¬ 
ments and investigations are now active with a 
view to bettering the mountain, field, and siege 
artillery, and machine and automatic guns, of 
which the famous Gatling is the pioneer. The 
models in use at the present time are the 
1.456-inch (37-millimeter, i-pounder) automatic 
gun, 1.50-inch revolving cannon, 1.65-inch B. L. 
mountain gun, 2.95-inch Vickers-Maxim moun¬ 
tain gun, 3-inch Hotchkiss mountain gun, 3.2- 
inch B. L. rifle, 3.6-inch B. L. rifle, 3.6-inch B. L. 
mortar, 5-inch B. L. siege rifle, 7-inch B. L. 
howitzer, and 7-inch B. L. mortar, together with 
a variety of pieces used for saluting purposes 
and for firing the morning and evening guns 
at posts. These latter are nearly all of the old 

3- inch, wrought-iron type, or 12-pounder bronze 
smooth-bores. 

Sea Coast Artillery. —It is only recently that 
we have become accustomed to the term <( Sea 
Coast Artillery.® A few years ago all guns 
were comparatively small, using the same pro¬ 
pelling agent and firing spherical projectiles. 
Not long ago, any siege gun would have been 
serviceable against the wooden ships of the 
day. To-day, all countries have sea coast guns 
to resist naval attacks and siege guns for the 
reduction of fortified positions. It is not im¬ 
probable that the United States may be soon 
called upon to use sea coast guns, while it is 
difficult to imagine circumstances under which 
we might employ our siege artillery. In 
Europe — that is, on the continent — sea coast 
artillery is unimportant; for there, war con¬ 
sists practically of land fighting and conse¬ 
quently the field artillery comes prominently 
forward. France and other countries have a 
mongrel lot of obsolescent guns in their shore 
defences, while they have recently spent mil¬ 
lions of dollars for rapid-fire field pieces of the 
latest designs. Twenty-five years ago the pro¬ 
pelling agent was black powder; and, in load¬ 
ing, the powder charge, the projectile and the 
primer were separately put in place. Now these 
are in one piece, smokeless powder is used, and 
great improvements in the breech mechanism 
have wonderfully increased the rate of aimed 
fire. The control of the recoil and the universal 
use of shrapnel is a great step toward the possi¬ 
bility of disabling an antagonist before he can 
fire a shot in return. 

The rapid fire and sea coast guns of the 
United States, at present in use, many of which 
are almost obsolete, are the 6-pounder Amer¬ 
ican Ordnance Company gun, the 6-pounder 
Driggs-Seabury gun, the 15-pounder gun, the 

4- inch Driggs-Seabury gun, the 4.72-inch Arm¬ 
strong gun, the 6-inch Armstrong gun. 


the 5-inch Ordnance Department gun, the 
6-inch Ordnance Department model 1897 
gun, the 6-inch Ordnance Department model 
1900 gun, the 8-inch B. L. R. gun, the 10-inch 
B. L. R. gun, the 12-inch B. L. R. gun, the 12- 
inch B. L. M., cast-iron body gun, and the 12- 
inch B. L. M. steel gun. These guns, together 
with several experimental, including the 10- and 
6-inch Brown segmental tube wire guns, the 
6-inch wire-wound gun (Ordnance Department 
design), and a 6-inch Bofors R. F. gun with 
semi-automatic breech action constituting our 
coast armament of to-day, are far from satisfac¬ 
tory and invite the development and substitu¬ 
tion of new features. The 16-inch gun, called 
for by the Fortification Board in 1885, has been 
recently constructed. As no gun of this power 
has heretofore been built, and as a special pow¬ 
der had to be made for it, the test was watched 
with much interest. It was designed to fire a 
2,400-pound projectile with a muzzle velocity of 
2,300 feet per second and a powder pressure not 
exceeding 38,000 pounds per square inch. The 
proof firing was attended with entire success. 
At the fourth round with a charge of 640 
pounds of Du Pont’s smokeless powder and a 
2,400-pound projectile, a velocity of 2,317 feet 
per second with a pressure of 36,700 pounds per 
square inch was attained. That the design and 
construction of such a huge weapon should be 
successfully accomplished without a mishap of 
any kind, and that the calculated ballistic results 
should be so accurately verified, are subjects of 
gratification. The use of smokeless powder in 
such large charges was beyond the experience 
of the world, and the demonstration that it 
would when so used follow the same law of 
burning as with charges of the size previously 
employed is a service to the art of the con¬ 
struction of ordnance. Whether this gun will 
be reproduced for use in sea coast fortifications 
is a matter still to be determined; there are at 
present no plans calling for its installation, but 
it is satisfactory to know from the results of 
actual trial that, in considering at any time the 
desirability of employing guns of greater power 
than those of the caliber, 12 inches, now consti¬ 
tuting our most powerful weapons, the subject 
need not be complicated by the question of 
practicability. 

Capt. Edward S. Farrow, 

Late Assistant Instructor of Tactics at the 
United States Military Academy. 

Armand, ar'man, Charles Teffin, a French 
soldier: b. in 1753; d. in 1793. Coming to 
America in 1777, he was given a colonel’s com¬ 
mission in the American army, succeeded Pulas¬ 
ki in command of the <( Pulaski Legion,® in 
1779, and became a brigadier-general in 1783. 
Returning to France he was active on the Roy¬ 
alist side in the French Revolution. 

Armande, ar-mand', an elder sister of 
Henriette in Moliere’s ( Les Femmes SavantesP 

Armansperg, ar'mans-perg, Joseph Lud¬ 
wig, Count von, a Bavarian statesman: b. 
in 1787; d. in 1853. He was president of the 
regency of Greece, 1833-5, and chancellor of 
state, 1835-7. 

Armatoles, ar'ma-tolz, bodies of Greek 
militia inhabiting districts in the mountains of 
Greece assigned to a capitani for protection be- 
fore Greece became independent of Turkey. To 


ARMATURE — ARMENIA 


these fastnesses fled the independent part of the 
Greeks, in order to continue the war under lead¬ 
ers called capitcuiis. A capitani collected gen¬ 
erally a troop of from 50 to 200 men, who re¬ 
mained true to him through every variety of 
fortune, and attacked the enemy everywhere. 
Thus involved in an endless struggle with their 
oppressors, these Greeks were apt to degenerate 
and become little better than bandits. A large 
number of them were careful to confine their 
depredations to Mussulmans; but many in¬ 
stances occurred in which Greeks were attacked 
when the booty expected was considerable. The 
Turkish pashas, unable to subdue the armatoles, 
generally treated with them; and the capitanis 
received, on condition of remaining quiet, 
money, stores, or other perquisites. 

Ar'mature, a term applied to the piece 
of soft iron placed across the poles of permanent 
or electro-magnets to receive and concentrate 
the attractive force. In the case of permanent 
magnets it is also important for preserving their 
magnetism when not in use, and hence it is 
sometimes termed the keeper. It produces this 
effect in virtue of the well-known law of induc¬ 
tion, by which the armature, when placed near 
or across the poles of the magnet, is itself con¬ 
verted into a temporary magnet with reversed 
poles, and % these, reacting upon the permanent 
magnet, keeps its particles in a state of constant 
magnetic tension, or, in other words, in that 
constrained position supposed to constitute mag¬ 
netism. A horse-shoe magnet should therefore 
never be laid aside without its armature; and in 
the case of straight bar-magnets, two should be 
placed parallel to each other, with poles re¬ 
versed, and a keeper or armature across them at 
both ends. The term armature is also applied 
to the core and coil of the electro-magnet, which 
revolves before the poles of the permanent mag¬ 
net in the magneto-electric machine, and to a 
part of the telegraph sounder. 

Armed Neutrality, a term denoting the 
condition of affairs when a nation not only as¬ 
sumes a threatening position, but maintains an 
armed force to repel any aggression on the part 
of belligerent nations between which it is neu¬ 
tral. The term is applied in history to a coali¬ 
tion entered into by the northern powers in 1780 
and again in 1800. 

Armed SoTdier of Democracy, a term 

occasionally applied to Napoleon Bonaparte be¬ 
cause of his supposed expression of the ideals 
following the French Revolution. 

Armenia, ar-me'nT-a, a mountainous re¬ 
gion of western Asia with an area of about 
120,000 square miles. It is now partitioned 
among Turkey, Persia, and Russia. 

The plateau of which Armenia chiefly on- 
sists is mountainous and volcanic. The ridges, 
of which there are four principal, are generally 
parallel to each other, running, with sundry 
deviations, east and west, and between them are 
broad valleys and plateaux; that of the Aras, at 
Mount Ararat, being 2,890 feet, and many others 
5,000 to 8,000 feet above the sea-level. The 
mountains are mainly composed of trachytic 
porphyry; with slate, limestone, etc., appearing 
on the sides of the chains, and sometimes ris¬ 
ing up with the porphyry. Granite is also met 
with, but is not frequent; and in the north Terti¬ 


ary fossiliferous rocks are found. Its volcanoes 
are all quiescent, unless we except Ararat, of 
which an eruption took place in 1840, accom¬ 
panied by a disastrous earthquake. A few 
mountains, as Ararat, Alaghez, and Bangol- 
dagh, rise above the line of perpetual snow, but 
this is not generally the case; and there are no 
passes but such as can be crossed in a single day. 
Silver, lead, iron, and copper are found in the 
mountains; and the last two have to some ex¬ 
tent been wrought in modern times. Rock salt 
is plentiful, and is exported in considerable 
quantities to Persia and elsewhere. Mineral wa¬ 
ters abound, but little or nothing is known of 
their qualities. Several important rivers take 
their rise in Armenia, namely the Kur or Cyrus, 
and its tributary the Aras or Araxes, flowing 
east to the Caspian Sea; the Akampsis or 
T chorak, and the Halys or Kizil-Irmak, flow¬ 
ing north to the Black Sea; and the Tigris and 
Euphrates, which flow into the Persian Gulf. 
There are also several minor tributary streams. 
The only considerable lakes are those of Van, 70 
miles in length and about 28 in breadth; 
Goukcha, Sevanga or Sevan northeast of Eri- 
van, about 40 miles long by 15 broad; and 
Urumiyah. 

The climate of Armenia is very severe, pre¬ 
senting a marked contrast to that of the warm 
regions of the Lower Euphrates, and to the 
mildness prevalent on the shores of the Black 
Sea. Winter in Armenia continues from Octo¬ 
ber to May, spring and harvest a month each, 
and the change to the summer is very rapid. The 
heat, especially in the valleys, during summer, 
is great, and rain seldom falls. In Erivan, which 
is a degree of latitude south from Trebizond, 
the thermometer in winter falls 36° F. lower 
than it does in the latter; and in summer it 
rises 24 0 F. higher. On the plateaux of Erze- 
room, Gumri, etc., the difference is still greater; 
indeed, in the town of Erzeroom the snow lies 
in the streets for eight months of the year. East 
and southeast winds in summer, west winds in 
spring and northeast storm winds in winter, are 
most prevalent. The soil of Armenia is reckoned 
on the whole productive, though in many places it 
would be quite barren were it not for the great 
care taken to irrigate it. Wheat, barley, tobac¬ 
co, hemp, grapes, and cotton are raised; and in 
some of the valleys apricots, peaches, mulber¬ 
ries, and walnuts are grown. From the nature 
of the country the rearing of stock is carried 
on to a greater extent than agriculture. The 
horses are spirited, fleet, and fiery. Pines, 
birches, poplars, and beeches flourish, but 
there are no thick forests, except in the 
northern parts of the country. The flora is 
not so varied as might be expected in such an 
Alpine country; in several respects it resembles 
the vegetation of the Alps of Tyrol and Switzer¬ 
land. 

The inhabitants are chiefly of the genuine 
Armenian stock; but besides them, in conse¬ 
quence of the repeated subjugation of the coun¬ 
try, various other races have obtained a footing. 
Of these the principal are the Turcomans, who 
still maintain their nomadic habits, and from 
whom the country has received the name of 
Turcomania. In the southern portion are the 
predatory Kurds and the Turks; on the 
Tchorak, Georgians; and throughout the whole 
country, Greeks, Jews, and Gypsies. The total 


ARMENIA 


number of Armenians has been estimated at 
2.000,000, of whom probably one half are in 
Armenia. The remainder, like the Jews, are 
scattered over various countries, and being 
strongly addicted to commerce, play an impor¬ 
tant part as merchants. They are found over 
all western Asia; about 200,000 are in Con¬ 
stantinople and its vicinity; numbers are in 
Russia, Hungary, and Italy; some in Africa 
and America; and a large number in India, 
chiefly in the great marts, Bombay, Madras, and 
Calcutta. Everywhere they are engaged in 
hanking and trading. Their eyes and hair are 
black, their look lively, noses aquiline, and their 
complexion somewhat swarthy. The women are 
remarkable for the delicacy and regularity of 
their features. Like the Jews, whom in many 
respects they resemble, their ruling passion ap¬ 
pears to be an inordinate love of gain, but they 
are generally esteemed honest. Their mental 
capacity is good, and those who are educated 
are distinguished by superior cultivation and 
refined manners; but the mass of the people in¬ 
habiting their native country, in consequence of 
centuries of neglect, are grossly ignorant and 
superstitious. 

History .— The legendary history of Armenia 
begins with Hai'k, son of Togarmah, the great- 
grandson of Noah, mentioned in Gen. x. 3. He 
is said to have taken refuge in Armenia from 
the tyranny of Belus, king of Babylon, who was 
slain in pursuit of him. The seventh king in 
descent from Ha’ik was killed in battle with 
Semiramis, and the country became tributary to 
Assyria. From Ha’ik the country derived the 
name Haikistan, and from Aram, his sixth suc¬ 
cessor, that of Armenia. Armenia continued 
subject to Assyria under its own princes till the 
revolt of the Medes and Babylonians against 
Sardanapalus, when Barbak, the king of Ar¬ 
menia, joined these powers and recovered his in¬ 
dependence. Tigranes I. is said to have been 
the ally of Cyrus against Astyages, and to have 
built the city of Tigranocerta. His successor, 
Vhakin, the legendary hero of Armenia, was dei¬ 
fied after his death. Vahi, the last of the 
dynasty of Ha'ik, was killed in fighting against 
Alexander as the ally or vassal of Darius. The 
duration of the dynasty was about 1,800 years. 
Armenia was now incorporated with the king¬ 
dom of Syria. It recovered its independence 
under Ardvates, 317 b.c., during the dissension 
among the successors of Alexander, but on his 
death submitted ‘ to the Seleucidse. About 190 
b.c. Artaxias and Zariadres, two Armenian no¬ 
bles, freed themselves from the dominion of An- 
tiochus the Great and established the kingdoms 
of Armenia Major and Armenia Minor. Ar- 
mena Major was re-conquered from Artaxias 
II. by Antiochus Epiphanes. About 149 b.c. 
Mithridates, or Arsaces VI., king of Parthia, 
whose dominion extended over Media, Persia, 
and Babylonia, placed his brother Waghershag 
or Valarsaces on the throne of Armenia, and in¬ 
troduced the dynasty of the Arsacidse into the 
country. He built cities and organized the de¬ 
fenses of the country. His great-grandson, Ti¬ 
granes II., whose long reign appears to have 
begun about 96 b.c., conquered Artenes, king of 
Sophene or Armenia Minor, and united all Ar¬ 
menia under his sway. He was successful in 
war against the Parthians, and made himself 
master of the whole Syrian monarchy. He is 


also said to have founded or built Tigranocerta, 
the origin of which is likewise attributed to his 
probably mythical predecessor. Being the son- 
in-law of Mithridates, king of Pontus, while 
Mithridates was preparing to renew his war 
with the Romans after the death of Sulla he 
invaded Cappadocia at his instigation and car¬ 
ried away much spoil and many prisoners. 
Mithridates, after his defeat, took refuge with 
Tigranes, who does not seem to have been dis¬ 
posed to render him active assistance; but Lu- 
cullus made a peremptory demand through 
Appius Clodius for his surrender, which left Ti¬ 
granes no alternative but a declaration of war, 
69 b.c. Disregarding an invasion of Cilicia, 
Lucullus at once carried the war into Armenia, 
defeated the numerous forces of Tigranes, and 
captured Tigranocerta. Antiochus Eusebes was 
reinstated on the throne of Syria, and other de¬ 
pendents of Tigranes revolted. Tigranes in the 
meantime, with the assistance of Mithridates, 
collected another army which was again defeated 
by Lucullus. Favored by disaffection among the 
Roman troops, however, Tigranes recovered the 
greater part of Armenia, and defeated Fannius, 
the lieutenant of Lucullus. Pompey, who ar¬ 
rived in 66 b.c., after overthrowing Mithridates, 
who had also recovered his dominions, advanced 
to Armenia, which was at the same time in¬ 
vaded by the Parthians, instigated by the revolt¬ 
ed son of Tigranes. The Parthians speedily 
withdrew, and young Tigranes fled to Pompey. 
At this critical juncture the elder Tigranes has¬ 
tened to make his submission to the Roman gen¬ 
eral, who left him in possession of his king¬ 
dom, but deprived him of the provinces of 
Sophene and Gordyene, which he erected into a 
kingdom for the younger Tigranes. The elder 
Tigranes continued faithful to tl)e Roman al¬ 
liance, and Gordyene, which had been seized by 
the Parthians, was soon after restored to him. 
Tigranes died about 55 b.c. His son Artavasdes 
was made prisoner by Antony and carried to 
Egypt, where he was put to death by Cleopatra 
in 30 B.c. Armenia continued subject to the 
Romans, who appointed its princes from the fam¬ 
ily of the Arsacidae till the time of Trajan, who 
made it a province. It was given up by Hadrian 
and again ruled by the Arsacidae. Chosroes de¬ 
fended it during a long reign against the power 
of Persia, which had recently re-established its 
monarchy on the ruins of the Parthian empire; 
but about 258-259 a.d. Sapor, king of Persia, un¬ 
able to subdue Chosroes by force of arms, caused 
him to be assassinated, and his son Tigranes be¬ 
ing an infant, took possession of the country. 
Tigranes was restored by the Romans in 286, 
the third year of Diocletian. At the beginning 
of his reign he persecuted the Christians, who 
were numerous in Armenia, but was himself 
converted to Christianity, it is said, by Gregory 
the Illuminator. Armenia was thus the first 
country which officially embraced Christianity. 
On the defeat of Galerius by the Persians in 
296 Tiridates, who fought valiantly as the ally 
of the Romans, was compelled to follow the re¬ 
treat of his protectors; but the succeeding cam¬ 
paign restored him, and his dominions were ex¬ 
tended in the peace with Persia which followed. 
By the treaty into which Jovian, the successor 
of Julius, entered with Sapor II. 363 a.d., the 
Romans were compelled to abandon the protec¬ 
tion of Armenia. It was speedily reduced to ?. 


ARMENIA 


Persian province, but after the death of Sapor 
its independence was restored in a new treaty 
of peace made with Theodosius in 384. The 
country, long oppressed by the contentions be¬ 
tween the Romans and Persians, soon fell into 
division through the attraction of these rival 
powers. A Persian king or governor, Chosroes, 
was set up over the eastern, and a Roman, Ar- 
saces, over the western portion of the country, 
both being of the royal house of Armenia. On 
the death of Arsaces the Romans suppressed 
the form of royalty, and annexed their portion 
of the country to the empire under the military 
command of a count of the Armenian frontier. 
This occurred in the reign of Theodosius II. 
On the death of Artasires or Ardashir, the suc¬ 
cessor of Chosroes, Bahram V. of Persia (about 
431) annexed the Persian portion under the name 
of Persarmenia. The Persians exerted them¬ 
selves to extirpate Christianity, but failed to do 
so; and on the fall of the Sassanidse (632) the 
country was united again under the Greek em¬ 
pire. It now became the scene of incessant 
struggles between the declining empire and the 
rising Mohammedan power, and as it was per¬ 
secuted by the emperors for its adoption of the 
Monophysite heresy its sympathies were not al¬ 
ways with the former. The dynasty of the Pa- 
gratids or Bagratidse was established by the 
arms and influence of the caliphs. It was a 
family of Jewish origin and appears to have 
risen gradually to influence in the country. The 
date of its elevation to royalty is usually given 
as 885, but a much earlier date is sometimes as¬ 
signed. It lasted till 1079, when the country 
again became dependent on the Greek empire. 
During this period several other dynasties which 
it is not necessary specifically to notice reigned 
simultaneously in different parts of the country. 
On the fall of the Pagratidse a relative of the 
last king founded a small kingdom in the north 
of Cilicia, which gradually extended to the Medi¬ 
terranean, and was known as Lesser Armenia. 
It was overthrown by the Mamelukes in 1375. 
Armenia formed part of the empires of Gen¬ 
ghis Khan and Tamerlane, and a great part of it 
was conquered by Selim II. in 1522. Hence¬ 
forth it was shared between the Turks and Per¬ 
sians, the former having the greater part of it. 
In 1828 Russia obtained a considerable portion 
of it, and this was greatly augmented by the 
treaty of Berlin (1878). Russian Armenia in¬ 
cludes the governments of Erivan and Eliza- 
bethpol, the territory of Kars, etc., with the im¬ 
portant towns of Tiflis, Kars, and Erivan. At 
the time of the Berlin treaty Turkey made prom¬ 
ises of better treatment for her Armenian sub¬ 
jects, but these have been disregarded and in 
1895-6 many thousands of the Armenians in dif¬ 
ferent localities were massacred and atrocious 
cruelties perpetrated upon them by the Turks, 
with full approval, it would seem, of the Sultan 
and his advisers. 

Art .— The only important ruins of the Ro¬ 
man period are at Kami. After the country had 
become Christian many churches were built, 
possessing much architectural character. The 
most interesting of these is the cathedral at 
Ani, built about 1010, while of nearly equal im¬ 
portance is the cathedral of Kiutas, on the basili¬ 
can plan. A church with a striking dome and five 
naves is found at Mowki, and there are many 
others remarkable for the delicacy of decorative 
Vol. 1—47 


details. The most richly ornamented of these is 
that at Mtzkhet in Georgia. The Armenian ar¬ 
chitects and artists were much given to the em¬ 
ployment of decorative inscriptions, as were 
their Mohammedan neighbors. Carving in 
wood and ivory were much practised, but the 
Armenians especially excelled in the production 
of cloisonne enamel and in the employment of 
geometric ornament applied to buildings as well 
as to small objects, such as the sacred vessels of 
the church and toilet articles. Wall painting 
was also an Armenian accomplishment and one 
in which not a little independence of Byzantine 
influence was exhibited. 

Armenian Church .— The Armenians received 
Christianity as early as the 3d century. During 
the Monophysitic disputes, being dissatisfied 
with the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon 
(451), they separated from the Greek Church in 
the year 536. The Popes have at different times 
attempted to gain them over to the Roman 
Catholic faith, but have not been able to unite 
them permanently and generally with the Roman 
Church. There are, however, at present, about 
100,000 United Armenians who acknowledge 
the spiritual supremacy of the Pope; they agree 
in their doctrines with the Catholics, but 
retain their peculiar ceremonies and discipline. 
At different times force has been used to make 
them conform to the religion of Mohammed; 
but the far greater part are yet Monophysites, 
and have remained faithful to their old religion 
and worship. Their doctrine differs from the 
orthodox chiefly in their admitting only one 
nature in Christ, and believing the Holy Spirit 
to issue from the Father alone. In their seven 
sacraments, which they call mysteries, there are 
these peculiarities, that in baptism they sprinkle 
thrice and dip thrice, and this is immediately 
followed by confirmation; that in the Lord's 
Supper they mix no water with the wine, and 
use leavened bread, which they distribute dipped 
in wine; and that they allow extreme unction 
only to divines immediately after their death. 
They adore saints and their images, but do not 
believe in purgatory. In fasting they surpass 
the Greeks. Their feasts are fewer than those of 
the Greeks, but they celebrate them more de¬ 
voutly. They worship, in Turkey, mostly in 
the night time; the mass is said in the ancient 
Armenian, the sermon is preached in the mod¬ 
ern. Their hierarchy differs little from that of 
the Greeks. The catholicus or head of the 
Church has his seat at Etchmiadzin, a monas¬ 
tery near Erivan, the capital of the Russian Ar¬ 
menia, on Mount Ararat. The holy oil, which 
he prepares and sells to the clergy, and the fre¬ 
quent pilgrimages of the Armenians to Etchmi¬ 
adzin, supply him with means for the support of 
a magnificent style of worship and of estab¬ 
lishments for education. He maintains in his 
residence a seminary for the education of di¬ 
vines. There is here also a printing press. The 
patriarchs, bishops, and archbishops of the Ar¬ 
menians are invested by him, and every three 
years confirmed in their offices or recalled. The 
remainder of the clergy resemble the priests of 
the orthodox church in rank and duties. The 
monks follow the rule of St. Basil. The varta- 
bets, who live like monks, cultivate the sciences, 
take degrees, which may be compared with the 
usual academical honors, and are the vicars of 
the bishops, form a class of divines peculiar to 


ARMENIAN ART — ARMFELT 


the Armenian Church. The secular priests must 
be married once, but are not allowed to take 
a second wife. Both monks and clergy in gen¬ 
eral are ignorant and superstitious. Armenian 
churches have been established in the United 
States wherever a considerable body of Arme¬ 
nian refugees have settled. 

Language and Literature .— The Armenian 
language belongs to the great Indo-European 
family of languages, and is most closely con¬ 
nected with the Iranic group. The Old Arme¬ 
nian or Haikan language, which is still the 
literary and ecclesiastical language, is distin¬ 
guished from the New Armenian, the ordinary 
spoken language, which contains a large inter¬ 
mixture of Persian and Turkish elements. The 
most learned Armenian antiquaries do not pre¬ 
tend to- trace their literature further back than 
about 150 years before the Christian era, when 
Marabas Catina wrote a history of Armenia, and 
earned for himself the title of the Armenian 
Herodotus. He was followed by some half 
dozen historians and mythologists, but all these 
early productions are lost, though they have not 
been quite valueless, inasmuch as they were the 
sources whence later Armenian writers compiled 
works still extant. The authors who lived in 
the 4th century of the Christian era are the 
first whose writings have been preserved. Chris¬ 
tianity then prevailed in Armenia, and her au¬ 
thors were princes and prelates. The 5th century 
was the golden age of Haikan literature. This 
century was fruitful in authors, and was further 
distinguished by two events important to the 
progress of learning. The Armenians till then 
had had no alphabet of their own, indifferently 
using Greek, Syriac, and Persian characters. 
Early in the 5th century Mesrop Masdoty in¬ 
vented a Haikan alphabet of 38 letters, still 
called, in honor of the inventor, Mesropian, and 
now employed as capitals, since others of more 
convenient form have supplanted them in com¬ 
mon use. About the same time schools were in¬ 
stituted throughout Armenia, and the scholars 
there trained exerted themselves in producing 
Haiken versions of the Bible, and of the master¬ 
pieces of Greece and Rome. One of the most 
distinguished authors who now appeared was 
Archbishop Moses Chorenensis or Chorenabyi. 
Besides innumerable translations, he wrote a 
history of Armenia, a treatise on rhetoric, and a 
treatise on geography — all of which, together 
with some homilies, have been preserved, as 
well as some hymns still habitually sung in the 
Armenian Church service. His ( History of Ar- 
menia > was published in 1736, with a Latin trans¬ 
lation, by the celebrated W. Whiston and his son 
George. In the 6th century Haikan literature 
first remained stationary, and then began to de¬ 
cline. This decline continued down to the 16th 
century. During this period authors abounded, 
but in a literary sense their productions were 
worthless. A few histories, however, national, 
Tartar, Arab, etc., some of them inverse, deserve 
esteem for the information they contain. In the 
17th century Armenian schools and colleges 
arose in the East and in the West, Armenian 
printing presses were set up in various towns, 
and Armenian literature began to revive. In the 
18th century the revival was complete, very 
much owing to the zealous and judicious exer¬ 
tions of Petro Mechitar, a Catholic Armenian, 
who in 1701 founded a religious society at Con¬ 


stantinople for the purpose of elevating the 
Armenians by diffusing among them a know¬ 
ledge of their ancient literature and language. 
Being persecuted by the opposite sect he fled 
with his adherents to the Morea, then under the 
Venetians, and established a monastery and 
academy at Modon. The Morea reverting to the 
Ottoman sceptre, Mechitar transferred his insti¬ 
tution to the small island of San Lazaro at 
Venice, where it has ever since remained and 
prospered. Abbot Mechitar, during the re¬ 
mainder of his life (he died in 1749) success¬ 
fully exerted himself to render his monastic 
college the chief seat of Armenian erudition 
and education. The best Armenian press ex¬ 
tant is the Mechitarist, from which issues a 
newspaper that circulates widely in the Levant. 
Here many of the classical works of England, 
France, Italy, and Germany have been trans¬ 
lated into Armenian. There is also a Mechitarist 
college in Vienna, and a branch in Munich. 
Wherever any extensive community of Armeni¬ 
ans have settled they have set up a printing 
press, as in Amsterdam, Leghorn, Moscow, 
Venice, Astrakhan, Constantinople, Smyrna, 
Tiflis, St. Petersburg, Madras, Calcutta, etc., 
and at several of these places periodicals are 
published. The best Armenian dictionaries for 
foreigners are the Armenian-French one pub¬ 
lished at Venice in 1812; the Armenian-Italian 
of Emmanuel Tchaktchak (Venice 1837) ; the 
Armenian-English of Aucher as improved by 
Bedrossian (Venice 1868-79) ; both Armenian- 
English and English'-Armenian) ; and the 
French-Armenian of Norayr (Constantinople 
1884). 

Bibliography. — Creagh, ( Armenians, Koords 
and Turks 5 ; Gladstone, ( The Armenian Ques¬ 
tion 5 ; Greene, ( The Armenian Crisis and the 
Rule of the Turk 5 ; Gregor, ( History of Ar¬ 
menia 5 ; Norman, ( Armenia 5 ; Lynch, Arme¬ 
nia 5 ; Nazarbek, ( Armenian Revolutionists upon 
Armenian Problems 5 ; Vartooguian, Armenia’s 
Ordeal 5 ; Hanrachod, ( Chronological Succession 
of the Armenian Patriarchs 5 ; <Life and Times 
of St. Gregory, the Illuminator 5 ; Bedrossian, 
( New Armenian Dictionary 5 ; Mseriantz, Stud¬ 
ies on Armenian Dialectology. 5 

Arme'nian Art. See Armenia. 

Arme'nian Church. See Armenia. 

Arme'nian Language and Literature. See 

Armenia. 

Armentieres, ar man tyar (Latin, Armen— 
taria), a town in France, on the Belgian fron¬ 
tier, 10 miles west-northwest of Lille, on the 
Lys. The town has a communal college and 
factories for spinning flax, hemp, and cotton 
yarn. I here are also manufactories of woolen 
cloth, table linen, calicoes, lace, thread, beet¬ 
root sugar, and tobacco; bleachfields, distilleries, 
soap-works, tanneries, and salt-refineries, with 
a considerable trade in grain, brandy, iron, to¬ 
bacco, soap, etc. Bricks are made in the neigh¬ 
borhood in large quantities. Pop. (1901) 29.401. 

Arm'felt, Gustav Moritz, Count of, a 

Swedish soldier: b. 1757; d. 1814. Though he 
had been highly favored by Gustavus III., he in¬ 
curred the enmity of the Duke of Sudermania, 
guardian to the young king, Gustavus IV., and 
was deprived of all his titles and possessions. 
He was restored to his fortune and honors in 
1799 , when Gustavus IV. attained his majority, 


ARMIDA — ARMISTICE 


and held several high military posts. Subse¬ 
quently entering the Russian service, he was 
made count, chancellor of the University of Abo, 
president of the department for the affairs of 
Finland, member of the Russian Senate, and 
served in the campaign against Napoleon in 1812. 

Armida, ar-me'da, the beautiful enchan¬ 
tress in Tasso’s Jerusalem Delivered. 5 She 
succeeds in bringing the hero Rinaldo to her 
enchanted gardens, where he forgets his vows 
for a time._ Messengers from the Christian host 
having arrived, Rinaldo escapes with them by 
means of a powerful talisman. In the sequel 
Armida becomes a Christian. 

Armies. See Army. 

Ar'miliary Sphere (L. armilla, a hoop), an 
astronomical instrument composed of a series of 
rings, all circles of one sphere, intended to rep¬ 
resent the principal circles of the celestial globe, 
the rings standing for the meridian of the sta¬ 
tion, the ecliptic, the tropics, the Arctic and Ant¬ 
arctic Circles, etc., in their relative positions. 
Its purpose is to represent the apparent mo¬ 
tions of the solar system. 

Arminianism, a term applied to a certain 
phase of Protestant theology. In the Nether¬ 
lands early in the 17th century there was a 
revolt against the doctrine of unconditional 
election as taught by the rigid Calvinists. The 
most important person, thoueh not the first one, 
in this revolt was James Arminius (q.v.). A 
controversy was carried on between him and 
Gomarus over the question of predestination, 
and, after the death of Arminius, with increased 
vigor by their followers. In i6to the Arminians 
set forth their views in a < Remonstrance ) cov¬ 
ering the points in controversy which in sub¬ 
stance was as follows: 

(1) God decreed to save through Christ 
those who believe in his Son and who persevere 
in faith and obedience through life, but he 
leaves in sin those who are not believers. (2) 
Christ died for all, but no one except the be¬ 
liever has remission of sins. (3) Man can 
neither do nor think anything truly good until 
he is born again through the Holy Spirit. (4) 
All good in the regenerate man is brought about 
by the grace of God, but this grace is not irre¬ 
sistible. (5) Those who are truly converted 
have power given them through the Holy Spirit 
and the help of Christ, so that if they desire 
his aid and are not inactive, no power can take 
them away from Christ. 

In 1618 the Synod of Dort met and con¬ 
demned the five articles, and many of the 
remonstrant ministers were deposed, but in 
1630 they were granted religious liberty. They 
have continued to the present as one of the 
smaller religious sects of Holland with a pres- 
byterial organization and a theological seminary 
at Amsterdam. The present importance of 
Arminianism is due to the fact that the founders 
of Methodism (q.v.) incorporated into their 
system the teachings of Arminius and his im¬ 
mediate followers. This is the belief of the 
Methodist Church to-day, as well as that of 
many individuals belonging to churches nomi¬ 
nally Calvinistic. 

Armin'ius, a German chief celebrated by 
his fellow-countrymen as their deliverer from 
the Roman yoke: b. about 18 b.c. ; assassinated 


a. d. 19. Sent as a hostage to Rome he served in 
the Roman army, and was raised to the rank of 
eques. Finding on his return to Germany that 
the Roman governor, Quintilius Varus, was 
making efforts to Romanize the German tribes 
near the Rhine, he placed himself at the head of 
the discontented tribes and completely annihi¬ 
lated the army of Varus, consisting of three le¬ 
gions, in a three days’ battle fought in the Teu- 
toberg forest. After many years’ resistance to 
Rome he drew upon himself the hatred of his 
countrymen by aiming at the regal authority, 
and was assassinated. A national monument 
to his memory was erected on the Grotenburg, 
near Detmold, in 1875. 

Armin'ius, Jacobus, the founder of Ar¬ 
minianism (q.v.) : b. Oudewater, Holland, in 
1560; d. in 1609. He early showed marked 
promise as a scholar, and entered the Univer¬ 
sity of Leyden at the age of 15. His ability 
was so apparent that certain officials of Amster¬ 
dam undertook the expense of his education for 
the service of the Church. This enabled him 
to study at Geneva, where Beza was at the 
height of his influence and by whom Arminius 
was greatly influenced. He also studied at 
Basel and Padua and visited Rome. Returning 
to Holland he was ordained in 1588 and became 
pastor of the Reformed Church at Amsterdam. 
At that time he was a rigid Calvinist, but milder 
views of predestination than those which he 
had learned from Beza having made their way 
into Holland, Arminius was called upon for a 
defense of Calvinism. He made a more care¬ 
ful examination of the disputed points and as 
a result modified his own views, though still 
holding to predestination. In spite of the oppo¬ 
sition which arose because of his changed opin¬ 
ions he was offered and accepted a professor¬ 
ship in the University of Leyden in 1603. A 
controversy soon broke out between him and 
his colleague, Gomarus, a zealous and extreme 
Calvinist. Two parties were formed in and 
beyond the university, and the controversy was 
kept up till his death in 1609. See Arminian¬ 
ism. 

Ar'mistead, George, an American soldier: 

b. in New Market, Va., about 1780; d. in 1818. 
He entered the United States army in 1799, be¬ 
came a major in 1813, and distinguished him¬ 
self for bravery at the capture of Fort George 
in Canada in 1813 and the defense of Fort Mc¬ 
Henry near Baltimore the next year. 

Ar'mistice, a suspension of hostilities be¬ 
tween two belligerent powers or two armies by 
mutual agreement. It may either be for a 
definite period or until its termination is pro¬ 
claimed. An armistice throughout the whole 
theatre of war can be concluded only by the 
belligerent governments, and does not take full 
effect until it has been ratified. A partial 
armistice may, however, be concluded by the 
commanders of individual armies or army corps, 
and such an armistice requires no ratification, 
although it may be disapproved and abolished 
by the government. An armistice is often con¬ 
cluded for only a few hours to bury the slain, 
remove the wounded, and exchange prisoners, 
as also sometimes to allow of a parley between 
the opposing generals. A breach of an armis¬ 
tice is regarded as a violation of the law of 
nations. Sometimes a regular armistice is pre- 


ARMITAGE — ARMOR-PLATE 


oeded by an actual suspension of hostilities. If 
the conditions on which an armistice was agreed 
upon, as that while it lasted all preparations for 
attack or defense should cease, are violated by 
either side, the enemy is entitled to resume hos¬ 
tilities at once. A general armistice is usually 
the preliminary of a peace, and can only be 
proclaimed by the commanders-in-chief or their 
home governments. 

Ar'mitage, Edward, an English historical 
and mural painter: b. London, 20 May 1817; d. 
in 1896. He studied in Paris, where, in 1842, 
he exhibited his first independent work. In the 
following year his ( Landing of Caesar > gained a 
prize of $1,500 in London; and in 1845 and ^47 
he carried off prizes of $1,000 and $2,500. He 
was made a fellow of the Royal Academy in 
1872, and in 1875 was appointed lecturer on 
painting there. His mural paintings include a 
series of noble figures of Christ and the 12 apos¬ 
tles, executed for Saint John’s Roman Catholic 
Church in London. 

Ar'mitage, Thomas, an American clergy¬ 
man: b. Pontefract, England, 2 Aug. 1819; d. 
Yonkers, N. Y., 20 Jan. 1896. He prepared him¬ 
self for the ministry and preached his first ser¬ 
mon when 16 years old. Coming to New York 
city in 1838, he was actively engaged in the min¬ 
istry of the Methodist Church until 1848, when 
he became a Baptist, and was pastor of the Nor¬ 
folk Street Church (later the Fifth Avenue Bap¬ 
tist Church). In 1890 he was made pastor 
emeritus, given a residence in Yonkers. He was 
one of the founders of the American Bible 
Union. He published ( Jesus: His Self-Intro- 
spectioiP (1878) ; ( Lectures on Preaching ) 
(1880) ; ( History of the Baptists^ (1886). 

Ar'mor. See Arms and Armor. 

Armorclads. See Warships. 

Ar'mor-plate, in modern usage, a metallic 
covering for ships or fortifications, intended to 
furnish protection against gun-fire. John Ste¬ 
vens of Hoboken, N. J., is universally credited 
with having originated the idea of applying 
armor to the sides of ships, he having designed 
a vessel with battery protected by inclined ar¬ 
mor and submitted her plans to the United 
States government during the War of 1812; 
but it was the development of the naval shell 
gun which led to the actual use of armor. 
The annihilation of the Turkish fleet at Linope 
in 1853 first drew general attention to the neces¬ 
sity of providing some protection against ex¬ 
plosive shell, and the incident was soon fol¬ 
lowed by the construction of armored ships 
in the United States, France, and England. 
The <( Stevens Battery,® a steam, armored war 
vessel, was begun in the United States in 
1854, a few months earlier than the first iron¬ 
clad was laid down in Europe, but the French 
were the first to complete their vessels, and 
on 17 Oct. 1855, the Devastation, Love, and 
Tounante, the first ironclad squadron ever seen, 
after a close engagement of four hours, silenced 
the Russian forts at Kinburn, which had pre¬ 
viously held the combined fleets of France and 
England at bay. No sooner, however, had the 
first thin iron plates proved themselves an 
effective shield against gun-fire, than the in¬ 
troduction of new and more powerful guns 
forced a corresponding development in the thick¬ 
ness and quality of armor. The progress of the 


contest is shown by the facts that, while in 
1863 4L>-inch iron plating made a ship invulner¬ 
able, in 1868 9-inch plating was required to the 
same end, and in 1872 a 12-inch plate was 
pierced on the firing ground. With the produc¬ 
tion of 12-inch plates the limit of regularity in 
manufacture with wrought iron seemed to be 
reached, and the cost of the plate upon plate 
system, owing to the difficulty of making the 
plates fit each other, led to the use of the sand¬ 
wich system, in which layers of wood separated 
layers of iron plating. The advent of the 
Krupp 14^-inch rifle and of the Woolwich 81- 
ton gun marked the final supremacy of the gun. 
Wrought iron armor had then reached its high¬ 
est development on the British ship Inflexible, 
which was protected by two layers of 12-inch 
plates with 11 inches of teak between them and 
backed by 6 inches of teak and two i-inch skin 
plates. Compound armor, composed of a hard 
steel face welded upon a wrought iron back, 
next came into general use, but homogeneous 
steel, first made in the form of heavy plating by 
Schneider & Co. of France, disputed with it for 
the palm and finally proved its superiority. In 
1890 nickel steel had its first public trial, on the 
United States naval proving ground at Annapo¬ 
lis, Md., in competition with compound armor 
and with homogeneous steel; and in the same 
year a steel plate hardened on one face was also 
tried at Annapolis and showed phenomenal re¬ 
sistance to perforation. Further tests demon¬ 
strated the decisive superiority of the surface- 
hardened steel plates, called Harveyized from 
the inventor of the process, and in a very 
short time they were universally adopted for 
armoring ships. The following briefly describes 
the method of manufacturing this armor. The 
ingot, of approximately rectangular cross sec¬ 
tion and about twice the weight of the fin¬ 
ished plate, is made of open-hearth steel, suffi¬ 
cient nickel being added to the furnace charge 
to give about 3% per cent in the casting. Af¬ 
ter cooling, the ingot is stripped, reheated, and 
forged to nearly the required thickness, being 
handled by a porter bar forged from the upper 
end, and the entire forging operation usually 
requiring several heats. In the early days of 
steel armor manufacture immense steam ham¬ 
mers were used for forging, but now hydraulic 
presses are preferred. After forging, the upper 
end of the plate is cut off under the hammer or 
press, and the remainder, after cooling, placed 
in the Harveyizing furnace with its back and 
sides well protected by refractory materials and 
its face covered with a carbonizing mixture, 
where it is raised to a high temperature and left 
to soak for several days. When the carbon has 
penetrated sufficiently into its face, the plate 
is removed from the furnace and given a sec¬ 
ondary forging which reduces it to the required 
thickness, after which it is trimmed to size in a 
planer and its face is cleaned. The next opera¬ 
tion consists of heating the plate and chilling 
its surface with a spray of cold water, which 
hardens the highly carbonized face but leaves 
the body of the plate still soft. If the plate is 
to be bent or curved this operation is performed 
under a press after the carbonizing but before 
the final heating for hardening the face. The 
final operation is boring and tapping the bolt 
holes in the back of the plate. If holes are 
required for structural purposes in the hard 



ARMOR 



1. French Foot Soldier, Eighth Century. 

2. Polish Knight, end of Fifteenth Century. 

3. French Soldier, about 1120 A. D. 

4. Battle of Askalon (1099) from a Window in the 

Church of St. Louis, Paris. 


5-6. German Full Armor, of the time of Maximilian I. 
A. Mottled or Striped Armor. B. Ringed Armor. C. 
Fettered Armor. D. Shield Ornament. E. Plate 
Armor. F. Chain Armor. 






























































































































ARMORED TRAIN 


face of a plate, it is softened at the proper 
places by means of an electric current, since 
otherwise it will resist any tool. Within the 
last few years improvements upon the Harvey 
process have been developed by Krupp at Essen, 
and the Krupp process is now widely used. The 
details are kept secret, but it is probable that 
the essential feature is the use of chrome as 
well as nickel in the steel, this alloy permitting 
the chill to be carried deeper into the plate than 
when steel containing nickel only is used. The 
supercarbonization, though brought about by the 
use of a hydrocarbon gas, is the equivalent of 
ordinary cementation, and the usual cold spray 
is used to chill the surface. Kruppized plates 
offer some 20 per cent more resistance to or¬ 
dinary armor-piercing projectiles than Har- 
veyized plates, but when attacked by the capped 
projectiles now coming into general use the 
gain in resistance is much less. Their freedom 
from cracking is a further point of superiority. 
The armor applied to the protection of ships 
is also used on coast and frontier defenses, but 
another armor, ill adapted to naval use on ac¬ 
count of its weight, has also been developed. 
Chilled cast iron was first, tested as armor in 
Prussia in 1868, and then and in many subse¬ 
quent trials showed remarkable resistance to 
gun-fire. The Grason system, in which ellip¬ 
soidal-shaped turrets are built up of very heavy 
iron castings, chilled on the outer surface, and 
fitted together without bolts, has been largely 
used for land fortifications in Europe. 

Backing and Fastenings .— Armor was first 
applied to wooden ships, and when iron and 
steel ships succeeded these it was found neces¬ 
sary to interpose wood between the skin-plating 
of the ship and the armor to provide a surface 
which could be trimmed to fit the latter, and 
to decrease the injury caused to the ship’s side 
by the impact of shot. East India teak is used 
for armor backing, but the modern tendency is 
to reduce its thickness as far as is practicable, 
and even to dispense with it entirely in above¬ 
water structures. Through bolts were first used 
for fastening armor to ships, but they caused 
leaks, besides weakening the armor, and the 
bolts now used only screw a short distance into 
the backs of the plates, being set up with nuts 
on their inner ends. They are made of forged 
steel; have shanks of reduced diameter to pre¬ 
vent breaking at the threads; have packing to 
prevent leakage around them; and usually have 
rubber washers under their nut heads. One bolt 
is used to about every 4^ square feet of plating, 
and their diameters are from i l / 2 to 3^2 inches 
according to the thickness of the armor. 

Disposition and Uses .— When sea-going ar¬ 
mored ships first began to be built it was possible 
to completely cover them with armor then im¬ 
penetrable, but the increasing power of guns soon 
made it necessary to restrict the defended area 
if it was to be given complete protection. In 
the hopeless attempt to secure invulnerability 
armor was gradually stripped from other por¬ 
tions and concentrated over parts considered 
vital. The restriction of batteries to a few 
heavy guns, mounted in turrets or a central 
citadel, allowed the thickness of armor protect¬ 
ing men and guns to be greatly increased, with 
a corresponding reduction in its extent, and at 
the same time water-line armor was made thick¬ 
er and thicker and of less and less area. Of 


late years, however, there has been a growing 
tendency to return to the early practice of 
expanding armor over a large area. Great as 
are the displacements of modern battleships it 
is not deemed wise to attempt to secure complete 
protection for any one portion of them; it is 
recognized that armor can only be expected to 
furnish a reasonable amount of security to 
what it covers; to keep out all small projectiles; 
and above all to keep out explosive shell with 
large bursting charges, compelling resort to ar¬ 
mor-piercing shell. Modern battleships often 
carry as much as 4,000 tons weight of armor. 
The principle of inclining armor so as to cause 
it to deflect projectiles is largely used in pro¬ 
tective decks covering the propelling machinery, 
and also to some extent in shields for the de¬ 
fense of guns’ crews. Hard-faced armor plates 
of as great weight as 50 tons and of as great 
thickness as 18 inches have been applied to 
ships, but in the best present practice a thickness 
of 12 inches is seldom exceeded. A width of 
about 9 feet and a length of about 18 feet are 
the limiting sizes of armor plates now made. 
Modern naval guns, firing capped projectiles, 
will more than overmatch the best armor plate, 
of thicknesses equal to their respective calibres, 
up to 3,000 yards’ distance, provided the impact 
be normal to the plate’s surface, but the fact that 
in actual battle most impacts will be at some 
inclination to the surface struck adds greatly to 
the real value of armor. There are two great 
plants in the United States for the manufacture 
of armor — the Bethlehem Steel Co. at Beth¬ 
lehem, Pa., and the Carnegie Steel Co. at Pitts¬ 
burg. The greatest foreign plants are at 
Sheffield, England, at the Creusot and the St. 
Chamoud works in France, and at Krupp’s 
works in Germany. Philip R. Alger, 

U. S. Naval Academy, Annapolis. 

Ar'mored Train, a modern instrument of 
war severely tested in the American operations 
against Filipino insurgents in 1898-99, and in 
those of the British against the Boers in 1899- 
1900. Credit has been given to Admiral Fisher 
of the British navy for the first use of the 
armored train in war, when, in 1882, he covered 
a locomotive with boiler plate and equipped cars, 
similarly protected, with field guns and put 
them to effective practical use. But the germ 
of the idea was of earlier date. When the Ger¬ 
mans invested Paris, the French made frequent 
sorties from the city, and in many of these 
attacks were assisted by field guns mounted on 
wagons and carriages. Later they were mount¬ 
ed on railroad cars, which were protected in 
their vital points against the enemy’s guns. 
Since 1882 most of the military powers of Eu¬ 
rope have been experimenting in this direction 
and Great Britain has now probably the most 
complete and efficient armored trains in the 
world. The best that the British army possesses 
is the engine and train of the First Sussex Ar¬ 
tillery Volunteers. The model design was made 
from special designs for war purposes. The 
protected engine carries a Maxim gun, and the 
protected cars have heavy field guns, operated 
by machinery, so that any part of the surround¬ 
ing country can quickly be covered. Arrange¬ 
ments are made to compensate for the recoil, and 
also to give steadiness and stability to the cars. 
This latter is accomplished by an arrangement 


ARMORER —ARMS AND ARMOR 


for clamping the truck to the rails by strong 
screw clips whenever the gun is fired. There 
are also several steel-plated vans accompanying 
the train, in which horses and soldiers can be 
safely conveyed. This type of movable fortress 
performed notable achievements in South Africa, 
and in the sorties from Ladysmith and Kim¬ 
berley was the chief implement that forced the 
Boers back. With machine guns and field pieces 
the moving train becomes a valuable offensive 
apparatus, being able to move up close to the 
enemy’s lines or retreat to a point beyond the 
range of small arms. The rapidity with which 
the train can change its base of action renders 
it a difficult object for the batteries of an enemy 
to hit, and almost the only way to defeat its 
operations is to wreck or derail it; it then 
becomes a helpless target for long-range guns. 
Probably the first attempt in the United States 
to provide an armored car was that made by 
the Michigan Central Railroad Company, on the 
order of the American Express Company, for 
the purpose of protecting the valuable articles 
carried on its special express trains. These 
armored or (< arsenal cars® were so constructed 
as to make the centre of them with its steel 
plating a thoroughly bullet-proof room, with 
apertures so disposed as to enable the guards 
within to resist an attack by thieves from any 
quarter. During the remarkable dash of the 
American troops in the Philippines into the 
northern part of the island of Luzon, in search 
of the fugitive insurgent leader Aguinaldo, in 
1899, much effective work was accomplished by 
an improvised armored train. 

Ar'morer, a term formerly applied to a 
maker of arms and armor, a very important 
handicraftsman in the Middle Ages and down to 
the end of the 16th century and even later. 
(See Arms and Armor.) At the present day 
the term denotes persons employed to keep the 
arms of the soldiers in repair, or the custodian 
of an armory. On board a man-of-war the ar¬ 
morer is a petty officer appointed to keep the 
small arms in complete condition for service. 

Armor'ica, the country of the Armorici. 
The name was formed from two Celtic words 
signifying <( upon the sea,® and was apparently 
applied in ancient times to the whole northern 
and western coast of Gaul. It was afterward 
confined to the province of Brittany. 

Ar'mory, a building, or military station 
appropriated to the storage of arms, or the use 
of troops. In the United States the term is 
generally applied to the headquarters of the 
local militia, and signifies almost the equivalent 
of a club house, to which is added a drill 
shed, for military manoeuvres. 

Ar'mour, Herman Ossian, an American • 
merchant: b. Stockbridge, N. Y., 1837; d. 1901. 
After several years spent in the grain commis¬ 
sion business in Chicago he became in 1865 the 
New York representative of the Milwaukee 
firm of Armour, Plankinton & Co,, which re¬ 
tained the firm name of H. O. Armour & Co. 
until 1870. The name was then altered to 
Armour & Co., which is now the most im¬ 
portant provision firm in the world. 

Ar'mour, Philip Danforth, an American 
philanthropist: b. Stockbridge, N. Y., 16 May 
1832; d. 6 Jan. 1901. He was a miner in Cali¬ 
fornia in 1852-56, but engaged in the com¬ 


mission business in Milwaukee in 1856-63; and 
later became the head of the pork packing firm 
of Armour, Plankinton & Co., Chicago. He 
founded the Armour Mission and the Armour 
Institute of Technology (q.v.), both in Chicago; 
the former at a cost of about $250,000, and the 
latter with an endowment of $1,500,000, subse¬ 
quently increased. 

Ar'mour Institute of Technology, an 

American co-educational institution, founded in 
Chicago, Ill., by Philip D. Armour, in 1893. Its 
scheme includes (1) The Technical College; 
(2) The Department of Commercial Tests; (3) 
The Armour Scientific Academy. The institu¬ 
tion had 666 students in 1901 and 38 professors 
in its faculty. Its property was valued at $4,- 
560,000. 

Arms and Armor. The earliest arms 
were everywhere made of stone. Stone was 
succeeded by bronze in the manufacture of 
weapons of war. The commonest warlike relics 
of the bronze age that have come down to us 
are daggers and spear-heads. From the descrip¬ 
tions of Homer we know that almost all the 
Grecian armor, defensive and offensive, in his 
time was of bronze, although it is evident that 
iron was sometimes used in the time of Homer 
for making weapons, from the fact that he oc¬ 
casionally uses the Greek word for iron (si- 
deros ) for a sword. Not the sword, however, 
but the lance, spear, and javelin, were the prin¬ 
cipal weapons of this age among the Greeks. 
The bow is not often mentioned, although a 
bow belonging to Pandarus is described in the 
Iliad, and in the Odyssey Ulysses is represented 
as very expert in the use of this weapon. 
Among the most ancient nations the Egyptians 
seem to have been most accustomed to the use 
of the bow, which was the principal weapon of 
the Egyptian infantry. The Egyptian bow was 
somewhat shorter than the height of a man; 
the arrow was usually made of reed, the head 
of bronze, but sometimes of flint. Peculiar to 
the Egyptians was a defensive weapon the ob¬ 
ject of which was to catch and break the sword 
of the enemy. With the Assyrians also the 
bow was a favorite weapon; but with them 
lances, spears, and javelins were in more com¬ 
mon use than with the Egyptians. Most of the 
large engines of war, chariots with scythes 
projecting at each side from the axle, catapults, 
and ballistse, seem to have been of Assyrian 
origin. All of those mentioned can at any rate 
be traced back to the Assyrians, to whom the 
invention of the catapult and the ballista was at¬ 
tributed by classical writers. During the his¬ 
torical age of Greece the characteristic weapon 
was a heavy spear from 21 to 24 feet in length. 
The sword used by the Greeks was short, and 
was worn on the right side. The Roman sword 
was of Spanish origin, from 22 to 24 inches in 
length, straight, two-edged, and obtusely point¬ 
ed, and as by the Greeks was worn on the right 
side. It was used principally as a stabbing 
weapon. On the Trajan column, belonging to 
114 a.d., the sword appears considerably longer 
than that used at an earlier period. The Roman 
sword was originally of bronze, but like all 
other offensive weapons among the Romans was 
always of iron in the time of Polybius (2d 
century b.c.), when bronze continued in use only 
for defensive armor. The characteristic weapon 
of the Roman soldier was the pilum, a kind of 


ARMS AND ARMOR 



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ARMS AND ARMOR 


pike or javelin, about 5 or 6 feet in length, with 
a wooden shaft and an iron head, the latter of 
which was about one third of the length of the 
whole. The pilum was sometimes used at close 
quarters both as an offensive weapon and as a 
means of parrying blows, but more commonly 
it was thrown along with the other javelin, 
which every Roman spearman (hastarius) car¬ 
ried when within io or 15 paces of the enemy. 
The pilum, when thrown from this distance, 
would fix itself in the enemy’s shield, where¬ 
upon the Romans would rush up, and seizing 
hold of the shafts of their pila draw down the 
shields in which they were fixed, and follow 
up the attack with their swords. In addition 
to the large engines of war that have been al¬ 
ready mentioned as of Assyrian origin (scythe- 
chariots, catapults, and ballistae) the Romans 
made use of battering-rams for making breaches 
in the walls of fortified places. The Greeks are 
said to have used a sort of cannon made on the 
principle of the modern air-gun. The Romans 
also employed caltrops to embarrass the move¬ 
ments of an enemy’s cavalry. 

The principal pieces of defensive armor used 
by the ancients were shields, helmets, cuirasses, 
and greaves. No shields were carried by the 
Egyptian archers; but the Egyptian spearmen 
had large shields, rectangular below and semi¬ 
circular at the top, and with a round sight-hole 
in this semicircular part. In the heroic age of 
Greece the shield is described as of immense 
size, so as to be capable of defending the whole 
body. In the early monuments the shield is 
still large, though not so large as it appears to 
have been in the heroic age. In shape it is 
round or oval, with a very considerable degree 
of convexity. At the time of the Peloponnesian 
war a still smaller shield came into use. The 
Romans had two sorts of shields — the scutum, 
a large, oblong, rectangular, highly convex 
shield, carried by the legionaries — and the par- 
ma, a small, round or oval, flat shield, carried 
by the light-armed troops and the cavalry. In 
the declining days of Rome the shields became 
larger and more varied in form. The helmet 
was a characteristic piece of armor among the 
Assyrians, Greeks, Etruscans, and Romans. 
Like all other body armor it was usually made 
of bronze. The Assyrian helmet was frequently 
conical. Sometimes it had the form of a trun¬ 
cated cone, and sometimes the pointed extremity 
was curved forward. The helmet of the his¬ 
torical age of Greece was distinguished by its 
lofty crest, which tapered downward to the back 
of the neck. The Etruscan helmet was also 
very high crested and sometimes had a wing ris¬ 
ing to a considerable height on either side from 
points near the summit. The Roman helmet 
in the time of the early emperors fitted close to 
the head and had a hollow neck-guard and 
hinged cheek-pieces fastened under the chin, and 
a small bar across the face for a visor. The 
neck-guard and cheek-pieces were not peculiar 
to the Roman helmet, but were in common use 
wherever the helmet was worn. In later days 
the helmet of the Romans had a higher crown 
than that of the early emperors. The cuirasses 
of the Assyrians were close-fitting tunics made 
of several layers of flax plaited or interwoven 
and glued together. This kind of cuirass was 
introduced into Greece during the Pelopon¬ 
nesian war and was sometimes used even by the 


Romans. Before the Peloponnesian war the 
Greeks had the upper part of their body defend¬ 
ed by bronze cuirasses. The defensive body 
armor of the Egyptian archers consisted of a 
quilted coat. The Egyptian spearmen had cui¬ 
rasses of bronze scales or quilted with bands of 
metal. Under the Roman republic all the le¬ 
gionaries wore a bronze cuirass, consisting of a 
breast and back plate, with a border of pendent 
leather straps defending the lower part of the 
body. On the columns of Trajan and Antonine 
this cuirass is given only to officers, the legion¬ 
aries wearing at that period only leather or 
linen cuirasses, on which circular plates of metal 
and metal shoulder-pieces were sewed, and to the 
lower border of which were attached oblong 
plates which served the purpose of the leather 
straps of the other cuirass. In the time of Tra¬ 
jan and Septimius Severus a flexible cuirass was 
added to the equipment of the Roman knight or 
horseman. This was made either of scales (lo- 
rica squamata) or of chains ( lorica hamatd). 
One of the latter kind has been found at 
Avenches in Switzerland, and is there exhibited. 
Greaves do not seem to have been worn by any 
of the eastern nations except the Persians, 
whose defensive armor resembled pretty closely 
that of the Middle Ages. The greaves of the 
Greeks ( knemides ) were made in two pieces 
which were fastened together by clasps. The 
Roman greaves ( ocrecc ) were made in one 
piece and were often worn only on one leg. 
The Samnite practice was to wear the greave 
upon the left leg, which is the leg advanced 
in fighting with a shield on the left arm; but 
Vegetius mentions that the greave was worn by 
the Roman legionaries upon the right leg. The 
greave reached only from the knee to the ankle. 
The Roman soldiers had their feet protected by 
shoes set with nails ( caligcc ). 

The favorite weapons of the Germanic races, 
by which the ancient civilization of Rome was to 
a large extent overthrown, were the battle-axe, 
the lance or dart, and the sword. Their defen¬ 
sive armor consisted almost exclusively of a 
shield made of plaited osier covered with leather 
and generally 8 feet by 2 in size. Afterward it 
was made round and bound with iron, and had 
several prominent bosses on its surface. The 
Frankish form of the German battle-axe was 
called francisca (francisque), and was the cha¬ 
racteristic weapon of that tribe. It had a broad 
single-edged blade and a short haft, and was 
often used as a missile. The lance or dart of 
the Franks, called angon, closely resembled and 
was used exactly in the same way as the Roman 
pilum. The sword among the Franks was only 
a horseman’s weapon. The shield of the Franks 
was round. Hardly any body armor (scarcely 
even a helmet) was used by them until the Car- 
lovingian days. Swords belonging to the early 
iron age in Scandinavia are frequently found in 
the mosses of Schleswig. They are long, 
straight, two-edged, and often richly dama¬ 
scened. Shields belonging to the same district 
and epoch were made of wood, and were flat, 
round, and from 22^ to 44 inches in diameter. 
They were bossed and otherwise mounted, gen¬ 
erally in bronze, sometimes in iron. The com¬ 
mon arms of the Anglo-Saxon infantry were a 
spear, an axe, and a scramasax (a heavy single- 
edged knife). With the Anglo-Saxons as with 
the Franks the sword was especially a horse- 


ARMS AND ARMOR 


man’s weapon, being carried by none under the 
rank of thane. The sword carried by them was 
3 feet long, broad in the blade, and round at the 
point. The Saxon shield was round or oval, 
made of wood covered with leather, and fur¬ 
nished with a high conical boss. 

The arms and armor both of the Normans 
and Anglo-Saxons, but especially of the former, 
at the time of the Norman conquest of England 
are pretty fully illustrated by the Bayeux tap¬ 
estry. On this work the horsemen appear armed 
with long lances as well as swords. The Nor¬ 
mans are represented as well furnished with 
archers and cavalry, of which arms the Saxons 
do not seem to have had any. Maces, clubs, 
axes with shafts from 4 to 5 feet long, are seen 
in the hands of both. The shields are long, 
rounded above and tapering to a point at the 
bottom. The body-armor consists of a long 
hauberk ringed or trellised. The helmet is coni¬ 
cal and has a sort of tongue in front which 
comes down over the nose. 

Chain armor of interlinked rings came into 
use at the time of the Crusades and continued 
in use till the beginning of the 14th century. 
From the latter date to early in the 15th cen¬ 
tury mixed chain and plate armor was in use, 
and from about the year 1410 to the beginning 
of the next century the body armor was en¬ 
tirely of plate, and complete suits of plate armor 
did not altogether go out of use for another cen¬ 
tury. Below the waist the body was protected 
by taces, a series of narrow overlapping plates 
attached to a lining of leather. After the in¬ 
troduction of complete suits of plate armor the 
chief modifications consisted in the strengthen¬ 
ing of the weakest parts, especially on the right 
side. By the end of the 15th century plate 
armor had attained its highest development, 
even the horses at that period being protected 
by plate armor everywhere except on the legs. 
By this time, in fact, the fabrication of armor 
had reached such a degree of perfection that 
it was scarcely possible for men-at-arms en¬ 
gaged in combat to find any spot where the 
armor of their antagonist could be pierced. 
Combatants equipped in this manner aimed ac¬ 
cordingly less at wounding than at unhorsing 
one another, for a man-at-arms unhorsed was 
at the mercy of his antagonist, who, if he could 
not find any weak point where he could pierce 
the armor of his fallen foe, might beat him to 
death with the heavy mace with which he was 
armed. Many savage encounters of this nature 
are recorded by the chroniclers of the time. 
Usually, however, a man-at-arms when un¬ 
horsed became the prisoner of his conqueror, 
and many battles were decided, especially in the 
wars between the states of Italy, carried on by 
means of mercenaries, almost or altogether 
without the shedding of blood either on the side 
of the vanquisher or the vanquished. When 
body-armor had come to be manufactured with 
such perfection shields were almost entirely 
discarded. In England, indeed, no effigy has 
been found representing a man-at-arms bearing 
a shield of later date than the last quarter of 
the 14th century, from which it would seem that 
that defense had gone out of use even before 
the adoption of complete suits of plate armor. 
Perhaps the most characteristic portion of the 
body-armor of the 15th century was that which 
protected the feet. The coverings for the feet 


during this period were laminated sollerets (as 
they were called), acutely pointed or rounded off 
at the toes. In the following century these 
were succeeded by sabbatons , cut off square at 
the toes. In this century the armor gradu¬ 
ally became less rigid and cumbrous, and 
often consisted of small plates of metal quilted 
within linen or other tissues. As the century 
advanced the manufacture of body-armor de¬ 
clined, and after the close of the century armor 
was worn as much for show as for real ser¬ 
vice. Metal cuirasses gave place, as a rule, to 
buff suits and jerkins, although the former 
armor is not entirely disused even at the pres¬ 
ent day. The principal weapons of the man-at- 
arms were the lance, sword, battle-axe, and 
mace, all of which were remarkable for their 
massiveness, as might be expected from the re¬ 
sistance they had to meet. The lance (see 
Lance and Tournament) was the weapon 
which he used to unhorse his antagonist if he 
could not wound him with it. Two-handed 
swords were in common use in the 16th century. 
The sword-breaker, consisting of a deeply 
notched blade about 15 inches in length, and in¬ 
tended to catch and break the sword of an an¬ 
tagonist, belongs to the same period. 

During all the time that the use of heavy 
armor prevailed, the horsemen, who alone were 
so armed, formed the principal strength of 
armies; and so much was this the case that in¬ 
fantry were generally regarded as of hardly any 
account. An exception must, however, be made 
in the case of England, the archers of which 
were almost at ail times, before the invention of 
gunpowder, an important and sometimes the 
chief force in the army. It has been already 
mentioned that the Bayeux tapestry furnishes 
us with evidence of the fact that the Normans 
were provided with archers at the time of the 
conquest. The bows used by them were small, 
being little more than a yard in length. The 
deadly weapon afterward used by the English 
archers was from 5 to 6 feet in length, and the 
arrow discharged from it was itself a yard long. 
The bow used in Germany as well as that used 
in Italy (where steel was the material of which 
it was usually made) was about a yard and a 
half long. There is no evidence of the cross¬ 
bow having been used before the nth century. 
Its use against Christians was forbidden by the 
Council of the Lateran in 1139. The long-bow 
continued in general use in England till the 
end of the reign of Elizabeth, and even as late 
as 1627 there was a body of English archers 
in the pay of Richelieu at the siege of La Ro¬ 
chelle. The cross-bow did not go out of use 
in the French army till the 17th century. 
Among the other hand-arms in use before the 
invention of gunpowder were the sling and the 
fustibale, which was nothing else than a sling 
with a handle to it. The large engines of war 
used in the Middle Ages were the same as those 
that had been employed by the Romans, with 
only slight modifications. A coat made of 
leather or quilted stuff, called in French gam- 
boison or gcimbeson, was almost the only de¬ 
fensive armor of the foot-soldier during the 
greater part of the period of which we are now 
treating. 

The use of gunpowder as a means of dis¬ 
charging projectiles and the gradual improve¬ 
ment of firearms effected in course of time a 


ARMS — ARMSTRONG 


complete change in all the methods and acces¬ 
sories of warfare. Details regarding the con¬ 
struction and recent improvements of large and 
small firearms and projectiles will be found un¬ 
der Bomb, Bullet, Cannon, Gun, Musket, 
Rifle, Shell, etc. Gunpowder was not used in 
Europe to discharge projectiles till the begin¬ 
ning of the 14th century. Cannon are first 
mentioned in England in 1338, and there seems 
no doubt that they, were used by the English at 
the siege of Cambrai in 1339. All early cannon 
were breech-loaders. In the oldest form the 
breech consists of wedges of wood or metal, and 
this form was succeeded by cannons with mov¬ 
able breech-piece. The projectiles first used for 
cannon were of stone. Field-guns were intro¬ 
duced in the course of the 15th century. A ri¬ 
fled cannon of the 15th century is to be seen in 
the museum of The Hague. Mortars were in¬ 
troduced into the French army in 1634. Hand 
firearms date from the 15th century. The 
Swiss at the battle of Morat in 1476 are said 
to have been provided with 6,000 arms of this 
kind. In England the yeomen of the guard 
were armed with them in 1485. At first they 
required two men to serve them, and it was 
necessary to rest the muzzle on a stand in aim¬ 
ing and firing. Lighter hand-firearms called pe- 
tronels seem to have been first used by cavalry. 
Hand-firearms were at first fired in the same 
way as cannon, by means of a slow match carried 
in the hand and applied to the powder at the 
touchhole. The first improvement was the in¬ 
vention of the matchlock about 1476. In the 
matchlock the slow match was held at the end 
of one arm of a bent lever attached to the side 
of the piece in such a manner that by the action 
of a trigger it could be brought down upon the 
powder in the pan at the touchhole. This kind 
of lock was superseded by two others, the 
wheel-lock and the snaphance, that seem to have 
been invented about the same time early in the 
16th century, although the matchlock contined in 
use long after that date, and indeed was not 
altogether abandoned till the beginning of the 
18th century. The wheel-lock is generally said 
to have been invented at Nurnberg, and was 
largely used in Germany. It consisted of a steel 
wheel which was made to revolve by a spring, 
and in revolving struck fire from a flint, and at 
the same time lifted a cap which kept the powder 
in the pan from being wet by rain or blown away 
by the wind. The chief objection to it was that 
it was slow in its operation, as the spring had to 
be wound up every time it was used. The snap¬ 
hance was largely used in the Spanish domin¬ 
ions. It was the immediate predecessor of the 
flintlock, from which it differed only in making 
the flint strike against a fixed upright piece of 
iron in front of the powder-pan,, while in the 
flintlock this upright piece was attached to an¬ 
other piece that covered the pan and which 
turned on a hinge, so that when the flint de¬ 
scended and struck sparks from the iron it at 
the same time uncovered the pan. The flint¬ 
lock was invented in France about 1640, and 
gradually came into universal use, until it was 
itself superseded by the percussion-lock. This 
last was patented by a Scotch clergyman named 
Alexander Forsyth in 1807, and had been adopt¬ 
ed everywhere by the year 1820. The first model 
of the needle-gun was made in 1827 by J. N. 
Dreyse of Erfurt. It was first made breech¬ 


loading in 1836. The only important weapon 
not a firearm that has been invented since the 
introduction of gunpowder is the bayonet, which 
is believed to have been invented about 1650. 
The socket-bayonet, fitted round the muzzle of 
the gun, was introduced into the French army 
by Vauban. 

The earliest collection of arms and armor 
was that made by Louis XII. at Amboise in 
1502. There is a fine collection at Dresden, be¬ 
gun in 1553. Among others may be mentioned 
the Ambras collection, commenced in 1570, now 
at Vienna, and those at Turin, Sigmaringen, 
Tsarsko-selo 1 , St. Petersburg, Madrid, and in 
the Tower of London. The last mentioned was 
classified by Dr. Meyrick, and catalogued by J. 
Hewitt. The Antiquarian Museum of Edin¬ 
burgh is rich in weapons of the stone and 
bronze periods, but has few specimens of arms 
and armor of more modern times. Of works 
specially devoted to the subject of arms and 
armor the most worthy of mention are: Grose, 
^Treatise on Ancient Armor and Weapons ) 
(1785-6; Supp. 1789; afterward annexed to the 
second edition of the same author’s ( Military 
Antiquities, } 1801), and Meyrick’s ( Critical In¬ 
quiry into Ancient Armor as it existed in Eu¬ 
rope, but particularly in England, from the Nor¬ 
man Conquest to the reign of King Charles IIP 
(1824). An excellent compendium on the sub¬ 
ject by Auguste Demmin was published in 1869 
in French, English, and German. The title of 
the English edition is ( Weapons of War* ; it 
gives a history of arms and armor from the earli¬ 
est period to the present time. See Armament 
of the World. 

Arms, Stand of, the outfit of arms neces¬ 
sary for the equipment of a single soldier. 

Armstead, Henry Hugh, a noted English 
sculptor: b. in 1828. He executed many alle¬ 
gorical groups on the Albert Memorial, London, 
and several fine recumbent effigies in Westmin¬ 
ster Abbey. 

Armstrong, Sir Alexander, an English 
physician: b. in Ireland about 1820; d. 5 July 
1899. He was educated at Trinity College, Dub¬ 
lin, and at the University of Edinburgh; and 
became widely known as an explorer. Entering 
the British navy at an early age, he served in 
many parts of the world, took part in an expe¬ 
dition to Xanthus in Syria; spent five consecu¬ 
tive years in the Arctic regions, searching for 
Sir John Franklin; and circumnavigated the 
American continent, in which voyage he became 
’ one of the discoverers of the Northwest Pas¬ 
sage. For several years he was director-general 
of the medical department of the British navy. 
His publications include ( A Personal Narrative 
of the Discovery of the Northwest Passage,* 
and Observations on Naval Hygiene, Particu¬ 
larly in Connection with Polar Serviced 

Armstrong, David Maitland, an American 
genre and decorative artist: b. near Newburg, 
N. Y., 12 June 1837. He was graduated from 
Trinity College, Hartford, Conn., in 1858; prac¬ 
tised law a few years, and then studied art in 
Paris and Rome. He was United States consul- 
general for Italy for four years, and director of 
the American Art Department at the Paris Ex¬ 
position in 1878, receiving the Legion of Honor 


ARMSTRONG —ARMSTRONG GUN 


decoration for his services. For many years he 
was at the head of a decorative glass establish¬ 
ment in New York city. 

Armstrong, George, called the <( Father 
of the United States Railway Mail Service**: 
b. Armagh, Ireland, 27 Oct. 1822; d. Chicago 
5 May 1871. His parents came to the United 
States when he was eight years old and settled 
in Baltimore. He entered the postal service in 
Washington when a young man, and his ability 
won him promotion in 1854 to assistant post¬ 
master at Chicago. He then made a study 
of mail transportation, wrote exhaustively on 
the subject, and in July 1864 was given authority 
by Postmaster-General Montgomery Blair to 
experiment on any railroad he might select. 
The first trial took place on the Northwestern 
Railroad 28 Aug. 1864, between Chicago and 
Clinton, Iowa, and was a complete success. He 
was the head of the service from the start but 
was assigned to headquarters in the West, with 
general supervision of the service in the East. 
In 1869 President Grant directed that a bureau 
be made of the railway postal service, and 
placed Armstrong at the head as general super¬ 
intendent, a position which he held until his 
death two years later. A bronze statue in mem¬ 
ory of his work was erected in the post-office 
building, Chicago, in May 1881. See Postal 
Service in Commerce. 

Armstrong, John, an American author 
and soldier: b. Carlisle, Pa., 25 Nov. 1758; d. 
Red Hook, N. Y., 1 April 1843. He served 
in the War of the Revolution on the staff of 
Gen. Gates. He was United States minister to 
France, 1804-10, and afterward to Spain; and 
secretary of war, 1813-14. He wrote the ( New- 
burg Addresses 1 * in 1783, anonymously, with the 
intent to arouse Congress to redress army griev¬ 
ances. He also wrote ( Notices of the War of 
1812* (1836). 

Armstrong, Samuel Chapman, an Ameri¬ 
can educator: b. Wailuku, Maui, Hawaii, 30 
Jan. 1839; d. Hampton, Va., 11 May 1893. He 
was a son of Richard Armstrong, one of the 
earliest American missionaries to Hawaiian Is¬ 
lands and founder of their educational system. 
The son was educated at Oahu College, Hono¬ 
lulu, till i860, and graduating from Williams 
College in 1862, at once entered the Union 
army. He served till the end of the Civil War 
and was mustered out with the rank of briga¬ 
dier-general of volunteers. In 1866 Gen. O. O. 
Howard, who had noted Armstrong’s interest in 
the colored troops, induced him to take a posi¬ 
tion with the Freedman’s Bureau, where he was 
charged with the oversight of all colored people 
in 10 Virginia counties. After two years of 
successful administration, during which he had 
worked out a careful plan of negro education, 
he enlisted the aid of the American Missionary 
Association and personal friends in the North, 
and founded the Flampton Normal and Agricul¬ 
tural Institute. Its object was to give the ne¬ 
groes practical education, to train teachers, and 
to render its graduates self-supporting. For 10 
years the students were negroes exclusively; 
then (1878) the United States government, at¬ 
tracted by Armstrong’s success, arranged to have 
Indian children taught there. This experiment 
has also proved successful. Gen. Armstrong de¬ 


voted his life to the school and made it the 
best known and studied one of its kind in the 
world. At his death it had 100 teachers and 
employees, 200 Indian and 600 colored students. 

Armstrong, William George, Baron, an 

English engineer and mechanical inventor: b. 
Newcastle-on-Tyne, 10 Nov. 1810; d. 27 Nov. 
1900. He was trained as a solicitor, and prac¬ 
tised as such for some time, though his tastes 
scarcely lay in that direction. Among his early 
inventions were the hydro-electric machine, a 
powerful apparatus for producing frictional elec¬ 
tricity, and the hydraulic crane. In 1847 the 
Elswick works, near Newcastle, were established 
for the manufacture of his cranes and other 
heavy iron machinery, and these works are now 
among the most extensive of their kind. Here 
the first rifled ordnance gun which bears his 
name was made in 1854. (See Armstrong 
Gun.) His improvements in the manufacture 
of guns and shells led to his being appointed 
engineer of rifled ordnance under government, 
and he was knighted in 1858. This appointment 
came to an end in 1863, since which time his 
ordnance has taken a prominent place in the 
armaments of different countries. He was 
raised to the peerage as Baron Armstrong in 
1887. 

Armstrong Gun, a description of rifled 
cannon, named from its inventor, the late Baron 
Armstrong. It is constructed of small pieces of 
the very best wrought-iron in the following man¬ 
ner : Bars of wrought-iron, having a width of 
2 inches, are raised to a white heat and then 
twisted round a steel bar or core, and other bars 
are twisted successively over these till the requi¬ 
site degree of thickness and strength is obtained. 
The various layers of bars are then firmly 
welded together at a white heat by the steam- 
hammer. Two of these welded pieces, each of 
them having a length of three feet, are trimmed 
and adjusted at the ends, which are brought 
close together, and united by a ring of wrought- 
iron, bound round them at a white heat. The 
length of the gun may be increased by lengthen¬ 
ing or adding to the number of welded pieces. 
The steel bar which formed the core of the 
gun is now removed, and the sides of the bore 
rifled with upward of 40 small close grooves. 
The advantages secured by the Armstrong gun 
were at once manifest as of the highest im¬ 
portance. Its range exceeded 9,000 yards, or 
upward of 5 miles, being about three times the 
extent of that of an old-type cannon. Its pre¬ 
cision of firing is also remarkable; and a target 
9 feet square, placed at distance of 4.000 yards, 
has been hit 90 times in 100. At 1,000 yards’ 
distance an Armstrong gun has hit every time 
an object which, aimed at by the same gunner 
with an old 32-pounder, has been missed 56 
times out of 57. Another great advantage pos¬ 
sessed by this description of gun is its light¬ 
ness, an ordinary 32-pounder weighing 56 hun¬ 
dredweight, while Armstrong’s 32-pounder 
weighs only 20 hundredweight. Lastly, the 
charge of powder required is only about half 
the quantity necessary for an ordinary can¬ 
non, and the number of times which the piece 
may be discharged without exhibiting any 
injury far exceeded anything recorded in the 
history of gunnery down to* the time of its in¬ 
vention. See Ordnance. 


ARMY 


Ar my. Among nations of antiquity all 
men capable of bearing arms were liable to be 
called on to serve as soldiers, with the excep¬ 
tion of the Egyptians, Indians of Aryan race, 
and Israelites. In the first two of these nations 
the warrior formed a separate class or caste of 
the community, ranking next in dignity and 
influence to that of the priests. In Egypt the 
military caste shared with the king and the 
priests the whole of the soil. The members of 
the caste were interdicted from all handicrafts. 
The Egyptian infantry was mainly composed of 
archers. Foreign auxiliaries were also em¬ 
ployed, but kept in a strictly subordinate posi¬ 
tion, except under the last native kings of Egypt; 
and the different policy pursued by them was 
without doubt in a great measure to blame for 
the easy conquest of Egypt by Cambyses. In 
India the members of the warrior caste were 
called Kshatriyas, and after the complete subju¬ 
gation of the non-Aryan inhabitants whom they 
found in the peninsula when it was invaded by 
them, seem generally to have lived an indolent 
life. Among the Israelites the only portion of 
the male population exempt from military ser¬ 
vice was of the tribe of Levi. In the other 
tribes all men above 20 might be called upon 
to serve in the army when occasion required. 
At first the army of the Israelites consisted en¬ 
tirely of infantry. David introduced charioteers, 
and Solomon added a regiment of cavalry. In 
later times an Egyptian auxiliary cavalry is 
sometimes found serving in the Jewish armies. 
The beginning of a standing army was made by 
Saul, who raised a body-guard of 3,000 men. 
After the captivity a new organization developed 
itself under the Maccabees. John Hyrcanus 
raised an army of foreign soldiers, chiefly Arabs. 

From the monuments found in the valleys 
of the Euphrates and the Tigris we learn that 
at an early date the Assyrians, Babylonians, and 
Medes possessed armies of infantry, cavalry, and 
charioteers, and divided into light and heavy 
armed troops, distinguished by dress, equip¬ 
ment, and arms. But it was after the estab¬ 
lishment of the Persian empire that the army 
system of the East attained its highest point 
of development. When the Persians had ex¬ 
tended their empire over almost the whole of 
western Asia it was necessary to maintain a 
standing army to keep down conquered tribes 
and to guard the frontiers. The various sec¬ 
tions of this army were each levied in the 
province to which it belonged, and were partly 
stationed in fortified towns, partly distributed 
over the country districts. Their pay was de¬ 
rived from the revenues of the province, but 
their commanders were wholly independent of 
the satraps or provincial governors. Yearly re¬ 
views were held in order to see that they were 
constantly kept in a state of efficiency. The 
troops of the standing army included a light 
and a heavy infantry, as well as strong bodies 
of cavalry, part of whom were clad in armor. 
The subdivisions of the army (both cavalry 
and infantry) were according to the decimal 
system. Originally all the forces were Persians, 
but in later times Asiatics and Greeks were also 
enrolled. Express messengers, stationed through¬ 
out the empire at the distance of a day’s journey 
from one another, formed the means of com¬ 
munication between the different parts of the 
army. In addition to this provincial force the 


king had a body-guard of 10,000 men, called 
the immortals, from the fact that their numbers 
were always kept full. When great expeditions 
(such as the invasions of Greece) were under¬ 
taken a levy of the whole people was made. 
Fifty-six nations, according to Herodotus, were 
represented in the levy made by Xerxes for his 
celebrated Greek expedition. 

In the small free states of Greece the armies 
consisted of a civic militia, in which it was 
the right and duty of every freeman to serve. In 
times of emergency the slaves also were armed. 
The Greek armies often consisted exclusively of 
infantry. Athens never had more than 1,000 
cavalry. The foot soldiers were divided into 
hopliiai, or heavy-armed, whose equipments con¬ 
sisted of a long lance, a sword, and a large 
shield; pcltastai, armed with a short spear, and 
carrying a small round shield; psiloi, carrying 
no shields, and armed only with javelins, bows 
and arrows, or slings; and gymnetes, also with¬ 
out shields, and chiefly composed of slaves and 
foreigners. The age for military service was 
20 to 40 at Athens and 20 to 60 at Sparta. 
In Athens, however, every youth was enrolled at 
the age of 18, although not liable to be called on 
for active service till he had reached the age 
of 20. The command of the Athenian army was 
divided between 10 generals, who were elected 
for one year, one by each of the 10 Attic tribes, 
and each of whom had the chief command in 
turn for one day, when they were all present 
with the army. To obviate the manifest incon¬ 
venience of this arrangement nine of the gen¬ 
erals were sometimes left behind, and sometimes 
one of the archons called the Polemarch took 
the field, in which case the duties of a com¬ 
mander-in-chief were in a great measure left 
to him. Until after the Peloponnesian war 
Athenian soldiers received no pay, but from that 
date a small pay was given to those in the field. 
At Sparta the command of the army belonged 
to the two kings, and usually two armies were 
formed, each king having the command of one 
of them. When only one army was formed one 
of the kings remained at home. Although in 
Sparta, as in Athens, the army consisted of the 
free citizens generally, yet, as in the former 
city it was always kept ready for war, it consti¬ 
tuted a kind of standing army. It was divided 
into five moras or regiments, one for each 
tribe. After the time of the Peloponnesian war 
it became more and more common for all the 
Greek states to employ mercenary troops, and 
the Greeks themselves often entered into for¬ 
eign service. The Macedonian standing army 
was created by Philip, and from the time of 
Alexander was composed chiefly of mercenaries. 
The Carthaginian armies consisted in large part, 
and indeed mainly, of mercenaries. The body¬ 
guard of the general, called the (( sacred band,® 
was, however, entirely made up of Carthaginians 
by birth, but was distinguished less by its valor 
than by the splendor of its equipments. In the 
army of Hannibal, Gauls, Iberians, and Ligurians 
formed the main force; Numidian cavalry hov¬ 
ered on the wings; Balearic slingers and ele¬ 
phants led by Ethiopian masters were drawn up 
in front. In Rome every citizen from the age 
of 17 to 46 was bound to serve in the army till 
he had made 16 (or in emergencies 20) cam¬ 
paigns on foot or 10 in the cavalry, and no citi¬ 
zen could become a candidate for any magiste^ 


ARMY 


rial office unless he had been io years on foot or 
5 mounted. During the best times of the Ro¬ 
man army the troops were selected with great 
care, and the discipline and training of the 
legions were admirable, so that the Roman in¬ 
fantry (of which the legions were mainly com¬ 
posed) was the best the world had yet seen. 
The Roman cavalry, on the other hand, was 
numerically weak, and was excelled by the Nu- 
midian, and still more so by the Parthian. Pay 
was given to the Roman troops from the time of 
the siege of Veii (406 b.c.). When the Roman 
empire in the West fell to pieces, in conse¬ 
quence of the repeated inroads and settlement 
within its borders of German tribes, there was 
an end for the time to all regular army organi¬ 
zation in western Europe. The forces by means 
of which the Roman empire had been gradually 
dismembered consisted, like the Persian hordes 
that 1,000 years before had conquered western 
Asia, of armed nations; but a new military 
organization, greatly inferior, however, to that 
of the Romans, grew up in process of time out 
of an institution common to all the German 
tribes. This was the practice followed by the 
chiefs of gathering round themselves bodies of 
retainers constantly ready to fight under them, 
in the expectation of being rewarded out of the 
spoils of conquest. As long as the Germans 
were confined to their original settlements out¬ 
side the Roman empire these bodies of retainers 
bore a small proportion to the total strength 
of the armed population; but when extensive 
conquests of land were made within the Roman 
empire more or less of the conquered territory 
was always seized by the conquerors, and the 
personal retainers of the conquering chiefs were 
often so richly rewarded that the retinues of the 
chiefs were rapidly swelled by the adhesion of 
those who hoped for equal gain. At first these 
grants were looked upon simply as rewards 
for past services, but they soon came to be 
given and received as pledges of future service, 
every person receiving a grant being bound to 
serve his chief in war whenever called upon. In 
this way the feudal system, as it is called, 
gradually arose, and feudal armies finally super¬ 
seded the national levies of the German tribes. 
When Charles Martel conquered the Saracens 
at Tours in 732 the transition from national 
to feudal armies was not yet accomplished, but 
it was almost completed under Charlemagne at 
the end of the same century. The chief strength 
of the feudal armies lay in the men-at-arms, 
who were all mounted, heavily armed, and pro¬ 
tected by shields and defensive armor. After 
the introduction of firearms, shields and armor 
ceased to be an effectual protection, personal 
valor and bodily strength became of less mo¬ 
ment, disciplined armies were found to be neces¬ 
sary, and the knights entered these armies as 
officers. The military forces of the small states 
that rose up in Italy from the 12th century 
resembled those of the states of ancient Greece 
in being at first nothing more than a civic 
militia. In later times hardly any troops were 
used, but mercenaries were employed, led by 
condottieri, and these at last were superseded 
by standing armies. 

Among the countries of modern Europe the 
foundation of a standing army was first laid in 
France. In 1439 Charles VII. of France issued 
an ordinance called the ordinance of Orleans 


for the creation of a number of troops of horse 
(hence called compagnies d’ordonnance or ordi¬ 
nance companies), which were to be main¬ 
tained by the cities and villages in war and 
peace. In 1448 the same king established a 
corresponding body of infantry called Francs- 
archers. Henceforward the feudal militia fell 
more and more into disrepute, and the vassals 
assembled their forces only on occasions of 
great emergency. The example of France was 
followed elsewhere, and during the wars of 
Francis I. and Charles V. at the beginning of 
the 16th century, France, Germany, and Spain 
were all in possession of considerable standing 
armies. These armies were all raised mainly 
by voluntary enlistment, compulsory levies being 
resorted to only under the pressure of exception¬ 
al circumstances. The usual practice was for 
the king to contract with some nobleman or 
gentleman for the raising of a regiment; but in 
the Thirty Years’ war Gustavus Adolphus set 
the example of raising all his troops directly for 
his own service. In this same war, however, a 
whole army was raised for the emperor by a 
private gentleman (the celebrated Wallenstein), 
the emperor engaging to give him the command 
of it. Gustavus Adolphus was also the author 
of many reforms in army organization. He es¬ 
tablished smaller divisions, introduced lighter 
weapons, separated the pikemen from the mus¬ 
keteers, who had hitherto been mixed together, 
and made many improvements in the artillery; 
by all of which changes quicker and more com¬ 
plicated movements became practicable. The 
soldier was more thoroughly drilled and re¬ 
duced almost to a machine, while the respon¬ 
sibilities of the officers were increased. The 
wars of Louis XIV. led to further improvements 
in military organization and tactics, and in a 
still greater degree to the increase of the size of 
armies. Instead of the 14,000 men maintained by 
Henry IV. of France, Louis XIV., after the 
Peace of Nijmegen (1678) had on foot an army 
of 140,000 men. Armies were likewise increased 
by all the other powers of Europe except Eng¬ 
land and Holland, where the strengthening of 
the standing army was looked on with great 
jealousy, and till the time of William III. con¬ 
tinually opposed by the representatives of the 
people as dangerous to freedom. Among the 
military powers that came to' the front in 
the next century the new Prussian monarchy was 
perhaps the most conspicuous. Frederick Wil¬ 
liam I. devoted all his energies to the creation 
of a strong military force, and his army of 
80,000 was increased by Frederick II. to 200,000. 
The latter introduced the system which still pre¬ 
vails in Prussia, and is now extended to the 
whole German empire, of localizing the different 
sections of his army. Each regiment was as¬ 
signed to a certain district, which was bound to 
keep it at its full complement. Where volun¬ 
tary enlistment did not suffice for this purpose 
resort was had to conscription; but this was 
applied only to the lowest classes of the com¬ 
munity. The systems of drill now followed in 
all European armies are founded on that in¬ 
troduced into the Prussian army by Leopold of 
Dessau, who organized it under Frederick Wil¬ 
liam I. Cavalry tactics were greatly improved 
by Frederick the Great himself, who also was 
the first to use horse artillery. The dividing 
of artillery into batteries is of about the same 


ARMY 


date, but is due to a Frenchman named Gri- 
beauval. 

Since the time of Frederick the Great a 
great change has taken place in the composition 
of armies through the reintroduction of the 
principle of the universal liability of all men 
capable of bearing arms to military service, or, 
in other words, through the raising of armies by 
a general conscription, now practised in every 
European country except England. Conscrip¬ 
tion was first adopted by France in 1798, and it 
was by means of it that Napoleon was able to 
raise the large armies with which he overran 
and conquered a great part of the Continent. 
In 1808 it was adopted by Prussia, by which 
power it has been applied with greater rigor 
than by any other. In Prussia it was combined 
with the short-service system, a mode of train¬ 
ing the population to arms suggested by Napo¬ 
leon’s attempt in the Peace of Tilsit to limit 
the Prussian army to a certain strength. This 
system consists in requiring those serving in the 
active army to remain under arms for a com¬ 
paratively short term (in Prussia three years), 
during which they become thoroughly trained 
soldiers ready for active service on any emer¬ 
gency. Every year a certain number return 
from the army to civil life, and are replaced by 
others who are subjected to military training for 
the same term. By this means Prussia, while 
never maintaining a larger active army than 
that prescribed by the Peace of Tilsit, was able 
to train its whole able-bodied male population 
to arms, and that without allowing the fact to 
be discovered until it was made manifest by the 
war of revenge in 1813. In other countries 
where the principle of conscription had been 
adopted its operation was greatly weakened by 
the numerous exemptions that might be ob¬ 
tained, and especially by allowing those required 
to serve to obtain exemption by paying for a 
substitute. Especially was this the case in 
France, where, under Napoleon III., the army 
had again become to all intents and purposes 
a professional one. In army organization the 
principal change that has been made since the 
introduction of conscription has been the estab¬ 
lishment of army corps (corps d’armee ), that is, 
divisions of an army composed of all arms (in¬ 
fantry, cavalry, and artillery), and placed under 
the command of a single general. These divi¬ 
sions were first established by Napoleon, who 
placed them under the command of his mar¬ 
shals. The division was afterward adopted by 
Prussia and extended to the German empire, 
where the further improvement is made of local¬ 
izing each army corps in a certain province or 
member of the empire, in which it is reunited, 
and in which are kept all the arms and other 
equipments necessary for its mobilization. In 
the Prussian army the cavalry are very numer¬ 
ous, and are used principally on the march, 
when they are sent in front to cover the advance 
of the main body of the troops, and to collect 
information. In all armies considerable changes 
in tactics have resulted from the increased 
range, precision, and rapidity of fire of the im¬ 
proved artillery and musketry now in use. 

In most nations, will now be found an army 
of reserve, intended to augment the standing 
army from a peace to a war strength, and con¬ 
sisting of two classes — those waiting an imme¬ 
diate call to arms, if required, and those con¬ 


stituting the militia — the entire effective mili¬ 
tary power of the state. It may be of interest 
here to mention certain distinctions in the appli¬ 
cation of the word army. A covering army is 
encamped for the protection of the different 
passes or roads which lead to the town or other 
place to be protected. A siege army is ranged 
around or in front of a fortified place, to capture 
it by a regular process of besieging. A blockad¬ 
ing army, either independent of, or auxiliary to, 
a siege army, is intended to prevent all ingress 
and egress at the streets or gates of a besieged 
place. An army of observation takes up an 
advanced position, and by celerity of movement 
keeps a close watch on all the manoeuvres of 
the enemy. An army of reconnaissance has a 
more special duty at a particular time and place, 
to ascertain the strength and position of the 
enemy’s forces. A flying column is a small 
army carrying all its supplies with it, so as to 
be able to operate quickly and in any direction, 
independentl}'- of its original base of opera¬ 
tions. 

Armies of the World.— The following table 
shows the armed strength of the military na¬ 
tions of the world as reported in 1900: 

Argentine Republic. — Regular army, 945 offi¬ 
cers and 312,073 men; national guard, 480,000 
officers and men. 

Austria-Hungary. — Peace footing, 24,583 of¬ 
ficers and 333,628 men; war footing, 45,238 offi¬ 
cers and 1,826,940 men; levy in mass, over 
4,000,000. 

Belgium. — Peace footing, 3,419 officers and 
48,014 men; war footing, 4,466 officers and 143,- 
628 men; Garde Civique, 42,827 officers and 
men. 

Bolivia. — Peace footing, 1,021 officers and 
2,000 men; war footing, 82,000 officers and men. 

Brasil. — Peace footing, 4,000 officers and 24,- 
160 men; gendarmerie, 20,000. 

British Empire. — Regular army, 8,109 com¬ 
missioned officers, 1,087 warrant officers, 17,100 
sergeants, 3,941 musicians, and 150,267 rank and 
file; reserves, regular, first and second classes, 
83,000 officers and men, militia, 138,961, yeoman¬ 
ry, 11,891, volunteers, 263,963; total home and 
colonial forces, 669,259; regular forces on In¬ 
dian establishments, 23,162; grand total, 742,421 
officers and men, of whom 664,189 were classed 
as effectives. Owing to the war in South Africa 
these numbers were increased considerably dur¬ 
ing the early part of the year. 

Chile. — Regular army, 623 officers and 29,- 
282 men; national guard, 512,700. 

China. —The Eight Banners, about 300,000 
officers and men; Ying Ping (national army) 
from 540,000 to 600,000 men; active armies of 
the Centre, Manchuria, and Turkestan, number 
unknown; total land army on peace footing 
about 300,000; on war footing, about 1,000,000. 

Colombia. — Peace footing fixed at 1,000, in 
1898; war footing fixed by Congress as circum¬ 
stances may require. 

Costa Rica. — Peace footing, 600 officers and 
men, and 12,000 militia; war footing, 34,000. 

Denmark. — Peace footing, 800 officers and 
9,000 men; war footing, 1,350 officers and 58,600 
men. 

Ecuador. — Peace footing, 3,341 officers and 
men; war footing, 30,000. 

Egypt. — Regular, about 100 English officers 


ARMY AND NAVY 


and 18,000 men. The English army of occupa¬ 
tion numbers 5,553 officers and men. 

France. — Peace footing, 26,849 officers and 
520,666 men, with 140,912 horses; in Algeria, 
2,195 officers and 55,122 men; in Tunis, 560 offi¬ 
cers and 13,455 men. Active army and its re¬ 
serve, 2,350,000; territorial army, 900,000; terri¬ 
torial reserve, 1,100,000; total, 4,350,000 men of 
whom about 2,500,000 were effectives. 

German Empire. — Peace footing, 23,176 offi¬ 
cers and 562,277 men, with 98,038 horses; war 
footing, strength not officially published, but 
estimated at over 3,000,000 trained officers and 
men. There are 494 field batteries, of which 47 
are mounted. 

Greece. — Peace footing, 1,880 officers and 
23,453 men; war footing, about 82,000 men; ter¬ 
ritorial army, about 96,000 men. 

Guatemala. — Peace footing, about 7,000 offi¬ 
cers and men; war footing, 56,900 men. 

Haiti. — Peace footing, 6,828 officers and men, 
and special guard of 10 officers and 650 men. 

Honduras. — Peace footing, 500 officers and 
men; with 20,000 militia. 

Italy. — Permanent army, under arms, 14,324 
officers and 237,660 men; on unlimited leave, 
556,984 officers and men; mobile militia, 475,972 
officers and men; territorial militia, 10,793 offi¬ 
cers and 2,003,474 men; total officers and men, 
3 , 299 , 439 . 

Japan. — Imperial Guard, 370 officers and 10,- 
843 men; 6 divisions, 2,745 officers and 73,606 
men; reserves, 696 officers and 82,384 men; Yezo 
militia, 95 officers and 4,482 men; the gendar¬ 
merie, 51 officers and 1,011 men; territorial 
army, 357 officers and 104,597 men; total 
strength, 4,760 officers and 279,981 men, with 
about 29,000 horses. 

Kongo Free State. — Peace footing, 234 Eu¬ 
ropean officers and 173 sergeants, and 15,580 
native troops. 

Korea. —An army of 5,000 officers and men. 

Madagascar. —An army of 191 officers and 
5,508 men. 

Mexico. — Peace footing, 2,068 officers and 
30,095 men; war footing, including reserves, 
151,500 officers and men. 

Montenegro. — No standing army; all males 
physically able are liable to military service*, 
there are about 100,000 rifles in the country. 

Morocco. — Peace footing, about 12,000 offi¬ 
cers and men, and 18,000 militia; war footing, 
in addition, about 40,000. 

Netherlands. — Peace footing, 1,466 officers 
and 40,195 sub-officers and soldiers; war foot¬ 
ing, indefinite. 

Nicaragua. — Peace footing, 2,000 officers and 
men; war footing, in addition, 10,000 reserve 
and national guard, 5,000. 

Norway. —Troops of the line and reserves, 
900 officers and 30,000 men; not over 18,000 
troops can be put under arms, even in war, 
without consent of the Storthing. 

Orange Free State. — Standing army, 150 of¬ 
ficers and men, and 550 artillerymen, as a re¬ 
serve; available war strength, 17,381. 

Paraguay. — Standing army, 82 officers and 
1,345 men; every male 20 to 35 years old is 
liable to war service. 

Persia.— Standing army, 24,500; nominal, 
105,500; liable to service, 53,520. 

Peru. — Peace footing, 3,157 officers and men 
with a police force of from 2,000 to 3,000. 


Portugal. — Peace footing, 35,337 officer^ and 
men; war footing, 160,000; colonial forces, 9.4/8 
officers and men, the greater number being na¬ 
tive troops. 

Rumania. — Peace footing, 3,478 officers, 448 
employees, and 56,489 men, 12,675 horses, and 
390 guns; territorial army 75,000 men, and 8,050 
horses; war footing, indefinite. 

Russia. — Peace footing, 36,000 officers and 
860,000 men; war footing, 63,000 officers and 
3,440,000 men. 

Salvador. — Standing army, 4,000 officers and 
men; militia, 18,000. 

Santo Domingo. — Small army and reserve at 
the capital of each province, every physically 
able male liable to service. 

Servia. — Standing army, 160,751 officers and 
men; war footing, 353,366 officers and men. 

Siam. — Standing army, 12,000; no armed 
militia; all males liable for war service. 

South African Republic. — No standing army; 
males liable for war service, 26,299. 

Spain. — Peace footing, 128,559 officers and 
men; war footing, 183,972 officers and men. 

Sweden. — Standing army, 1,946 officers and 
37,175 men. 

Switzerland. — No standing army; war effec¬ 
tive, Elite, 147,191 officers and men; Lander- 
wehr, 83,283; Landstrum, 271,780. 

Turkey. — Standing army, 700,620 officers 
and men; war footing, 900.000. 

United States. See Army of United States. 

Uruguay. — Permanent army, 233 officers and 
3,222 men; armed police force, 3,200; national 
guard, 20,000. 

Venezuela. — Standing army, 3,600 officers 
and men; national militia (males 18 to 45 years 
old), 60,000 men. 

Army and Navy, Mutual Relations of. 

The campaign of the United States army and 
navy in the Caribbean region, while instructive 
from many points of view, has especial value at 
the present moment to the people of the United 
States, as illustrative of certain necessary out¬ 
lines of our future naval and military policy. 
Estimating at the lowest the permanent results 
of the late war, the nation finds itself charged 
with valuable transmarine possessions, which 
have not merely to receive the local defence 
which is — or should be — common to the coun¬ 
try in general, but must also, for the welfare 
of the Commonwealth, be knit to the home body 
by the only military bonds that can cross the 
stretch of the seas. Local protection is indeed 
imperative; but from the military point of view, 
national defence, in any real sense, cannot be 
said to exist when the localized defences are not 
knit together and co-ordinated into a system, 
which insures freedom of communication and 
thereby mutual support. Gibraltar and its rock 
are the proverbial synonym of impregnability; 
yet Gibraltar in its time not only has fallen by 
local neglect, but has more than once narrowly 
escaped a like fate through inferiority of naval 
force—-through severance of communications 
with the body of which it is a member. 

The fortified places upon which a system of 
defence rests are stationary. They contribute 
to the general safety, directly, only so far as 
their guns can range, or as conducive to delay 
in case of attack; but when to them is added 
a mobile force, which either issues from them 
to assume the offensive, or which, in its move- 






ARMY AND NAVY 


merits, in the open, knows that in them security 
can be found in case of reverse, the various 
members are brought into a living union, where¬ 
in each contributes its proportion to the strength 
of the whole. On land such mobile force is 
represented by the active army in the field; at 
sea by the fleet. Both need the support of sta¬ 
tionary fortifications; and both, as has just been 
said, are essential in turn to the fortresses 
themselves. Jomini has truly said, (< When a 
state depends wholly upon fortified places (that 
is, upon mere defence) for its safety, it has 
touched the verge of ruin.® It may be deemed 
fortunate, that at the moment of starting upon a 
new career, the United States received an ob¬ 
ject lesson in the mutual relations of army and 
navy, of stationary defences to mobile force; 
a dramatic presentation of the part played by 
each, not only on the field of battle, but in the 
general maintenance of national security and 
power. Upon this living picture the eyes of 
the whole nation were fixed, with the vivid in¬ 
terest which always follows the progress of 
arms. The campaign against Cuba — and espe¬ 
cially against Santiago — by sea and by land, 
has for us the particular value that it lies 
wholly within our own experience, and speaks 
to us therefore with the force which belongs 
to experience alone among the teachers of man¬ 
kind. 

It is wise, says an old proverb, to learn 
from one’s enemy. Let us, for our instruction, 
turn our eyes for a moment upon our recent 
enemy, upon him who 400 years ago, in the 
heyday of Europe’s adolescence, went forth, a 
youth among other youths, to possess the land, 
and who now returns a discomfited prodigal, 
abandoning the last of the fair heritage upon 
which he, favored above his fellows, then en¬ 
tered. It is not indeed admissible in a short 
article, dealing avowedly with a particular brief 
episode of history, to attempt to trace the gen¬ 
eral causes of Spain’s downfall. Suffice it to 
note, in pursuance of our previous allegory, 
that from the beginning Spain’s ideas, both in¬ 
dividual and national, carried within them the 
seeds of inevitable and early blight. She shared 
with her contemporaries the restless ebullience 
of early manhood, as the nations were breaking 
out of the nursery of tradition and authority; 
but she went forth imbued, not with principles 
of action, but with mere habits of thought, ex¬ 
ternally imposed, and accepted without the self¬ 
questioning that comes from the collision of 
mind with mind. So, while the world was 
growing, Spain grew not. A century after 
America was discovered, she was in thought 
and method just where Ferdinand and Isabella 
were; as it is recommended to us now to re¬ 
main just where Washington or Jefferson, 
under different conditions, stood 100 years ago. 
The colonial system of Spain, which gasped its 
last this year, continued essentially the same 
from the beginning to the end ; even as we are 
told by foreigners familiar with the peninsula 
that people there live for the most part in the 
ideas of centuries ago. Shock after shock failed 
to loosen the hold of tradition, and it may be 
doubted whether even the final crash will pene¬ 
trate through men’s ears to the brain. 

One thing Spain has never been since the 
time that the unity of the peninsula was 
achieved — a maritime nation. Seamen, doubt¬ 
less, she has had; it would be rash indeed to 
deny that name to the men who accompanied 


Columbus, although the great adventurer was 
himself Italian; but for all that, as a nation, 
the heart of Spain has never turned to the sea. 
Yet Great Britain herself was scarcely more 
favorably situated for the development of mari¬ 
time instincts and maritime power. Like 
France, Spain borders the Atlantic and the 
Mediterranean; but above France she possessed 
the advantage that her only land frontier (leav¬ 
ing little Portugal out of account) was a lofty 
and difficult mountain range. Like the United 
States of to-day, which borders the Atlantic 
and the Pacific, Spain was practically an insular 
power; for, unlike the United States in the 
days of Washington, she had no dangerous con¬ 
tinental frontiers. In this security from attack 
by land, in the power of her sovereigns, un¬ 
rivaled in the 16th century, in her remoteness 
from the turmoil of central Europe, and in the 
one single danger to which she was exposed — 
the ravaging of the coasts by the Mohammedan 
pirates — was found a combination of circum¬ 
stances, which, so far as external pressure 
molds character, should have made Spain a 
respectable, if not a great, naval state. From 
the resources and exposure of her extensive 
and lucrative colonies there arose an additional 
incentive to commercial and naval development; 
but none followed. The root of the matter was 
not in her. What she was, that she remained. 
Often rebuked by disaster, she hardened her¬ 
self against change; until, in the end, she has 
suddenly been destroyed, and that without 
remedy. 

Yet no people more than the Spaniards un¬ 
derstood and practised the art of fortification 
as it existed in the days of their power. It 
was not lack of local defences that enfeebled 
the colonial empire of Spain, and so often 
caused particular localities to fall before an 
invader. It was the lack of control over the 
communications — over the sea, by which alone 
communication could be had — which permitted 
the enemy to assemble his forces with impu¬ 
nity, and prevented the Spaniards from reinforc¬ 
ing where needed; in a word, it was defect in 
the sea power, which insures mutual support 
and the possibility of offensive action. Defence, 
whether greater or less, only imposes delay; 
and delay must be improved, or it is useless. 
Like a burglar at a safe, so is the besieger; 
except that interruption may come, the time 
more or less does not matter. The essential 
thing for the party who, as regards the war, is 
on the defensive — who has the most to lose — 
is to retain in his hands the power to move at 
will and rapidly from point to point; not merely 
to defend locally, but to attack the assailant 
either in transit, or at his point of destination; 
or, it may be, even by offensive operations on 
the enemy’s own coasts. Such power — sea 
power—Spain has never had. The material 
elements she did indeed from time to time cre¬ 
ate. (( I never saw finer ships,® said Nelson a 
century ago. <( The Dons make fine ships; they 
cannot, however, make men.® This manifests 
again the impotence of mere government, or ex¬ 
ternal compulsion, to impress upon man or 
people qualities which find within no root of 
life, native or implanted. In the inward realm 
of ideas, diffused among the people, is the true 
strength of nations to be found. May we heed 
the warning. 

The history of four centuries only repeats 
itself in miniature when the final scene in the 


ARMY AND NAVY 


long drama of Spain’s colonial history is crit¬ 
ically regarded. The last Cuban revolt had 
continued already three years when the United 
States intervened. During that period, Spain 
had sent over 200,000 soldiers to her colonies, 
and had incurred an extraordinary expenditure 
of some $400,000,000 for the campaigns; an im¬ 
mense effort, whether regarded in itself alone, 
or relatively to the resources of the mother- 
country. Yet, although the mutterings that ran 
throughout the United States were audible in 
Europe, and it could have been plainly recog¬ 
nized that behind a mere political bluster there 
was unquestionable popular impulse — a most 
dangerous condition — no important addition 
was made to the fleet. Even the vessels on 
hand, antiquated though some were, were not 
brought up to the full efficiency they might have 
received. Cervera sailed with but four ships. 
Not till six weeks later was Camera able to 
get away, and then there went with him only two 
armored vessels. The inference is reasonable 
that such others as there were — and there 
were others — could not be got ready; that 
even the nominal force was not available. Yet 
one thing demonstrably certain is, that had the 
Spaniards maintained a navy superior to our 
own, the expense of which would have been 
far less than the cost of their troops in Cuba, 
it would have excluded us from the island, 
which otherwise its fortifications and armies 
could not do. It may be assumed, indeed, that 
had the Spanish navy been decisively superior 
to our own we would have refrained from war, 
unless determined to it by the loss of the 
Maine; for nothing so certainly maintains the 
peace as the evident readiness of the enemy. 
This the great armies of Europe now show. 
As it was, when Cervera was shut up in San¬ 
tiago, we dared to send 15,000 men a thousand 
miles by sea, to land at the very mouth of the 
harbor; and after this squadron was destroyed 
we were quite at our ease as regards the rest of 
the task. Utterly undeveloped as our military 
preparations were, we could take our time. 
The Spanish force in Cuba must waste; ours 
could not but increase. The end was thence¬ 
forth predetermined, and Spain wisely asked 
for peace. 

Yet while this lesson is clear, and in the 
opinion of the writer is the one of primary im¬ 
portance to ourselves — as to any nation under¬ 
taking to have colonies — it would be a most 
incomplete and misleading view did we not 
further recognize the complementary element 
of land forces and fortifications in deciding the 
issue of the war. Had there remained to Spain 
a fleet — a (( fleet in being, }) to use a phrase now 
widely accepted as technical — at all equal to 
our own, and able shortly to get to sea, our 
advantage at Santiago, would have been but 
momentary and indecisive. The presence of 
the Spanish army, 100,000 strong, of as good 
fighting quality as the Santiago garrison is said 
to have shown, while it would not have con¬ 
trolled the whole island, would have effectually 
excluded us from the more important part, until 
the Spanish navy, temporarily eliminated by 
Cervera’s defeat, could have again been brought 
into play. The co-ordinate value of mere de¬ 
fence would have received conspicuous illustra¬ 
tion.. The Spanish army in Cuba, and its forti¬ 
fications of every kind, seacoast or otherwise, 
were, as regards the general war, strictly lim¬ 
ited to the defence of the island. The com¬ 


munications between it and the United States — 
the roads — were in our hands, to transport 
troops as we pleased; but only temporarily so, 
on the present hypothesis, namely, that Spain 
had still a fleet which, upon arrival in the 
Caribbean, would have a fighting equality or 
superiority to ours. The question therefore at 
such a stage would be one of delay. Can the 
Spanish army keep the field until its fleet ap¬ 
pears and exclude us from the control of the 
vital centre of the island? Failing this, can.it 
even, by retiring to its fortresses, preserve its 
integrity, and prevent our obtaining that essen¬ 
tial foothold for maritime enterprise, a fortified 
seaport close to the scene of operation — a 
bridgehead for entrance when ready? If so, it 
secures the necessary delay until the all-im¬ 
portant decisive factor in maritime wars, the 
navy, can make itself again felt. 

It is clear, therefore, that while an incon¬ 
testable and inalienable primacy belongs to the 
navy in all cases of transmarine warfare, the 
maintenance of an adequate territorial army, 
resting upon proper fortified bases, is likewise 
indispensable, if secondary. And indeed, this 
hypothetical case, of a fleet remaining to Spain 
after Cervera’s mishap, was the actual condi¬ 
tion before that event; to the extent at least of 
our certain knowledge of what the Spanish 
navy might, or might not, be able to do. Had 
the enemy had no army in Cuba, and had he 
pursued his proper course by recalling Cer¬ 
vera from the Cape Verde Islands to Spain, as 
a preliminary to sending the concentrated fleet 
across the ocean, we might have sent troops to 
seize and strengthen themselves in Cuba’s stra¬ 
tegic ports; but, in the face of the then Spanish 
army, it was not possible to do so to any good 
effect. Consequently, we did not attempt it, 
until Cervera was cornered. 

Probably our people at large are conscious 
that colonial possession involves a colonial 
army. This the experience of Great Britain tells 
us may be largely, though not wholly, aborig¬ 
inal ; and that the less developed the civilization 
of the natives, the greater the proportion of 
the latter may be to the whole force. But it is 
doubtful whether the general acquiescence in 
the necessity of such an army is accompanied 
by an exact understanding of the part it plays in 
maintaining possession; what its strength is, 
and what its weakness, considered, not in itself 
alone, but in relation to the whole problem 
of national and colonial defence. The function 
and effect of the Spanish army in Cuba illus¬ 
trate this, and therefore are important to be 
understood, for the appreciation, not of recent 
history only, but of the necessary future 
policy of the United States as well. The 
navy binds all together; without it each 
falls in time, isolated and unsupported. In 
1762, as in 1898, in one twelve-month Spain 
lost both Manila and Havana, and for the 
same reason — defective sea power. But in 
order that the navy, the mobile force, may as¬ 
sure the whole, it is necessary that each part 
be able to resist attack during a measurable 
period, exactly as a fortress on any scene of 
warfare.. Each colony, until it becomes self- 
supporting and fit for independence, is an ex¬ 
posed garrison. They are plausibly right, there¬ 
fore, who argue that, as a general rule a country 
does, not consult its immediate interests by 
acquiring colonies. Their error is in failing to 


ARMY CORPS —ARMY RESERVE 


recognize that immediate self-interest is not al¬ 
ways the sole test, although it furnishes us a 
very adequate reason for taking Hawaii. It 
may be a duty to accept a responsibility which 
is not to one’s convenience. For what other 
reason than duty is civic activity immediately 
incumbent on the well-to-do? 

It is interesting to find the same conditions 
revealing themselves in the minutiae of specific 
instances as truly as in broad generalizations. 
In the broad history of policy we shall find 
illustrated the mutual dependence of the active 
army and navy, of seacoast fortification and 
the fleet. It is a curiously ironical comment 
upon human foresight that the issue of the war 
turned upon the tenure of that one of the great 
Cuban ports, which at the first certainly seemed 
least likely to be involved, as a scene of actual 
conflict. From Spanish sources we learn that 
Cervera entered the port because it was the 
only one available. If such was actually the 
reason for this seemingly fortuitous step, he 
acted under a misapprehension of our disposi¬ 
tions. Until he had so entered, however, his 
squadron was the controlling factor in the gen¬ 
eral situation. The navy of the defence, though 
locally much inferior to its opponent, was yet 
too strong to justify our exposing troops upon 
the maritime high roads; and it rested also on 
several fortified ports, from any of which it 
might issue to attack our interests, and in 
which it might find refuge, when pressed for 
supplies or by our ships. The Spanish tenure 
of Santiago made the squadron therein secure; 
and although a singular lack of enterprise, as 
yet unexplained, paralyzed it as an active factor, 
the mere possibilities of offensive movement 
open to it imposed upon us its neutralization 
and, if feasible, its destruction. The former 
was insured to the utmost degree practicable 
when our fleet had been concentrated before 
the port; but from direct attack it was pre¬ 
served by the territorial army, supporting the 
permanent fortifications and the lines of tor¬ 
pedoes. These cannot be overcome by ships 
alone, unless the assailant is able to throw away 
not only lives of men, who may be replaced, but 
ships which cannot. Those who can recall con¬ 
ditions at the time, not only as regards our im¬ 
mediate enemy, but the rumored dispositions of 
other states reported to be unfriendly toward 
us, will understand that the preservation of 
our navy in undiminished force was a political 
consideration of paramount importance. We 
could not afford then to lose ships, unless at the 
same time we diminished by at least an equal 
amount the naval force which might yet be ar¬ 
rayed against us. 

Our army, therefore, was > called upon to 
make untenable the refuge which sheltered the 
hostile fleet. That we were able to move our 
troops to the scene of action with perfect as¬ 
suredness was due to the fact that our navy 
had established its predominance in the local 
waters; and conversely, Spain suffered invasion 
of her colony because she had lost control of 
the sea. Our troops, when landed, depended for 
their security and for their supplies upon 
the continuance of this maritime condition; 
the sea, in short, was its line of communica¬ 
tions, which the navy protected. On the other 
hand, unless Cervera were forced to quit the 
port by famine, produced by the blockade—-a 
not impossible contingency — the navy could 
Vol. i—4* 


not get at his ships to destroy them without the 
aid of the army; and destruction was neces¬ 
sary, for, as the French proverb says, <( It is 
only the dead who do not return® inconven¬ 
iently. The army’s aid might be extended in 
one of two ways. Either it might — if it could 
— get possession of the town by its own un¬ 
aided efforts, or by establishing a dominant 
position overlooking it; or it might direct its 
attempt, aided by the navy, upon the works 
commanding the harbor’s mouth. These re¬ 
duced, the navy would be able to remove the 
torpedoes, enter the port, and engage the hos¬ 
tile squadron. 

These details of comment, however, do not 
at all affect the general propositions upon which 
the writer has sought to fasten the attention of 
his readers; the mutual dependence of army 
and navy, in the attack or defence of maritime 
regions, and the primacy therein of the navy, 
which represents both the communications and 
the offensive element of the war upon the sea. 
By the neglect of these considerations Spain 
lost her colonial empire. By the observance of 
them Great Britain has preserved hers, and the 
English-speaking race dominates the sea. In 
this predominance, further, are involved the 
issues of that mysterious future, the movings 
of which we are now beginning to discern, as 
in a glass darkly; and which the race holds 
within its grasp, if only through wise guidance 
of popular thought by those who have time to 
think, it can find its way, not by formal alli¬ 
ance but by political comprehension, to com¬ 
mon action and to mutual support. 

A. T. Mahan, 

Author of ( Influence of Sea-Power? Etc. 

Ar'my Corps, a term denoting one of the 
largest divisions of an army in the field, com¬ 
prising all arms, and commanded by a general 
officer; but subdivided into divisions, which may 
or may not comprise all arms. 

Ar'my Hospital Train, a railway contriv¬ 
ance for military purposes, introduced by the 
surgeon-general of the United States army dur¬ 
ing the war with Spain, in 1898, for the purpose 
of conveying sick and wounded soldiers, on their 
arrival from Cuba, at Florida ports, to various 
military hospitals in the United States. This 
train had a full staff of physicians, surgeons, 
and trained nurses, and was completely equipped 
with everything necessary for medical and sur¬ 
gical treatment of soldiers. It is believed to 
have been the first train service completely or¬ 
ganized for such purpose. 

Ar'my Register, an annual publication of 
the United States government giving personal, 
regimental, and other details of the regular 
army, and corresponding to the British ( Army 
List.* 

Ar'my Reserve, in most European armies, 
a force consisting of a first and second class 
army reserve and a militia reserve. The first 
class army reserve consists: (1) Of men whc 
have completed their period of seven years in 
the active army, and of men who, after having 
served not less than three years in the active 
army, have been transferred to the reserve tc 
complete the term ot their engagement; (2) of 
soldiers who have purchased their discharge and 
enrolled themselves in the reserve for five years. 


ARMY SCHOOLS —ARMY OF THE UNITED STATES 


In time of war or when the country is threat¬ 
ened, the men of this class become liable for 
the same services as the active army. The sec¬ 
ond class army reserve is made up of enrolled 
pensioners, and is liable only for service at 
home. The militia reserve is composed of men 
belonging to the militia who voluntarily enroll 
themselves in this reserve for a period of six 
years, thus rendering themselves liable to be 
drafted into the regular army in case of war. 
In the United States there is no Federal army 
reserve, but each State maintains a militia force 
under the command of the governor, principally 
to aid the legal authorities in maintaining peace 
within its limits. In emergencies threatening 
the whole country, and where the regular army 
is insufficient, the President calls for volun¬ 
teers, apportions the number needed among the 
several States, and asks the governors to sup¬ 
ply the determined quotas. The bulk of the 
volunteer army is thus drawn from the miltia. 

Ar'my Schools. See Army War College; 
Military Schools. 

Army of the United States, The. The Con¬ 
stitution gives to Congress the power to provide 
for the common defense and general welfare of 
the United States, “to declare war,” “to raise 
and support armies,” and “ to make rules for the 
government and regulation of the land and naval 
forces.” The responsibility, therefore, for the 
common defense rests with Congress, for all the 
power essential to meet it is vested in the legis¬ 
lature of the nation, which has supreme control. 

During the War of the Revolution General 
Washington was unanimously elected 15 June 

1775, “ to command all the continental forces 
raised or to be raised, for the defense of Amer¬ 
ican liberty,” but on assuming command, he found 
an heterogeneous and undisciplined force, and 
immediately took measures to bring order out 
of confusion; and the General having recom¬ 
mended to the Congress and pointed out the 
necessity for a war office, that body, on 13 June 

1776, created a Board of War, composed of 
its own members, which body was the germ of 
the War Department of our Government. Dur¬ 
ing 1781 the Continental Congress, having under 
consideration a plan for the arrangement of the 
civil executive departments, established among 
others the office of Secretary of War, to which 
Major-General Lincoln was elected, and at this 
juncture several acts were passed defining the 
duties of the office, organizing various of the 
Staff Corps, and providing for a military es¬ 
tablishment. 

From that period, although Congress has 
made appropriations for the support of the army, 
and passed laws for its better efficiency, the 
evolution of organization and equipment and 
of the general (administrative and supply) 
staff has only been accomplished through ten¬ 
tative measures, and to meet emergencies. It 
is of little interest, therefore, to review its 
history in this respect, for the past few years 
have brought about a complete revolution in 
the organization, equipments, tactics, and arma¬ 
ments of an army. 

From the early history of our country the 
sentiment of the people as expressed through the 
Congress, has always been opposed to a stand¬ 
ing army in time of peace, but the Constitution 
itself declares that “ A well-regulated militia 


being necessary to the security of a free state, 
the right of the people to keep and bear arms 
shall not be infringed.” It has been the con¬ 
tinuous policy of the government to maintain 
only a small army, and to rely in any great war 
upon the volunteers, and after each, to disband 
the citizen soldiery and reduce the regular es¬ 
tablishment to a peace basis. 

With the exception of periods of actual war¬ 
fare, the functions of the regular army are to 
man the seacoast fortifications, which protect 
our harbors and great cities from hostile attack, 
and to garrison the outposts on the western 
frontier, and at such strategic points as Con¬ 
gress determines to be suitable; to be always 
ready to fight for the country in any sudden 
emergency which may come upon it before 
there is time to raise a volunteer force, and 
during the time such a force is being raised; 
to constantly study, and experiment upon, and 
exercise in, all the improvements in military 
science, both in arms, ammunition, equipment, 
supplies, sanitation, transportation, drill and 
tactics; to furnish a nucleus of officers and men 
thoroughly familiar with the business for 
strengthening and ready instruction of the vol¬ 
unteer army. 

Strength and Organization .— The following 
table shows the authorized strength of the regu¬ 
lar army under the various acts of Congress 
from 1789 to 1901: 


Acts. 


Officers. 


Enl. Men. 


Sept. 29, 1789 

April 30, 1790 

March 3, 1791 

March 5, 1792 

May 30, 1796 

April 27, 1798 

May 27, 1798 

July 16, 1798 

March 3, 1799 

May 14, 1800 

March 16, 1802 

April 12, 1808 

June 26, 1812 

March 3, 18x3 

March 30, 1814 

March 3, 1815 

March 2, 1821 

April s, June 15, 28, 1832 

March 2, 1833 

May 23 and July 4, 1836 

July s and 7, 1838 

May and June, 1846 

Feb. 11 and March 3, 1847 

Aug. 14, 1848 

June 17, 18500 

March 3, 18551? 

July 29 and Aug. 3, 1861 

July 28, 1866c 

March 3, 1869 

July 15, 1870 

June 16, 1874 

March 8, 1898 

April 26 and July 7, 1898 

March 2, 1899 

Feb. 2, 1901^ 


46 

57 

104 

258 

233 

289 


303 

783 

2,447 

3 i 8 


241 

774 

1.657 

3,260 

3,495 

674 

589 

540 

599 

647 

735 

775 
i ,353 

882 

889 


1,040 


2,009 

3,036 


2,277 

2,264 

2,151 


2,137 


2,432 

2,585 

3,860 


840 

1,216 

2,128 

5,156 

3,126 

3,870 

10,000 

13,638 

49,244 

4,118 

3,046 

9 ,i 47 

34,095 

54,091 

59,170 

11,709 

5,586 

6,540 

6,595 

7 , 3 io 

11,804 

17,020 

29,512 

9 . 43 S 
11,000 
16,882 
37,264 
51,605 
35,036 
30,000 
25,000 
26,610 
63,106 
65,000 
60,450 


a By the Act of 17 June 1850 the President is au¬ 
thorized to increase the number of privates in each of the 
companies of the army, serving, or which may hereafter 
serve, at the military posts of the western frontier, and 
at remote and distant stations, to any number not ex¬ 
ceeding 74, which if all had been serving at distant 
stations would have made the total maximum enlisted 
strength 13,885, the minimum being 9,385 enlisted men. 

b The minimum authorized enlisted strength under 
the Act of 3 March 1855, was 11,658, and the maxi¬ 
mum 17,278. 

c The Act of 28 July 1866 fixed the minimum en¬ 
listed strength at 51,605, and the maximum at 77,259. 

d The Act of 2 February 1901 fixes the minimum 
strength at 59,131 enlisted men and the maximum at 
100,000, the number of officers remaining the same. 


















INSIGNIA UNITED STATES ARMY. 



Arranged by Harold L. Crane, A r . Y. City. 


j. Judge-Advocate General’s Department. 

2. Infantry. 

3. Inspector General’s Staff. 

4. Pay Department. 

5. Engineer Corps. 

6. Subsistence Department. 

7. Quartermaster’s Department. 

8. Cavalry. 


9. Signal Corps. 

10. Medical Department. 

11. Coat of Arms. 

12. Ordnance Department. 

13. Field Artillery. 

14. Adjutant General’s Department. 

15. Coast Artillery. 




























































. . 

‘ 




























ARMY OF THE UNITED STATES 


The regular army on I Jan. 1898, just 
prior to the declaration of war with Spain, 
consisted of 2,157 officers and 25,350 men, all 
told. War being imminent, the Congress dur¬ 
ing March and April, 1898, passed certain acts 
for the better organization of the line of the 
army, which authorized a maximum enlisted 
strength of 65,000 men; increased the artillery 
by two regiments; added to each infantry regi¬ 
ment a third battalion of four companies each; 
provided for additional non-commissioned offi¬ 
cers for the regiments, squadrons, and battal¬ 
ions, and for the troops and companies; and 
the enlisted strength of each unit was consider¬ 
ably augmented. 

By an act approved 22 April 1898, the Con¬ 
gress made provision for accepting into the 
service the militia (National Guard organiza¬ 
tions) and volunteers from the various States, 
and made the following declaration with respect 
to the National forces: 

All able-bodied male citizens of the United States, 
and persons of foreign birth who shall have declared 
their intention to become citizens of the United States 
. . . between the ages of 18 and 45, are hereby 
declared to constitute the National forces, and with 
such exceptions and under such conditions as may 
be prescribed by law, shall be liable to perform military 
duty in the service of the United States. 

That the organized and active land forces of the 
United States shall consist of the army of the United 
States and of the militia of the several States when 
called into the service of the United States: Provided, 
that in time of war the army shall consist of two 
branches which shall be designated, respectively, as the 
regular army and the volunteer army of the United 
States. 

That the regular army is the permanent military 
establishment, which is maintained both in peace and 
war according to law. That the volunteer army shall 
be maintained only during the existence of war,_ or 
while war is imminent, and shall be raised and organized 
(as prescribed by the statute) only after Congress has, 
or shall have authorized the President to raise such a 
force or to call into the actual service of the United 
States the militia of the several States. 

The law authorized enlistments to be made 
for the term of two years, unless sooner termi¬ 
nated, and that all officers and men composing 
the volunteer army should be discharged when 
the purposes for which they were called into 
service were accomplished, or on the conclusion 
of hostilities. 

The law further prescribed that the President 
should issue his proclamation, when it became 
necessary to raise the volunteer army, stating 
the number of men desired (within the limits 
prescribed) ; enjoined the Secretary of War with 
the duty of examining, organizing (as prescribed 
for in the regular army), and receiving into the 
service the men called for, and as far as prac¬ 
ticable these troops were to be accepted only in 
proportion to the population of the several 
States and Territories. The law also required 
that the organizations of the volunteer army 
should be maintained as near their maximum 
strength as was deemed necessary by the Presi¬ 
dent, and prohibited the acceptance of new 
organizations unless those already in service 
from the States were kept fully recruited. 

The law also authorized (in addition to those 
already provided for by law) the appointment of 
general, and general staff officers of volunteers, 
sufficient for the proper command of the com¬ 
bined forces, and permitted of regular officers 
holding volunteer commissions without preju¬ 
dice to their regular army status. 

Of this army, three regiments of engineer 
troops, three of cavalry, and ten of infantry 


were United States volunteers recruited from 
the nation at large — all of the officers being 
commissioned by the President. As fast as the 
State troops were presented properly organized, 
they were mustered into the service of the 
United States. The total number furnished for 
the war with Spain was 10,017 officers (387 offi¬ 
cers of the regular army received volunteer com¬ 
missions) and 213,218 enlisted men. 

The close of the war brought into operation 
the provisions of the acts of 22 April and 26 
April 1898, which required that at the end of the 
war the entire volunteer forces should be dis¬ 
charged and the regular army reduced to a 
peace basis, thus making necessary the discharge 
of about 35,000 regular troops, 110,000 volun¬ 
teers, and substantially all of the 5,000 volun¬ 
teer line and staff officers. 

The act of 2 March 1899, was passed in view 
of the insurrection in the Philippine Islands, 
and gave authority to again increase the regular 
army to a strength not exceeding 65,000 men, 
and to raise a force of not more than 35,000 
volunteers to be recruited from the country at 
large — the field officers being appointed from 
among the officers of the regular army, 233 
officers holding such commissions. All the vol¬ 
unteers authorized by this act were recruited 
and forwarded to the Philippine Islands by 
January 1900, and there actively employed in 
military operations. During that year about 
42,000 men of the regular army and 31,000 of 
the volunteers were in service in the Philippine 
archipelago. This act contained the provision 
that all general staff and line officers appointed, 
and the volunteer troops raised, under its pro¬ 
visions, should be discharged not later than 

1 July 1901 and the regular army reduced to 
the number as provided by law prior to 1 April 
1898, exclusive of the addition made to the 
artillery; but the Congress, recognizing the ne¬ 
cessity for a larger and more perfectly organ¬ 
ized army, passed a law, which was approved 

2 Feb. 1901, providing for an increase of line 
organizations from 25 regiments of infantry to 
30, and 10 regiments of cavalry to 15, and from 
7 regiments of artillery, including 14 field and 
2 siege batteries, to the equivalent of 13 regi¬ 
ments (organized into 30 batteries of field ar¬ 
tillery and 130 companies of coast ar¬ 
tillery), and 5 companies of engineers to 12 
companies, representing 3 battalions. The min¬ 
imum and maximum numbers of enlisted men 
for the different arms were established by the 
same statute, so that the total number of en¬ 
listed men might be varied by the President 
according to exigencies from a minimum of 
59,131 to a maximum of 100,000 (including a 
corps of Philippine Scouts, which is limited to 
12,000), the commissioned personnel remaining 
the same. 

The regular army is recruited (through the 
agency of recruiting officers maintained in the 
principal cities and towns) in times of peace 
and war by voluntary enlistments (term of ser¬ 
vice three years) from among citizens of the 
United States, between the ages of 18 and 35, 
of good character and temperate habits, able- 
bodied, free from disease, and with educational 
capacity to speak, read, and write the English 
language. The native born constitute about 90 
per cent of the enlistments in the army. 


ARMY OF THE UNITED STATES 


In addition to the pay ($13.00 per month for 
the private being the minimum), all soldiers re¬ 
ceive from the government, rations, clothing, 
shelter, medicine and medical attendance, and 
certain increases in the fixed pay for continuous 
service. Soldiers can deposit their savings with 
the paymasters, and are allowed four per centum 
per annum thereon on final discharge. For those 
who have served honestly and faithfully 20 
years, or who have been discharged for wounds 
received or disease incurred in service, a com¬ 
fortable home is maintained in the city of 
Washington, toward the maintenance of which 
each soldier contributes i2 l / 2 cents per month 
from his pay, and all court-martial fines and 
forfeitures and pay due deserters go to the home. 

In addition to the combatant force proper, 
the law authorizes the enlistment of musicians; 
for the cavalry troops, cooks, blacksmiths and 
farriers, saddlers and wagoners; for the artil¬ 
lery corps, electricians, cooks, mechanics and 
artificers; and cooks and artificers for the in¬ 
fantry. Special technical skill is required for 
enlistment in the engineer, signal and hospital 
corps. 

Officers: Appointment to, Advancement in, 
and Retirement from the Military Service .— 
The power to make appointments is vested in 
the President and the Senate of the United 
States, acting concurrently, within the limits 
of the enactments of Congress, which do not 
encroach upon the prerogatives of the executive, 
who, under the Constitution is the Commander- 
in-Chief of the army and navy of the United 
States. 

The army is officered, (1) from the gradu¬ 
ates of the Military Academy, to which young 
men may be admitted between the ages of 17 
and 22. Candidates must be free from any 
infectious or immoral disorder, and any defi¬ 
ciency which may render them unfit for the 
military service, and must be possessed of a 
good elementary education; the examination for 
entrance being made to conform to the courses 
of study ordinarily covered in the high schools 
and academies of the country by boys of aver¬ 
age age of appointees, and they may be admit¬ 
ted upon certificates from educational institu¬ 
tions. Two cadets-at-large are allowed each 
State (designated by the respective Senators), 
and one for each congressional district, Terri¬ 
tory, and the District of Columbia. In addition 
to this number the President is allowed a num¬ 
ber of appointments, which are usually made 
from among the sons of officers of the army 
and navy. 

The commanding officer of the academy, who 
has the title of Superintendent, is detailed from 
the army, and has the temporary rank of colonel. 
For the purpose of discipline and tactical in¬ 
struction, the cadets are organized as a battalion 
of four companies, with officers and non-com¬ 
missioned officers selected from among their 
own numbers. The corps is commanded by an 
officer having the temporary rank of lieutenant- 
colonel. He is also an instructor in drill regu¬ 
lations of the three arms of the service. 
An officer of engineers and of ordnance are 
detailed as instructors of practical military 
engineering and of ordnance and gunnery, 
respectively. The heads of the other departments 
of instruction have the title of professors. They 
are selected generally from officers of the army, 


and their positions are permanent. The officers 
before mentioned and the professors constitute 
the academic board. The military staff and as¬ 
sistant instructors are officers of the army. 1 he 
course of instruction covers four years, and is 
very thorough. Theoretical instruction com¬ 
prises mathematics, French, Spanish, English, 
drawing, physics, astronomy, chemistry, ord¬ 
nance and gunnery, art of war, civil and mili¬ 
tary engineering, international, constitutional, 
and military law, history, and drill regulations 
of all arms. The practical instruction com¬ 
prises service drills in infantry, cavalry, and ar¬ 
tillery, surveying, reconnaissances, field engi¬ 
neering, and gymnastics. The discipline at the 
academy is very strict — more so than in the 
army. In addition to a training and education 
fitting the cadets for the military service, the 
aim is to inculcate habits of prompt and cheer¬ 
ful obedience to lawful authority, of neatness, 
order, and regularity, and of thoughtfulness and 
attention to the discharge of duty. A scrupu¬ 
lous regard for truthfulness is also required. 
Upon graduation commissions for the rank of 
second lieutenant are usually conferred by the 
President, and the graduates are given a choice 
as to the arm of service and regiments, as far as 
practicable, those graduating at the head of the 
class having preference. The military academy, 
on 11 June 1902, celebrated with appropriate 
ceremonies the completion of one hundred 
years of honorable and useful service; and 
liberal appropriations by Congress for rebuild¬ 
ing and extending the institution will enable 
it to begin its second century with the well- 
founded hope of larger and long-continued use¬ 
fulness. 

In the event of remaining vacancies in the 
grade of second lieutenant in any year further 
appointments are made, (2) from among the 
enlisted men of the army who are authorized 
by law to enter a competitive examination, after 
two years’ service, provided they be between 
the ages of 21 and 30, unmarried, and 
physically and morally qualified. To obtain a 
commission the candidate must pass an edu¬ 
cational and physical examination before a board 
of officers. The board also takes into consider¬ 
ation the character, capacity, and military rec¬ 
ord of the candidate. Many well-educated young 
men, unable to obtain appointments to West 
Point, enlist in the army for the express pur¬ 
pose of becoming officers through this medium. 
And (3) civilians are appointed to vacancies 
that may be left when the two first classes have 
been exhausted. To be eligible for appointment 
the candidate must be a citizen of the United 
States, unmarried, between the ages of 21 and 
27 years, and must be approved by an examin¬ 
ing board as to habits, moral character, physical 
ability, education, and general fitness for the 
service. 

Although the military academy has in the 
past supplied a majority of the officers entering 
the service in each year, the partial increase of 
the army in 1898 by reason of the breaking out 
of hostilities with Spain, and resulting casual¬ 
ties, and its re-organization with increased num¬ 
bers on the disbandment of the volunteer army 
called into service during the Spanish-Ameri- 
can war, has necessitated the appointment of a 
large number of officers from among the enlisted 
men, volunteers, and civilians. Of the ap- 






ARMY OF THE UNITED STATES 


pointments to the line of the army in the four 
years following the Spanish-American War, 
about one-sixth were supplied by the military 
academy; the others having been appointed 
from the ranks, civil life, and from the vol¬ 
unteers of the war with Spain and in the Phil¬ 
ippines. The volunteers and enlisted men had 
acquired useful experience and were selected on 
the ground of their military conduct and intel¬ 
ligence, yet this considerable influx in the com¬ 
missioned personnel had not permitted of a 
systematic military education. To overcome this 
deficiency, and with a view to maintaining a 
high standard of instruction and general train¬ 
ing of the officers of the army, and to keep pace 
with the difficulties of the problems involved in 
transporting, supplying, and handling armies 
of modern times, and for caring for and 
rendering effective the increasing complexity of 
the machines and material used in the defense 
of the coast fortifications, a system of military 
instruction is required, and accomplished 
through officers’ schools at each military post, 
for elementary instruction in theory and prac¬ 
tice, and at special service schools—(a) The 
Artillery School at Fort Monroe, Va.; (b) The 
Engineer School of Application, Washington 
Barracks, D. C.; (c) The School of Submarine 
Defense, Fort Totten, N. Y.; (d) The School 
of Application for Cavalry and Field Artillery 
at Fort Riley, Kansas; (e) The Army Medical 
School. A General Service and Staff College 
is also maintained at Forth Leavenworth; and 
a War College, at the city of Washington, for 
the most advanced instruction in the military 
art and science. The Congress has made pro¬ 
vision for the maintenance of these schools, and 
given its sanction to the general system of mil¬ 
itary education prescribed therein. 

Promotions in the line are made through 
the whole army by seniority, in the several arms, 
namely, artillery, cavalry, and infantry, re¬ 
spectively, between first lieutenant and briga¬ 
dier-generals, relative rank being determined 
by length of service as an officer of the United 
States either in the regular or volunteer forces. 
Promotions among officers of the staff holding 
permanent commissions are made in like man¬ 
ner in the several departments and corps, re¬ 
spectively. 

Educational and physical examinations are 
required of officers of the line upon promotion 
between the grades of first lieutenant and ma¬ 
jors. 

In every service, to maintain a reasonably 
low age among the persons actively employed, 
it is essential that some scale be fixed for the 
retirement of old and worn-out officers, and 
those incapacitated for active military service. 
When an officer in the line of promotion is re¬ 
tired from active service, or in the event of 
casualties, by reason of retirements, resigna¬ 
tions, or deaths, the next officer in rank is pro¬ 
moted to his place, and the same rule of pro¬ 
motion is applied successively, to the vacancies 
consequent upon such casualties. 

The laws for the retirement from the mil¬ 
itary service provide: 

(i) If an officer has had 30 years’_ ser¬ 
vice (and makes application therefor), or if he 
has reached the age of 62, he may be placed on 
the retired list. 


(2) If an officer has been borne on the army 
register for 40 years (and makes application 
therefor), or if he has reached the age of 64, 
he shall be retired from active service. 

(3) An officer may also be retired on ac¬ 
count of disability contracted in the line of 
duty; or, wholly retired, if his incapacity is 
not the result of an incident of service, and his 
name dropped from the rolls of the army. 

(4) In like manner enlisted men of the army 
may be retired after 40 years of service. 

Officers and enlisted men on the retired list 
receive 75 per cent of the pay of the rank held 
upon retirement, but they are withdrawn from 
command and promotion, except, that officers 
may be assigned to duty as military instructors 
at colleges, and at the Soldiers’ Home (D. C.). 
They are, however, amenable to the rules and 
articles of war, and subject to trial by court- 
martial for a violation thereof. 

The Staff of the Army .— The Secretary of 
War is the head of the War Department, and 
performs such duties as are required of him by 
law, or may be enjoined upon him by the Pres¬ 
ident concerning the military establishment and 
administers its affairs and promulgates the or¬ 
ders and directions of the President through a 
chief of staff, who has, under the Secretary of 
War, supervision of all troops of the line and 
of the administration of the several staff de¬ 
partments. The Secretary of War is charged 
with the supervision of estimates of appro¬ 
priations, of all purchases of army supplies, 
of all expenditures for the support, trans¬ 
portation, and maintenance of the army; 
and such expenditures of a civil nature 
as may be placed by Congress under his direc¬ 
tion. He also has supervision of the Military 
Academy and of military education in the army, 
of the Board of Ordnance and Fortification, of 
the various battlefield commissions. He has 
charge of all matters relating to national de¬ 
fense and seacoast fortifications, army ordnance, 
river and harbor improvements, etc. He also 
has charge of the establishment or abandon¬ 
ment of military posts, and of all matters re¬ 
lating to lands under the control of the War 
Department. His duties also embrace all mat¬ 
ters pertaining to civil government in the island 
possessions subject to the jurisdiction of the 
War Department. 

But twfice in the history of military legisla¬ 
tion has provision been formally made for the 
office of Chief of Staff of the Army: (1) in the 
act of 3 March 1813, which has never been re¬ 
pealed in express terms, and (2) in the act of 
3 March 1865, repealed by the act of 3 April 
1869. 

While legislative sanction is not required to 
enable the President to assign an officer to duty 
as Chief of Staff, a position demanded by the 
necessities of the service, Congress, by the act 
of 14 Feb. 1903, formally authorized the office 
and declared that under the direction of the 
President or the Secretary of War, that the Chief 
of Staff shall have supervision of all troops of 
the line and of the Adjutant-General’s, Inspec¬ 
tor-General’s, Judge Advocate’s, Quartermas¬ 
ter’s, Subsistence, Medical, Pay and Ordnance 
Department, the Corps of Engineers, and the 
Signal Corps. 

It is required of the general staff under the 
law, to prepare plans for the national defense 


ARMY OF THE UNITED STATES 


and for the mobilization of the military forces 
in time of war; to investigate and report upon 
all questions affecting the efficiency of the army 
and its state of preparation for military opera¬ 
tions ; to render professional aid and assistance 
to the Secretary of War and to general officers 
and other superior commanders, and to act as 
their agents in informing and co-ordinating the 
action of all the different officers who are sub¬ 
ject to the supervision of the Chief of Staff and 
to perform such other military duties, not oth¬ 
erwise assigned by law, as may be, from time 
to time, prescribed by the President or the Secre¬ 
tary of War. 

With respect to the staff the tendency has 
been to fill its offices from the line, and this pre¬ 
vails at this day, except in the Medical Depart¬ 
ment (which is open to appointment from civil 
life, after examination as to professional ca¬ 
pacity) and the chaplains; but since 1851, when 
the regular law of promotion was secured to 
each of them, it has been necessary that a new¬ 
comer should enter at the foot of the list, ex- 

ORGANIZATION OF THE 


over all the troops within the limits of the de¬ 
partment. The commander is assigned to duty 
by the President, who alone can relieve him, 
and who also fixes the limits or boundaries of 
the command. 

In time of war, military forces are organ¬ 
ized into armies, corps, divisions and brigades; 
and for each (as well as the commander of a 
military department) is provided a competent 
administrative staff, which is allied in its per¬ 
sonnel and duties to the staff for the whole army, 
which is outlined below: 

* Sec. 26 of the act of 2 Feb. 1901, provides, “ that 
so long as there remain any officers holding permanent 
appointments in the Adjutant-General’s Department, 
the Inspector-General’s Department, the Quartermaster’s 
Department, the Subsistence Department, the Pay De¬ 
partment, the Ordnance Department, and the Signal 
Corps, including those appointed to original vacancies 
in the grades of captain and first lieutenant under the 
provisions of sections sixteen, seventeen, twenty-one, 
and twenty-four of this act, they shall be promoted ac¬ 
cording to seniority in the several grades, as now pro¬ 
vided by law, and nothing herein contained shall be 
deemed to apply to vacancies which can be filled by 
such promotions or to the periods for which the officers 

STAFF OF THE U. S. ARMY. 



Major-Generals. 

Brigadier-Generals. 

Colonels. 

Lieutenant-Colonels. 

Majors. 

Captains. 

First Lieutenants. 

Second Lieutenants. 

Ordnance Sergeants. 

Post Commiss’y Sergts. 

Post Q. M. Sergeants. 

Hospital Stewards. 

Signal Sergts. 1st Class. 

Sergeants. 

Act’g Hosp. Stewards. 

Corporals. 

Cooks. 

Privates, 1st Class. 

Privates. 

Total Commissioned. 

Total Enlisted. 

Aggregate. 

General Officers . 


6 

15 


















21 

28 

17 

12 

96 

44 

321 

53 


2 1 
28 
17 
12 
246 

* Adit. Gen’l Dept. 


1 

5 

4 

7 

TS 
















•Tnsp, Genl’s Dept. 



1 

4 

















T A Genl’s Dept. ........... 



1 

2 

T, 

6 
















*Q M. Dept . 



1 

6 

Q 

20 

60 





C150 









150 
200 
di,ooo 

•Subsist. Dept. .. 



1 


4 

9 

27 

43 

25 

24 

40 

14 




&200 









MpHiral Dent. .. 



I 


12 

60 

ai 97 




300 



400 




3 i 3 °o 

■*44 

^ 4)321 
53 
77 2 
<?l) 44 2 
845 

•Pay Dept . 



1 


i 

20 










•Ordnance Dept . 



I 

A 

13 

28 

24 

40 

11 


no 





60 


78 


261 

IOI 


Corps of Engineers . 



1 

7 

14 

I 

30 







J : ?$2 

/•* 

160 

35 

2 

ei, 2%2 

810 

•Signal Corps. 



I 

I 

A 





130 

120 


150 

10 

2^0 

150 

Rec’d & Pen. Office. 



1 



1 
































Total . 


7 

25 

43 

64 

184 

233 

275 

3 o 

no 

200 

150 

300 

130 

180 

400 

228 


5 ii 

3)641 

862 

7 )M 2 

8,003 






cept indeed he entered at its head, as Generals 
Johnston and Meigs did in the Quartermas¬ 
ter’s Department; but that was in the days 
when all general officers were selected from 
the army at large. At present the law confines 
the selection to the chiefs of departments. 

Having in view especially the duties to be 
performed by regular officers in connection with 
the volunteer force, a system of detail from the 
line of the army has been provided for (which 
in a measure abolishes the permanent staff), in 
order to give a training for as many officers as 
possible in a variety of experience which will 
fit them for the duties of the staff and regular 
command in the combined force of regulars 
and volunteers. 

In time of peace the military administration 
of the army is conducted by the Secretary of 
War through the Chief of Staff and the several 
bureaus; and the country is divided into mil¬ 
itary geographical departments, which is simi¬ 
lar to the command of a separate army, with 
the same powers and duties in similar cases 


so promoted shall hold their appointments; and when 
any vacancy, except that of the chief of the department 
or corps, shall occur, which can not be filled by promo¬ 
tion as provided in this section, it shall be filled by 
detail from the line of the Army, and no more perma- 
nent appointments shall be made in those departments 
or corps after the original vacancies created by this act 
shall have been filled. Such details shall be made from 
the grade in which the vacancies exist, under such 
system of examination as the President may from time 
to time prescribe. 

“ All officers so detailed shall serve for a period of 
four years, at the expiration of which time they shall 
return to duty with the line, and officers below the rank 
of lieutenant-colonel shall not again be eligible for 
selection in any staff department until they shall have 
served two years with the line. 

“ That when vacancies shall occur in the position of 
chief of any staff corps or department the President 
may appoint to such vacancies, by and with the advice 
and consent of the Senate, officers of the Army at large 
not below the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and who shall 
hold office for terms of four years. When a vacancy 
in the position of chief of any staff corps or department 
is filled by the appointment of an officer below the rank 
now provided, by law for said office, said chief shall, 
while so serving, have the same rank, pay, and allow¬ 
ances now provided for the chief of such corps or de¬ 
partment. And any officer now holding office in any 
corps or department who shall hereafter serve as chief 
of a staff corps or department and shall subsequently bo 









































































































ARMY OF THE UNITED STATES 


The Adjutant-General promulgates all or¬ 
ders of a military character of the President, 
and the Secretary of War, and conducts the gen¬ 
eral correspondence of the army; receives reports 
and returns; prepares commissions, appoint- 
rnen ts, and acceptances of resignations for issu¬ 
ance ; and has charge of the recruiting service. 

The Inspector-General, with his assistants, 
inspects all military commands and stations, 
the schools of application, the military depart¬ 
ments of all colleges and schools at which 
officers of the army are detailed, all depots, ren¬ 
dezvous, armories, arsenals, fortifications, and 
public works of every kind under charge of 
or carried on by officers of the army; and also 
the money accounts of all disbursing officers of 
the army. 

The Quartermaster-General, aided by assist¬ 
ants, provides transportation for the army; also 
clothing and equipage, horses, mules, and wa¬ 
gons, vessels, forage, stationery, and other mis¬ 
cellaneous quartermaster stores and property 
for the army, and clothing and equipage for 
the militia; constructs necessary buildings, 
wharves, roads, and bridges at military posts, 
and repairs the same; furnishes water, heating 
and lighting apparatus; pays guides, spies, 
scouts, and interpreters, and is in charge of 
national cemeteries. 

The Commissary-General of Subsistence has 
administrative control of the Subsistence De¬ 
partment ; the disbursement of its appropria¬ 
tions ; the providing of rations and their issue 
to the army; the purchase and distribution of 
articles authorized to be kept for sale to of¬ 
ficers and enlisted men; the administrative ex¬ 
amination of accounts of subsistence funds 
preliminary to their settlement by the proper 
accounting officers of the Treasury; and the ex¬ 
amination and settlement of returns of subsist¬ 
ence supplies. 

The Surgeon-General is charged with the 


retired, shall be retired with the rank, pay, and allowances 
authorized by law for the retirement of such corps or 
department chief: Provided, That so long as there 
remain in service officers of any staff corps or depart¬ 
ment holding permanent appointments, the chief of such 
staff corps or department shall be selected from the 
officers so remaining therein.” 

a. Assistant surgeons have the rank, pay, and 
emoluments of First Lieutenants of Cavalry for the 
first five years’ service, and the rank, pay, and emolu¬ 
ments of the grade of captain after five years’ service. 
(Sec. 4, Act 23 June 1874.) 

b. By the Act of 3 March 1873, the Secretary of 

War is authorized to select from the sergeants of the 
line of the Army, who shall have faithfully served 
therein five years, three years of which in the grade of 
non-commissioned officer, as many Commissary Ser¬ 
geants as the service may require, not to exceed one for 
each military post or place of deposit of subsistence 
supplies. „ . 

c. By the Act of 5 July 1884, the Secretary of War 
is authorized to appoint as many Post Quartermaster 
Sergeants as he may deem necessary for the interests of 
the service, not to exceed eighty, to be selected by 
examination from the most competent enlisted men of 
the Army who shall have served at least four years. 
The act of 8 July 1898, increased the number of Post 
Quartermaster Sergeants to one hundred and five; and 
the Act of 2 Feb. 1901. further increased the number 

to one hundred and fifty. . . 

d. The Act of r March 1887, organizing the Hospital 
Corps provides that it shall consist of . Hospital Stew¬ 
ards, Acting Hospital Stewards, and Privates, and that 
it shall be permanently attached to the Medical Depart¬ 
ment, and shall not be included in the effective strength 
of the Army nor counted as a part of the enlisted force 

provided by law. ., , ., , 

e. The Act of 2 Feb. 1901, provides for three bat¬ 
talions of engineer troops, and although commanded by 
listed force is included in the strength of the line of 
the Army. 


administrative duties of the Medical De¬ 
partment ; the designation of the stations 
of medical officers, and the issuing of all 
orders and instructions relating to their 
professional duties. He directs as to the loca¬ 
tion, purchase, and distribution of the medical 
supplies to the army. The Army Medical Mu¬ 
seum and the official publications of the Sur¬ 
geon-General’s office are also under his direct 
control. 

The Paymaster-General is charged with the 
payment of the officers and enlisted men of the 
army and civil employees of the Department; 
with furnishing funds to his officers and see¬ 
ing that they duly account for the same, and 
with a preliminary examination of their ac¬ 
counts; also with the payment of Treasury cer¬ 
tificates for bounty, back pay, etc., and balances 
due deceased officers and soldiers of the Vol¬ 
unteer and Regular army. 

The Chief of Engineers is charged with all 
duties relating to construction and repair of 
fortifications, whether permanent or temporary; 
with all works of defense; with all military 
roads and bridges, and with such surveys as 
may be required for these objects, or the move¬ 
ment of armies in the field. It is also charged 
with the river and harbor improvements, with 
military and geographical explorations and sur¬ 
veys, with the survey of the lakes, and with any 
other engineer work specially assigned to the 
corps by acts of Congress or orders of the Sec¬ 
retary of War. 

The duties of the Chief of Ordnance con¬ 
sist in providing, preserving, distributing, and 
accounting for every description of artillery, 
small arms, and all the munitions of war which 
may be required for the fortresses of the coun¬ 
try, the armies in the field, and for the whole 
body of the militia of the Union. In these 
duties are comprised that of determining the 
general principles of construction and of pre¬ 
scribing in detail the models and forms of all 
military weapons employed in war. They com¬ 
prise also the duty of prescribing the regulations 
for the proofs and inspection of all these weap¬ 
ons, for maintaining uniformity and economy in 
their fabrication, for insuring their good qual¬ 
ity, and for their preservation and distribution. 

The Judge-Advocate-General is directed by 
law to “ receive, review, and cause to be re¬ 
corded the proceedings of all courts-martial, 
courts of inquiry, and military commissions.” 
He also furnishes the Secretary of War infor¬ 
mation and advice relating to lands under con¬ 
trol of the War Department, and reports and 
opinions upon legal questions arising under the 
laws, regulations, and customs pertaining to 
the army, and upon questions arising under the 
civil laws; reports upon applications for clem¬ 
ency in the cases of military prisoners; exam¬ 
ines and prepares legal papers relating to the 
erection of bridges over navigable waters; drafts 
bonds, and examines those given to the United 
States by disbursing officers, colleges, and oth¬ 
ers ; examines, revises, and drafts charges and 
specifications against officers and soldiers; and 
also drafts and examines deeds, contracts, li¬ 
censes, leases, and legal papers generally. 

The Chief Signal Officer is. charged with the 
supervision of all military signal duties, and 
devices connected therewith, including tele¬ 
graph and telephone apparatus and the neces- 



ARMY OF THE UNITED STATES 


sary meteorological instruments for use on 
target ranges and other military uses; the con¬ 
struction, repair, and operation of military tele¬ 
graph lines, and the duty of transmitting 
information for the army by telegraph or other¬ 
wise, and all other duties usually pertaining to 
military signaling. 

The Chief of the Record and Pension Office 
is charged by law with the custody of the mili¬ 
tary and hospital records of the volunteer ar¬ 
mies and the transaction of the pension and 
other business of the War Department connected 
therewith, including the publication of the Offi¬ 
cial Records of the War of the Rebellion. 

Organisation of the Line of the Army .— 
Each regiment of cavalry consists of 12 troops 
and one band, organized into 3 squadrons of 4 
troops each, and under the minimum require¬ 
ments of the law is constituted as follows: 

For each regiment: 1 colonel and 1 lieuten¬ 
ant-colonel, 1 chaplain, and 2 veterinarians. The 
non-commissioned staff consists of a regimental 
sergeant-major, 1 quartermaster-sergeant, 1 com¬ 
missary-sergeant, and 2 color sergeants. Three 
additional captains and 3 first and second lieu¬ 
tenants, being authorized beyond the require¬ 
ments of the troops, are available for detail as 
regimental and squadron adjutants, quarter¬ 
masters and commissaries. For each troop: I 
captain, 1 first and 1 second lieutenant, the en¬ 
listed force consisting of 1 first sergeant, 1 quar¬ 
termaster-sergeant, 6 sergeants, 6 corporals, 2 
cooks, 2 blacksmiths and farrier, 1 saddler, 1 
wagoner, 2 trumpeters, and 43 privates. A ma¬ 
jor commands each squadron, for which a staff 
consisting of an adjutant (1st lieutenant) and 
quartermaster and commissary (2d lieutenants) 
and 1 sergeant-major is authorized. 

The regimental organization of the artillery 
arm has been discontinued, and it is constituted 
and designated as the Artillery Corps, compris¬ 
ing two branches, namely: The Coast Artillery, 
defined by law as that portion charged with care 
and use of the fixed and movable elements of 
land and coast fortifications, including sub¬ 
marine mine and torpedo defenses; and the 
Field Artillery, as that portion accompanying an 
army in the field, and including field and light 
artillery proper, horse artillery, siege artillery, 
mountain artillery, and also machine-gun bat¬ 
teries. 

The Artillery Corps consists of a chief of 
artillery selected and detailed by the President 
from among the colonels of artillery to serve as 
a member of the General’s staff, his duties being 
prescribed by the Secretary of War; 14 colonels 
(one of whom shall be chief of artillery, with 
the rank of brigadier-general), 13 lieutenant- 
colonels, 39 majors, 195 captains, 12 chap¬ 
lains, 195 first lieutenants, 195 second lieu¬ 
tenants (surplus captains and lieutenants not 
required for duty with batteries or com¬ 
panies being available for duty as staff 
officers of the various artillery garrisons, 
and other details) ; 21 sergeants-major senior 
grade, and 27 sergeants-major junior grade; 1 
electrician-sergeant is authorized for each coast 
artillery post having electrical appliances; 30 
batteries of field artillery, 126 batteries of coast 
artillery, and 10 bands constitute the strength 
of an artillery force not to exceed 18,920 men, 
the enlisted strength of the companies being 


fixed by the President according to the require¬ 
ments of the service. 

The enlisted strength authorized (24 Oct. 
1902) for each field battery is as follows: 

One first sergeant, 1 quartermaster-sergeant, 
1 stable-sergeant, 6 sergeants, 12 corporals, 2 
cooks, 4 artificers, 2 musicians, 91 privates; and 
for each company of coast artillery: 1 first ser¬ 
geant, 1 quartermaster-sergeant, 8 sergeants, 12 
corporals, 2 cooks, 2 mechanics, 2 musicians, and 
81 privates. 

The United States, as far back as 1886, rec¬ 
ognizing the necessity for providing modern sea- 
coast defenses to protect the cities and harbors, 
adopted a policy of liberal appropriations for 
seacoast defense, and to carry out a general 
plan for the continuing appropriations made 
available, passed a law creating a board of ord¬ 
nance and fortification whose duty it is «to 
make all needful and proper purchases, experi¬ 
ments, and tests to ascertain, with a view to 
their utilization by the government, the most 
effective guns, small arms, cartridges, projectiles, 
fuses, explosives, torpedoes, armor plate, and 
other implements and engines of war.» The 
membership of this board comprises the lieuten¬ 
ant-general commanding the army (who is its 
president), one officer each from the corps of 
engineers and the ordnance department, two 
from the artillery, and one civilian. 

Each regiment of infantry consists of 12 
companies and 1 band, organized into 3 bat¬ 
talions of 4 companies each, and under the 
minimum requirements of the law is constituted 
as follows: For each regiment 1 colonel and 
1 lieutenant-colonel and 1 chaplain. The non¬ 
commissioned force consists of a regimental 
sergeant-major, 1 quartermaster-sergeant, 1 
commissary-sergeant, and 2 color-sergeants. 
Three additional captains and 3 additional first 
and second lieutenants, being authorized beyond 
the requirements of the companies, are available 
for detail as regimental and squadron adjutants, 
quartermasters, and commissaries. For each 
company, 1 captain, 1 first and 1 second lieuten¬ 
ant, the enlisted force consisting of 1 first ser¬ 
geant, 1 quartermaster-sergeant, 4 sergeants, 6 
corporals, 2 cooks, 2 musicians, 1 artificer, and 
48 privates. 

The President is also authorized to enlist 
« when in his opinion the conditions in the Phil¬ 
ippine Islands justify such action » not to ex¬ 
ceed 12,000 natives of those islands for service 
as scouts, with such officers as shall be deemed 
necessary, and organize them into troops, com¬ 
panies, squadrons, and battalions, but this force 
shall be included in the maximum enlisted 
strength of 100,000 for the whole army. Ac¬ 
cordingly, there have been enlisted and there are 
now in service (15 Oct. 1902), about 5,000 Phil¬ 
ippine Scouts. A provisional regiment of native 
Porto Ricans is also maintained. The field offi¬ 
cers are selected from officers of the next lower 
grade in the regular army, the company and 
regimental and staff officers being selected by 
the President. The strength of the regiment 
on 15 Oct. 1902 was 29 officers and 840 enlisted 
men. 

Militia .— The militia becomes national only 
when called into the actual service of the Fed¬ 
eral government. The Constitution makes it the 
duty of Congress «to provide for organizing, 
arming, and disciplining the militia.® and « for 


ARMY AND NAVY MANEUVERS 


calling forth the militia to execute the laws of 
the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel in¬ 
vasions.® Though the necessity for a well- 
regulated militia to the security of a free state 
is recognized by the Constitution, the arguments 
and the logic of facts have alike failed to se¬ 
cure that attention demanded by the gravity of 
the subject prior to the act of 21 Jan. 1903, 
which brings the militia laws to conform to 
modern requirements for efficiency and effect¬ 
iveness, although repeated efforts have been 
made to accomplish this result from the day of 
Washington. 

The military reserve of the United States is 
more than 10,000,000 men, but the volunteer or¬ 
ganizations maintained in the States have not in 
the past (1902) exceeded 100,000 men. 

The President is Commander-in-Chief of the 
militia of the several States when called into the 
actual service of the United States; and is em¬ 
powered to call out these forces in event of in¬ 
vasion, actual or imminent, and in cases of insur¬ 
rection or rebellion against the authority of the 
United States or any one of the States thereof, 
for a term of service not exceeding nine months. 
While so employed the troops receive the pay, 
rations, etc., of regular soldiers, are subject to 
the Rules and Articles of War, and their offi¬ 
cers take precedence in rank next after officers 
of like grade in the regular service, or in such 
volunteer organizations as may also be in the 
service of the United States. The appointment 
of the officers (to the grade of brigadier-gen¬ 
eral) and the authority for training the militia 
according to the discipline prescribed by Con¬ 
gress are expressly reserved to the respective 
States. 

The relations of the National Guard, how¬ 
ever, to the Federal government have never 
been defined or settled. The confusion, contro¬ 
versy, and bad feeling arising from this uncer¬ 
tain status have been made painfully apparent 
during the Civil War, and at the beginning of 
the war with Spain. 

The militia is capable of being utilized, first, 
as active militia when called out by the Presi¬ 
dent for the specific purposes enumerated in the 
Constitution; second, as an already organized 
volunteer force when its organizations respond 
as such to calls for volunteers for general mili¬ 
tary purposes under authority of Congress; and, 
third, as the great school of the volunteer sol¬ 
dier, the benefits of which are received by the 
country when the members of the guard respond 
individually to calls for volunteers. 

Under the militia law the regularly enlisted, 
organized, and uniformed active militia (popu¬ 
larly known as the National Guard) in the sev¬ 
eral States and Territories and the District of 
Columbia, constitute the organized militia of 
the United States; and provides that the or¬ 
ganization and discipline thereof shall conform 
with that provided for the regular and volunteer 
armies; and contemplates establishing closer re¬ 
lations and better co-operation between the Na¬ 
tional Guard and the regular army, and to pro¬ 
mote the general efficiency and dignity of the 
Guard as a part of the military system of the 
United States. 

To aid in accomplishing these objects, the law 
provides that the general government shall fur¬ 
nish to the Guard the same arms which it fur¬ 
nishes to the regular army, and for the volun¬ 


tary participation by the Guard with the regular 
army in maneuvers and field exercises for brief 
periods in each year. The law also contains 
provisions making the National Guard organ¬ 
izations which choose voluntarily to go beyond 
the limitations of militia service in effect a 
first volunteer reserve. It also provides for as¬ 
certaining by practical tests, in advance of a 
call for volunteers, the fitness to hold volunteer 
commissions, of members of the National Guard, 
graduates of the military schools and colleges, 
and other citizens with military training, thus 
constituting an eligible list from which in case 
of a call for volunteers officers may be taken. 

The military forces of the United States are, 
therefore, as follows: 

1. A regular army, capable of enlargement 
by the President when he sees war coming, to 
100,000 men. 

2. Such of the organized militia, trained as 
National Guard, as the President shall see fit to 
call into the service of the United States. 

3. Such other volunteers as Congress may 

deem necessary to call forth from the States ac¬ 
cording to the respective quotas. See General 
Staff of the Army. h c CorbiN) 

Major-General and Adjutant-General, U. S. A. 

Army and Navy Maneuvers. The object 
of maneuvers is to train, in time of peace, the 
fighting forces of a nation by handling them, as 
far as practicable, as in time of war, the forces 
designated being divided, for this purpose, into 
two opposing bodies. Previous military training, 
or drill, is presupposed. Maneuvers are of three 
kinds: First, Land maneuvers, taking place 

entirely on land; second, Naval maneuvers, 
where fleets maneuver against fleets; third, Com¬ 
bined army and navy maneuvers. The last two 
are of comparatively recent origin. 

European Maneuvers .— In the days of the old 
French monarchy, previous to the Revolution, the 
necessity for practice in handling large bodies of 
troops became apparent, and under Louis XIV. 
and Louis XV. large camps of instruction were 
instituted in France, then the leading military 
nation of the world. In these camps troops of 
all arms were concentrated for practice in field 
and siege warfare. Maneuvers are now annually 
held in all the principal countries of Europe. 
Prussia was the first country to follow the lead 
of France, and as in no other country than in 
Germany have they reached a higher development 
the German maneuvers will be taken as a type. 
They are the culmination and test of the military 
instruction of the year. As in almost all coun¬ 
tries where military service is compulsory, the 
annual contingent of conscripts drawn for ser¬ 
vice is called to the colors in the autumn. Be¬ 
ginning with individual instruction, a progressive 
system of military training is carried on until 
the following summer, by which time the troops 
have been thoroughly drilled and are ready for 
the maneuvers. As operations in the grand ma¬ 
neuvers are carried on over a large extent of 
territory, the time fixed is after the crops are 
harvested so that agricultural interests are in¬ 
terfered with as little as possible. The annual 
maneuvers begin with regimental and brigade 
exercises for the infantry, with battalion exer¬ 
cises for field artillery (a battalion consists of 
two or more batteries) and with special maneu¬ 
vers for cavalry. Maneuvers are also carried on 


ARMY AND NAVY MANEUVERS 


all over the country by the army corps not par¬ 
ticipating in the grand maneuvers. The pro¬ 
gramme for the grand maneuvers is carefully 
worked out beforehand by the Great General 
Staff at Berlin. When the maneuvers of one 
year are over, work is begun on the scheme of 
those for the next year. Staff officers are sent 
out to select the ground, which is changed from 
year to year so that the terrain may be varied 
and the interests of the inhabitants may be con¬ 
sidered. Districts where there are vineyards 
or growing autumn crops are generally 
avoided. The troops to take part are selected 
and depots of supplies at convenient points in the 
theatre of operations are provided for. Foreign 
officers of distinction, and especially the foreign 
military attaches, are invited to attend. They 
are during the maneuvers the guests of the em¬ 
peror. Officers are specially detailed to accom¬ 
pany them. They are furnished with plans of 
operations, with maps, and with all other neces¬ 
sary information. In the grand maneuvers a 
large body of troops of all arms always takes 
part; often as many as four army corps, seldom 
less than two. In 1901, for instance, the forces 
comprised two army corps, with some addi¬ 
tional regiments of infantry from other corps, 
two divisions of cavalry, and 538 guns, in¬ 
cluding horse artillery, light artillery, field 
howitzers and machine guns; altogether about 
75,000 men and 18,000 horses. (In the 
grand maneuvers in France in 1901, which were 
witnessed by the Czar of Russia, about 140,000 
troops took part.) 

The supreme control of the grand maneuvers 
is exercised by a director of maneuvers, who is 
frequently the emperor himself. Several officers 
of high rank are designated as umpires. Their 
duty is to watch all the operations carefully, ob¬ 
serve mistakes and estimate results. They de¬ 
cide, for instance, whether a certain attack was 
properly made, and whether or not it was suc¬ 
cessful. They direct to be temporarily withdrawn 
from action a unit supposed to be disabled or 
captured. In actual war this would not be neces¬ 
sary, but in simulated war, where blank car¬ 
tridges are used, no one on either side is hurt 
and the opposing lines come within close dis¬ 
tance of each other without loss of numbers and 
with their nerves unshaken. It is therefore 
necessary to have expert disinterested judges 
to decide what the losses would have been, to 
what extent the morale of the troops might have 
been impaired, and what the results of the con¬ 
flict would have been had it been a real and 
not an imaginary battle. 

The time for concentration having arrived, 
the troops designated proceed to their rendez¬ 
vous by marching or by rail. In 1901 the first 
corps marched nearly 200 miles at an average rate 
of 23 miles a day. As the railroads are under 
government control, all arrangements for trans¬ 
portation of troops and supplies are easily made 
so that regular traffic is interfered with but 
little. No tents are carried, the troops being 
billeted on the inhabitants at prescribed rates 
or going into bivouac. Large wagon trains are 
therefore not needed. What wagons are re¬ 
quired to carry supplies from the depots to the 
troops are requisitioned in the district. The 
troops are in heavy marching order and carry 
their heavy packs without fatigue. This is be¬ 
cause they are trained to it, habitually carrying 
their packs in all military exercises throughout 


the year. The concentration having been ef¬ 
fected, the troops are organized into two armies, 
each with a general in command selected by the 
emperor. For convenience, each army is given 
a temporary designation, as the Red Army, the 
Blue Army. 

A general war situation is announced. The 
Red Army is supposed to be an invading army 
and to advance across the frontier with some 
important city as an objective. 1 he Blue Army 
is on the defensive. The armies are at the be¬ 
ginning many miles apart, the whole theatre of 
operations covering perhaps 60 or 70 miles 
square. Each commanding general makes his 
dispositions, posts his troops, and issues such 
orders as he thinks necessary. Beyond a knowl¬ 
edge of the general scheme, he knows nothing 
about the movements or location of the enemy 
except what he finds out from reconnoissances, 
spies, etc., as in actual war. At the end of the 
first day’s operations the results are determined 
by the director and the umpires and the general 
situation is summed up. The work of the day 
is criticised and, if necessary, the director gives 
the generals in command additional instructions 
for the following day. Each general then goes 
on with his plan or modifies it according to 
his instructions or the developments of the 
day, and issues his orders for the next day; and 
so on throughout the maneuvers. To describe 
clearly the operations day by day in detail 
throughout the maneuver period is impracticable 
without the assumption of a concrete case and 
the use of maps, so it will not be attempted. 
A feature of the maneuvers is often a charge 
upon infantry in position by the combined 
cavalry force. This is somewhat spectacular 
and would probably not be done under similar 
circumstances in war, but this fact is recognized 
by all concerned and the operation is there¬ 
fore not misleading. It gives an opportunity to 
show the training of the cavalry and how it can 
be handled in large masses. As the director of 
maneuvers has absolute control of both sides, 
he can arrange the problems so that the maneu¬ 
vers shall take place in the exact localities de¬ 
sired. The question of the location of supply 
depots at convenient places beforehand is there¬ 
fore an easy one. 

A large captive signal balloon accompanies 
the emperor’s headquarters. It is distinguished 
from other captive balloons by a special flag. 
Signals are made by attaching to the balloon 
combinations of balls and inflated bags. These 
signals are known to all, can be seen for great 
distances and consequently orders can thus be 
transmitted to all the troops more quickly than 
in any other way yet devised. 

Great attention is paid to sanitary conditions 
and in consequence the percentage of sickness is 
very small. Formerly in maneuvers much sick¬ 
ness prevailed among the troops due to the use 
of impure water. To guard against this a care¬ 
ful inspection of the water supply of the region 
is made beforehand, and placards are put up 
showing where water is to be had and its con¬ 
dition. 

These maneuvers are of great value in train¬ 
ing officers, especially staff officers. They also 
serve as a sort of examination for officers, whose 
work in the field comes under the observation of 
their superiors, from the emperor down. Offi¬ 
cers showing zeal and ability are marked for 
advancement, while those whose work does not 




ARMY AND NAVY MANEUVERS 


come up to the standard are reproved or even 
more severely dealt with, officers whose handling 
of their men does not suit the emperor being 
often relieved from their commands. The ma¬ 
neuvers are terminated by a grand review before 
the emperor, all the troop taking part, after 
which they return to their garrisons. 

American Maneuvers .— In the United States 
circumstances have heretofore prevented the 
carrying on of maneuvers as in Europe. Our 
army was so small and so widely scattered that 
a large enough force to make it worth while 
could not be brought together without great 
inconvenience and expense. Maneuvers on a 
small scale were had in Indian Territory in 
1889, in which troops stationed within march¬ 
ing distance took part, but they were not again 
attempted until 1902, when the first of what it 
is hoped will be an annual series took place.. 
They marked, too, for the first time in the 
United States the participation of the National 
Guard in conjunction with regulars. In order 
to give a clear idea of how they are managed in 
the United States it will be best to give a brief 
account of the maneuvers of that year. They will 
be improved upon and developed as time goes 
on, but the work done then will serve as a basis. 
The place selected was the large military reser¬ 
vation of Fort Riley, Kansas. The department 
commander was selected to direct them. A 
board of officers was convened at Omaha be¬ 
forehand to draw up plans for the maneuvers 
and rules for their conduct. Besides the garri¬ 
son of Fort Riley, troops were ordered from 
posts in Kansas, Nebraska, Arkansas and Okla¬ 
homa. The troops from Arkansas and Okla¬ 
homa went by rail; the others marched. Marches 
were conducted with all the precautions that 
would be necessary in an enemy’s country. The 
force collected comprised a battalion of engi¬ 
neers, three regiments of infantry, three squad¬ 
rons of cavalry, five batteries of field artillery 
and detachments of the Signal and Hospital 
Corps. Invitations were sent by the war de¬ 
partment to the governors of States to send 
National Guard troops to take part in the ma¬ 
neuvers. As the necessary expense was not at 
that time borne by the government, only two 
States, Kansas and Colorado, sent troops: the 
former, two regiments; the latter, one battalion. 
Many National Guard officers, however, were 
sent from their States as observers. Foreign 
military attaches were also invited. The troops 
had both blue and khaki uniforms. When 
divided into opposing forces, one wore blue, the 
other khaki, and they were designated as the 
Blues and the Browns, respectively. An officer 
was named as chief umpire, with a number of 
other officers as his assistants, one being chief 
umpire for the Blues; another, chief umpire 
for the Browns. A decision of an umpire on 
any point must be observed, but if any officer 
concerned should think it a wrong one, he could 
appeal from it after the maneuver. The rules 
provided that firing should cease when opposing 
forces came within one hundred yards of each 
other, and that cavalry charges should stop at 
the same distance. The greatest care was taken 
to see that no ball cartridges were carried by the 
men. Men supposed to be wounded, were im¬ 
mediately taken care of by the Hospital Corps. 
Connection by telegraph and telephone was es¬ 
tablished and maintained by the Signal Corps. 
Poles were set up and wire strung as fast as 


troops marched, and any part of a force could 
be kept constantly in communication with any 
other part or with headquarters. A smoke sig¬ 
nal bomb, which could be seen for long distances, 
was sent up at the conclusion of the operations 
each day and the troops were then marched 
back to their camps. The programme for the 
maneuvers provided for a series of military 
problems, varying in character from day to day, 
each being completed in one day. As the Na¬ 
tional Guard contingent did not arrive as soon 
as the regulars, they took no part in the opera¬ 
tions of the first few days. There were nine 
problems during the maneuvers. Some of them 
will be briefly stated. In the descriptions <( bat- 
talion® signifies a battalion (four companies) of 
infantry or engineers; ^squadron®, a squadron 
(four troops) of cavalry. 

Problem 1. <( The Blues represent the out¬ 
posts of an army corps on the defensive, hold¬ 
ing Fort Riley. Strength: 9 battalions, 1 squad¬ 
ron, 3 batteries. They are placed from right to 
left as an outpost line. The guns occupy com¬ 
manding positions in the line and are sheltered 
by gun-pits constructed after their arrival in 
position. The line selected was judged very 
satisfactory and the time made excellent as the 
Blues marched three miles and then established 
their line four miles long in two hours and 
a half, the ground being heavy and the roads 
muddy. The Browns represent two reconnoiter- 
ing parties of an advancing army corps. The 
first consists of 1 battalion, 1 squadron, 1 bat¬ 
tery; the second of 1 squadron, and 1 battery. 
Approaching from different directions, they have 
orders to unite near Fort Riley for a demon¬ 
stration against the enemy’s position in order 
to ascertain his strength. The Brown batteries 
were ordered to locate and engage the hostile 
batteries. One opened fire at 3,000 yards. The 
other, through an error, came under fire, in 
column, at 1,400 yards. As the hostile batteries 
were under shelter while the Browns were in 
the open, the umpires decided that both Brown 
batteries had been put out of action. They also 
decided that the Brown infantry and cavalry 
were not handled aggressively enough for a 
reconnoissance in force, that the strength of 
the Blues had not been fully developed, and 
that the information gained by the Brown com¬ 
mander as a result of the reconnoissance would 
consequently have been misleading. The re¬ 
sults of the day were in favor of the Blues. 

Problem 2. Attack and defense of a convoy. 
The Blue army is operating about 50 miles 
southwest of Topeka, with that point as a base. 
The railroads are assumed to be broken up 
and supply by wagon train is necessary. One of 
the trains, consisting of 180 wagons, has camped 
about 25 miles from Topeka. A raiding force 
of the Browns has gotten in rear of the main 
Blue army. Its commander has learned of the 
train and plans its capture or destruction. The 
Blue escort consists of 6 battalions, 1 battery, 2 
troops; the train is in two divisions. The com¬ 
mander expects to be attacked and moves out 
with advance and rear guards and with a half 
battalion on each flank of each division of the 
train. The remainder of his force, 2 battalions 
and 1 battery, is between the two divisions. The 
commander has orders to push on as rapidly 
as possible as the supplies are badly needed. 
The Brown raiding force consists of a platoon 
of artillery and 10 troops of cavalry. The op- 


ARMY AND NAVY MANEUVERS 


posing forces having come in contact, a series 
of detached actions ensue, the result being that 
the Browns are finally driven off after having 
destroyed 36 wagons. This is due to faulty 
disposition of the train, it having been, at one 
point, unnecessarily exposed to hostile artillery 
fire. With this exception the Blues were ad¬ 
judged to have been in the main well handled. 
The Browns were criticised for not having 
thoroughly informed themselves of the enemy’s 
dispositions, in consequence of which a portion 
of their force came unexpectedly upon a largely 
superior force of the enemy and was declared 
out of action. A charge was also made upon 
infantry in position, which should not have 
been done. Had the Browns, with their infe¬ 
rior force, acted with more caution, they could 
have kept up their harassing tactics and in the 
end have inflicted much more damage on the 
train. 

Problem 3. This consisted of three separate 
exercises, each embracing the employment of 
a regiment as an outpost for an imaginary larger 
command. In each case the outpost was es¬ 
tablished by a regular regiment, National Guard 
officers accompanying the commander as spec¬ 
tators. Each outpost, when completely estab¬ 
lished, was relieved by a National Guard regi¬ 
ment. When a National Guard outpost was es¬ 
tablished a small force of regulars, represent¬ 
ing an outlined enemy, attacked and the outpost 
made the necessary preparations for defense. 
For the instruction of the National Guard, great 
care was taken to explain the function of an 
outpost and the manner of receiving the attack. 
It was also explained that the attacking force 
was supposed to be superior in strength to the 
outpost- In the execution of these exercises 
the criticism was made that the tendency of the 
men was to hold on to their advanced positions 
too long, the idea of retreat being repugnant. 
Such a retreat, however, would have been neces¬ 
sary had the simulated attack been real, and in 
this case it was necessary for carrying out the 
exercise ordered. The object of the exercise, 
which was often lost sight of, was not to main¬ 
tain a line of outposts under attack, but to show 
how entire outposts could be brought into united 
defensive action in order to give the main body 
time to make its dispositions. The unani¬ 
mous opinion of the umpires was that the em¬ 
ployment of a small number of men to rep¬ 
resent a large imaginary force is unsatisfactory, 
and should be discontinued in future maneuvers. 
The situation is unreal and it is difficult to make 
the participants realize it. 

In the evenings the officers were assembled 
and the events of the day were discussed. The 
board appointed to draw up plans for the ma¬ 
neuvers agreed that the most desirable form is 
that employed in Europe, where two large bodies, 
each operating from a definite base, move for¬ 
ward in the execution of a large strategical 
problem, occupying several days and covering a 
large extent of . country. All the features of 
an active campaign are introduced and all the 
elements of tactics are brought in, but circum¬ 
stances prevent it. in the United States, as the 
necessary ground is not available within reason¬ 
able distances. The general prevalence of 
fences, which in agricultural districts of con¬ 
tinental Europe are absent, prevent free move¬ 
ment over ground not owned by the government 
and their destruction or removal would be too 


expensive. The general opinion after the ma¬ 
neuvers was that they were instructive and valu¬ 
able in the highest degree and were well worth 
the cost. The conditions of actual warfare were 
well maintained and show features were entirely 
eliminated. 

j Permanent Drill Grounds .— The Act of 
Congress of 2 Feb. 1901, authorized the secre¬ 
tary of war <( to cause preliminary examinations 
and surveys to be made for the purpose of se¬ 
lecting four sites with a view to the establish¬ 
ment of permanent camp grounds for instruc¬ 
tion of troops of the regular army and National 
Guard, with estimates of the cost of the sites 
and their equipment with all modern appliances, 
and for this purpose is authorized to detail such 
officers of the army as may be necessary to 
carry on the preliminary work.® In accordance 
with this act four sites were selected, regard 
being had to geographical conditions, so that 
they would be available for as large a part 
of the army and militia throughout the United 
States as possible without undue expense for 
transportation of troops and supplies. The 
Militia bill, which became a law 21 Jan. 1903, 
contained the following provisions: (( That the 
secretary of war is hereby authorized to pro¬ 
vide for participation by any part of the or¬ 
ganized militia of any State or Territory on 
the request of the governor thereof in the en¬ 
campment, maneuvers and field instruction of 
any part of the regular army at or near any 
military post or camp or lake or seacoast de¬ 
fenses of the United States. In such case the 
organized militia so participating shall receive 
the same pay, subsistence, and transportation as 
is provided by law for the officers and men of 
the regular army, to be paid out of the appro¬ 
priation for the pay, subsistence, and trans¬ 
portation of the army.® <( That whenever any 
officer of the organized militia shall, upon recom¬ 
mendation of the governor of any State, Terri¬ 
tory, or general commanding the District of 
Columbia, and when authorized by the President, 
attend and pursue a regular course of study at 
any military school or college of the United 
States such officer shall receive from the an¬ 
nual appropriation for the support of the army 
the same travel allowances, and quarters, or 
commutation of quarters, to which an officer of 
the regular army would be entitled if attending 
such school or college under orders from proper 
military authority, and shall also receive com¬ 
mutation of subsistence at the rate of one dollar 
per day while in actual attendance upon the 
course of instruction.® Congress having recog¬ 
nized the value of maneuvers and having made 
provision for them to be carried on, they may 
now be considered a permanent feature of our 
military system. The armed land forces of the 
country, regulars and militia, will hereafter be 
trained in practical military work together as 
they never have been in years gone by and the 
outbreak of another war should find the country 
better prepared to meet it than at any previous 
time in its history. 

Naval Maneuvers may be tactical or stra¬ 
tegical ; the former having to do with the 
handling of fleets when they are within sight of 
each other, the latter when they are not. As all 
the elements, such as size and speed, character 
and arrangement of armor, number and power 
of guns, of different classes of ships, battle¬ 
ships, cruisers, and torpedo boats, are well 


ARMY AND NAVY MANEUVERS 


known, it is supposed, when they come in con¬ 
flict, that the result will be a foregone conclu¬ 
sion, assuming the personnel to be of equal 
quality, lhe personal element, the man behind 
the gun, while of vital importance in war, is a 
factor that cannot be easily estimated in naval 
maneuvers. Much more attention is therefore 
given to strategical maneuvers. A fleet going 
out for maneuvers is divided into two squad- 
rons ? one to attack, the other to defend. A 
passive defense is not contemplated. While the 
object may be the defense of a harbor, the way 
to accomplish it is not to wait in port for the 
enemy, but to go out to seek him on the open 
sea. Otherwise the advantage of one of the 
most valuable characteristics of ships, their 
mobility, would be lost. N common form of 
strategical problem is to assign to the offense 
(Red squadron) the task of seizing and hold¬ 
ing some harbor within a specified maritime 
district, to use as a base for future naval opera¬ 
tions or as a landing place for accompanying 
troops. The object of the defense (Blue squad¬ 
ron) is to prevent this, nothing being known of 
the enemy’s plans except that the harbor chosen 
must be within the prescribed limits. It may 
be anywhere along several hundred miles of 
coast. Rules for the maneuvers are prepared 
beforehand. It is assumed that if the attacking 
squadron can enter a harbor, unprotected by 
fortifications, and remain there a length of time 
specified without being discovered, it has suc¬ 
ceeded. This will allow time to land troops and 
prepare for defense. It is like a game of hide 
and seek. The commander of the Reds, being 
well out to sea, decides that he will try to seize 
one of a certain number of harbors, knowing all 
those that would answer his purpose. He has 
to find one that is unguarded and unprotected. 
He uses his fastest vessels as scouts. His 
success depends upon the rapidity and secrecy 
of his movements. As the Blue squadron is 
supposed to be much the superior in strength, 
the Reds are assumed to have failed in their 
object unless they enter the harbor selected 
undiscovered, or if discovered, unless the main 
force of the Blues is at such a distance that it 
cannot arrive and attack the Reds within the 
time allowed them to establish themselves. The 
problem for the Blue commander is to dis¬ 
cover the enemy, and having discovered him, to 
have his forces so disposed that he can con¬ 
centrate for attack a force superior to that of 
the Reds. He too uses his fastest vessels as 
scouts. Defending a friendly coast, all aid 
possible is given him from shore. He can es¬ 
tablish there as many lookout stations as he 
pleases. Every lighthouse is a watch-tower for 
him. He keeps in communication with his ships 
and with his shore stations. If he discovers the 
enemy and comes within range of him with a 
strong force within the time fixed he wins the 
day. A common form of exercise in all navies 
is that of torpedo boats against battle-ships or 
cruisers. The torpedo boats go out to sea and 
come in at night for attack, taking advantage of 
every means of concealment. If seen in time 
they could be destroyed at once. If they can 
come without discovery within torpedo range, 
the ship attacked is supposed to be destroyed. 
The ships are on the lookout and try to pick 
them up with their search-lights. When picked 
up a rocket is sent up from the ship. If the 
torpedo boat comes within the specified distance 


and no rocket has been sent up from the ship, 
she sends up a rocket. The vessel first sending 
up a rocket is the victor. 

Combined Army and Navy Maneuvers .— In 
Europe combined maneuvers of the army and 
navy are varied in character. In one case the 
scheme may comprise the embarkation of troops, 
their conveyance in transports under convoy of 
a fleet to a supposed hostile shore, the forcing 
of a landing under cover of the fire of the guns 
of the fleet, and subsequent operations on shore. 
Such a scheme assumes the absence of seacoast 
fortification at the point selected for landing. 
Another case may be where a powerful fleet of 
battle-ships, cruisers, and torpedo boats is 
divided into two opposing fleets to act in con¬ 
junction with corresponding Red and Blue 
armies on shore, the combined forces of each 
side working together in accordance with a 
common plan. This scheme may involve naval 
engagements between the opposing fleets, at¬ 
tacks upon shore batteries by ships, the manning 
of seacoast forts, the throwing into them of 
strong detachments of infantry to act as sup¬ 
ports and to prevent a landing by the enemy, 
the landing of naval brigades composed of sail¬ 
ors and marines to reinforce troops on shore, 
and many other incidents. 

In the United States combined army and navy 
maneuvers were inaugurated in 1902. The sea¬ 
coast is permanently divided into artillery dis¬ 
tricts. One or more of these districts are chosen 
as the zone of operations. In 1902 the zone 
included the coast from Buzzards Bay to New 
London and the forts at the eastern entrance 
of Long Island Sound. As the ordinary gar¬ 
risons are insufficient for war conditions, they 
are reinforced by artillery troops from stations 
without the zone and by militia artillery, New 
York and Massachusetts having regiments that 
have been trained in artillery work. War con¬ 
ditions are simulated as closely as possible. The 
ships to form the hostile fleet are designated. 
Their number and character are known to the 
defense. This knowledge can be assumed be¬ 
cause particulars of the navies of all nations 
are published in books and are accessible to 
all the world; witness the accurate knowledge 
of the composition of the Spanish fleets in 1898. 
The defense knows also the date of sailing of 
the fleet from a supposed foreign port and the 
probable time of arrival in the zone of opera¬ 
tions, but knows nothing of the enemy’s plans. 
They may comprise attacks by day or by night 
and attempts to run by the forts. The fleet 
has, of course, charts of the waters in which 
the maneuvres are to take place. The location 
of the forts, their character, and something of 
their armament are known. Buoys indicating 
channels are supposed to be removed and lights 
in lighthouses extinguished. If hulks are sup¬ 
posed to be sunk in channels as obstructions, 
the naval commander is informed of them. He 
must count on the presence of torpedoes. An 
army officer as umpire and a navy officer as 
observer are detailed for each fort, and a 
navy officer as umpire and an army officer as 
observer for each ship. A board of arbitration 
to consider all questions and render decisions is 
composed of two army officers, two navy offi¬ 
cers, and a fifth member selected by the other 
four. When ships and forts are exchanging 
fire with blank cartridges it is impossible to 
estimate results at the time. Accurate accounts 


ARMY TRANSPORT SERVICE 


of everything done are therefore kept in forts 
and on ships and detailed reports are prepared 
for the board of arbitration. On these the board 
bases its decisions. In these are noted arrival 
within range, whether by day or by night, the 
time under fire, the number of shots fired from 
each gun, the targets selected, and so forth. 
Tables are prepared beforehand giving the 
value, in points, of the fire from each kind of 
gun. These are based on data obtained from 
previous target practice records. As ship's 
guns are fired from a moving platform their 
fire is considered less accurate than that of 
land guns. Night firing is less accurate than 
day firing. The rapidity of fire ranges, say, 
from six seconds between shots for the smallest 
rapid-fire to two minutes between shots for 
the 12-inch seacoast guns, the largest used. 
The fire of the smaller calibre guns may silence, 
but not destroy, unless used in conjunction 
with those of larger calibre. The rules for the 
maneuvers are formulated with a view to meet 
the circumstances and incidents likely to arise 
in an attack by a hostile fleet on the harbors of 
the United States. They are based on the as¬ 
sumption that the primary object of the 
maneuvers is to investigate certain systems and 
problems of attack and to test the training of 
the personnel and the efficiency of the material. 
Much work preliminary to the maneuvers must 
be done by the defense. Signal stations must be 
selected. All the works of the defense must 
be put in telegraphic or telephonic communica¬ 
tion with each other and with the signal sta¬ 
tions. The commander must be constantly in 
touch with all parts of his line. Mines must 
be placed in position and tested. As a ship of 
the navy in commission is always on a war¬ 
footing, not much of this preliminary work is 
necessary. Let us suppose ourselves on shore 
and the hostile fleet sighted. The shore com¬ 
mander is at his post in communication with 
his subordinates. He selects the target and 
prescribes the kind of fire. The men are at 
the guns; the range-finding, ammunition-serv¬ 
ing, and signal details are at their posts. The 
range-finder details send in the range, direction, 
and course of the hostile ships. Firing is be¬ 
gun with the heavy guns as soon as they come 
within range. Their object is to disable the 
ships. Efforts are made to fire as many shots 
as possible while the ships are within range. 
If they are running by, the time is short and 
every shot counts. Their fire is so accurate 
that a line shot can always be counted on. The 
elevation to be given is entirely a matter of 
mathematical calculation, and is given for dif¬ 
ferent ranges in tables ready at hand. A shot 
can be dropped at any range desired, and if 
the range is correctly given the percentage of 
hits is large. When it is considered that a 12- 
inch shot, weighing 1,000 pounds, will, for a 
range of six miles, go up about half a mile in 
the air, the importance of correct range-finding 
will be appreciated. If the shot drops in the 
right spot a battle-ship costing millions to build 
and taking years to complete may be disabled. 
If not, the shot is wasted. History shows that 
land fortifications suffer but little from the 
fire of ships. If the ships come closer, the 
rapid-fire guns come into play. Their objec¬ 
tives would be the parts of a ship not protected 
by armor and the crews. The mines, which 


constitute one of the elements of defense, con¬ 
tain only dummy charges, but they are electric¬ 
ally connected with a shore station, and if a 
ship comes in contact with a mine the circuit is 
closed, a fuse on shore is blown, and the ship 
is considered out of action. At night the 
search-lights are kept constantly at work to de¬ 
tect ships if they approach and to throw beams 
of light upon them so as to make clearer tar¬ 
gets. All the incidents of the day on the ships 
and in the forts are summed up in the reports, 
and on these reports are based the decisions of 
the board. Throughout the maneuvers the 
fleet endeavors to accomplish its object, seeking 
out weak points in the defense and undefended 
lines of approach, or trying to run past in a fog 
or under cover of darkness. As the forts are 
stationary, they must wait until the enemy 
comes within range. Night and day the utmost 
vigilance must be exercised. If the scheme for 
the maneuvers should give a torpedo boat flo¬ 
tilla as an adjunct for the defense or if it 
should contemplate the landing of troops from 
transports convoyed by the fleet, to seize a 
position on shore at a place not protected by 
forts, necessitating on the part of the defense 
an additional infantry supporting force to op¬ 
pose landing parties, the plans of the respective 
commanders would be modified accordingly. 
The decision as to whether the fleet or the 
land forces win is of minor importance. The 
maneuvers are of great value to both the army 
and navy. For the former they give instruction 
in the most efficient means of coast defense, in¬ 
cluding the co-ordination of all its various ele¬ 
ments ; the best system of fire control; the best 
location and employment of search-lights and 
range-finders; the best means of obtaining and 
transmitting information. They serve to point 
out any defects in the location and plans of 
the fortifications, and whether the number, 
type, and mounting of guns are the best adapted 
for the purpose at any particular site. For the 
navy they afford a test of the means of obtain¬ 
ing the ranges of the forts and batteries, and 
of conveying the information to the officers in 
charge of the guns. They give information 
as to the effect of mines and obstructions in 
impeding the movements of ships and the 
methods to be used in forcing such a passage 
or in removing the obstructions. They give in¬ 
struction as to the best manner of approach and 
of maneuvering under fire, the formations to be 
used, the speed, and the distance between ships; 
the method of attacking by night or in a fog; 
the use of the search-light for lighting the tar¬ 
get or blinding the eyes of the enemy’s gunners 
or range-finders. The maneuvers rouse the in¬ 
terest and stimulate the esprit de corps of the 
personnel of both services and teach it to make 
the best use of the material placed in their 
hands under conditions as nearly as possible 
like those of actual war. 

Col. W. A. Simpson, 
Asst. Adjt.-Gen. U. S. Army. 

Army Transport Service. At the out' 

break of the war with Spain the water trans¬ 
portation in the possession of the United States 
consisted of a few small tugs, ferry-boats, and 
launches. Suddenly confronted with the neces¬ 
sity of despatching armies across the seas, it is 
not surprising that some confusion and delay 



ARMY TRANSPORT SERVICE 


were encountered in selecting, chartering, and 
assembling fleets capable of transporting troops, 
with their guns, animals, and impedimenta, to 
Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippine Islands. 
To convert the vessels composing the several 
fleets from ordinary freight-ships into commodi¬ 
ous and comfortable troop-transports required 
time. and much outlay. The arrangement of 
sleeping accommodations for the men, stalls for 
the animals, increased water-supply, and ventila¬ 
tion involved a practical reconstruction of the 
interior of every vessel. It was particularly 
necessary to have those vessels destined for the 
Philippines made safe and comfortable, for it 
was anticipated that the troops might pass di¬ 
rect from the decks to the battle-field. Hos¬ 
pital ships were fitted out as quickly as possible, 
and served a useful purpose during the time of 
greatest need. 

It was apparent at the outset that the prob¬ 
lem of water transportation required careful 
and continuous study, and immediately after the 
surrender of Santiago de Cuba a division of 
transportation was created by the secretary of 
war and charged with supervision and control 
of all rail and water transportation; with 
the inspection of ships with reference to 
charter or purchase for use as transports, and 
with the arrangements for sending troops by 
rail to and from the various ports. When it 
became apparent that vessels would be required 
for a prolonged period, and that it was a very 
expensive proceeding to alter chartered vessels, 
the department began to purchase such ships 
as seemed best adapted to use as transports. 
Aside from the mere act of affording a passage 
to troops across the seas, the question of fur¬ 
nishing them supplies after landing involved 
many intricate problems, each requiring a spe¬ 
cial solution. American troops submit cheer¬ 
fully to any amount of necessary hardship, but 
consider themselves entitled to the best of every¬ 
thing, regardless of cost, when the emergency 
has passed. For supplying their needs, it was 
necessary to construct refrigerator compartments 
in the transports to carry fresh beef and other 
perishable stores to the most remote and hitherto 
little known islands of our new possessions. 

During the first few months of the heavy 
demands for transportation, the quartermaster’s 
department was much hampered because vessels 
of foreign register could not be employed for 
the service, and Congress refused to grant Amer¬ 
ican register to such vessels. Nevertheless, by 
I July 1898, 43 chartered vessels had been se¬ 
cured and fitted up for the transportation of 
troops, animals, and supplies. The difficulties 
and expense attendant upon securing efficient 
service with chartered vessels led to the gradual 
substitution of transports purchased by the gov¬ 
ernment and permanently fitted up as troop¬ 
ships. The largest and best transports averaged 
nearly 6,000 tons capacity; and when, after some 
practical experience, a general plan of fitting up 
had been adopted, the transport service became 
a prominent feature of army administration, and 
attracted the attention and admiration of the 
civilized world. The urgency of the situation 
on the Pacific compelled a continuance of the 
charter system; but a fleet of government trans¬ 
ports was gradually put in commission on the 
Atlantic, and as soon as the withdrawal of the 
volunteer army from Cuba permitted, many of 
the transports were sent to Manila by way of 


the Suez Canal and put on the San Francisco- 
Manila route. The Grant, Sherman, and Sher¬ 
idan were the first vessels fitted out for this 
service, and their sailing from New York for 
Manila marked a new era in the occupation of 
the Philippines. The character of these trans¬ 
ports may be comprehended by the statement 
that the Grant sailed from New York on 19 
Jan. 1899, with the Fourth U. S. infantry and 
one battalion of the Seventeenth U. S. infantry, 
with a total strength of 50 officers and 1,703 
enlisted men. The Sherman sailed on 2 Feb¬ 
ruary with the Third U. S. infantry and one bat¬ 
talion of the Seventeenth U. S. infantry, with a 
passenger list of 1,812 persons, followed by the 
Sheridan on 19 February with the Twelfth U. S. 
infantry and the Third battalion, Seventeenth 
infantry, with a total passenger list of 2,017 
persons. These vessels made the long voyage to 
Manila with such success and comfort that the 
regiments were enabled to enter immediately 
upon active service. The experience of these 
voyages dictated some valuable suggestions, 
which were availed of at once in making desira¬ 
ble changes to perfect the transport service 
generally. 

The large number of troops remaining in 
Cuba and Porto Rico after the return of the 
main body of regulars and volunteers necessi¬ 
tated the establishment of a regular line with 
weekly sailing dates. Advantage was taken of 
the regular steamship lines as far as possible 
for the larger movement of returning troops. 
The transportation to Spain of the Spanish 
prisoners was accomplished under contract, in 
accordance with stipulations under which the 
surrender of Santiago took place. More than 
22,000 Spanish prisoners were thus returned 
from the eastern end of Cuba to Spain within 
60 days of their surrender, in an economical 
and apparently satisfactory manner. 

The outbreak of the insurrection in the Phil¬ 
ippines made it necessary to hasten relief to the 
volunteer regiments still held in those islands, 
and the presence there of the old Spanish gar¬ 
risons which, under the terms of the treaty of 
peace, were entitled to repatriation, made it de¬ 
sirable that they should be returned to Spain 
without delay. The transport service was 
strained to the utmost limit, but fulfilled its part 
in the most gratifying manner. During its first 
year of existence a total of 202,587 passengers 
were transported across the seas by army trans¬ 
ports without responsibility for the loss of a 
single life. 

The question of transportation of animals 
was one requiring much study and experiment, 
for there was little experience available to guide 
the department in a solution of the problem of 
landing cavalry horses in fit condition for ser¬ 
vice after a voyage of 7,000 miles. Some dis¬ 
couraging losses of mules occurred at a critical 
moment in the campaign against the insurgents, 
but gradually the system was perfected and the 
loss of animals actually reduced below the per¬ 
centage of loss from injury and disease which 
should be expected in the herds on shore. 
Nearly 20,000 animals were transported during 
the year ending 30 June 1901. 

At a time when every effort was being put 
forth to meet the requirements of the military 
situation Porto Rico was devastated by a hurri¬ 
cane, and the transport service was called upon 
to distribute relief stores to the unfortunate in- 


ARMY WAR COLLEGE —ARMY-WORM 


habitants who, just released from the worries 
of war, found themselves threatened with famine 
and pestilence. 

As conditions in the Philippines gradually 
settled down to a guerrilla warfare, the troops 
were distributed at about 400 stations, necessitat¬ 
ing an inter-island transport service. Just as 
everything was becoming adjusted to the new 
conditions which followed the dispersal of Agui- 
naldo’s army, the unfortunate <( Boxer® outbreak 
took place in China. The experience already 
obtained enabled the department to handle the 
transportation question in such a way as to win 
the admiration of all the foreign contingent 
composing the Chinese relief expedition which 
finally entered the sacred city of Pekin. 

As the insurrection gradually died away, and 
the volunteers who enlisted for Philippine service 
in 1899 were brought back to the United States, 
the number of transports was reduced by dis¬ 
posing of the least efficient in respect of economy 
as well as of carrying capacity. The vessels re¬ 
maining in service represent the finest types of 
transports ever in the service of any nation. 
They contain all the improvement that several 
years of wide experience seemed to justify. The 
record of the army transport service reflects 
credit upon the War Department. The re¬ 
markable freedom from accidents and loss of life 
indicates a high degree of efficiency and discipline 
in the officers and crews of the transport fleet. 
The records show that considerably more than 
500,000 passengers have safely crossed the seas 
in the army transports. The movement of such 
a vast number of people, many of them over 
the sea from 7,000 to 11,000 miles, without the 
loss of a passenger chargeable to the transport 
service, is a record which compares most favor¬ 
ably with those of all the great commercial lines 
which, through long experience, have reduced 
the transatlantic passenger traffic to an exact 
science. 

The army transport service has withdrawn its 
fleet from the Atlantic, and has materially re¬ 
duced the number of vessels in commission on 
the Pacific. The success of the service having 
become widely known, at the session of 1902-3, 
an act was passed providing that it should 
not be abandoned without the consent of Con¬ 
gress. The experience of these recent years 
justifies the belief that, if our government shall 
be again confronted with the direful necessity 
of organizing and transporting armies across 
the seas, there will be no repetition of the scenes 
and incidents which characterized the early days 
of the war with Spain. If these expectations 
materialize, the great expense and labor incident 
to putting in commission the magnificent fleet 
of ships under the army transport service will 
not have been in vain. 

William H. Carter, 
Brigadier-General General Staff. 

Army War College, a department of the 
United States military educational establishment, 
authorized by Congress in 1900. Brig.-Gen. 
William Ludlow was made chief of the board 
which drafted the regulations. Its general pur¬ 
pose is the unification of the systems of instruc¬ 
tion at the four existing service institutions; the 
development of these systems; and the most ad¬ 
vanced professional study of military problems. 
The officers of the college exercise a general 
supervision over the course of study in each 


of the present service schools. This supervi¬ 
sion extends to all civil institutions to which the 
government details an officer for military in¬ 
struction. The faculty of the college study the 
military organization of the United States with 
an eye to a complete understanding of its prac¬ 
tical efficiency of operations, and constitute an 
advisory board to which the secretary of war 
can turn at any time for details and recom¬ 
mendations as to any point in the mechanism of 
the whole military service. The study of plans 
of campaigns by the college and the accumula¬ 
tion of military information make the inaugu¬ 
ration of a campaign, in case of war, only a 
matter of the issuing of the necessary orders by 
the secretary, as all the requirements will have 
been carefully studied out beforehand. 

Army-worm, the caterpillar of the moth 
Leucania unipunctata. The adult measures 
about one and a half inches across the expanded 
wings, which are dull brown, the anterior pair 
bearing near the centre a small white dot which 
has suggested the specific name. Like most 
moths, this species flies at night and in seasons 
when they are specially abundant, are the most 
common!}'' captured insects at lights and baits 
of sugar or syrup, of which they are very fond.. 
The eggs are usually concealed on herbage in 
fields, especially where vegetation is luxuriant, 
as in wheat fields. Unless checked by enemies 
the caterpillars quickly reach maturity, pupate 
a short time under ground, emerge, pair, and lay 
eggs from which a larger brood than the first 
is hatched. This brood, after devouring every 
green thing soft enough to eat, spread destruc¬ 
tion as they march, army-like, from the place 
where they were hatched to fresh feeding 
grounds. When full grown these larvae pupate; 
some for only a short time, others until the 
following spring. The former lay eggs for a 
third brood of caterpillars which endeavor to 
pass the winter as larvae, so that larvae, pupae, 
and adults may be found throughout the year. 
The caterpillars attain a length of about two 
inches, are dark gray, striped with light yellow 
and green. Though annually common east of 
the Rocky Mountains they are generally so 
well controlled naturally that their depreda¬ 
tions are insignificant, and usually when they 
do become a pest their enemies so quickly mas¬ 
ter them that they very rarely are troublesome in 
the same locality two years in succession. The 
most important of these enemies are fungous 
diseases and, especially, parasitic insects. Arti¬ 
ficial controls are almost all mechanical. Occa¬ 
sionally the larvae of the first brood may be 
noticed in time to apply an insecticide (q.v.) 
such as Paris green mixed with soap-suds in¬ 
stead of water to make it more adhesive to the 
grass; but usually the safest plan is promptly 
to bury the crop by plowing, or to burn it. If 
migration has started, a strip of land should be 
plowed across the line of march, harrowed, and 
rolled constantly to crush the worms, or kero¬ 
sene emulsion, diluted only five times, must be 
sprayed upon the advancing worms and also 
upon their recent feeding ground. The name 
army-worm is given to other species of cater¬ 
pillars, especially to Laphygna frugiperda, which 
is better known as grass-worm. Consult ( Third 
Report > United States Entomological Commis¬ 
sion (Washington 1883) ; ( Bulletin 133* Cornel) 
Experiment Station. 


ARNA — ARNOLD 


Arna, or Arnee, ar'ne, a large animal of 
the ox genus, a native of India and the Indian 
Archipelago. See Buffalo. 

Arnauld, ar-no', an ancient noble family, 
among whose most distinguished members are 
the family of Auvergne. (i) Angelique: b. 
Paris 24 Nov. 1624; d. 24 Jan. 1684. She was 
the granddaughter of the great Arnauld and 
was abbess of the famous nunnery of Port Royal 
from 1678. See Lives by Martin (1876) ; Mon- 
laur (1901). (2) Antoine: b. Paris 1560; 

d. 1619. He was a zealous defender of the 
cause of Henry IV., and was distinguished for 
several political pamphlets, and for his power¬ 
ful and successful defense of the University of 
Paris against the Jesuits in 1594. He drew on 
himself the hatred of the Jesuits, but was 
esteemed the greatest lawyer of his time. His 
numerous children formed the nucleus of the sect 
of the Jansenists (see Jansenius) in France. 
(3) Antoine, called the (( Great Arnauld,® young¬ 
est child of the lawer Antoine Arnauld: b. 
Paris 6 Feb. 1612; d. Brussels 9 Aug. 1694. 
He devoted himself to theology, and was re¬ 
ceived in 1641 among the doctors of the Sor- 
bonne. In the same year he attacked the 
Jesuits in two works, ( De la frequente Commu¬ 
nion } and ( La Theologie Morale des Jesuites,* 
'the first of which occasioned much controversy, 
because it applied the principles of the Jansen¬ 
ists to the receiving of the sacrament. After 
1650, when Jansenism had become an object of 
public odium and the watchword of an impor¬ 
tant party in the state, Arnauld engaged in all 
the quarrels of the French Jansenists with the 
Jesuits, the clergy, and the government, was 
their chief writer, and was considered their head. 
The intrigues of the court occasioned his ex¬ 
clusion from the Sorbonne (1656), and the per¬ 
secutions which compelled him to conceal him¬ 
self. After the reconciliation between Pope 
Clement IX. and the Jansenists, in 1668, he ap¬ 
peared in public, and enjoyed the homage which 
even the court did not refuse to his merits and 
talents. He now attacked the Calvinists in 
many controversial tracts ( ( Renversement de la 
Morale de Jesus Christ par les Calvinistes ) ; 
( L’impiete de la Morale des Calvinistes,* etc., 
and with his friend Nicole composed the great 
work, ( La Perpetuite de la Foi de l’Eglise Catho- 
lique touchant l’Euchariste,* in opposition to 
them. On account of the new persecutions of 
the court, or rather of the Jesuits, he fled, in 
1679, to the Netherlands. He was a man of a 
vigorous and consistent mind, full of solid knowl¬ 
edge and great thoughts; in his writings, bold 
and violent to bitterness, undaunted in danger, 
and of irreproachable morals. His works were 
published at Lausanne between 1775 and 1783, 
and again at Paris in 1843. (4) Jacqueline 

Marie, sister of the preceding^ a French nun 
better known as Marie Angelique de Sainte 
Madeleine. She was famed for piety and was 
prominent among the Jansenists. She was 
prioress of Port Royal. See Life by Martin 
(1873). 

Arnauts, ar'nats, or Albanians, a people of 
mixed origin, who have spread in the western 
part of European Turkey, along the coasts of the 
Adriatic and Ionian Seas. They call themselves 
Skipetars, that is, inhabitants of the mountains; 
by the Turks they are called Arnauts., Their 
Vol. 1—49 


language is regarded as a descendant of the an¬ 
cient Illyrian language, and contains a consid¬ 
erable admixture of Greek, Roman, German, 
Slavonic, and Turkish words. The Arnauts 
in the coast towns generally speak Greek as 
well as their own language. They are di¬ 
vided into several tribes, among whom the 
Suliotes in the south are partly of Greek origin. 
As regards religion they are divided between 
Christianity and Mohammedanism. They are 
frank toward friends and superiors, but indulge 
in every kind of artifice and perfidy toward 
their enemies. The Tosks of southern Albania 
have in some respects not so good a reputation 
as the Gheggas of the north, but, owing to their 
contact with Greece, they are further advanced 
in civilization. War is the favorite occupation 
of the Arnauts. For arts and trades they have 
no inclination. Agriculture they esteem not so 
honorable an occupation as arms. They 
form the finest body of troops in the Turkish 
army. 

Arn'hem, or Arnheim, a town in Holland, 
in the province of Gelderland, on the right bank 
of the Rhine. It was once fortified, but the 
fortifications have been converted into public 
walks. The environs of Arnhem being more 
agreeable than those of almost any other town 
in Holland, it is much frequented by summer 
visitors. Among the chief buildings may be 
mentioned the Groote Kerk, or high church, con¬ 
taining the fine monument of Charles, Duke of 
Egmont; the Prinzenhof, the town-house, and 
the barracks. Its manufactures consist of cabi¬ 
net wares, mirrors, carriages, mathematical and 
physical instruments, etc., and there are nu¬ 
merous paper-mills in the neighborhood. Its 
trade, partly direct in grain, and partly transit 
to Amsterdam, Rotterdam, etc., is important. 
In 1795 it was stormed by the French, who 
were driven from it in 1813. Pop. (1900) 
56,812. 

Ar'no (anciently Arnus), one of the largest 
rivers of Italy. It divides Tuscany into two 
parts, and rises in the Apennines, on the east of 
Florence, on the border of Romagna, 15 miles 
west of the sources of the Tiber. It then turns 
southward toward Arezzo, after which it runs 
westward through Florence, and enters the Med¬ 
iterranean four miles below Pisa. From any 
hill in the neighborhood of Florence the view 
into the valley of the Arno is charming. The 
entire course of the river is about 140 
miles. 

Arnold, Abraham Kerns, an American 
soldier: b. Bedford, Pa., 24 March 1837; d. 1901. 
He was educated at West Point, and commis¬ 
sioned 1st lieutenant, Fifth Cavalry, 17 July 1862. 
He was brevetted captain for gallant and 
meritorious service in the battle of Gaines’ Mill, 
Va., and major for similar service at the battle 
of Todd’s Tavern, Va. He received a con¬ 
gressional medal of honor for gallantry in action 
at Davenport Bridge, Va., 18 May 1864. He 
commanded the field operations in southeastern 
Arizona against the Apaches in 1879, and against 
the Crows in 1887. During the Spanish-Ameri- 
can war he commanded the 2d Division of the 
7th Army Corps in Cuba. He wrote ( Notes on 
Horses for Cavalry Service ) (1869). 


ARNOLD 


Ar'nold, Sir Arthur, an English statesman 
and author: b. 1833 '* d. 1902. He acted as 
assistant commissioner to administer the Public 
Works Acts during the cotton famine, 1863-6, 
and afterward wrote ( The History of the Cot¬ 
ton Famine.* Other literary productions have 
been: ( From the Levant ) (1868); ( Through 
Persia by Caravan*; ( Social Politics*; and 
( Free Land.* He sat in Parliament as a Lib¬ 
eral member for Salford, 1880-5. Established 
and was president of the Free Land League 
from 1885 to 1895; was chairman London Coun¬ 
ty Council, 1895 and 1896, and was knighted in 
June 1895. He was a brother of Sir Edwin 
Arnold (q.v.). 

* 

Arnold, Benedict, a colonial governor of 

Rhode Island: b. England, 21 Dec. 1615; d. 20 
June 1678. He was a leader of the opposition to 
Samuel Gorton’s settlement at Pawtuxet, 1641. 
His knowledge of Indian languages enabled him 
to effect important negotiations with the In¬ 
dians in 1645. In May 1657 Arnold succeeded 
Roger Williams as president of the colony, and 
upon the granting of the royal charter to the 
colony in 1663, was made the first governor, 
being re-elected in 1664, 1669, 1677, 1678. He 
took an active part in the reconciliation and 
union of the two colonies of Rhode Island and 
the Providence plantations. The famous wind¬ 
mill at Newport, whose erection was long as¬ 
cribed to the Northmen, appears to have been 
built by him. 

Arnold, Benedict, an American general, 
commonly known as (( The Traitor®: b. Nor¬ 
wich, Conn., 14 Jan. 1741; d. London, Eng., 14 
June 1801. He descended from a leading Rhode 
Island family; was fairly educated. He was 
early noted for athletic prowess, reckless daring, 
and resource, and as a man displayed a proud, 
passionate, uncontrolled nature, quickly re¬ 
sponding to affection or resentment. He became 
a druggist and bookseller in New Haven at 21; 
prospered, and embarked in the West India 
trade. At the news of the battle of Lexington, 
he armed a body of 60 volunteers, marched to 
Cambridge, and proposed the capture of Ticon- 
deroga and Crown Point. The Massachusetts 
Provincial Congress gave him supplies therefor, 
a commission as colonel, and authority to raise 
troops; but finding at his recruiting ground that 
an expedition had already started, he hastened 
after it and claimed command under his com¬ 
mission. As the commander was Ethan Allen, 
both Allen and the troops declined to pay any 
attention to it; and Arnold under protest ac¬ 
companied it as a volunteer, and entered Ti- 
conderoga beside Allen. Four days later he 
was joined by a band of his own, and at once 
sailed down Lake Champlain and captured St. 
John’s. 

Refused the command of the captured forts, 
he returned to Cambridge, proposed to Wash¬ 
ington an expedition against Quebec, and on 
II September left for the Kennebec with 1,100 
men, to cross the divide between its head¬ 
waters and the early Chaudiere. After a fearful 
march through sleet storms, frozen lakes, rapids, 
and forests, he reached Quebec 13 November, 
scaled the heights to the Plains of Abraham, 
and dared the garrison of thrice his numbers to 
come out and fight. They refused, and rein¬ 
forcements from Sir Guy Carleton compelled 


him to fall back. On the arrival of Montgom¬ 
ery the two undertook an assault (31 December) 
in which the latter was killed and Arnold’s leg 
shattered, but he still blockaded the place till 
relieved by Wooster in April. Meantime he had 
been commissioned brigadier-general and given 
command of Montreal. On the expulsion of the 
United States troops from Canada, the British 
planned an invasion by way of Lake Champlain, 
and Arnold went to Ticonderoga and spent the 
summer building a fleet to bar their way. On 
11 October he fought one of the most obstinate 
and heroic naval battles in our history, near 
Valcour Island off Plattsburg. Hopelessly out¬ 
numbered, he nevertheless escaped with the 
most of his boats and all of his men. The 
British retired to Montreal, and the Americans 
sent Washington the 3,000 men which enabled 
the battles of Trenton and Princeton to be 
fought. 

One of Allen’s men, whose promotion had 
been opposed by Arnold on the ground that he 
had plundered officers’ baggage in Canada, 
brought counter-charges of malfeasance against 
him in December, which the board of war pro¬ 
nounced <( cruel and groundless.® But Congress 
in making five new major-generals, 19 Feb. 
1777, passed over Arnold, the senior brigadier, 
on the ground that Connecticut had two already, 
and appointed Stirling, Mifflin, St. Clair, Stephen, 
and Lincoln, all of whom together had not a 
tithe of Arnold’s abilities or achievements. He 
had a right to be enraged: but he contented 
himself with asking to be made ranking officer 
as before; offered to serve under his juniors 
for the present; and in Tryon’s invasion of 
Connecticut in April, did such splendid deeds 
that Congress for very shame gave him the 
major-generalship, but still left him at the foot. 
Meantime he was in pressing need of having 
his claims against Congress settled. Pay and 
supplies were hard to extract from that body, 
and Arnold, in his Canadian expedition and 
elsewhere, had used his own money freely and 
pledged his credit repeatedly to keep the move¬ 
ments from utter collapse for lack of them. But 
the claims were large, Congress was suspicious 
and dilatory, Arnold’s business was half ruined, 
and he needed the money. He was at Philadel¬ 
phia, seeking restoration of his rank, and, his 
patience exhausted at the refusal of Congress 
to act in his behalf, had asked permission to- 
resign, when Burgoyne’s invasion of 1777 loomed 
up imminent, and Washington wrote urgent and 
repeated requests to Congress to send Arnold 
north to oppose him. Soothed by this flatter¬ 
ing request, he withdrew his resignation and 
hastened north. In this crisis, it is to him that 
the country owed its salvation. By a decoy 
messenger he scattered St. Leger’s army in a 
panic, its Indian allies turning against it and 
butchering the whites as they retreated. He 
then foiled Burgoyne’s flanking attempt at Free¬ 
man’s farm 19 September, unsupported by Gates, 
and in the final battle of 7 October, took com¬ 
mand without official right, and routed Bur¬ 
goyne’s army. This victory gained for the 
United States the French alliance, and ulti¬ 
mately the surrender at Yorktown. During the 
engagement Arnold’s leg was shattered and he 
remained in Albany disabled till spring. On 20 
Jan. 1778, Congress restored him his senior 
rank. 


ARNOLD 


In June he was given command of Philadel¬ 
phia, where he became engaged to a beautiful 
girl of a loyalist family, Margaret Shippen. 
J he testimony is conclusive that she had noth¬ 
ing to do with his fall; but her family and 
the always powerful loyalist society of Phila¬ 
delphia had for the next two years a great in¬ 
fluence over him. The prospects of the United 
States grew so bad that even Washington well- 
nigh lost all hope; the English government 
offered such seductive proposals that many pa¬ 
triotic citizens considered it wanton wickedness 
to prolong bloodshed and misery, when all that 
the war was waged to obtain was offered with 
fair guarantees. Congress was so faction-rid¬ 
den and incompetent that many more thought 
the future of independence most calamitous 
even if it could be obtained; the soldiers were 
unpaid and unclothed, deserting fast, and near¬ 
ing a dangerous mutiny which soon broke out. 
In this state of things, every influential officer 
at odds with Congress was besieged with ex¬ 
pressions of loyalist opinion, and Arnold was in 
the thick of all that could shake his resolution. 
As always, he lived beyond his means, and as 
always he was in bitter feud with the other 
powers. He had determined to retire and settle 
on a New York land grant, when he was as¬ 
sailed with a series of charges by the State 
authorities, headed by Joseph Reed, president of 
the executive council. Most of the charges 
were frivolous, but two,— that he courted the 
loyalists at the expense of the patriots, and 
that he had used his position to make illegal 
purchases,— were serious. A committee of 
Congress acquitted him absolutely except on 
two foolish counts, and advised ignoring them. 
Arnold was satisfied and resigned his command. 
Reed protested on the ground that he had more 
evidence, a fresh committee referred the charges 
to a court-martial, and Arnold spent month 
after month urging a speedy trial. Reed with 
equal pertinacity delayed his ^evidence® till 
more than a year after the first indictment; the 
court-martial returned its verdict 26 Jan. 1780. 
The court returned the same verdict as the 
committee, but recommended that Arnold be 
reprimanded for two frivolous counts, and 
Washington was compelled to discharge this 
odious office. He did it in the mildest of terms, 
however, and offered Arnold the post of honor 
in the next campaign. 

But it was too late: the public disgrace im¬ 
posed on Arnold after his magnificent services, 
wounds, and losses filled him with determina¬ 
tion for revenge, justified to himself by the 
reasons above stated. Inviting examples were 
put before him: chiefly of Monk, who had re¬ 
stored Charles II. and been rewarded by honors 
and gratitude; more pertinently, of Marlbor¬ 
ough’s betrayal of James II. by taking his whole 
army over to William; and others. He really 
seems to have argued himself into believing that 
he should be playing the part of a patriot by 
ending the war at a blow, restoring peace and 
prosperity, giving the colonies a much better 
government than they had now or before the 
war, and practically secure independence under 
the English offers; and that this once done, all 
parties would thank and honor him, as he could 
control negotiations with the English govern¬ 
ment. This decisive blow would be the putting 
of the English in control of the Hudson, gaining 


at a stroke the object of Burgoyne’s and other 
campaigns,— severing the New England colonies 
from the rest, and giving the enemy New York, 
the central colony. For this end he asked of 
Washington the command of West Point, the 
key of the Hudson, with its mass of military 
stores: the colonies could hardly hold out after 
such a loss, aside from the strategic gain. He 
pleaded ill health for asking this instead of the 
proffered command; and Washington accorded 
it to him. After the capture of Andre he es¬ 
caped to the Vulture, and issued a proclamation 
justifying himself and asking his countrymen 
to do likewise, making glowing offers to desert¬ 
ers. The British made him a brigadier-general, 
and on 20 December he sailed for the James 
River, where he burned Richmond, intrenched 
himself for the winter at Portsmouth, and in 
June 1781, returned to New York. In Septem¬ 
ber he was ordered to raid New London, Conn., 
14 miles from his birthplace. He burnt a quan¬ 
tity of shipping and stores, which set fire to and 
partially destroyed the town; and the ^massacre® 
of Fort Griswold was achieved by a detachment 
on the other side of the river Thames. 

Shortly after the surrender of Cornwallis 
in October, he was sent to London to confer 
with the ministry on the further conduct of the 
war. The king and the court received him 
well; but the Liberals denounced him as bitterly 
as the Americans, and a large share even of the 
Tories distrusted a renegade and detested a be¬ 
trayer of his trust. The officers in the British 
army despised a colonial as heartily as in Brad- 
dock’s days, and therefore it was found im¬ 
possible to give him the employment in the 
army he eagerly coveted. In 1787 he removed 
to New Brunswick and engaged in the West 
India trade, with two sons; but in 1791 he re¬ 
turned to London. The next year he fought a 
bloodless duel with the Earl of Lauderdale, for 
a stinging insult of the latter in debate in the 
House of Lords. In 1794 he went to the West 
Indies to settle, but the Anglo-French wars made 
it impossible, and he was twice extricated from 
great personal danger by his alert resource. He 
rendered great service to the British command¬ 
ers and in 1795 was thanked by the committee of 
West India planters, with the wish that he 
might remain in public service. He also formu¬ 
lated plans for the British capture of the Spanish 
West Indies; and in 1798 asked for military 
service, but his request was not granted, even 
after personal solicitation. The refusal helped 
greatly to break him down; his unthrifty habits 
had drained his purse, and he had intense 
pecuniary embarrassments. He was active in 
fitting out privateers, a speculation which gave 
him more anxiety than profit; and he died at 60, 
a worn-out, harassed, unhappy man, seeing that 
his crime was also a colossal blunder. But that 
he had first saved the country he tried to ruin, 
that he was grossly wronged and greatly tempted 
on his best as well as on his worst side, and that 
he deserves far more pity than hate, cannot be 
doubted. See ( Lives ) by Sparks (1838) ; I. N. 
Arnold (1880) ; Todd (1903). 

Ar'nold, Sir Edwin, English poet and 
journalist: b. Gravesend, 10 June 1832; d. 24 
March 1904. He graduated from Oxford in 1854; 
taught for a while in Birmingham; and became 
principal of the Sanskrit College at Poona, near 
Bombay, where he rendered important ser- 


ARNOLD 


vice to the government during the great rebel¬ 
lion in India. Returning to London in 1861, he 
joined the editorial staff of the Daily Telegraph. 
He has twice visited the United States on lecture 
tours. Of his original poetry, inspired by Ori¬ 
ental themes and legends, the most famous work 
is The Light of Asia, a Poetic Presentation of 
the Life and Teaching of Gautama ) (1876); 
( Indian Idylls ) (1883); » ( Pearls of the Faith*; 
( Sa'di in the Garden* ; ( The Light of the 
World ) ; ( Potiphar’s Wife and Other Poems ) ; 
( India Revisited ) ; Oaponica* • an d The Tenth 
Muse and Other Poems* ; ( East and West ) 
(1896) ; ( The Voyage of IthobaP (1901), are 
among his many works. The popularity gained 
by ( The Light of Asia* has not been sustained 
by the appearance of his later work. 

Ar'nold, Edwin Lester, an English author, 
son of Sir Edwin Arnold. He has written ( A 
Summer Holiday in Scandinavia ) (1877) ; ( On 
the Indian Hills, or Coffee Planting in Southern 
India 1 * (1881) ; ( Bird Life in England ) (1887) ; 
( England as She Seems ) (1888) ; the novels 
( Phra, the Phoenician 1 * (1890), and ( The Story 
of Ulla* (t 895;) ; ( Lepidus, the Centurion, 1 * etc. 

Ar'nold, George, an American poet: b. 
New York city, 24 June 1834; d. New Jersey, 
3 Nov. 1865. Adopting literature as a profes¬ 
sion he contributed prose and verse to ( Vanity 
Fair,* ( The Leader,* and other periodicals of 
his day. The (( Macarone** papers established 
his reputation as a humorist, and the ( Jolly Old 
Pedagogue* is his best known poem. During 
the Civil War he did military duty at one of the 
forts on Staten Island. His published volumes 
are: ( Drift: a Seashore Idyl* (1866); ( Poems, 
Grave and Gay* (1867); ( Poems ) ; ed. with a 
Biographical sketch bv Wm. Winter (1870). 

Arnold, ar'nolt, Hans, the pseudonym of 
Bertha von Bulow. See Bulow, Bertha von. 

Arnold, Isaac Newton, an American law¬ 
yer and author: b. Hartwick, Otsego County, 
N. Y., 30 Nov. 1815; d. Chicago, 24 April 1884. 
Admitted to the bar in 1835, he removed in 1836 
to Chicago, where he resided the remainder of 
his life, engaged in legal practice and taking 
an active part in politics. From 1861 to 1865 
he was a member of Congress, and had a promi¬ 
nent share in measures leading to the abolition 
of slavery. His ablest speech was on the confis¬ 
cation bill, 2 Mav 1862. Upon his retirement 
from Congress President Johnson appointed 
him an auditor of the United States treasury. 
A lifelong friend and intimate of Lincoln, he 
wrote ( Histonr of Abraham Lincoln and the 
Overthrow of Slavery* (1867; new ed. 1885). 
His ( Life of Benedict Arnold: His Patriotism 
and His Treason* (1879), is in the nature of 
an apologia. < Recollections of the Early Chica¬ 
go and Illinois Bar* appeared in 1880. 

Arnold, ar'ndlt, Johann Georg Daniel, an 
Alsatian dialect poet and jurist: b. Strassburg, 
18 Feb. 1780; d. there, 18 Feb. 1829. His lyrics 
(in High German) are meritorious, but he is at 
his best in ( Pentecost Monday* (1816), a com¬ 
edy in Strassburg dialect and rhymed Alexan¬ 
drine verse, pronounced by Goethe <( an incom¬ 
parable monument of ancient Strassburg custom 
and language, a work which in clearness and 
completeness of intuition and ingenious delinea¬ 
tion of detail can scarcely be equaled.** He was 
a professor in the College of Strassburg and 
wrote a notable legal work entitled ( Elementa 


Juris Civilis Justinianei cum Codice Napoleoneo 
et Religuis Legum Codicibus Collata* (1812). 

Arnold, ar'nold, Lewis G., an American 
soldier: b. New Jersey, 1815; d. 1871. Educated 
at West Point he served as second lieutenant 
in the second Seminole war (1837-8) and was 
in active service during the war with Mexico. 
He distinguished himself in the Federal army 
during the Civil War, retiring from the ser¬ 
vice with the rank of lieutenant-colonel of regu¬ 
lars in 1864. 

Arnold, Matthew, English poet and critic: 
b. Laleham, 24 Dec. 1822; d. Liverpool, 15 April 
1888. The eldest son of Dr. Thomas Arnold 
(q.v.), the historian and headmaster of Rugby, 
he was taught at Laleham by a clerical uncle, 
an 1, after a short period at another school, was 
transferred to Rugby in 1837. Here he won a 
prize for a Byronic poem, ( Alaric in Rome* 
(1840). In 1841 he entered Balliol College, 
Oxford, and in 1843 he took the Newdigate 
prize with a poem on Cromwell, which sold re-, 
markably well. He graduated the next year, 
and in 1845 was elected to a fellowship at Oriel. 
After teaching a little at Rugby he became pri¬ 
vate secretary to the Marquis of Lansdowne, 
who had charge of the administration of public 
instruction (1847). In 1849 he published over 
the initial (( A,** a small volume entitled The 
Strayed Reveller, and Other Poems,* which he 
withdrew from circulation before many copies 
had been sold. In 1851 he was appointed an 
inspector of schools, a laborious post which he 
held for over 30 years, the salary enabling him 
forthwith to marry Miss Frances Lucy Wight- 
man, daughter of a judge of the queen’s bench. 

In 1852 he issued his second collection of 
verse, ( Empedocles on Etna, and Other Poems,* 
of which the semi-dramatic title-piece and Tris¬ 
tram and Iseult* were the chief features. There 
were also some excellent lyrics, but the volume, 
though full of promise, was somewhat too aca¬ 
demic to command attention, and Arnold soon 
withdrew it. In 1853 he made a fresh attempt 
with ( Poems by Matthew Arnold, a New Edi¬ 
tion,* which included the best pieces of his for¬ 
mer volumes, except ( Empedocles on Etna,* and 
gave for the first time two of the finest of his 
ambitious poems, <Sohrab and Rustum,* and 
The Scholar Gipsy.* To this volume, which 
went through three editions in four years, he 
prefixed as a preface a plea for the establish¬ 
ment of a more classical and simple taste in 
poetry. This was important because it laid down 
the main critical principles Arnold was himself 
to follow, and indicated the lines of his subse¬ 
quent opposition to many English habits and 
beliefs. 

In 1855. he published a second series of his 
poems mainly consisting of previously issued 
pieces omitted from the volume of 1853, but 
presenting also an important new narrative 
poem drawn from Scandinavian mythology, 
( Balder Dead.* His poetical work had now 
attracted enough notice to secure his election, 
in May 1857, as professor of poetry at Oxford. 
After one term of five years he was re-elected. 

His 10 years of lecturing naturally did much 
to formulate his critical principles. In 1861 he 
published three lectures ( On Translating 
Homer,* and the next year added ( On Trans- 


ARNOLD 


lating Homer: Last Words.* The volumes dis¬ 
played the blended strength and weakness that 
were to mark his critical work as a whole. 
Their style was admirably simple and polished, 
but was marred by too frequent repetition 
o* phrases and over-emphasis upon favorite 
id eas. Their matter was sound, original, bril¬ 
liant ; yet the lecturer devoted too much atten¬ 
tion to the errors of individual translators and 
displayed a too manifest enjoyment of his own 
cleverness, which involved a jaunty disregard 
for the feelings of others. Arnold had a native 
gift for apprehending and expounding the essen¬ 
tial principles underlying the various forms of 
literature that appeal widely and deeply through 
a long period of time. In other words, he was 
born to comprehend and love and interpret 
works of classical quality — particularly great 
poetry. With works of more individual quality, 
with much of mediaeval and romantic literature, 
with the lighter varieties of verse and prose, 
and with not a little of the work of his contem¬ 
poraries he was scarcely sure in his critical 
touch. He was not altogether catholic in his 
tastes and applied his formulas too rigorously, 
as when he underrated Shelley’s poetry largely 
because it did not furnish such (< a criticism of 
life” as could be found in the verse of his own 
favorite, Wordsworth. Then again. Arnold 
tended to forget that too great insistence 
upon one’s own ideas and bantering sarcasm 
toward one’s opponents are often fatal to 
success as an advocate, and, despite his striving 
after disinterestedness, he was a born advocate 
an 1 controversialist. At bottom he was true, 
simple, modest; on the surface he was flippant, 
and dogmatic, and rather intolerant. He would 
discuss, charmingly and brilliantly it is true, 
such topics as ( The Study of Celtic Literature^ 
(1867), on which he could scarcely speak with 
authority, and he thus exposed himself to criti¬ 
cism by inferior men who were able to lessen 
his proper influence on public opinion. In 1865, 
however, the first series of his ( Easays in Criti¬ 
cism^ with its illuminating, unpedantic discus¬ 
sion of important writers, both classical and 
modern, placed Arnold above all contemporary 
English critics and gave his utterances, on litera¬ 
ture at least, decided authority and influence. 
British insularity and superciliousness in literary 
matters could not be uprooted, but were some¬ 
what pruned. This service makes Arnold a 
public benefactor, whether or not his indebted¬ 
ness to Sainte-Beuve, Goethe, and Heine pre¬ 
vents our ranking him among the world’s most 
original critics. But he did more than convince 
some of his countrymen that they should not 
foster ^philistine” and ^barbarian” tastes, he 
gave them sound critical principles, brilliantly 
phrased, which they could apply not only to 
their reading, but to their lives. 

Meanwhile, he had been performing more 
O' ertly practical services, not only in inspecting 
and commenting on English schools, but in 
studying and reporting on the educational sys¬ 
tems of the Continent. ( Popular Education of 
France J appeared in 1861; ( A French Eton in 
1864 and ( Schools and Universities of the 
Continent in 1868.> The next year he published 
<Culture and Anarchy> (previously issued 111 
the ( Cornhill Magazine^, the most influential 
of all his attacks upon philistinism, especia y 


in social matters. In his sprightliest book, 

( Friendship’s Garland ) (1871), he carried the 
war he was waging under the banner of culture, 
or of (( sweetness and light,” more specifically 
into the domain of politics, where his success 
was less conspicuous, partly on account, it 
would seem, of a temperamental unfitness to 
grapple with the practical side of the problems 
peculiar to the new field. The year before he 
had made a still more venturesome incursion 
into the domain of religion and theology. Al¬ 
though a few of the more advanced of his 
countrymen were prepared to welcome his 
efforts to popularize the results of German and 
French investigation of Biblical problems, many 
of his readers, repelled by his apparent unortho¬ 
doxy, denounced him or pitied him for his hos¬ 
tility or disloyalty to religion and the church, 
both of which he was, in his own somewhat- 
detached way, heartily endeavoring to serve. 
Nevertheless, ( Saint Paul and Protestantism* 
(1870), ( Literature and Dogma ) (1873;—the 
best Of the series— ( God and the Bible ) (1875), 
and ( Last Essays on Church and State- (1877) 
were serviceable in breaking down prejudices, 
and, however lacking in permanent value as 
contributions to literature, were seemingly pro¬ 
ductive of lasting benefit. 

During most of this period of brilliant nrose- 
writing and wearisome school-inspecting Ar¬ 
nold’s far from copious spring of poetry almost 
ran dry. The year after he began his duties 
as piofessor of poetry at Oxford he published 
his experiment in tragedy of the Grecian type — 
< Merope ) (1858). No reprint of it was needed 
until 1885. In 1867, the year he was superseded 
as lecturer at his alma mater, he published a 
volume of ( New Poems,* in which he made 
good his claim to rank with Gray as an elegiac 
poet by his beautiful pastoral elegy ^hyrsis,* 
in honor of his friend, the poet with whose 
name his own G often associated, Arthur Hugh 
Clough (q. v.), and by the equally beautiful and 
pathetic, but less complex and academic ( A 
Southern Night,* in memory of his brother, 
William Delafield Arnold, director of public 
instruction in the Punjab. Another elegy of 
much merit was ( Rugby Chapel,* in memory of 
his father, written 10 years before in the short 
rhymeless verses he liked to experiment in. 
Elegiac also, in the sense that in them he be¬ 
moaned the passing of old forms of faith and 
the misery of buffeted souls like his own, were 
the nobly beautiful ( Stanzas from the Grande 
Chartreuse,* another poem that serves to link 
Arnold’s name with that of Gray. In 1869 his 
poems were collected in two volumes. His 
work as a poet was now practically over, save 
for an occasional tribute — such as the stanzas 
in memory of Dean Stanley and the pathetic 
poems on Geist, the dachshund, and other 
household pets. He had become more and 
more reflective and, in consequence, more and 
more prone to select moral and intellectual 
themes, rather than such as appeal primarily 
to the simpler emotions and stimulate the 
creative faculty of the born lyrical or narra¬ 
tive poet. His creative spontaneity declined in 
equal measure with the increase of his argu¬ 
mentative combativeness and of his absorption 
in the religious and political problems of the 
period. For about a quarter of a century, dur- 


ARNOLD 


ing which his fame spread widely, the public 
knew him chiefly as a man of letters of great 
versatility and of acknowledged authority in 
literary criticism rather than as one of the most 
highly gifted and original of the Victorian 
poets. Reprints of his poetry had, however, 
been welcome^ in 1877 and 1885 — not to speak 
of the selections from his poems made by him¬ 
self in 1878 — and before he died a grateful 
though not a wide recognition had been given 
to this earlier and, in the opinion of some, more 
beneficent and attractive side of his genius. 
Much of this admiration had been yielded to 
him by readers who had found that his poems 
of religious unrest reflected their own doubts 
and regrets even better than the similar poems 
of Clough. Some readers, however, were at¬ 
tracted rather by the clear if cold perfection 
of his classical poetic style. Since his death 
the opinion has been quite freely expressed — 
with more reason, perhaps, by the second of the 
groups of readers just described — that in a 
generation or two his fame will rest mainly and 
securely upon his work in verse. 

Despite the drudgery of the post Arnold 
served as an inspector of schools until 1883, 
when he was enabled to retire owing to the fact 
that, much to his surprise, Mr. Gladstone had 
caused a pension of £250 a year to be conferred 
upon him. His home had Leen for some years 
in London, then in the neighborhood of Har¬ 
row, and in 1873 he had settled at Cobham. His 
domestic life was uneventful and happy, save 
for the deaths of children and other parental 
afflictions. During his latter years he continued 
his critical writing in the magazines, gathering 
his articles into such volumes as ( Mixed Essays 5 
(1879), Hrish Essays and Others ) (1882), and 
discourses in America > (1885). The last 
named was composed of the three lectures — 
< Numbers; or, The Majority and the Remnant, 5 
( Literature and Science, 5 and ( Emerson ) — 
which he delivered during his first visit to the 
LTnited States, where he had a married daughter 
living. He came first in 1883 and lectured into 
the next year; in 1886 he came again. In 1888 
a volume of papers Civilization in the United 
States; First and Last Impressions ) was pub¬ 
lished at Boston, but not in England. Besides 
collecting his essays and lectures, he also edited 
during this period several volumes of selections 
from favorite authors— ( A Bible-Reading for 
Schools, 5 (1872)—Isaiah, chapters 40-66 — 
the ( Six Chief Lives 5 (1878) from Johnson’s 
dives of the Poets, 5 selections from Words¬ 
worth (1879) and Byron (1881), ( Edmund 
Burke on Irish Affairs 5 (1881) and Usaiah of 
Jerusalem 5 (1883). 

When he was at the very height of his fame, 
he died suddenly of heart-disease on 15 April 
1888, at Liverpool, where he had gone to wel¬ 
come his daughter home from America. He 
was buried in the churchyard of All Saints at 
Laleham, his birthplace. 

Bibliography .— The year of his death some 
of his literary essays, including those on Gray 
and Keats contributed to Ward’s ( English 
Poets, 5 were gathered under the title ( Essays 
in Criticism, Second Series. 5 The next year his 
( Reports on Elementary Schools, i852-i 882 5 
were edited by Sir Francis Sandford. In 1895 
two volumes of his letters, scarcely great as lit¬ 


erature, but full of intimate and valuable details, 
- ere edited by Mr. G. W. E. Russell. His 
( Note Books 5 appeared in 1902. Uniform edi¬ 
tions of his writings have been attainable in 
America for over 20 years, and there are popu¬ 
lar one-volume editions of his poems. Three 
critical biographies, each of brief compass, have 
been devoted to him — one by Professor Saints- 
bury (1899, ( Modern English Writers 5 ), one by 
Mr. Hubert Paul (1902, in the new series of 
* English Men of Letters — neither thoroughly 
satisfactory — and one by Mr. G. W. E. Russell 
(1904, ( Literary Lives 5 )—more of a study 
than a biography on account of Arnold’s wish 
that no formal life of himself should be under¬ 
taken. For further criticism see Stedman’s 
( Victorian Poets 5 (1885), Hugh Walker’s ( The 
Greater Victorian Poets 5 (1895) and W. H. 
Dawson’s ( Matthew Arnold 5 (1904), as well as 
essays by George E. Woodberry ( ( Warner’s 
Library 5 ), Frederic Harrison ( ( Tennyson, Rus- 
kin, Mill 5 ), Lewis E. Gates ( ( Three Studies in 
Literature 5 ), W. C. Brownell ( ( Victorian Prose 
Masters 5 ), T. H. Ward (Ward’s ( English 
Poets, 5 vol. IV. enlarged edition), A. Birrell 
( ( Res Judicata 5 ), W. N. Guthrie OModern 
Poet Prophets 5 ), W. E. Henley ( ( Views and 
Reviews 5 ), Leslie Stephen (‘Studies of a Biog¬ 
rapher, 5 vol. 2), Richard Garnett ( ( Essays of 
an ex-Librarian 5 and the ( Dictionary of Na¬ 
tional Biographv, 5 supplement, vol. 3) and the 
late Sir J. G. Fitch’s ( ( The Arnolds and their 
Influence on English Education 5 ). There is an 
excellent bibliography of Arnold’s writings by 
1. B. Smart (1892). William P. Trent, 
Professor of English Literature, Columbia 
University. 

Ar'nold, Samuel, an English composer: 
b. London, 1740; d. 1802. In 1760 he was ap¬ 
pointed a composer at the Covent Garden 
Theatre, and set to music the ( Maid of the 
Mill. 5 He also produced the oratorios of the 
( Prodigal Son, 5 the ( Resurrection, 5 and others. 
He was made a doctor of music in 1773, and in 
1783 was appointed organist of the chapel royal. 
He edited the works of Handel, in 36 volumes 
folio. In 1794 he was made organist at West¬ 
minster Abbey. In 1708 he composed his ora¬ 
torio of ( Elijah. 5 Various as were his com¬ 
positions, his inventive talent was but limited. 
His ( Cathedral Music 5 was published in 1790. 

Ar’nold, Samuel Greene, an American his¬ 
torian : b. Providence, R. I., 12 April 1821; d. 
there, 12 Feb. 1880. He was graduated from 
Brown. University in 1841, and traveled exten¬ 
sively in Europe, South America, and the East, 
He was lieutenant-governor of Rhode Island 
1852, 1861-2, and sat for part of a term in the 
United States Senate 1862-3. He wrote a val¬ 
uable ( History of Rhode Island and Providence 
Plantations 5 (2 vols. i860), and was for many 
years president of the Rhode Island Historical 
Society. 

Ar'nold, Thomas, an English scholar, 
headmaster of Rugby School, and professor of 
modern history in the University of Oxford: 
b. Cowes, Isle of Wight, 13 June 1795; d. 12 
June 1842. He received the elements of his 
education at Warminster, and at the age of 12 
was removed to the public school at Winchester. 
Having obtained a scholarship in Corpus 


ARNOLD — ARNPRIOR 


Christi College, Oxford, he entered that college 
in his 16th year, and though naturally of a 
shy disposition soon became remarked for the 
boldness and independence of his views, and the 
ability, firmness, and zeal with which he main¬ 
tained them. In 1815 he was elected Fellow of 
Oriel College, and both in that year and 1817 
obtained the chancellor’s prize for Latin and 
English essays. His views had been early 
directed to the Church, but some scruples as to 
signing the articles made him hesitate for a 
time. At length these scruples gave way before 
a more careful examination, and he took dea¬ 
con’s orders in 1818. In 1819 he settled at 
Laleham, near Staines, where he employed him¬ 
self in preparing young men for the universities, 
and in 1820 married the sister of one of his 
earliest school and college friends, Trevenen 
Penrose. About this time a remarkable change 
appears to have come over him; his religious 
views became finally settled, and his whole mind 
appears to have been wound up to a determina¬ 
tion to use life diligently and earnestly for the 
best and holiest purposes. At Laleham he had 
much leisure, which he employed partly in the 
cultivation of general literature, and partly in 
writing articles on Roman history for the En¬ 
cyclopaedia Metrooolitana, and collecting ma¬ 
terials for an edition of Thucydides, whose writ¬ 
ings, as well as those of Aristotle, had long been 
his favorites. In 1828, by the unanimous vote 
of the trustees, who were told on high authority 
that (( he would change the face of education all 
through the public schools of England,® he was 
appointed head-master of Rugby School, and 
devoted himself to his new duties with the great¬ 
est ardor. While giving due prominence to the 
classics, he deprived them of their exclusiveness 
by introducing various other branches into his 
course, and was particularly careful that the 
education which he furnished should be in the 
highest sense moral and Christian. His success 
was remarkable. Not only did Rugby School 
become crowded beyond any former precedent, 
but its pupils on removing to the universities 
carried off a very large proportion of prizes, 
and the superiority of Dr. Arnold’s system be¬ 
came so generally recognized that it may be 
justly said to have done much for the general 
improvement of the public schools of England. 
In his position as a director of the London Uni¬ 
versity he zealously endeavored to extend the 
benefits of a literary and scientific education to 
all classes and creeds without excluding reli¬ 
gion ; but failing in his efforts to make examina¬ 
tion in the Scriptures requisite to obtain a degree, 
resigned his office. In 1841 he was appointed 
professor of modern history at Oxford, and de¬ 
livered his introductory course of lectures with 
great success. The works by which Dr. Arnold 
will continue to be best known are his edition 
of Thucydides, his ( Roman History,> unhappily 
left unfinished, and his ‘Sermons,* most of them 
prepared for his own chapel at Rugby, and so 
admirably adapted to the circumstances of the 
youths who formed the greater part of his audi¬ 
ence, that, though written hastily and at broken 
intervals snatched from other labors, they are 
justly held to be models in their kind. See 
Stanley, ‘Life and Correspondence of Thos. Ar- 
nold > (i860) ; Worboise, ( Life of Dr. Thos. 
Arnold ) (1859); Fitch, ( Thomas and Matthew 
Arnold ) (1897). 


Ar'nold, Thomas, an English writer on 
literature, and editor of old texts, son of Dr. 
Arnold, of Rugby, and brother of Matthew Ar¬ 
nold: b. in Laleham, 30 Nov. 1823; d. 1900. He 
became a Roman Catholic, and spent a number 
of years in New Zealand and Tasmania. Among 
his works are ( A Manual of English Litera¬ 
ture* ; ‘Select English Works of Wyclif* (3 
vols., 1869); Selections from the Spectator*; 
‘Beowulf* (text, translation, and notes) ; ( Hen¬ 
ry of Huntingdon ; ‘Symeon of Durham* ; and 
( Chronicles of the Abbey of Bury St. Ed¬ 
munds* ; ( Passages in a Wandering Life ) 

(1900). His daughter is the novelist, Mrs, 
Humphry Ward. 

Ar'nold, Thomas Kerchever, an English 

educator: b. Stamford, 1800; d. 1853. He was 
educated at Cambridge University, became an 
Anglican clergyman; and published a large num¬ 
ber of text-books for schools, including manuals 
for the Greek, Latin, French, and German lan¬ 
guages. 

Arnold of Brescia, ar'nold of bresh'a 
(Arnaldo da Brescia), an Italian religious and 
political reformer and agitator: b. about 1100; 
d. 1155. He was one of the disciples of Abelard, 
and on returning from Paris began to preach in 
his native city. In this way he stirred up the 
people against the clergy; and in France, whither 
he was forced to flee in 1139, he also found nu¬ 
merous adherents, for the immorality and arro¬ 
gance of the clergy excited much discontent. 
The flame which he had kindled could not be ex¬ 
tinguished by the excommunication pronounced 
against him and his adherents by Innocent II. 
He preached his doctrines in safety at Zurich in 
Switzerland till about 1144, when he appeared at 
Rome, where his eloquence occasioned among 
the people great disorder. The furious multi¬ 
tude, whom he himseU could no longer restrain, 
revered him as their father, and even the Senate 
protected him till Adrian IV., in 1155, laid an 
interdict upon the city. This subdued the Ro¬ 
mans, and Arnold was obliged to flee. He was 
taken in Campania, and executed at Rome and 
his body burned; his ashes were thrown into 
the Tiber, and his party was suppressed. His 
followers were known as Arnoldists. 

Ar'nold of Winkelried, wing'kel-red, a 
Swiss hero, who, at the battle of Sempach, in 
1386, sacrificed himself to insure victory to his 
countrymen. The Austrian knights, dismounted, 
had formed themselves into a phalanx, which the 
Swiss vainly strove to pierce, when Arnold, 
rushing on the spear points of the enemy, and 
burying several in his breast, thus opened a gap 
in the fence of steel. The Swiss rushed in 
through the opening, and routed the Austrians 
with great slaughter. 

Ar'noldists. See Arnold of Brescia. 

Arnprior, town of Renfrew County, Ontario, 
Canada; 38 m. by railway W. of Ottawa, on 
Canada Atlantic and Canadian Pacific Railways; 
at the confluence of the Madawaska Ri\ er with 
the Ottawa. It is an important lumbering 
centre, and has other milling and manufacturing 
interests. The country round about is heavily 
wooded, and the abundance of _ water-ways 
especially favors the handling of timber. Pop. 
(1901) 4T52. 


AROK-SZALLAS—AROMATIC COMPOUNDS 


Arok-Szallas, ar'ok-sal'ash, or Jasz-Arok- 
Szallas, a privileged market-town in Hungary, 
44 miles northeast of Budapest. Pop. (1900) 
11,190. 

Arolsen, a'rol-sen, a German town, capi¬ 
tal of the principality of Waldeck, on the river 
Aar. Rauch the sculptor was born here. Pop. 
(1900) 2,734. 

Aro'ma, a Greek term denoting perfume. 
Many plants yield a more or less delightful odor, 
often due to volatile oils called essences, which 
can be separated from them by suitable pro¬ 
cesses. Sometimes odor proceeds from a sub¬ 
stance which cannot be seized, and to which the 
name of aroma is more particularly applied. It 
appears that substances altogether, or almost 
altogether, inodorous may be made to diffuse a 
strong odor by the mixture of different sub¬ 
stances which facilitate their volatilization. 
Thus, when musk is dried, ammonia is separated 
from it, and seems to be the vehicle of the odor, 
since the residuum becomes inodorous, and yet 
may again be made as odoriferous as it was at 
first by impregnating it with a quantity of the 
substance which had been carried off. Tobacco, 
in like manner, owes part of its odor to am- 
moniacal salts mixed with it in the process of 
manufacture. One singular fact is that many 
plants of tolerably strong odor yield an inodor¬ 
ous liquid when dissolved in water and yet com¬ 
municate odor to the oils with which they are 
macerated. See Perfumery. 

Aromatic Compounds, a numerous and 
exceedingly important class of substances, fun¬ 
damentally differing from the fatty compounds 
in constitution, and named from the fact that 
the earliest known representatives of the class 
were resins, oils, and balsams, distinguished by 
a marked aromatic odor. The name is now ap¬ 
plied to all substances containing a <( benzene 
nucleus® (presently to be described). Benzene 
itself is the simplest example of an aromatic 
body. Its formula, expressed in the simplest 
way, is CePIe, but when the attempt was made 
to represent the composition of benzene by a 
^structural formula,® numerous difficulties were 
encountered. For example, benzene behaves like 
a saturated compound in most respects, yet it 
contains eight atoms less of hydrogen than the 
saturated paraffin <( hexane® (CgHu) containing 
the same number of carbon atoms. Again, any 
or all of the hydrogen atoms in benzene can 
be replaced by other monovalent elements (or 
radicals) ; and the persistence of the group Ce 
in the derivations of benzene, even when all the 

original hydrogen 
atoms have been 
replaced by other 
elements or radi¬ 
cals, indicates that 
the carbon atoms 
in that body are 
intimately related 
to one another, in 
some m a 11 n e r. 
Furthermore, i t 
has been proved 
by experiment 
that the hydrogen 
atoms in benzene 
are <( of equal 
value,® so that it makes no difference, in form¬ 
ing a substitution compound, which atom of 


H 



CH 


CH 


H 


CH 


hydrogen is replaced, and this fact indicates that 
the hydrogen atoms should occur in the struc¬ 
tural formula symmetrically. To reconcile 
these considerations (and many others) Kekule, 
in 1865, proposed for benzene the structural for¬ 
mula preceding. 

The symmetry of the body with respect to hy¬ 
drogen is here evident, and the persistence of 
the group Ce is explained by assuming the six 
carbon atoms to be united to one another in the 
form of a closed chain, supposed to possess 
sufficient chemical strength to maintain its own 
integrity, save under exceptional circumstances. 
The closed ring of six carbon atoms is the 
(( benzene nucleus,® referred to above, which con¬ 
stitutes the distinctive feature of the aromatic 
compounds as a class. It will be observed that 
in Kekule’s structural formula the carbon atoms 
are all tetravalent, just as the carbon is in carbon 
dioxid (CO2), and that three of the four valen¬ 
cies of each carbon atom are satisfied by the va¬ 
lencies of other carbon atoms, while the fourth 
is satisfied, in each case, by a hydrogen atom. 
Von Baeyer has proposed a slightly different 
structural formula for benzene, even more sym¬ 
metrical in appearance than Kekule’s, but which 
raises certain questions that are not yet an¬ 
swered. His formula is as shown herewith. 

The closed carbon 
H chain is present here 

also, but only three 
of the valencies of 
each carbon atom are 
definitely pro v i d e d 
for, and it is as¬ 
sumed that the six 
remaining valencies 
(one to each carbon 
atom) are satisfied 
by a sort of (( central 
linkage,® whose pre¬ 
cise nature is not 
determined or de¬ 
fined. It is customary, at the present time 
to express the structural formula of benzene itf 
the simple form with¬ 
out attempting any 
explanation of the 
fact that the carbon 
atoms are here ap- 
p a r e n 11 y trivalent. 

Much thought has 
been expended upon 
this matter, and the 
constitution of ben¬ 
zene is one of the 
most interesting prob¬ 
lems in the realm of 
organic chemistry. 

The structural formu¬ 
las presented above are not to be taken 
sense as pictorial representations of the actual 
geometrical configuration of the benzene mole¬ 
cule. We know nothing at all about the shape 
of a molecule, nor about the way in which its 
parts are associated with one another, in space. 
The structural formulas employed in’chemistry 
ai e meie empirical diagrams, for representing, 
to the eye, the chemical properties and relations 
that have been observed in the laboratory. 

. Compounds have been prepared which con¬ 
tain closed rings of three, four, and five atoms of 
carbon, respectively, but these are not classed 
as aromatic compounds. They are intermediate 



CH 


H. 

C 



CH 


CH 


in any 









AROMATIC COMPOUNDS 


in general properties, between the aromatic se¬ 
ries and the fatty series, but resemble the latter 
more closely. Compounds are also known in 
which the chain is closed by an atom of oxygen, 
or of sulphur, or of nitrogen. Thus the struc¬ 
tural formula of pyridine is as shown herewith. 

Such substances could 
be classed as <( aro- 
matic compounds® by 
an extension of the 
definition of the aro¬ 
matic group, but are 
usually regarded as 
outside of the limits 
of that group. The 
aromatic compounds 
are so numerous, 
and include so many 
substances of tech¬ 
nical importance, that 
only the merest outline of their general 
character can be given in this place. In 
general it may be said that they are derived 
from benzene by replacing one or more of its 
typical hydrogen atoms by an equal number of 
monovalent radicals (either simple or com¬ 
pound). The essential features of these substi¬ 
tutions may be illustrated by considering the 
chlorobenzenes. By the action of chlorine upon 
cold benzene, several substitution products are 
formed, having the formulas C 6 H 5 C 1 , CeH^Ch, 
CsHs.Ch, etc., according to the number of atoms 
of hydrogen that are replaced by the chlorine. 
The first of these substitution products, CeHs-Cl, 
is called simply ^chlorobenzene,® and it is to be 
noted that since the hydrogen atoms in the orig¬ 
inal benzene are all (< of equal value® (that is, 
all involved symmetrically), it makes no differ¬ 
ence which hydrogen atom is replaced by the 
chlorine; hence only one chlorobenzene having 
the formula C 6 H r .Cl is possible. But when a 
second atom of hydrogen is replaced by chlorine, 
the resulting compound, CeTLCk (known as di- 
chlorobenzene), can exist in no less than three 
distinct isomeric forms, according to the rela¬ 
tive positions of the chlorine atoms in the ben¬ 
zene ring. For let the structural formula of 
chlorobenzene (C 6 H 5 .C 1 ) be represented by 
the skeletonized scheme the numbers represent¬ 
ing the several groups 
of CH, in one of 
which the hydrogen 
is to be replaced by 
a further substitution 
of chlorine. It is 
evident that the next 
chlorine atom may 
replace a hydrogen 
atom at any one of 
the five vertices to 
which numbers have 
been attached; but it 
is also evident from 
symmetry that the 
two positions numbered (< i® must be considered 
as essentially identical, so far as the product re¬ 
sulting from a substitution is concerned, and the 
same is also true of the two positions marked 
« 2 .» Only three essentially different ways of 
substituting the second chlorine atom need there¬ 
fore be considered. When the second chlorine 
atom is situated at an angle adjacent to the first, 
the product is known as ortho- dichlorobenzene; 


when the second chlorine atom is separated from 
the first by one vortex which still retains its 
hydrogen, the product is known as meta- dichlo¬ 
robenzene; and, finally, when the two substituted 
atoms of chlorine are opposite one another, the 
product is known as /’ara-dichlorobenzene. The 
three different dichlorobenzenes thus shown by 
the structural formula to be possible, are actual¬ 
ly known. All aromatic compounds having the 
general formula C0H4Y2 (where Y is a monova¬ 
lent radical) occur in three isomeric series, just 
as the chlorobenzenes do, and the separate com¬ 
pounds are distinguished, as already explained 
in the case of dichlorobenzene, by the prefixes 
ortho-, meta-, and para-. These prefixes are 
frequently abbreviated to single letters, in works, 
on chemistry. Thus p- dihydroxybenzene is of¬ 
ten written in the place of the full name, «para- 
dihydroxybenzene.® This particular substance 
(used in photography and commonly known as. 
«hydroquinone»), as its name implies, is formed 
by the substitution of two molecules of hydroxyl 
(HO), for two atoms of hydrogen in the ben¬ 
zene ring, the hydroxyl molecules being opposite 
each other (as indicated by the prefix para-). 
Its structural formula, therefore, is as below. 
The ortho- compound 
having the same com¬ 
position (except that 
its two hydroxyl 
molecules are in the 
<( ortho® positions), is 
a different substance, 
known more familiar¬ 
ly as catechol, or 
pyrocatechin, and the 
meta- compound 
(where the two mole¬ 
cules of hydroxyl are 
in the (( meta® positions) is quite different from 
either of the others, and is known as resorcinol. 
The substitutions of monovalent radicals for 
the hydrogen atoms in benzene are by no means 
limited to two, nor need the radicals that are 
substituted be alike. Thus the pyrogallic acid 
so extensively used as a developer in photogra¬ 
phy is obtained from benzene by the substitu¬ 
tion of three molecules of hydroxyl for three 
molecules of the benzene hydrogen; and it there¬ 
fore has the formula CgH 3 .(OH)3. Vanillin,, 
now largely used in the place of extract of 
vanilla for flavoring confectionery and ices, is 
benzene in which three atoms of the original 
hydrogen have been reolaced, respectively, by the 
groups (CHO), (OCH3), and (OH). On ac¬ 
count of the typographical difficulties involved 
in printing the structural formulas of the aro¬ 
matic compounds, chemists often specify the 
constitution of these compounds by numbering 
the original hydrogen atoms of the benzene from 
1 to 6 , and then specifying by number, which 
hydrogen atom has been replaced by each of 
the substituted radicals. Thus vanillin (re¬ 
ferred to in the previous paragraph) consists of 
benzene in which CHO has been substituted for 
the first hydrogen atom, OCH 3 for the third,, 
and OH for the fourth; and with this conven¬ 
tion the constitution of vanillin may be ex¬ 
pressed thus : CHO : OCH 3 : OH = 1 13 ‘.4. 

The existence of tertiary (and higher) sub¬ 
stitution products of benzene makes it possible 
to identify the ortho-, meta-, and para- di-substi- 



Cl 



C.O H 



CH 


CH' 









AROMATIC COMPOUNDS 


tution compounds, so that the proper designation 
can be attached to each of them. The di-bromo- 
benzenes afford a good example of the way- 
in which this is accomplished. The three essen¬ 
tially different compounds obtained by substitut¬ 
ing bromine for two of the hydrogen atoms in 
benzene are (according to the notation just 
given) Br : Br = i : 2, Br : Br = 1 : 3, and Br : 
Br = 1 : 4, these being ortho-dibromobenzene, 
meta-dibromobenzene and para-dibromobenzene, 
respectively. Now if an atom of hydrogen in 
the first of these be replaced by another atom 
of bromine, it is evident that the new bromine 
atom may have the position 3, 4, 5, or 6; but the 
compounds in which the bromine occupies the 
positions 1:2:3 an d 1:2:6 must be regarded 
as identical, as will be seen by constructing the 
diagram; and, similarly, those in which it occu¬ 
pies the positions 1:2:4 and 1:2:5 must be 
considered identical. Hence the further intro¬ 
duction of bromine into ortho-dibromobenzene 
can give rise only to the two distinct tri-bromo- 
benzenes 1:2:3 and 1:2:4. If the remaining 
dibromobenzenes be examined in the same way, 
it will be found that meta-dibromobenzene can 
yield (upon further bromination) the three dis¬ 
tinct tri-bromobenzenes 1:2:3, 1:3:4, and 
1 : 3 : 5. Finally, it will be found that para-di¬ 
bromobenzene can yield only one tri-bromo- 
benzene; namely, 1 : 2 : 4. The identification 
of a di-substitution bromobenzene as ortho-, 
meta-, or para- is therefore seen to be equivalent 
to determining how many different tri-bromo¬ 
benzenes the given di-bromobenzene can yield. 
This problem has been fully worked out in the 
case here taken as an illustration, and it has 
been shown that of the three known di-bromo- 
benzenes, the ortho- compound is the one boiling 
at 435 0 F., the meta- compound is the one boil¬ 
ing at 427°F., and the para- compound is the 
one melting at 180° F. The mode of identifica¬ 
tion here discussed in detail for bromine sub¬ 
stitution products can be applied in other cases 
also, but the labor involved in the operation is 
so great that it is usually easier to ascertain the 
proper prefix for a new di-substitution com¬ 
pound by noting which of the bromo-substitu- 
tion products must be used as a starting point, 
in the synthesis of the proposed compound. 
There is usually but little difference in the 
boiling points of ortho-, meta-, and para- com¬ 
pounds, but the para- compounds have the 
highest melting points. The benzene ring of 
ortho- compounds is liable to be broken up by 
oxidation, while in the other two classes the 
ring usually persists. The following general 
law appears to hold true of di-substitution aro¬ 
matic compounds: When a radical is introduced 
into a benzene ring in which one hydrogen 
atom has already been replaced by a radical, the 
second radical will take a position “meta® to 
the first one, provided the first was COOH, 
SCbH, N 0 2 , or (probably) CN, CHO, or 
CO.CH3. In most other cases the second radical 
will mainly take the “para® position, though 
some of the “ortho® compound is almost in¬ 
variably produced at the same time. The aro¬ 
matic bodies include many acids, the simpler of 
which may be conveniently classified according 
to the number of molecules of carboxyl 
(COOH) that they contain, and according to 
the number of hydrogen atoms that have been 
displaced in the original benzene ring. The 


simpler and more familiar aromatic acids mostly 
contain one carboxyl group, and are therefore 
said to be “mono-carboxylic.® In the mono- 
carboxylic group, benzoic acid, CoHs.COOH, 
is “mono-hydric®; salicylic acid. CoHi.OH. 
COOH, is “di-hydric®; proto-catechuic acid, 
C 6 H 3 .(OH)2.COOH, is “tri-hydric®; and gallic 
acid, C 6 H 2 .(OH) 3 .COOH, is “tetra-hydric.® 
Numerous substances classed by the chemist as 
alcohols also occur in the aromatic group. The 
simplest of these (and the only one containing 
only six atoms of carbon) is phenyl alcohol, 
which is also known as phenol, and as carbolic 
acid. This substance is formed when benzene 
is oxidized by peroxid of hydrogen, in accord¬ 
ance with the equation. 

CeHo + H2O2 — CeHs.OH + H-O. 
Benzene. Hydrogen Phenyl al- Water 

peroxid. cohol. 

Phenol is called an alcohol on account of its 
chemical structure (see Alcohol), but it differs 
widely from the alcohols of the fatty series, 
since it does not yield an aldehyde, an acid nor 
a ketone, and it is not easily oxidized. Other 
aromatic alcohols may be prepared by replac¬ 
ing a hydrogen atom in benzene by one of 
the alcohol radicals ( C n H 2n -f-i ) of the fatty 
series, and then substituting an OH group for 
one of the hydrogen atoms in the compound so 
formed. The resulting substance has widely 
different properties, according to the position 
of the OH group so introduced. If the OH 
replaces a hydrogen atom in the alcohol radical, 
the final compound is called an alcohol; but if 
it replaces a hydrogen atom in the original 
benzene ring, the final compound is more ac¬ 
curately classed as a phenol. For example, 
if CH 3 be substituted for an atom of hydrogen 
in benzene, toluene (C 6 H 5 .CH 3 ) is formed. If, 
now, OH is substituted for a hydrogen atom in 
the CH 3 , the resulting substance, C6H5.CH2OH, 
is known as benzyl alcohol; while if the OH is 
substituted for an H in the original ring, we 
have CoH 4 .(OH).CH 3 , a substance known as 
cresol, and more properly described as a phenol 
than as an alcohol. One of the most important 
members of the aromatic group is amido-ben- 
zene, or aniline (q.v.). 

A. D. Risteen, Ph.D., 
Editorial Staff, ( Encyclopedia Americana T 
Ar'omat'ics, plants (sometimes animal and 
other substances) which have a spicy odor and 
pungent taste and are used in medicine, cookery, 
and perfumery. They are largely employed to 
disguise the taste of drugs, are usually reputed 
stimulant, antispasmodic, and, if bitter, tonic and 
vermifuge; externally they are applied as anti¬ 
septics, local anaesthetics and counter-irritants. 
Their active principles are volatile oils obtained 
by distillation; but some contain camphor-like 
substances, such as turpentine; others are bitter 
like tansy; still others contain an odorous resin, 
for example, myrrh and benzoin; and lastly 
there are those with a musky odor, such as the 
musk plant (q.v.). Among aromatics and 
the families to which they belong are : peppermint, 
thyme, lavender, of the Labiatce — the whole 
plant, especially the leaves; caraway, dill, anise, 
of the Umbelliferce — the seeds or seed capsules; 
ginger, Zingiberacecu— the root-stocks; cinnamon, 
cassia, of the Lauracece Myrtacece — the bark; 
cloves, Myrtacece — the flower buds; and va¬ 
nilla, of the Orchidaccce — the fruits. 


AROMATIC VINEGAR —ARRACK 


Ar'omat'ic Vinegar, ^ liquid consisting of 
s rong acetic acid, and obtained by distilling 
crystallized diacetate of copper. Its aroma is 
clue to the presence of acetone, but it is also 
usually highly flavored with preparations, such 
as cloves calamus, etc. It has a pleasant per- 
tume, and its vapor, when inhaled, has a power- 
iul effect on the nostrils, and acts as a strong 
excitant on the whole system. The liquid is 
highly corrosive. 

Arona, a-ro'na, Italy, an ancient town near 
the southern extremity of Lago Maggiore. In 
the vicinity is the cdossal statue of Sail Carlo 
Borromeo, 70 feet high, exclusive of the pedes- 
tal, 42 feet high. There are silk, cotton, and 
metal works here. Pop. (1901) 4,700. 

Aroo. See Arru Islands. 

Aroostook, a-roos’tuk, a river in Maine. 
It rises in Piscataquis County, Me.; flows more 
than i2 ° miles in a circuitous course, and enters 
the St. John River in New Brunswick. It was 
an important factor in the settlement of the 
long-pending dispute concerning the boundary 
between the United States and British America. 

Aroostook, Lady of The, the title of 
a book written by W. D. Howells in 1879 — one 
of the author’s early works. The Aroostook is 
a trading vessel, and the lady of the story is the 
sole woman passenger in a voyage across the 
Atlantic. The story is strong and interesting, 
and contributed greatly to the early reputation 
of Mr. Howells. 

Arouet, a'roo-a'. See Voltaire. 

Around the World in Eighty Days, a 

noted romance by Jules Verne. Phineas Fogg, 
an English gentleman, wagers that a man can 
travel around the world in 80 days. He wins 
his wager, after a series of exciting adventures. 

Around-the-World Records. Many years 
have elapsed since Mr. Phineas Fogg, M. Jules 
Verne’s mythical hero, accomplished the sup¬ 
posedly impossible task of circumnavigating the 
globe in 80 days, a feat which won for him a 
wager of $100,000, and incidentally, a wife. 
Since that time, however, so many improvements 
have been made in methods of transportation, 
so many new routes — like that of the Trans- 
Siberian Railway (q.v.)—have been completed 
that Mr. Fogg’s once remarkable trip now ap¬ 
pears in the light of an extremel} commonplace 
achievement. In fact the person who, to-day, 
could not travel around the world in less than 
80 days would be regarded as a very inex¬ 
perienced globe-trotter. The first serious at¬ 
tempt to lower Jules Verne’s imaginary record 
was made in 1890, when Miss Nellie Bly, who 
represented the New York World, made the trip 
around the world against time. She was fol¬ 
lowed by the late George Francis Train, and 
both succeeded in accomplishing the tour in less 
than 70 days. Ten years later Mr. George Grif¬ 
fith, of Chiswick, England, established a new 
record at 64 p2 days, but this record stood for 
less than a year, it having been reduced, in 1901, 
to 60 days and 13U2 hours, by Charles C. Fitz- 
morris, who made the trip at the request of 
Hearst’s Chicago American. The success of 
Fitzmorris was the means of inspiring many 
persons to participate in this unique form of 
record breaking, among the contestants there 
being several journalists, the representatives of 


European and Canadian papers. All attempts 
to lower this last record were unsuccessful, how- 

?x V /h r i’- U o Ul December 1903, when Mr. James 
Willis Sayre of Seattle, Wash., earned the hon- 
ors f° r record breaking by girdling the globe in 
54 days, 9 hours and 42 minutes, an achievement 
that lowered the Fitzmorris record by more than 
6 days and 3 hours. Mr. Sayre’s itinerary was 
as follows: From Seattle to Yokohama, Japan; 
thence by rail to Kobe, Moji, and Nagasaki, 
Japan; then by steamer to Dalny, Manchuria, 
and so on to Liverpool by what was practically 
an all-rail journey of 7,600 miles. At Liverpool 
he boarded a steamer for New York, and, two 
hours after his arrival in America, he was on a 
train bound west, for Seattle. This feat of 
lowering the world’s record for globe-girdling 
was accomplished without the use of special 
trains or boats, or any other method of travel 
beyond the means of the ordinary tourist. 

Arpad, ar'pad, the conqueror of Hungary, 
and founder of the Arpad dynasty, which 
reigned till 1301. Fie was born in the second 
half of the 9th century; died in 907. He was 
the son of Almus, whom the seven Magyar clans 
dwelling in the steppes northeast of the Caspian 
Sea had elected their hereditary chief about 889. 
Thus united into one nation, the Magyars, mus¬ 
tering about 25,000 warriors, crossed the Car¬ 
pathians and conquered Hungary, when Arpad 
was elected their prince. 

Arpeggio, ar-pej'o (Italian, from Arpa, a 
harp), in music, the playing of a chord on a 
keyed or stringed instrument by sounding the 
notes, not together, but in rapid succession. 

Arpino, ar-pe'no (ancient Arpinum ), a 
town of southern Italy, celebrated as the birth¬ 
place of Caius Marius and Cicero. It is situated 
on a rising ground near the river Garigliano, 
was originally founded by the Volsci, and be¬ 
came a municipal town under the Romans. It is 
still a place of some importance, possesses a 
royal college and several churches, and manu¬ 
factures woolens. Pop. (1900) 10,607. 

Arquebus, ar'kwe-bus, an ancient species 
of firearm resembling a musket. It was fired 
from a forked rest, and sometimes cocked by 
a wheel, and carried a ball that weighed nearly 
two ounces. A larger kind used in fortresses 
carried a heavier shot. See Ordnance. 

Arracacha, ar'ra-ka'cha, or Aracacha, a 
genus of umbelliferous plants of Southern and 
Central America. The root of A. esculenta is 
divided into several lobes, each of which is 
about the size of a large carrot. These are 
boiled like potatoes and largely eaten in South 
America. 

Ar'rack, or Rack, a name applied by 
Orientals to a strong spirituous liquor distilled 
from rice, from the juice of the cocoanut, date, 
and other palms, or from molasses. The arrack 
of Goa and Colombo in Ceylon is distilled from 
palm-juice alone, after being allowed to fer¬ 
ment; that of Batavia and Jamaica from rice and 
molasses. The rice is turned into malt by being 
soaked in water and allowed to sprout, after 
which the arrack is distilled from it on fermen¬ 
tation taking place in the same way as whiskey 
from barley-malt. The rice is also often used 
without being malted. The distillation of the 
fermented liquor affords the third or worst sort 
of arrack; this mixed with a little water and 


ARRAGONITE —ARREST OF JUDGMENT 


again distilled gives the second best sort; a third 
distillation produces the best sort, which is sel¬ 
dom exported. The arrack sold in Europe is 
seldom genuine. Pure arrack is clear and trans¬ 
parent, with a yellowish or straw color, and a pe¬ 
culiar but agreeable taste and smell; it contains 
at least 52 to 54 per cent of alcohol. Not much 
of it is imported into England, but it is largely 
drunk in India and the East generally, the In¬ 
dian and Pacific Islands, Africa, and South 
America. The arrack of Japan is known as saki. 

Arragonite, a common but erroneous 
spelling for the mineral Aragonite (q.v.). 

Ar'rah, a town of British India, in Bengal. 
The surrounding country is fertile and well cul¬ 
tivated, and near the town is a large and beau¬ 
tiful lake. It was rendered famous during the 
mutiny of 1857 by the heroic resistance of a body 
of 20 civilians and 50 Sikhs, cooped up within 
a detached house, to a force of 3,000 sepoys, who 
were ultimately routed and overthrown by the 
arrival of a small European reinforcement. Pop. 
47,000. 

Arrah Na Pogue, ar-ra na pog, a play by 
Dion Boucicault. (q.v.). 

Arraign'ment, in the practice of criminal 
law the calling of a prisoner by his name to the 
bar of the court to answer the matter charged 
upon him in the indictment. His innocence be¬ 
ing presumed, it is the law, and is so laid down 
in the most ancient books, that, though charged 
upon an indictment of the gravest nature, he is 
entitled to stand at the bar in the character of 
a free man, without irons or any manner of 
shackles or bonds, unless there be evident danger 
of his escape, or of violence at his hands. 

Arran, ar'an, an island of Scotland, in the 
Firth of Clyde, 20 miles long, and 10 miles wide, 
with an area of 165 square miles. The island 
attains its loftiest summit in Goatfell, which is 
2,900 feet high. The southern portion is rather 
hilly than mountainous, and contains several 
arable tracts of considerable extent and toler¬ 
able fertility. The geology of Arran has at¬ 
tracted much attention, as furnishing within a 
comparatively narrow space distinct sections of 
the great geological formations. The botany 
possesses almost equal interest, both in the 
variety and the rarity of many of its plants. 
Among objects of historical interest are the cave 
of Drumidoon, relics of Danish forts, and 
Druidical stones. Pop. (1900) 6,ooo. Consult 
( A May Week in Arran* (1882). 

Arras, ar'ras', a town of France, capital of 
the department of Pas-de-Calais, in the middle 
of an extensive and fertile plain, on the Scarpe, 
which here becomes navigable. It is a well- 
built town, and has several handsome squares 
and a citadel, but is no longer fortified. The 
chief public buildings are the modern cathedral, 
the extensive buildings of the former abbey of 
St. Vaast, now accommodating a museum and 
the public library of 50,000 volumes; the Hotel 
de Ville, one of the handsomest in the north of 
France, with a fine Gothic fagade; the theatre, 
Hotel de la Prefecture, barracks, etc. Its in¬ 
dustries are varied and important. In the Mid¬ 
dle Ages it was famous for the manufacture of 
tapestry, to which the English applied the name 
of the town itself. The corn-market of Arras 
is the most important in the north of France. 


It was the birth-place of Robespierre. Pop. 
(1900) 26,000. 

Arrate y Acosta, ar-ra'ta e a-kos'ta, a 
Cuban historian: b. Havana, 1697; d. 1766. 
His history of Cuba entitled ( Llave del Nucoo 
Mundo y ante mural de las India Occidentales ) 
remained in manuscript until 1830. 

Arrawak, ar'ra-wak. See Arawak. 

Arrebo, ar're-bo, Anders Christensen, a 
Danish poet: b. Arooskjobing, 1587; d. 1637. 
He was made Bishop of Drontheim, Nor¬ 
way, when only 31, but deposed in 1622, owing 
to his objectionable life; he was afterward re¬ 
habilitated as preacher in Vordingborg. As the 
pioneer of the Renaissance movement, he is con¬ 
sidered the father of modern poetry in Denmark. 
His rhymed translation of the Psalms of 
David* (1623), but especially his ( Hexameron > 
(1641), an imitation of a once famous poem of 
the French poet Du Bartas on the ( Creation^ 
are highly esteemed. 

Arrest', the seizure of a suspected criminal 
or delinquent that security may be taken for his 
appearance at the proper time before a court 
to answer to a charge. Ordinarily, a person can 
be arrested only by a warrant from a justice of 
the peace; but there are exceptional cases in 
which he can be apprehended by an officer with¬ 
out a warrant, by a private person also without 
a warrant, or by what is technically called a 
<( hue and cry.® 

Any peace officer, as a justice of the peace, 
sheriff, coroner, or watchman may, without a 
warrant, arrest any one committing a felony in 
his presence, 3 Hawkins PI. Cr. 164;' Tiner 
v. State, 44 Tex. 128; Reg. v. Chapman, 12 Cox. 
C. C. 4, or committing a breach of the peace, 
during its continuance, 3 Wend. N. Y. 384, or 
even to prevent the commission of a breach of 
the peace, Rex. v. Herns, 7 C. & P. 312, 32 E. C. 
L. 522, and such officer may arrest anyone whom 
he reasonably suspects of having committed a 
felony, whether a felony has actually been com¬ 
mitted or not. 40 N. Y. 463; 25 Abb. N. C. 298; 
3 Park. Cr. N. Y. 249; 99 Pa. St. 63. 

A private person who is present when a 
felony is committed, 3 Wend. N. Y. 353 ; 1 Mood. 
93; or during the commission of a breach of the 
peace, 10 Cl. & Fin. Hon. L. 28; 25 Vt. 261, 
may and should arrest the felon, and may upon 
reasonable suspicion that the person arrested is 
the felon, if a felony has been committed. 3 
Wend. N. Y. 353; 6 Term 315. 

An arrest is made by touching the body of 
the person accused. The object of arrest being 
to make sure that he answers to a charge about 
to be brought against him, it does not follow 
that after being seized he is incarcerated; if bail 
for his appearance at the proper time be given, 
and the case be not too aggravated a one for 
such security to be accepted, he will be released 
till the day of trial. 

Arrest of Judgment, in law, is the act or 
process of preventing a judgment or verdict 
from being carried out till it shall be ascertained 
whether it is faulty or legally correct. Judg¬ 
ment may be arrested (1) when the declaration 
made varies from the original writ; (2) where 
the verdict materially differs from the pleadings 
and issue thereonand (3) where the case laid 
in the declaration is not sufficient in law to ad- 
mit of an action being founded upon it. A mo- 


ARRHENATHERUM — ARROW-ROOT 


tion for arrest of judgment must be grounded 
on some objection arising on the face of the rec¬ 
ord itself. People v. Thompson, 41 N. Y. 1; 
People v. Kelley, 94 N. Y. 526. If the judgment 
is arrested all the proceedings are set aside, and 
judgment of acquittal is given, but this will be 
no bar to a new indictment. 

Ar'rhenathe'rum, a genus of three species 
of tall perennial grasses closely allied to the oat 
(q.v.). A. elatius or avenaceum (also known as 
Avena elatius and Holcus avenaceus), which, as 
these names imply, bears a resemblance to oats, 
and sometimes called oat grass and French rye 
grass, is widely cultivated for fodder in France. 

1 rue rye grass ( Lolium ) is, however, not a 
close relative. 

Arrhenius, ar-ra'm-us, Svante, a noted 
Swedish chemist: b. in Upsala in 1850. He 
was educated at the University of Upsala and 
after making many original investigations be¬ 
came professor in the University of Stockholm 
in 1891. His researches have been of the highest 
importance, the establishment of the theory of 
electrolytic dissociation being due to him. This 
theory supplies a reasonable explanation of 
many chemical phenomena otherwise insoluble 
and correlates various facts between which no 
connection has been previously discovered. He 
has published ( Sur la conductibilite galvanique 
des electrolytes* (1884), and a treatise in Ger¬ 
man on electro-chemistry (1902). 

Ar'ria, a celebrated Roman matron, wife 
of Ctecinna Paetus, consul during the reign of 
Claudius, about 41 a.d. Paetus having raised an 
unsuccessful revolt against Claudius, in Illyria, 
was condemned to die, but was allowed the 
option of ending his life by suicide, which the 
Romans did not deem a crime. Paetus hesitated; 
Arria seized the dagger, plunged it into her 
bosom, and then presenting it to her husband, 
said, (( It is not painful, Paetus.® 

Arriaga, ar're-a'ga, Pablo Jose d’, a Span¬ 
ish Jesuit: b. 1562; d. 1622. He was the first 
rector of the Jesuit College in Lima and wrote 
a valuable history entitled ( Estirpacion de la 
Idolatria de los Indos del PeniP 

Ar'ria'nus, a celebrated Greek historian, a 
native of Nicomedia, in Bithynia, who flourished 
in the 2d century under the Emperor Hadrian 
and the Antonines. He was a disciple of Epicte¬ 
tus, whose lectures he edited. While residing in 
Greece he gained the friendship of the Emperor 
Hadrian, who bestowed upon him the citizen¬ 
ship of Rome (124 a.d.), and subsequently ap¬ 
pointed him prefect of Cappadocia.. In this ca¬ 
pacity he distinguished himself in the war 
against the Massagetae. He was afterward ad¬ 
vanced to the senatorial and even consular dig¬ 
nities. Like Xenophon, whom he imitated in 
style, he united the literary with the military 
character. His writings were . numerous,, but 
many of them have perished. His ( Anabasis* of 
Alexander the Great, still extant, narrates the 
Asiatic expedition of Alexander, and being based 
on the memoirs of Ptolemy Lagus and. Aris- 
tobulus, whc both served under that king, is 
proportionably valuable. 1 o this is added a book 
on the affairs of India, which pursues the history 
of Alexander, but is not deemed of equal author¬ 
ity. An epistle from Arrianus to Hadrian is 
also extant, entitled <Periplus Ponti Euxini* (A 
Voyage around the Euxine or Black Sea). 
There are also ascribed to him ( Treatise on 


Tactics ) ; and a ( Periplus of the Sea of Azof > 
and of the Red Sea, of which the authority is 
doubtiul. We possess also his ( Enchiridion,* a 
moral treatise containing an abstract of the prac¬ 
tical philosophy of Epictetus. There have been 
various editions of the ( Enchiridion* and the 
( Anabasis. ) His philosophical works have been 
translated by T. W. Pligginson (Boston 1891) 
and the ( Anabasis* by Chinnock (1893). 

Arrondissement, a/ron-des-man, a name 
given in France to the subdivision of a depart¬ 
ment, or of the quarters of some of the larger 
cities, as in Paris. The arrondissement is under 
the government of a Sub-Prefect. 

Arroo. See Arru. 

Arffow, a missile weapon, straight, slen¬ 
der, pointed, and barbed, to be shot with a bow. 
See Archery. 

Arrowhead, Sagittaria, a genus of plants of 
the natural order Alismacece, distinguished by 
unisexual flowers, having three herbaceous se¬ 
pals and three colored petals, numerous stamens, 
and numerous carpels, which are compressed, 
one-seeded, and on a globose receptacle. They 
are aquatic plants, natives of very different 
climates, from the tropics to the cold regions of 
the world. The common arrowhead (S. sagit- 
tifolia) is a beautiful plant, a native of Eng¬ 
land, with arrow-shaped leaves which rise above 
the surface of the water. It is one of those 
plants which have enjoyed an undeserved reputa¬ 
tion as cures for hydrophobia. The corms (or 
solid bulbs), dried and powdered, have some¬ 
times been used for food, but have an acrid un¬ 
pleasant taste. The Chinese arrowhead (S. 
sinensis) is a native of China, and has long been 
cultivated in that country and Japan for its eat¬ 
able corms, which, in a fresh state, are some¬ 
what acrid, but abound in starch. It has arrow- 
shaped acute leaves, and a branched polygonal 
scape (leafless stem). It is grown in ditches 
and ponds. It is one of the plants sometimes 
cultivated in tanks in hothouses. 

Ar'row Lake, the name given to an ex¬ 
pansion of the Columbia River, in British Co¬ 
lumbia, about 95 miles long from north to 
south. It is often regarded as forming two 
lakes — the Upper and Lower Arrow. 

Ar'row-root, a fine grained starch ’es¬ 
teemed for making desserts and invalid foods. 
It is extracted from the underground parts of 
various tropical plants, especially of the genus 
Maranta of the natural order Marantacecc. The 
popular name is said to be derived from the 
practice of the South American Indians who 
used the freshly dug rootstocks as an antidote 
for poisoned arrow-wounds. Probably, how¬ 
ever, the derivation is from the Indian word ara. 
The principal species is Maranta arundinacea , 
indigenous to tropical America and cultivated in 
the West Indies, India and other warm coun¬ 
tries. It is a perennial plant about two feet 
high, has small white flowers and fruits about 
the size and form of currants. The rootstocks, 
which often exceed a foot in length and three 
quarters of an inch in diameter, are yellowish 
white, jointed and covered with loose scales 
which must be carefully removed before the ex¬ 
traction of the starch, because they impart their 
disagreeable flavor if allowed to remain. The 
process of extraction, which is simple but usu¬ 
ally crudely practised, is as follows: The root- 



ARROWSMITH — ARSENAL 


stocks are dug when a year old, well washed, 
peeled, beaten to a milky pulp in deep wooden 
mortars, and well washed to remove the fibrous 
parts, which are thrown away. The crude starch 
is next passed through a sieve or a coarse cloth 
and allowed to stand until the starch has set¬ 
tled, when the water is drawn and the white 
residue again washed. After again settling, the 
water is drawn off and the pulp when dried in 
the sun is reduced to powder. On a large scale 
arrow-root is manufactured with the aid of spe¬ 
cially constructed machinery, but the process is 
essentially as described. Bermudian arrow-root 
is considered the best in the market, and next 
to it is that of Jamaica. The East Indian pro¬ 
duct is believed to be inferior, perhaps because 
of adulteration with or substitution of other 
starches, practices induced by the great demand 
and the high prices paid for the genuine. Some 
of these other starches are obtained from closely 
related plants, among which may be mentioned 
certain species of the genera Canna (q.v.), Cur¬ 
cuma (see Turmeric), Manioc (see Cassava), 
Tacca (q.v.) and Arum. Potato, corn, rice and 
wheat starch and fine sago are also sold for ar¬ 
row-root, but may be identified by miscroscopical 
examination; the form and markings of the 
starch grains differ from those of the arrow- 
root granules. When dry, arrow-root is odor¬ 
less, but when damp has a slight smell. Like 
other carbohydrate foods, it is a source of energy, 
but since it is deficient in nitrogen compounds 
it should be mixed with eggs, milk, or other sub¬ 
stances rich in nitrogenous materials, to form a 
well-balanced diet. 

The amount of fecula or starch present in 
the roots of the Maranta varies according to 
age, and runs from 8 per cent, in those of the 
young plants, to 26 per cent when full grown. 
The latter stage is reached when the plant is 
10 to 12 months old; and the roots then present 
the following composition in 100 parts. 


Starch, fecula, or arrow-root.26 

Woody fibre. 6 

Albumen. . i l /2 

Gummy extract, volatile oil, and salts. 1 

Water .65 1 / 2 


Arrow-root is exported in tin cases, barrels, 
or boxes, carefully closed up. It is a light, opaque, 
white powder, which, when rubbed between 
the fingers, produces a slight crackling noise, 
like that heard when newly fallen snow is being 
made into a snowball. Through the micro¬ 
scope, the particles are seen to be convex, more 
or less elliptical, sometimes obscurely triangular, 
and not very different in size. The dry farina 
is quite inodorous, but when dissolved in boiling 
water it has a slight peculiar smell, and swells 
up into a very perfect jelly. Potato starch, with 
which it is often adulterated, may be distin¬ 
guished by the greater size of its particles, their 
coarser and more distinct rings, and their more 
glistening appearance. Refined sago-flour is used 
for adulteration, many of the particles of which 
have a truncated extremity, and their surface 
is irregular or tuberculated. Arrow-root is also 
sometimes adulterated with rice-starch and with 
the common starch of wheat-flour. 

The starch of the cassava, manihot or manioc 
is sometimes imported into Europe under the 
name of Brazilian arrow-root. Potato-starch, 
carefully prepared, is sometimes sold as English 
arrow-root; and the farina obtained from the 
roots of the Arum mac^latum. as Portland ar¬ 


row-root. Otaheite arrow-root is the starch of 
Tacca pinnatifida. All these, as well as Oswego 
and Chicago corn-flour — the starch of maize 
or Indian corn — are so nearly allied to true 
arrow-root as not to be certainly distinguishable 
by chemical test; but the forms of the granules 
differ, so that they can be distinguished by the 
microscope. 

Ar'rowsmith, Aaron, an English cartog¬ 
rapher: b. Winston, 1750; d. 1823. He raised 
the execution of maps to a perfection it had 
never before attained. His nephew, John, b. 
1790, d. 1873, was no less distinguished in 
the same field; his ( London Atlas of Univer¬ 
sal Geography } may be especially mentioned. 

Arroyo, ar-ro'yb> the name of two towns 
of Spain, in Estremadura. Arroyo del Puerco, 
about 10 miles west of Caceres, has a palace of 
the old dukes of Benevente, and a parish church 
adorned with some paintings by Morales. Arro¬ 
yo Molines de Montanches, about 27 miles south¬ 
east of Caceres, is noted as the scene of the 
defeat of the French, 28 Oct. 1811, by the British 
under Lord Hill. 

Arru (a-roo') Islands, a group belonging 
to the Dutch, situated to the south of western 
New Guinea, and extending from north to 
south about 127 miles. They consist of one 
large island and a number of smaller. They are 
all low and swampy, but well wooded and toler¬ 
ably fertile. The natives belong to the Papuan 
race, and many of them have been converted tc 
Christianity by Dutch missionaries. The chief 
exports are trepang, tortoise-shell, pearls, moth¬ 
er-of-pearl, and edible birds’-nests, which they 
exchange for European goods. Agriculture is 
in a primitive state, but maize, sugar-cane, beans, 
bananas, etc., are cultivated. Sago is the chief 
diet, little animal food being eaten. Pop. about 
15,000. 

Arsaces, ar-sa-sez, founder of a dynasty 
of Parthian kings, who, taking their name from 
him, are called Arsacidae. 

Arsamas, ar'sa-mas, a manufacturing 
town in the Russian government of Nijni-Nov- 
gorod, situated on the right bank of the Tiesha, 
250 miles east of Moscow. It contains 34 
churches, several convents and schools, 19 tan¬ 
neries, several soap-works, linen factories, etc., 
and has a considerable trade. Pop. (1901) 
12,380. 

Ar'senal, a magazine, or place appointed 
for the making, repairing, keeping, and issuing 
of ordnance and other appliances required in 
warfare, whether in the army or navy. Some¬ 
times the name is applied to an establishment 
where such articles are kept in store only, but 
the chief arsenals also embrace large factories 
or workshops. The principal arsenals of the 
United States are those in Allegheny, Pa.; 
Augusta, Ga.; Benecia, Cal.; Columbia, Tenn.; 
Fort Monroe, Va.; Frankford, Pa.; Indianapo¬ 
lis, Ind.; Kennebec, Me.; New York, N. Y.; 
Rock Island, Ill.; San Antonio, Tex.; Water- 
town, Mass.; and Watervliet, N. Y. There are 
also powder depots at St. Louis, Mo., and Dover, 
N. J.; a noted armory at Springfield, Mass., an 
ordnance proving ground at Sandy Hook, N. J. 
The Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, England, which 
manufactures warlike implements and stores for 
the army and navy, was formed about 1720. In 
France, each territorial military district (19 in 
all, including Algeria) has its own special arse- 







ARSENIC 


nal or its own depot of war material. There are 
naval arsenals at the great government dock¬ 
yards, namely Cherbourg, Brest, Lorient, Roche¬ 
fort, and Toulon. The chief arsenals of Ger¬ 
many are situated at Spandau, Cologne, and 
Dantzig, that at the first-mentioned place being 
the great centre of the military manufactories. 
The chief Austrian arsenal is the immense estab¬ 
lishment at Vienna, which includes gun-factory, 
laboratory, sinall-arms and carriage factories, 
etc. Austria also purchases quantities of her 
military stores from private manufacturers. 
Russia has her principal arsenal at St. Peters¬ 
burg with supplementary arsenals elsewhere. 
In Italy, Turin is the centre of the military fac¬ 
tories. 

Ar'senic, an elementary substance, resem¬ 
bling the metals in its physical properties, and 
formerly classed with them. In its chemical 
relations, however, it is decidedly non-metallic, 
and at present the books mostly place it among 
the non-metals, though it is still customary to 
speak of the element itself as <( metallic arsenic,® 
to distinguish it from the (< white arsenic® of 
commerce, which is, properly speaking, an oxide 
of arsenic. Compounds of this element have 
been known for many centuries, chiefly on ac¬ 
count of their poisonous character. The yellow 
sulphide of arsenic, otherwise called <( orpiment,® 
was known to Dioscorides, who called it arseni- 
kon, probably on account of its powerful prop¬ 
erties ; the Greek word arsen, from which it is 
derived, signifying (( male.® Arsenic occurs in 
the metallic form in nature, usually with ores 
of iron, silver, cobalt, nickel, and antimony. 
Large masses of it are found at Zimeoff, in 
Siberia, and it occurs also in Saxony, Alsace, 
Bohemia, Transylvania, in the Harz, in Chile, 
in Japan, at Kongsberg in Norway and in 
parts of the United States. Combined with 
other substances, it is one of the most widely 
distributed of the elements, although the total 
amount of it in the world does not appear to 
be large. It occurs in various kinds of pyrites, 
and is therefore a common impurity in sulphuric 
acid (much of which is made from pyrites), 
and in substances in the manufacture of which 
this acid is used. The minerals known as 
kupfernickel (niccolite), realgar, orpiment, mis- 
pickel (arsenopyrite), and nickelglance (gers- 
dorffite) contain it, as well as many others. 
The appearance of metallic arsenic varies greatly 
with the source from which it is obtained, and 
the method adopted for preparing it. That 
obtained from pyrites is usually compact, crys¬ 
talline, and nearly white, while that obtained 
from arsenious acid is gray and pulverulent. 
The element is usually described as a (( steel- 
gray metalline mass,® which, at ordinary tem¬ 
peratures, has neither odor nor taste. One 
chemist (Ludwig) obtained arsenic with «a 
perfectly bright surface, resembling freshly 
granulated zinc®; but it is doubtful if this was 
the pure element, since in preparing it he mixed 
with it a small quantity of iodine. For com¬ 
mercial purposes, metallic arsenic is obtained by 
refining the element as it occurs in nature, or 
by extracting it from arsenopyrite. The pro¬ 
cess of extraction from arsenopyrite consists in 
heating that mineral in earthenware retorts or 
tubes, arranged horizontally in a long furnace, 
and each having a piece of thin sheet-iron 
rolled up and inserted into its mouth. Un 


distilling, most of the arsenic condenses on the 
sheet-iron, from which, after cooling, it may 
be detached. The product so obtained is further 
purified by mixing it with pulverized charcoal 
and re-distilling. The earthenware retorts that 
are used in the process are made with great 
care. They are composed of one part of fresh 
clay and two parts of pulverized bricks or old 
retorts, and are coated with a mixture of blood, 
loam, forge scales, and alum, which produces 
a glaze through which the poisonous vapors of 
the arsenic cannot penetrate. They are then 
fired. Arsenic is brittle and crystalline, and its 
hardness, on the mineralogical scale, is about 
3.5. Its specific gravity ranges from 5.2 to 5.7, 
although a certain variety of it (according to 
Bettendorff) has a specific gravity as low as 
4.71. It has several allotropic forms, one of 
which is crystalline, and the other black and 
amorphous. The specific heat of the crystalline 
variety is 0.083, and that of the amorphous 
variety is 0.076. Arsenic conducts electricity 
better than mercury does; for if the specific 
resistance of mercury at 32 0 F. be taken as 
unity, the specific resistance of arsenic is 0.373 
at 32 0 F., and 0.534 at 212 0 F. The chemical 
symbol of arsenic is As, and its atomic weight 
is about 74.44 (Clarke). Its co-efficient of ex¬ 
pansion is .000 00311 per degree F. Arsenic 
oxidizes slowly when exposed to the air, forming 
a gray powder which is sometimes sold under 
the name of (( fly-powder.® It is not affected 
by pure water. When heated in the air it burns 
with a blue flame, giving off a characteristic, 
highly disagreeable, garlic-like odor. When pro¬ 
tected from the air, metallic arsenic volatilizes 
at a red heat, without melting; its vapor being 
a light citron yellow, and phosphorescent. When 
heated under heavy pressure, a-rsenic melts at 
about 900° F. 

Metallic arsenic forms alloys with many met¬ 
als, some of which are produced by pulverizing 
and intimately mixing the constituents, and 
subjecting them to a pressure of 6,000 or 7,000 
atmospheres. If much arsenic be present, the 
alloys are usually brittle. Arsenic is an un¬ 
desirable impurity in iron, in general, but it 
is sometimes added to iron and steel for the 
manufacture of small chains and ornaments, 
because it makes the metal susceptible of a very 
brilliant polish. When alloyed with copper, 
arsenic gives a brittle gray metal, having a 
brilliant, silvery appearance, which is used some¬ 
what for making buttons. The chief use of 
metallic arsenic, however, is in the manufacture 
of small shot. Pure melted lead, when dropped 
from a height, tends to form tailed drops; but 
if arsenic be added in small quantities this 
tendency disappears, and the drops are much 
rounder. With hydrogen, arsenic forms a very 
important gaseous compound known as arseniu- 
retted hydrogen, or arsine, and having the 
formula AsH 3 . This compound is best obtained 
by the action of sulphuric acid upon an alloy 
of arsenic and zinc. It is colorless, and so 
poisonous that Gehlen, its discoverer, was killed 
by inhaling a single bubble of it. Arseniuretted 
hydrogen burns with a bluish flame, and metallic 
arsenic is deposited upon a cold body that is 
held in the flame. Marsh’s test, for arsenic 
depends upon this fact. In executing this test, 
zinc and sulphuric acid are added to the solu¬ 
tion to be tested, and the hydrogen evolved 


ARSENICAL POISONING 


is allowed to issue from a small jet, where it 
is lighted. A piece of cold white porcelain is 
then held in the flame, and if arsenic be present, 
the characteristic dark, metallic, mirror-like de¬ 
posit will be produced, owing to the arseniuret- 
ted hydrogen that is evolved, simultaneously 
with the hydrogen. Antimony gives the same 
kind of a deposit, so that it is important to 
examine the deposit (or (( arsenical mirror,® 
•as it is technically called,) to make sure that 
it is not composed of antimony. Marsh's test 
is extremely delicate, and will demonstrate the 
presence of incredibly small traces of arsenic, 
if proper precautions are taken to ensure abso¬ 
lute purity in the zinc and sulphuric acid that 
are used. Scheele’s green (known chemically 
as (( arsenite of copper®) is a compound of 
copper, arsenic, oxygen, and hydrogen, of a 
light green color. It was formerly much used 
in calico printing and for wall paper. Schwein- 
furth green is a different compound of the same 
•elements, and is used for similar purposes. A 
great diversity of opinion has prevailed among 
chemists as to the danger of using arsenical 
colors, especially in connection with wall papers. 
Some maintain that (< there is no possibility of 
any arsenical exhalation arising from the walls, 
as has been alleged®; while others claim that 
certain microscopic fungi and other low forms 
of vegetable life act upon these coloring matters, 
and cause the elimination of arseniuretted hy¬ 
drogen, which can actually be detected in the 
air of rooms hung with arsenical papers. 
Schweinfurth green is better known in the 
United States by the name (( paris green,® and 
is much used for preventing the destruction of 
crops by insects. 

The most familiar compound of arsenic (with 
■the possible exception of paris green) is un¬ 
doubtedly arsenious oxide, AsiOe (often written 
As 2 0 3 ), or <( white arsenic,® known to the general 
public simply as (< arsenic.® This is used exten¬ 
sively in the arts, in the manufacture of indigo 
blue and anilin; in glass-making, to remove 
the color due to the lower oxides of iron; in 
fly and rat poisons; in taxidermy; and for 
many other purposes. It is very poisonous, and 
in the 16th and 17th centuries was commonly 
used for removing persons who were conceived 
(by their enemies) to have outlived their use¬ 
fulness. Nearly all the great poisoners of that 
period were women. In 1659 a secret society 
of young wives was discovered in Rome, whose 
chief object was to make away with the hus¬ 
bands of the members by the use of arsenical 
preparations. Hieronyma Spara, the woman who 
provided the members with the poison and 
instructed them in its use, was eventually exe¬ 
cuted, together with 12 others. An even more 
notorious case was that of the woman Tophania, 
who lived at Palermo and at Naples, and 
prepared, for wives who desired to be freed 
from their husbands, a poison known as aqua 
Tophania. This (< aqua® purported to be an 
•oil that oozed from the tomb of St. Nicholas 
of Barri; but as a matter of fact was an arsen¬ 
ical solution. <( White arsenic® is not very solu¬ 
ble in water, and as four drops of Tophania’s 
preparation were reputed to constitute a fatal 
dose, it is not unlikely that it consisted essen¬ 
tially of potassium arsenite, KsAsOs. a substance 
which is formed when (< white arsenic® is dis¬ 
solved in a solution of potash. Tophania plied 


her nefarious business from girlhood to the 
age of 70, but her crimes were ultimately 
brought home to her, and she was tortured and 
put to death. Detection almost certainly awaits 
the poisoner of to-day who uses arsenic, and a 
career such as Tophania’s is absolutely impos¬ 
sible. 

Ar'sen'ical Poisoning. Arsenic is now 
used in so many ways that accidental poisoning 
occurs very often. As a poison employed in 
committing suicide, and for slow poisoning with 
homicidal intent, its popularity is on the wane. 
The forms of poisoning mostly seen are of the 
chronic type. These occur from the use of 
paints containing large quantities of Scheel’s 
green or Paris green; from the use of spraying 
solutions, now so widely employed as a means 
of protection from insect and fungus pests, and 
from the addition of arsenic to food stuffs, as a 
preservative. Acute forms of poisoning are 
more often the result of attempts to commit 
suicide. In acute arsenical poisoning the early 
symptoms are those of an acute inflammation of 
the stomach and intestines, coming . on about 
half an hour after taking the poison. There are 
violent cramp-like pains, with nausea, vomiting, 
and diarrhoea, closely following the premonitory 
symptoms of distress, difficulty in swallowing, 
and constriction in the throat. The severe symp¬ 
toms multiply, the diarrhoea becomes watery, 
(( rice water® and blood may appear in the vomit. 
A cold, damp skin, weak and feeble heart-action, 
collapse and sighing respiration may precede 
death, attended at times with convulsions. 
Death may occur within 24 hours, but it is apt 
to be delayed from two to four days, the 
patient usually dying of the secondary degenera¬ 
tions in the organs and of exhaustion. Death 
by arsenic is very painful. It is, moreover, an 
extremely uncertain poison, because of its insol¬ 
ubility, and of the vomiting reaction it induces. 
Many acute cases pass over into the chronic 
stage of poisoning. 

Chronic arsenical poisoning may result from 
a single large dose, but more often results 
from the long-continued use of small quantities 
of the poison. In a recent outbreak of chronic 
arsenical poisoning in Manchester, hundreds of 
people were affected. The source of the poison¬ 
ing was from arsenic in iron pyrites employed 
in making sulphuric acid ; this certain sulphuric 
acid had been utilized in the manufacture of 
glucose. Several firms had purchased this glu¬ 
cose for the manufacture of beer, and many 
hundreds of the consumers of this beer suffered 
from various forms of arsenical poisoning. 
Chronic arsenical poisoning may result from the 
use of wall-papers and hangings colored by 
arsenical dyes, although such modes of poison¬ 
ing may be considered extremely rare. The 
symptoms of this type of poisoning are of grad¬ 
ual onset : the patient is languid, weak, and loses 
his appetite. There is discomfort in his intes¬ 
tines and diarrhoea or constipation may result. 
A sub-acute inflammation of the mucous mem¬ 
brane of the nose and gums then develops, with 
sore gums, puffiness under the eyes, and run¬ 
ning from the nose. Sneezing, coughing, and 
hoarseness may occur, various skin eruptions are 
not uncommon, and a curious pigmentation of 
the skin is nearly always observed. The patients 
progress until poisoning of the ends of the 
nerves begins, with disturbances in sensation, 


ARSENIOUS ACID —ART 


anaesthesia, paresthesia, and pain. There may 
then develop paralysis of the extremity, fre¬ 
quently the toe, (drop-toe) ; or the wrist, (drop- 
wrist). Paralysis of sensation may also occur. 
The course of a chronic poisoning may not be 
over three or four days, but it usually requires 
three, or four weeks, sometimes longer. Some 
individuals use arsenic throughout their lives 
and are never poisoned. The treatment of acute 
poisoning consists in the thorough and prolonged 
washing out of the stomach and the use of large 
quantities of magnesia. Supportive treatment is 
needed in the stage of collapse. Heat, alcohol, 
and coffee are indicated. In chronic poisoning 
electricity and tonic treatment are required. 

Arse'nious Acid, the arsenical compound 
familiarly known and popularly called arsenic. 
It is obtained principally during the roasting of 
the arsenican nickel ores in Germany in furnaces 
communicating with flues. The ordinary arse- 
nious (which is what is popularly known as 
arsenic) is a white crystalline powder, decidedly 
gritty, like fine sand, and with no well-marked 
taste. It is very heavy, so much so as at once 
to be noticeable when a paper or bottle contain¬ 
ing it is lifted by the hand. It is soluble in 
water, to the extent of i part of acid in about 
ioo parts of cold water, and i part of acid in 
about io parts of boiling water. When placed 
in a spoon or other vessel and heated, it vola¬ 
tilizes and condenses in crystals on any cool 
vessel held above. By this means it can be dis¬ 
tinguished from ordinary flour, which, when heat¬ 
ed, chars and leaves a coal behind; and from 
chalk, stucco, baking-soda, tooth-powder, and 
other white substances, that when heated, re¬ 
main in the vessel as a non-volatile white resi¬ 
due. In some countries, as in the mountainous 
regions of Austria, Styria, and the Tyrol, arsenic 
is eaten habitually, beginning with small doses 
and gradually increasing them. It is said to 
favor nutrition, and to improve the respiration 
in ascending heights. Some of the <( arsenico- 
phages” can take great quantities with impunity. 

Arsen'olite, a native trioxide of arsenic, 
having the formula As 4 Os (often written As 2 Q 3 ), 
and crystallizing in the isometric system,— usu¬ 
ally in octahedrons. It is commonly white, with 
a vitreous lustre. Its hardness is 1.5, and its 
specific gravity about 3.71. It occurs in con¬ 
nection with ores of silver and lead, and with 
those of other metals when arsenic is associated 
with them. In the United States it has been 
found in Nevada and California. Arsenolite 
and senarmontite (an antimonial mineral of 
analogous composition and similar crystalline 
form) are collectively known by mineralogists 
as the (( arsenolite group. )) 

ArsenopyTite, ar-sen-o-pi'rlt (^arsenical 
pyrites”), a tin-white, opaque mineral, with a 
metallic lustre, crystallizing in the orthorhombic 
system. It contains arsenic, iron, and sulphur, 
and has the formula FeAsS. Its hardness 
varies from 5.5 to 6.0, and its specific gravity 
from 5.9 to 6.2. Arsenopyrite is largely used as 
a source of «white arsenic,” or arsenic trioxide. 
It occurs chiefly in the crystalline rocks with 
gold and ores of silver, lead and tin. It abounds 
in Germany, England, and the United States. 

Arsinoe, ar-sTn'o-e, the name of several 
celebrated women of antiquity, the most noted of 
whom is the daughter of Ptolemy I. of Egypt 

Vol. 1—50 


and Berenice: b. about 316 b.c.; she married Ly¬ 
simachus, king of Thrace, in 300 b.c. Desirous 
of securing the crown for her own children, Ar¬ 
sinoe prevailed upon Lysimachus to put Agatho- 
cles, the son of his former wife, to death. This 
crime proved fatal to the Thracian king; for 
Lysandra, the wife of the murdered prince, fled 
with her children to the court of Seleucus Nica- 
tor of Syria, who took up arms in her favor. In 
the course of the war Lysimachus was slain and 
his kingdom taken possession of by the con¬ 
queror. Arsinoe now fled into Macedonia, which 
was soon overrun by the Syrian army. In less 
than a year afterward, however, Seleucus was 
assassinated by Ptolemy Ceraunus, half brother 
of Arsinoe. This queen, who held the city of 
Cassandria in Macedonia, was induced, under 
promise of marriage, to admit Ptolemy within 
its walls; but no sooner had he entered than her 
two children were butchered before her eyes. 
She succeeded in making her escape to Egypt, 
where she became the wife of Ptolemy II., Phila- 
delphus, her own brother (279 b.c.), thus afford¬ 
ing a precedent to these unnatural unions which 
afterward became common among the Greek 
rulers of Egypt. She bore no children to her 
brother, who, however, seems to - have had a 
strong affection for her, as he called one of the 
districts of Egypt by her name and employed the 
architect Dinochares to build a temple in her 
honor. 

Arsin'oe, a city of ancient Egypt, on Lake 
Moeris, said to have been founded about 2300 
b.c., but renamed after Arsinoe, wife and sister 
of Ptolemy II., of Egypt. The site of Arsinoe is 
now occupied by the town of Medinet-el-Faium. 
The sacred crocodiles were kept here. 

Ar'son, the malicious and wilful burning 
of a dwelling-house or out-house belonging to 
another person by directly setting fire to it, or 
even by igniting some edifice of one’s own in its 
immediate vicinity. If a person, by maliciously 
setting fire to an inhabited house, cause the death 
of one or more of the inmates, the deed is mur¬ 
der, and capital punishment may be inflicted. 
When no one is fatally injured the crime is not 
capital, but is still heavily punishable; it is a 
penal offense also to attempt to set a house on 
fire, even if the endeavor does not succeed. The 
New York Penal Code provides that a person 
who wilfully burns, or sets on fire in the night¬ 
time, either (1) a dwelling-house in which there 
is, at the time, a human being; or (2) a car, ves¬ 
sel, or other vehicle, or a structure or building 
other than a dwelling-house, wherein, to the 
knowledge of the offender, there is, at the time, a 
human being, is guilty of arson in the first de¬ 
gree. 

Many statutory changes have been made in 
the common law upon this subject. There are 
three degrees of arson in the State of New York. 
Arson in the first degree is punishable by im¬ 
prisonment for any term not exceeding 40 
years; in the second degree by imprisonment 
for a term not exceeding 25 years; in the third 
degree for a term not exceeding 15 years. Be¬ 
fore the crime of arson is complete, the house, 
or some portion of it, however small, must be 
burned, or consumed by fire. 

Art, in its most extended sense, as distin¬ 
guished from nature on the one hand and from 
science on the other, has been defined as every 


ART 


regulated operation or dexterity by which organ¬ 
ized beings pursue ends which they know be¬ 
forehand, together with the rules and the result 
of every such operation or dexterity. 

In aesthetics, art as distinguished from sci¬ 
ence, consists of the truths disclosed by that 
species of knowledge disposed in the most con¬ 
venient order for practice, instead of the best 
order for thought. Art proposes to itself a given 
end, and, after defining it, hands it over to sci¬ 
ence. Science, after investigating the causes 
and conditions of this end, returns it to art, 
with a theorem of the combination of circum¬ 
stances under which the desired end may be ef¬ 
fected. After receiving them, art inquires 
whether any or all of those scientific combina¬ 
tions are within the compass of human power 
and human means, and pronounces the end in¬ 
quired after attainable or not. It will be ob¬ 
served here, that art supplies only the major 
premise, or the assertion that the given aim is 
the one to be desired. The grounds of every 
rule of art are to be found in the theorems of 
science. An art can then consist only of rules, 
together with as much of the speculative propo¬ 
sitions as comprises the justification of those 
rules. Though art must assume the same gen¬ 
eral laws as science does, yet it follows them 
only into such of their detailed consequences as 
have led to certain practical rules, and pries into 
every secret corner, as well as into the open 
stores of the household of science, bent on find¬ 
ing out the necessities of which she is in search, 
and which the exigencies of human life de¬ 
mand. Hence, as Edmund Burke remarks, in 
his ( Treatise on the Sublime and Beautiful, 5 
<( Art can never give the rules that make an art. 55 
It must always owe them to science. Whatever 
speaks in precepts or rules, as contrasted with 
assertions regarding facts, is art; and hence it 
always adopts the imperative mood, whereas, 
science almost invariably adopts the indicative. 
Science is wholly occupied with declarations; 
art is wholly engaged with injunctions that 
something should be done. Thus, the builder’s 
art desires to have houses, the architect’s art 
desires to have them beautiful; and the medical 
art desires to cure diseases of the human body. 

In a special sense art is the practical carry¬ 
ing out of the principles of science; a series of 
rules designed to aid one in acquiring practical 
skill or dexterity in performing some specified 
kind of work, manual or mental. The several 
arts may be arranged in two groups—(a) 
the mechanical, and, (b) the liberal or fine arts. 
The mechanical arts are those which may be 
successfully followed by one who does not pos¬ 
sess genius, but has acquired the facility of 
working with his hands which long practice 
imparts. Such are the arts of the carpenter, 
the blacksmith, the watchmaker, etc. They are 
often called trades. The liberal or fine arts are 
such as give scope not merely to manual dex¬ 
terity, but to genius; as music, painting, sculp¬ 
ture, architecture, etc. 

In mediaeval education, the arts signified the 
whole circle of subjects studied by those who 
sought a liberal education. This included sci¬ 
ence as well as art. The seven liberal arts, 
which, in the palmy days of Rome, plebeians 
were not allowed to study, were thus divided: 
(i) the Trivium — namely, grammar, rhetoric, 
and logic; (2) the Quadrivium — namely, arith¬ 


metic, music, geometry, and astronomy. > It is a 
remnant of this classification, which was in vogue 
as early as the 5th century, that we still speak of 
as the curriculum of arts at a university, and 
that graduates become bachelors or masters of 
arts. See Architecture; Music; Painting; 
Sculpture, etc. 

Art, American'. The art history of Amer¬ 
ica presents interesting conditions of receptivity, 
as well as original productivity; indeed, artistic 
taste, it may be claimed, was primarily trans¬ 
planted or transfused into the budding art of 
«The Fair New World. 55 True to the traditions, 
of historical repetition, the ideals of ancient 
Greece inspired an Italian renaissance; French, 
German, and English art respectively, being 
viewed moreover at their best periods, give evi¬ 
dence of having been begotten through aesthetic 
assimilation and fruitful appreciation of the mas¬ 
terpieces of Angelo, Titian, Tintoretto, Rem¬ 
brandt, Rubens, Veronese, and Velasquez. The 
early American school not only emulated these 
treasured qualities of the old masters, as far as. 
accessible in painting and sculpture of originals 
or in replicas, but experienced a healthful art 
evolution, normally stimulated by the contem¬ 
porary works of Gainsborough, Reynolds, Law¬ 
rence, and others, at the close of the 18th cen¬ 
tury. It appears in accord with the artistic spirit 
of international reciprocity, that America pro¬ 
vided the British Royal Academy with its sec¬ 
ond president in the personality of Benjamin 
West. 

Although it would be intensely interesting 
to explore the field of Pan-American art, re¬ 
vealing Aztec and other aboriginal archaeological 
relics, we are limited to the consideration of 
the subject co-incidental with modern art and 
civilization. The works of Washington Alls- 
ton, Gilbert, Stuart, West, Copley, Trumbull, 
Vanderlyn, Jarvis, Peele, Cole, Harding; and, at 
a later period, of Morse, Eliot, Mount, and many 
others, afford invaluable examples of rare in¬ 
trinsic value, with chronological evidences of 
the early development, impeded by all sorts of 
obstacles, of inborn genius and unmistakable 
tendencies of the American progressive element 
even in the province of fine art. A representa¬ 
tive collection of the famous works by the 
American painters mentioned, had it been se¬ 
cured, would certainly to-day constitute a rare 
gallery of aesthetic (< Americana 55 that well might 
be preserved for all time — a con arnore 55 — <( pro 
patria et gloria 55 ; enkindling American art patri¬ 
otism in line with that shown for the army and 
navy, agriculture and commercialism. It is too 
late, however, to secure the marvelous master¬ 
piece by Allston, ( The Legend of the Bloody 
Hand, 5 it having unfortunately been destroyed 
by fire, and many other gems of renown are 
now lost sight of, through lack of proper preser¬ 
vation and of popular appreciation. Vanderlyn’s 
( Ariadne, 5 however, has fared better in company 
with invaluable portraits, painted by these gift¬ 
ed men and now in possession of the New York 
Historical Society. ( Marius Sitting Among the 
Ruins of Carthage, 5 a work that secured Vander¬ 
lyn, in reward for its merits, a first-class gold 
medal at the Paris Exposition, was a product of 
this period. The most important epochs of 
American history have been represented by 
native artistic talent. The sailing and landing 
of Columbus, the exploits of De Soto, the subju- 


ART 


gation of savage life to that of civilization, 
Colonial and Indian warfare, the declaration of 
national independence, Revolutionary battles, 
Washington crossing the Delaware, and like 
famous subjects for painting and sculpture, that 
manifestly should be preserved by governmental 
direction. Although so long and disastrously 
belated, these facts and conditions logically sug¬ 
gest the formation of a national gallery of Amer¬ 
ican art. The landscapes of Thomas Cole up¬ 
held, as did those of Turner, the traditions of 
Claude Lorraine; still in the spirit of a pioneer 
he proclaimed the grandeur of the primeval 
American forest in paintings direct from nature. 
His c The Course of Empire^ now in possession 
of the New York Historical Society, a work 
that has never, we believe, been reproduced in 
any form, presents in four grand paintings the 
sway of civilization from savage life to an Ar¬ 
cadian period ; then onward to the consumma¬ 
tion of earthly power and magnificence; fol¬ 
lowed by the decadence occasioned by war of the 
elements, and that instigated by (( man’s in¬ 
humanity to man® ; finally, the literal scene of 
monumental destruction and sublimely solemn 
desolation. Before dismissing attention called 
to this early period influenced, as stated, by for¬ 
eign methods of technical expression, native 
American genius found little public apprecia¬ 
tion ; still it faithfully progressed. Again about 
this time matter-of-fact utilitarianism appeared 
to dispel the ideal artist’s poetic hopes, while 
every encouragement followed the success of 
practical scientific talent. Washington Irving 
essayed to be a painter, but concluded to devote 
his life to literature and the power of the pen. 
Robert Fulton, who began his career as a skilful 
landscape and portrait painter, attracting the 
friendship of Benjamin Franklin, who encour¬ 
aged his studies abroad, and gave him letters to 
Benjamin West and others, returned to his 
native land to find that scientific conditions were 
required rather than a demand for the creden¬ 
tials of culture in works of fine art. The result 
was steamboat navigation. Another triumph for 
science may be recorded. Franklin himself had 
captured lightning from the skies; still it re¬ 
mained for the imagination and artistic skill of 
the professional painter, Samuel Finlay Breese 
Morse, the first president of the National Acad¬ 
emy of Design, to subjugate the marvelous elec¬ 
tric element that joins as neighbors all mankind. 

Nevertheless, the fine arts flourished; even 
modern travelers’ tales of the wonderful scen¬ 
ery of two great continents stimulated artists 
and the lovers of art. «The Heart of the An¬ 
des ® (( Niagara,® (( Ihe Arctic Region, The 
Rocky Mountains,® «The Catskills,® «Lake 
Champlain,® «Lake George,® and the “Hudson 
River ® all were delineated. Along with this de¬ 
mand’for great subjects, often commensurate m 
quantity as to size of canvas with Ruskin s math¬ 
ematical maxim: that the greatest work of art is 
the one presenting the greatest number of great 
ideas; there still prevailed in marked instances 
the glorious traditions of full-habited oil-paint¬ 
ing to be found in the aesthetics of familiar en¬ 
vironment of earth, air, and water, as embodied 
in artistic values and soulful qualities crea¬ 
tions in harmony with Michel, Ruysael, Lon- 
stable and the masters of Barbazon and 
Fontainebleau. Again, while scientific influences 
appear in the works of Durand, Church, Casalear, 


and Kensett, they asserted a truly American 
artistic individuality; they copied directly from 
nature. They thought of no school nor tech¬ 
nique, but carefully imitated what they saw. All 
these men with one exception had been prac¬ 
tical engravers, laying down the burin and the 
needle-point to take up the pencil and the brush. 
Their respective biographical and aesthetical 
records in American art will be enduring; 
yet there comes the reflection that had their 
professional training been more liberal and 
adequate they would have attained to higher 
things. The importance of masterly academic 
training cannot be overestimated; as a means to 
an end, however great, education is the only 
acknowledged guide for the individual artist and 
for the community even in matters of taste. 
Nothing is more creditable to a civilized people 
than its credentials of culture. The formation 
of a fine art association in its chief city was at 
the beginning of the past century an occasion 
of vast importance to our commonwealth. The 
first action was taken in 1802 by a few promi¬ 
nent citizens, and six years later a charter was 
obtained with the name of The American Acad¬ 
emy of Arts. The first officers under this char¬ 
ter were Robert Livingston, president; John 
Trumbull, vice-president; DeWitt Clinton, Dr. 
David Hosack, John R. Murray, William Cut¬ 
ting, and Charles Wilkes, directors. A school 
was equipped with casts brought from Paris by 
Mr. Livingston, and exhibitions of paintings and 
statuary were held for a time in an unused rid¬ 
ing school in Greenwich Street near the Battery. 
Public interest in this movement was soon trans¬ 
ferred to grand panorama schemes conducted by 
Vanderlyn at the (( Rotunda,® and by others with 
similar enterprises. It was not until the year 
1826 that the artists themselves, with Morse as 
president, founded the National Academy of De¬ 
sign in the earnest interests of American art, 
with educational purposes and exhibitional fa¬ 
cilities ; its influence increasing until the pres¬ 
ent day. Its membership consists of one hun¬ 
dred academicians and an equal number of 
associate members, including the most distin¬ 
guished painters and sculptors of America. Its 
list of fellowship for life likewise includes the 
most prominent public-spirited patrons of Amer¬ 
ican art. 

Established for many years in the Academy 
building, tastefully modeled after the Palais 
Ducal of Venice and forming an attractive ur¬ 
ban landmark, lack of accommodations for its 
growing schools, and crowding commercial sur¬ 
roundings, required a move to more suitable 
quarters. Unlike the Royal Academy of London, 
with its plethoric treasury, and similar institu¬ 
tions situated in other European art centres, 
the academy is without governmental endow¬ 
ment, and may well enlist American art patriot¬ 
ism in the cause of aesthetic culture in fostering 
the fine arts of painting, sculpture, and archi¬ 
tecture. Other societies of American artists, 
water color societies, and architectural leagues 
make annual exhibitions in New York; while 
art institutes throughout the United States, 
in various cities attest the extent and impor¬ 
tance of American art. We, as Americans, are 
an artistic people, cosmopolitan, ami composite, 
uniting the genius of all nations, lhe aesthetic 
field of general American artistic taste and in¬ 
dustry has been strenuously productive. The 


ART 


ornamental, orderly, and decorative work in 
clay, on china, glass, wood, and stone as a 
tasteful and profitable divertisement, begins with 
the training of the kindergarten. Black and 
white illustration and etching has been awarded 
first-class medals at home and abroad. The 
beautiful and refined exemplified in aguarelle 
and oil-painting, in portraiture, genre, and pas¬ 
toral ; in sculpture and architecture; and finally 
the grand and sublime of high art, all confirm 
the achievements of American art and artists. 

In advancing these three divisions,— the or¬ 
namental, the beautiful, and the sublime,— as a 
guide, we approach the philosophical considera¬ 
tion of the subject of fine art. What is, and 
what is not, fine art? Shakespeare’s injunc¬ 
tion (( to hold, as it were, the mirror up to na¬ 
ture® is the best artistic advice ever given. Ba¬ 
con in his essay is not so direct. He asks 
which is the greater trifler, one who would 
make a personage by geometrical proportions 
(perhaps by the fabled Greek cabala) or an¬ 
other who would select the best parts of divers 
faces to make one excellent (a veritable com¬ 
posite picture) ? He concludes at last that: a 
painter may make a better face than ever was, 
but he must do it by a kind of felicity, as a 
musician who makes an excellent air in music, 
not by rule. If ever there was an artist he was 
Shakespeare—if ever there lived a scientist, 
Lord Bacon was, perhaps, the most eminent, 
and in their respective views and definitions we 
find the differentiation between science and art. 
In any given work in so far as it may be me¬ 
chanically constructed is presented a scientific 
product; and in so far as reproductive processes 
may exhaustively duplicate it, it falls short of the 
possibilities of fine art. An etching by a master 
may be an autographic art creation; but when it 
is possible through photography, photo-gravure 
or chromo-lithography to so perfectly duplicate 
a painting, that the reproduction presents all 
the merits of the original, it may be realized 
to science rather than be accepted as genuine 
fine art. True consummate mechanism must 
ever go hand in hand with fine art; still a 
great work of art presents the maximum of 
art to the minimum of mechanism. A paint¬ 
ing portraying living objects with a sharp con¬ 
tour, such as may delight the photographer, 
without the suggestive quality of stereoscopic 
relief, does not hold the mirror up to nature, 
and the work may be classed with scientific 
achievements even if accredited to the consum¬ 
mate mechanism of a Messonnier. Indeed re¬ 
productive processes have served a great pur¬ 
pose in defining the line of demarcation between 
science and art. Affectations have been swept 
away by a revelation of their superficiality; 
while the possibilities of inimitable fine oil- 
painting, a medium and technique that, of all 
ever employed, has the fewest possible limita¬ 
tions, have been enhanced as seen in the works 
of the American artists already mentioned; and 
in those of a growing group of American ideal¬ 
ists, colorists, and tonalists. Various have been 
the fashions or <( isms® that have dominated 
American art at different periods of its history. 
Preraphaelitism as advocated by Ruskin was 
one of the earliest imported. Being appointed 
the legal executor of his hero-client, as well as 
being an enthusiastic admirer of his work, Rus¬ 
kin claimed for Turner not only the grander 


qualities, but a command of detail that rivaled 
the ancients, although the artist, we are told, 
frankly declined the compliment. I urner was 
unquestionably the greatest modern master of 
decorative and scenic effect in pictorial com¬ 
binations representing earth, air, and water, be¬ 
ing, indeed, entitled to the apotheosis of syn¬ 
thesis; still diligent search in the archives of 
the Royal Academy and National Gallery fails 
to reveal the qualities attributed to him by the 
author mentioned. Ruskin’s enthusiasm proved 
contagious throughout the art circles of Eng¬ 
land and America; solicitous friends as well as 
the most influential art writers pleaded with the 
tyro to emulate not the work of Michael An¬ 
gelo, Titian, or Raphael himself, but to follow 
in the footsteps of Perugino and Raphael’s 
father or grandfather. This verily seemed like 
unto the dotage of imbecility in the light of 
Raphael’s glorious art that had evolved the im¬ 
maculate Sistine Madonna. He was brave, 
indeed, in the field of American art of that day, 
who could resist the popular and professional 
pressure of this pseudo-aesthetic movement. No 
vestige of it remains, and no wonder it was fol¬ 
lowed by impressionism — as a free and joyous 
transition from mechanical restrictions in art. 
This was the artistic attempt to present the 
maximum of soulfulness conveyed to the world 
by finest art; employing the minimum of ma¬ 
teriality and mechanism as seen in the rendition 
through mental vision of the fleeting sunset or 
twilight — such as may only be materialized on 
the morrow; the epitomization perhaps of a 
day’s outing under the open skies or flying 
clouds, or in the sublime thunder-storm; in fact, 
the entire realm of imagination is unfolded by 
artistic impression. Such was the accepted 
province of genuine impressionism originally as 
associated with the artistic convictions and poetic 
spirit of Corot, Monet, Monticelli, William Hunt, 
William Page, George Fuller, and many others. 
Impressionism naturally evolves symbolism and 
idealism, but in too many instances has deterio¬ 
rated into affectation and mysticism. Premedi¬ 
tated and assumed mysticism is the dernier-res- 
sort of mediocre painters and sculptors, as well 
as of the minor poets. It may not be mistaken 
for sublime spirituality. Dante, Shakespeare, 
and Milton, treating even divine themes, never 
nebulized their ideas in mysticism; the same 
may be said of Bryant and Longfellow; while 
Poe, temperamentally, a mystic solitudinarian, 
in the field of poetic art presented the apotheo¬ 
sis of spirituality. 

The crowning glory in the art of any civil¬ 
ized country is that of naturalism. In the truest 
sense it utilizes even scientific (( disjecta mem¬ 
bra,® as enumerated, and subjugates the same to 
the entirety of art. The comprehensive struc¬ 
tural organic presentation of material nature, 
suggesting the qualities of size, form, weight, 
color, and perspective values; chiaroscuro, and, 
above all, the ultimatum of expression and tone. 
These enduring qualities characterize the art 
of Innis, Martin, Wyant, Hunt, and Page, and 
the growing group of American tonalists of the 
naturalistic school. A great advantage exists 
in American art from its cosmopolitan resources. 
In Paris one sees nothing but French art; in 
Munich, the German school; in London, Eng¬ 
lish art, while the art institutions of America 
contain specimens of masterpieces from every 


ART EDUCATION —ART OF POETRY 


source, notably the collection of the Metropoli¬ 
tan Museum of Art, and art institutes of Brook¬ 
lyn, Boston, Chicago, Philadelphia, and Pitts- 
buig, as well as collections in all our large cities. 
While every art centre of Christendom seems 
to be provided with an American colony of 
artists and students, expatriation is no longer a 
necessity in order to obtain an education in fine 
art. L he Academy and various art student 
leagues are conducted by eminent instructors 
. distinguished with every honor obtainable at 
home or abroad. the prospects of a greater 
appreciation of American art open with the new 
century, as interest in the pursuits of peace 
should naturally follow national expansion. Ad¬ 
vocacy of our chief art educational institutions 
is a feature of metropolitan aggrandizement; 
millions have been given to libraries and vari¬ 
ous institutions of learning; and fine art should 
be included with erudition, as the essential cre¬ 
dential of culture. Timely attention may be 
called to the requirements of the pioneer Ameri¬ 
can art institution, founded by the immortal 
Morse and his co-workers eminent in art in¬ 
struction, and being associated with the career 
of America’s greatest masters in painting, sculp¬ 
ture, and architecture. In accord with urban 
expansion it has departed from its classical land¬ 
mark, a diminutive <( Palais Ducal,® to a most 
accessible and beautiful site, upon the acropolis 
of the metropolis, facing Cathedral Driveway, 
Morningside Park, New York city. As the 
leading exponent of American art instruction, 
through schools and exhibitions, it is planned to 
erect an edifice that shall do justice to the artis¬ 
tic taste of the New World’s metropolis, and 
to the original National Academy of Design. 

The Department of Commerce just estab¬ 
lished by the general government is a step in 
the right direction of national affairs, and may 
make clear the way for the proposed Depart¬ 
ment of Art and Industries. It has been re¬ 
peatedly advocated and constant evidences of its 
requirement as an absolute necessity have been 
presented to the government and to the people; 
still it is being detrimentally delayed. The ap¬ 
propriations for national and international ex¬ 
positions have repeatedly been used in a manner 
giving anything but satisfaction. Commissions 
and contracts for statuary, monuments, and 
architecture that should receive the supervision 
of expert art judgment are left to provisional 
committees of statesmen, who frankly admit 
their inability to judge in the affairs of fine art. 
The disastrous experiences resulting from this 
careless management of each and every inter¬ 
national exposition, including the Centennial, 
the New Orleans, the Chicago Columbian, and 
the Buffalo Pan-American, certainly teach that 
no similar enterprise should be thrust upon the 
community for co-operation through flattering 
prospectuses, promises of profit, etc., until ma¬ 
tured and definite plans and specifications shall 
have been officially inspected, approved or re¬ 
jected by the projected national department of 
art and industries; this would also provide a 
valuable bureau of information in art affairs, 
enabling legislator and citizen to act or vote in¬ 
telligently in regard to any appropriation, com¬ 
mission or tariff. The practical utility and pub¬ 
lic good to be derived from such a department 
may be demonstrated in many instances. A 
member of Congress having been appointed upon 
a committee assigned the duty of super¬ 


vising the ground immediately surrounding the 
House of Representatives was astonished to find 
that millions of dollars had been expended upon 
the same; each new committee annually ap¬ 
pointed having exercised its taste and judgment 
on the important matter. It was concluded that 
the advice of an expert landscape architect be 
secured, and this being done, the expenditure 
was practically ended. Again the enormous ex¬ 
pense of indiscriminate illustration of congres¬ 
sional and department literature or printed mat¬ 
ter has, to-day, caused anxiety and criticism. 
So in relation to all official cases requiring 
expert art supervision, eclectic sense and 
aesthetic taste should be at the service of the 
government. The plan involves no untried in¬ 
novation; the French nation has its Minister 
des Beaux Arts, who is a member of the 
Cabinet of the Republic of France, leading 
the world in art affairs, taste and fashion. The 
establishment of Municipal Art Commissions is 
a step in the right direction. The task of cor¬ 
recting the contour of metropolitan architecture 
seems, indeed, herculean ; individual buildings of 
great beauty are adjoined by the most hetero¬ 
geneous structures; a three-story house appears 
between one of eight and a sky-scraper of 
twenty. In no capital of Europe would such 
incongruities be permitted, and every possible 
facility should be afforded our Municipal Art 
Commissions to correct this chaotic condition. 
Victor Hugo said <( the beautiful is as useful 
as the useful, more so, perhaps.® European 
municipal politics profit by the practical appli¬ 
cation of this fact; great cathedrals, public 
statuary, and fountains, picture galleries and 
museums attract multitudes of tourists, thereby 
financially as well as aesthetically benefiting com¬ 
munities that keep in the vanguard of culture 
and civilization. 

Bibliography. — Allston, ( Lectures on Art and 
Poems 5 ; Clara Clement and Lawrence Hutton, 
( Anecdotes of Painters, Engravers, Sculptors, 
and Architects ) ; Cummings, ( Annals of the Na¬ 
tional Academy of Design 5 ; De Muldor, ( The 
Philosophy of Art in America 5 ; Dunlap, his¬ 
tory of the Rise and Progress of the Arts of 
Design in the United States 5 (2 vols.) ; Kohler, 
American Art 5 ; Sheldon, ( American Painters. 5 

Chas. H. Miller, N. A. 

Municipal Art Society, New York. 

Art Jiiducation. See Architecture, Educa¬ 
tion in ; Painting, Education in ; Sculpture, 
Teaching of. 

Art, History of. See Fine Arts. 

Art, Metropolitan Museum of, a spacious 
edifice in Central Park, New York, erected by 
the city for the purpose to which it is devoted. 
It was incorporated in 1870, and possesses an 
art collection amounting in value to over 
$2,000,000, including the Cesnola collections. 
The treasures to be found here are various in 
character and of most profound interest, es¬ 
pecially the ancient sculptures and relics from 
the island of Cyprus. These, in the study of 
antiquities, are of much value, and many of the 
other departments’ likewise possess rare attrac¬ 
tions. 

Art of Poetry, The ( ( Ars Poetica 5 ), a 
famous work by Horace. This is not the name 
given it by its author, who called it merely a 


ART UNIONS —ARTEDI 


( Letter to the Pisos.* Horace treats of the 
unity that is essential to every composition, and 
the harmonious combination of the several parts, 
without which there can be no lasting success. 
In the second part, the poet confines himself to 
the form of the drama, the principles he has 
already established being so general that they 
apply to every class of composition. 

Art Unions, a name applied to associa¬ 
tions for the encouragement of the fine arts by 
the purchase of works of art out of a common 
fund raised by small subscriptions or shares, 
and their distribution by lot. The first art union 
was started in France; but the Munich art union 
was the first of importance. Berlin and other 
towns of Germany soon followed the example 
of Munich, and the first art union was founded 
in Edinburgh in 1834, and proved a complete 
success. The art union of London soon followed 
that of Edinburgh. 

Arta, ar'ta, the name of a gulf, town, and 
river. The gulf (ancient Ambracius Sinus), an 
arm of the Ionian Sea, between Greece and Al¬ 
bania, is about 20 miles long by 10 miles broad. 
Near its entrance the battle of Actium was 
fought. The town, called also Narda (the an¬ 
cient Ambracia ), about six miles north of the 
gulf, stands on the river, which is here about 
200 yards wide, and begins to be navigable. It 
carries on a considerable trade in wine, oranges, 
and tobacco. Pop. (1896) 7,582. 

Ar'taba'nus IV., the last of the Parthian 
monarchs, who 217 a.d., escaping with great 
difficulty from a perfidious massacre begun by 
the Romans under Caracalla, mustered an army, 
and engaged his foes in a battle which lasted for 
two days. Peace was then concluded, but Ar- 
tabanus afterward incited his subjects to revolt, 
and in a battle, in 226, was taken and put to 
death. 

Ar'taba'zus, the name of several distin¬ 
guished Persians under the dynasty of the 
Achsemenidae. When Xerxes advanced against 
Greece, an Artabazus led the Parthians and 
Chorasmians. Another Artabazus was general 
under the Persian king, Artaxerxes II., and af¬ 
terward revolted against Artaxerxes III. He 
was forgiven through the exertions of his 
brother-in-law, Mentor, a favorite and staunch 
supporter of the next king, Darius, whom Artaba¬ 
zus faithfully attended after the battle of Arbela. 
Alexander rewarded his fidelity by appointing 
him satrap of Bactria. 

Artagnan d’, dar'ta-nyan', the hero of 
Dumas’ ( Trois Mousquetaires,* Vingt ans apres, 
and Le Vicomte de Bragelonne. 1 * He is a Gas¬ 
con adventurer, very popular among heroes of 
romance. There was, however, a Count d’Artag- 
nan (b. about 1612; d. 1673), who was an officer 
of musketeers, and fell in the siege of Maes- 
tricht. 

Artasires, (ar'ta-vas'dez) the last Arsacid 
monarch of Armenia. He was placed on the 
throne by Bahrain V. of Persia, who afterward 
deposed him and annexed his dominions to Per¬ 
sia, under the name of Persarmenia, 248 b.c. 

Artavasdes (ar'ta-vas'dez) I., a king of Ar¬ 
menia, who succeeded his father Tigranes. He 
joined the Roman forces commanded by Crassus, 
but deserting to the enemy, caused the defeat of 
the Romans, and the death of Crassus. He simi¬ 


larly betrayed Mark Antony when engaged 
against the Medes; but afterward falling into 
Antony’s power, was taken with his wife and 
children to Alexandria, where they were dragged 
at the victor’s chariot wheels in golden chains. 
After the battle of Actium, Cleopatra caused his 
head to be struck off and sent to the King of 
Media. 

Artax'ata, the name of the ancient capital 
of Armenia, the refuge of Hannibal when for¬ 
saken by Antiochus. Its ruins are now known 
as Ardashir. 

Artaxerxes, ar'taks-erks'ez, the name of 
several Persian kings: (1) Artaxerxes I., sur- 
named Longimanus, because his right hand was 
longer than his left, the second son of Xerxes, 
escaped from Artabanus and the other conspira¬ 
tors who had murdered his father and elder 
brother Darius, and in 465 b.c. ascended the 
throne. He conquered the rebellious Egyptians, 
terminated the war with Athens by granting 
freedom to the Greek cities of Asia, governed 
his subjects in peace, and died 425 b.c. (2) Ar¬ 
taxerxes II., surnamed Mnemon, from his 
strong memory, succeeded his father, Darius II., 
in the year 405 b.c. After vanquishing his broth¬ 
er Cyrus he made war on the Spartans, and 
forced them to abandon the Greek cities and 
islands of Asia to the Persians. He favored the 
Athenians, and endeavored to foment dissen¬ 
sions among the Greeks. His last days were 
embittered by the unnatural conduct of his son 
Ochus, who, to secure the crown to himself, 
caused the destruction of two of his brothers. 
On the death of Artaxerxes Mnemon, 359 b.c., 
Ochus ascended the throne under the name of 
(3) Artaxerxes Ochus. After having subdued 
the Phoenicians and Egyptians, and displayed 
great cruelty in both Egypt and Phoenicia, he 
was poisoned in 339 by his general, Bagoas. (4) 
Artaxerxes Bebegan was the first king of Per¬ 
sia of the race of Sassanides. He was a shep¬ 
herd’s son; but his grandfather, by the moth¬ 
er’s side, being governor of a province, he was 
sent to the court of King Ardavan. On his 
grandfather’s death, Artaxerxes, exciting the 
people to revolt, defeated and slew Ardavan and 
his son, and assumed the title of King of Kings. 
He made vast conquests, and wisely adminis¬ 
tered the affairs of his kingdom. 

Artedi, ar-ta'de, Peter, an eminent Swed¬ 
ish naturalist: b. Anund, 22 Feb. 1705; d. 
Amsterdam, Holland, 27 Sept. 1735. He went in 
1724 to Upsala, and turning his attention to nat¬ 
ural history, soon rose to considerable emi¬ 
nence, particularly in the department of ichthy¬ 
ology, the classification of which he reformed 
upon philosophical principles. This arrangement 
added greatly to his reputation as a nat¬ 
uralist at the time, and afterward became popu¬ 
lar over Europe. In 1728 his celebrated country¬ 
man, Linnaeus, arrived in Upsala, and a lasting 
friendship was formed between the two men. 
In 173 2 both left Upsala — Artedi for England, 
in pursuit of his favorite study; and Linnaeus 
for Lapland, to examine its natural productions; 
but before parting they reciprocally bequeathed 
to each other their manuscripts and books upon 
the event of death. According to agreement his 
manuscripts came into the hands of Linnaeus, 
and his ( Bibliotheca Ichthyologica ) and ( Phi- 
losophia Ichthyological together with a life of 


ARTEMIA 


ARTERIES 


the author, were published at Leyden in the year 
J738. Linnaeus named a genus of umbelliferous 
plants Artedia, in memory of his friend. 

Arte'mia. See Brine-Shrimp. 

Ar'temido'rus, a Greek geographer: b. in 
Ephesus, who flourished about 100 b . c . His 
( Geographoumena ) in clever books was an ex¬ 
haustive work on the various features, geo¬ 
graphical, physical, historical, and political, of 
the larger part of the then known world, found¬ 
ed on the writer’s own investigations and the 
works of preceding writers. Only fragments of 
his work are extant. 

Ar'temis, a Greek goddess, identified with 
the Roman Diana. She was the daughter of 
Zeus (Jupiter) and Leto or Latona, and was 
the twin sister of Apollo, born in the island of 
Delos. She is variously represented as a hunt¬ 
ress, with bow and arrows; as a goddess of 
the nymphs, in a chariot drawn by four stags; 
and as the moon goddess, with the crescent 
above her forehead. She was a maiden divinity, 
demanding the strictest chastity from her wor¬ 
shippers, and is represented as having changed 
Aetceon into a stag, and caused him to be torn 
in pieces by his own dogs, because he had se¬ 
cretly watched her as she was bathing. The 
Artemisia was a festival celebrated in her honor 
■at Delphi. The famous temple of Artemis at 
Ephesus was considered one of the wonders of 
the world, but the goddess worshipped there 
was very different from the huntress goddess of 
Greece, being of Eastern origin, and regarded as 
the symbol of fruitful nature. 

Artemisia I., ar'te-mizh'i-a, or mish-i-a, a 
queen of Caria, who lived in the 5th century b.c., 
and assisted Xerxes in person against the Greeks, 
and behaved with such valor that the Athenians 
offered a reward for her capture, and the Spar¬ 
tans erected a statue to her. 

Artemisia II., a queen of Caria, who 
flourished about 350 b.c. She was the sister and 
wife of Mausolus, whose death she lamented 
deeply, and to whom she erected, in her capital, 
Halicarnassus, a monument reckoned among the 
seven wonders of the world. The principal 
architects of Greece labored on it. Bryaxis, 
Scopas, Leochares, and Timotheus made the 
decorations on the four sides of the edifice; 
Pythes, the chariot drawn by four horses, which 
.adorned the conical top. Vitruvius thought that 
Praxiteles was also employed on it. After the 
death of Artemisia the artists finished it with¬ 
out compensation, that they might not be de¬ 
prived of the honor of their labor. It was an 
oblong square, 411 feet in compass, and 130 feet 
high. The principal side was adorned with 36 
columns, and 24 steps led to the entrance. 

Artemisia, a genus of aromatic, acrid, and 
bitter flavored herbs and shrubs of the natural 
order Compositev, mostly natives of the northern 
hemisphere and especially abundant in arid re¬ 
gions. The species are characterized by alter¬ 
nate often deeply-lobed or divided leaves, and 
numerous small and generally inconspicuous 
heads of yellow or whitish florets. The culti¬ 
vated species, of which there are many, are read¬ 
ily propagated by division and succeed even on 
poor dry soils. A. dracunculus, tarragon or 
estragon, is a Siberian perennial, long and widely 
■ cultivated in Europe, but little in America, for 


its leaves, which are used to season dressings, 
pickles, and other culinary preparations. (See 
Tarragon.) A. absinthium, wormwood, a na¬ 
tive of Europe and Asia, is a spreading and 
branching perennial herb, 2 to 4 feet tall, 
with its two- or three-parted silky-downy leaves, 
and its flower-heads in axillary panicles. It is 
widely grown in Europe for the manufacture of 
absinthe (q.v.). A. abrotanum, southernwood, 
old man, is a shrubby species, 3 to 4 feet 
tall, a native of middle Asia and southern Eu¬ 
rope, and is often grown for its pleasant-smelling 
foliage, which is used among clothing as a moth 
repellant, and in parts of Europe in the manu¬ 
facture of some kinds of beer. A. pontica, 
Roman wormwood, another European species, re¬ 
sembles A. absinthium in properties and is simi¬ 
larly used. A. vulgaris, mugwort, is a native of 
Europe and northern North America, grown for 
its pleasant-smelling ornamental foliage, which 
in some varieties is golden or variegated. Its 
young shoots and leaves are used in German 
cookery, and like A. absinthium, in domestic 
medicine. A. stellcriana, old woman, a native of 
northeastern Asia and common on the Massa¬ 
chusetts coast, is a useful border plant on ac¬ 
count of the whiteness of its foliage. A. arbus- 
cula, a species seldom more than one foot tall, 
and A. tridentata, which though usually low 
growing, occasionally reaches a height of twelve 
feet, are representative of the many species 
known as sage brush (q.v.) in the arid districts 
of the western United States, where they fur¬ 
nish valuable forage for cattle and especially 
sheep. A. mantima and several other species are 
grown for their flower heads, which are used in 
medicine as a vermifuge and sold under the 
name of worm seed or as santonine, the colorless 
crystalline active principle. A. moxa, A. chinen- 
sis, and other species furnish moxa, a cottony 
material obtained from the leaves which are 
covered with down, used by the Chinese for 
cauterizing. Numerous other species are em¬ 
ployed in the manufacture of absinthe, for culi¬ 
nary, ornamental, and medicinal purposes in vari¬ 
ous parts of the world. For physical action and 
toxicology, see Absinthe. 

Artemisium, ar-te-mish-i-um, a promon¬ 
tory in Euboea, an island of the Aegean, near 
which a great naval battle between the Greeks 
and Persians was fought, 480 b.c. It was named 
from a temple to Artemis situated here. 

Ar'temus Ward. See Browne, Charles 
Farrar. 

Arte rial Pressure. See Blood Pressure. 

Ar'teries, the vessels in the human body 
that carry arterial, or oxygenated blood away 
from the heart. The old name, signifying car¬ 
riers of air, is retained, although the ancient be¬ 
lief has been laid aside. The arteries spring from 
the heart, as the aorta (q.v.) and by the branch¬ 
ing and division of the main branches of this 
large arterial trunk, are distributed in successive¬ 
ly finer branches to all parts of the human body. 
The blood supply for the head is mainly derived 
from the carotid arteries, the superficial, or ex¬ 
ternal carotid, supplying the outer structures, 
and the deep or internal carotid that gives nour¬ 
ishment to the brain and deeper lying parts. 
There are numerous anastomoses between the 
branches of the carotid arteries. The main sup- 


ARTERIES — ARTESIAN 


ply of the arm has been described under the 
head aorta (q.v.), as well as the branches that 
supply the viscera and the lower limbs. Arteries 
become smaller and smaller as they approach 
the periphery of any organ and are finally con¬ 
verted into capillaries which anastomose with 
the capillaries of the veins; these carry the blood 
back to the heart and thus the circle is complet¬ 
ed. The minute structure of the arteries is well 
adapted to the varying functions that these ves¬ 
sels perform. In every large and medium-sized 
artery, three distinct layers or coats may be dis¬ 
tinguished under the miscroscope. The inner 
coat, or the tunica intima, is thin and smooth, 
and consists of an inner layer of flat plate-like 
endothelial cells that are continuous throughout 
the entire system of blood vessels. This endo¬ 
thelial layer by its smoothness reduces friction 
of the flowing blood to a minimum. Surround¬ 
ing it are two layers of fibrous elastic tissues. 
The middle coat of the arteries is the tunica 
media and is composed mostly of smooth muscle 
fibres, with some fibrous tissue. These muscle 
fibres are arranged in a circular manner about 
the arteries. The outer coat, or the tunica adven¬ 
titia, is made up of white fibrous tissue. Thus the 
arteries have elastic and fibrous tissues in each 
coat. The outer layer is extremely tough and 
thus strengthens and protects; the middle layer 
by means of its elasticity permits the artery to 
return to its average diameter after it has been 
dilated or contracted by the muscular layer. In 
the larger arteries the yellow fibrous tissue pre¬ 
dominates, while in the smaller arteries there is a 
relatively larger amount of muscle fibre. The 
large arteries are thus more elastic and less con¬ 
tractile, while for the smaller arteries the reverse 
is true. The muscle fibres are under the control 
of the sympathetic nervous system nerve fibres. 
In the capillaries the artery is reduced to its 
single endothelial layer, and has neither elastic 
fibres nor muscle fibres. 

Arteries, Diseases of. The arteries are 
subject to a number of diseases which may be 
classed as (i) due to infectious micro-organ¬ 
isms, (2) degenerations with increase of con¬ 
nective tissue, (3) aneurisms. Of the acute 
infectious diseases, tuberculosis and syphilis, par¬ 
ticularly the latter, are important. Syphilis is 
one of the most important causes of arterial de¬ 
generation. Acute arteritis is a definite disease, 
although the great pathologist, Virchow, taught 
that it was a secondary affection. Recent bac¬ 
teriological studies, however, have shown that 
bacterial infection of the arterial walls is a fun¬ 
damental and important process. It is frequently 
the cause of an arterial thrombus and often de¬ 
velops into a true arteriosclerosis. Under the 
general head arteriosclerosis is classed a dif¬ 
fuse or circumscribed thickening of the arte¬ 
rial walls, especially of the tunica intima, sec¬ 
ondary to inflammatory or degenerative changes 
in the tunica media. When occurring in the 
large arteries, the term atheroma is used. Ar¬ 
teriosclerosis is sometimes found in the young, 
but is usually a disease of later life. Among 
the causes favoring its development are: (1) 
changes in the composition of the blood, such as 
toxins from bacterial infections (syphilis, rheu¬ 
matism), metallic poisons, alcohol, and the dis¬ 
turbed metabolism of gout, Bright’s disease, etc., 
and (2) changes in the tension of the blood 
vessels. These occur as a result of excessive 


and prolonged muscular exertion and intense 
emotional activity. Arteriosclerosis may be cir¬ 
cumscribed or diffuse. It may show irregular 
plaques of a transparent or gelatinous character 
which at a later period become hard and firm, or 
even calcified with the formation of brittle or 
pipe stem arteries. Sometimes the arteries un¬ 
dergo a fatty degeneration. There is a prolifera¬ 
tion of the connective tissue and a degeneration 
of the elastic tissue. The arteries thus become 
less responsive to control and so interfere with 
the nervous impulses. In the diffuse form the 
proliferation and degeneration is more uniform. 
Arteriosclerosis is one of the most important of 
all diseases since by its interference with the 
proper blood supply of an organ, it may occa¬ 
sion disease in that organ. In pronounced gen¬ 
eralized arteriosclerosis all of the organs of the 
body suffer. Arteriosclerosis is one of the most 
important elements in the production of cerebral 
hemorrhage, one of the forms of apoplexy. 
Aneurisms have already been considered under 
that heading. 

Arte'riosclero'sis. See Arteries, Diseases of. 

Artesian (ar-te'zhan) Wells, borings of 
considerable depth which tap a subterranean 
stream or sheet of water. The name is derived 
from artois (Latin artesium), a province in 
France where the first deep borings in Europe 
were made. Strictly speaking the term artesian 
is applicable only to such wells as discharge 
water at the surface under natural conditions 
(that is, self-flowing wells), but in America the 
term is commonly applied to any wells of more 
than ordinary depth. As the latter type of wells 
does not possess any features of special interest 
the term will here be used in its limited sense. 
The conditions which determine the presence of 
artesian water in a region relate to the geologi¬ 
cal structure of the underlying strata. It is es¬ 
sential in the first place that a pervious stratum 
enclosed above and below by impervious layers 
be present. The pervious bed, usually sand¬ 
stone or sand, serves as a reservoir for the ac¬ 
cumulation of water, while the impervious beds 
prevent this water from escaping either upward 
or downward. The second requisite is that the 
strata have a gentle pitch toward the site of the 
well and that they outcrop at some place above 
the mouth. The distance of the outcropping 
edges, which receive the water supply from rains, 
is sometimes very great, and is immaterial if the 
enclosing beds are perfectly impervious, except 
as it modifies the resistance offered to the pas¬ 
sage of the water. Owing to this friction the 
water column of the well never reaches the level 
of the outcropping source. The conditions for 
artesian water are particularly favorable when 
the strata are arranged in the form of a geo¬ 
logical basin dipping in all directions toward the 
well, as there then is no opportunity for the 
water to escape at a lower level. From these 
considerations it is evident that the discharge 
from an artesian well depends upon the rainfall 
of the region and upon the area of the exposed 
porous stratum. At first the discharge is usually 
very abundant owing to the long accumulation, 
and unless this drain is constantly supplied the 
flow will gradually decrease until a balance is 
established. When several wells are bored in the 
ssme vicinity, the flow from each may be di¬ 
minished, but the total discharge will increase 
until the limit of supply is reached. This is 


ARTEVELD — ARTHRITIS 


well illustrated in the wells bored in the Lon¬ 
don basin which in 1838 gave a total daily sup¬ 
ply of 6,000,000 gallons; in 1851 with a larger 
number of borings the supply was about doubled, 
while the force had diminished very markedly. 
Artesian water is valuable not only for domestic 
use, for which it is usually adapted by its purity, 
but it is also extensively employed in the irri¬ 
gation of arid regions. Some parts of the Sa¬ 
hara Desert have been reclaimed by making use 
of the subterranean stores of water, and recent 
investigations have shown that there are many 
areas which may yet be brought under cultiva¬ 
tion. It is, however, in the United States that 
irrigation by artesian waters has reached its 
greatest development. Special surveys of the 
Great Plains region have been undertaken by 
the United States Geological Survey for the 
purpose of defining the areas where successful 
borings may be made, and artesian wells are now 
largely employed for irrigation in Kansas, Iowa, 
Colorado, Montana, and Texas. The supply is 
drawn mostly from the Cretaceous sandstone, 
which is reached at a depth varying from less 
than 100 to more than 1,500 feet. When the 
flow of water is sufficiently strong it may be 
utilized for power purposes as is done in some 
parts of Europe. In Wurtemberg a supply of 
warm water is applied to the heating of build¬ 
ings. 

The depth at which artesian water may be 
found depends entirely upon local conditions. 
In the Paris basin the water-bearing stratum is 
usually encountered at a depth exceeding 1,500 
feet. The famous well at Grenelle, near Paris, 
was begun in 1833, and operations were con¬ 
tinued until 1841 when at a depth of 1,797 feet 
the water poured out with great force at the rate 
of 500,000 gallons per day. Another well was 
sunk near by at Passy, which yielded 5,600,000 
gallons daily, the water rising to a height of 
54 feet above the mouth. This well was 1,923 
feet deep and had the unusual diameter of 2 
feet 4 inches. A well at Kissingen, Bavaria, 
furnishes a supply of saline water from a depth 
of 1,878 feet. The deepest well in the world is 
at Schladenbach, near Leipsic, 5,735 feet. In the 
United States there are many notable examples 
of artesian wells. The first boring of great 
depth was made at St. Louis in 1849-54; a flow 
of 75 gallons per minute was obtained from a 
depth of 2,200 feet, but the water was so 
heavily charged with sulphuretted hydrogen and 
mineral matter as to be unfit for domestic use. 
Another boring was subsequently made to a 
depth of 3,843 feet. A well at Louisville, Ky., 
is 2,086 feet deep and yields 330,000 gallons per 
day. Among other noteworthy wells are the 
following: Columbus, O. (2,775 feet) ; Galves¬ 
ton, Tex. (3,071 feet) ; Charleston, S. C. (1,250 
feet) ; Pittsburg, Pa. (4,625 feet) ; and Chicago 
(710 feet). A great many wells have been bored 
in recent years within the Atlantic Coastal Plain, 
especially in New Jersey, and many cities have 
thus obtained supplies of pure water. The cost 
of sinking artesian wells varies with the depth 
and the character of the strata encountered. Up 
to 500 feet the cost commonly ranges from $1.50 
to $3.00 per foot, but below this limit the cost 
increases in proportion to the depth. Ihe ap¬ 
paratus used in boring does not differ from that 
employed in sinking for petroleum. The first 
artesian borings were probably made by the 


Chinese. In the upper basin of the Yang-tse- 
Kiang there are wells 1,500 to 3,000 feet in 
depth from which brine for salt manufacture is 
obtained. This industry has been carried on 
since a very early period and is an illustration of 
the comparatively advanced state of progress at¬ 
tained by this people long before the western 
nations had developed the mechanical arts be¬ 
yond the crude stage. Deep wells have been 
found also in Egypt which are thought to have 
been the work of the ancient Egyptians. A well 
bored in the year 1126 at Lillers, department of 
Pas-de-Calais, France, is still flowing. 

Arteveld, ar'te-vel'de, or Artevelde, the 
name of two men distinguished in the history 
of the Netherlands. (1) Jacob van, a brewer of 
Ghent, b. about 1290; d. 17 July 1345. He 
was selected by his fellow townsmen to lead 
them in their struggles against Count Louis of 
Flanders. In 1338 he was appointed captain of 
the forces of Ghent, and for several years exer¬ 
cised a sort of sovereign power. A proposal to 
make the Black Prince, son of Edward III. of 
England, governor of Flanders, led to an insur¬ 
rection, in which Arteveld lost his life. (2) 
Philip van, son of Jacob: b. 1340; d. 27 
Nov. 1382. At the head of the forces of Ghent 
he gained a great victory over the Count of 
Flanders, Louis II., and for a time assumed the 
state of a sovereign prince. His reign proved 
short-lived. The Count of Flanders returned 
with a large French force, fully disciplined and 
skilfully commanded. Arteveld was rash enough 
to meet them in the open field at Roose- 
beke, between Courtrai and Ghent, in 1382, and 
fell with 25,000 Flemings. See Ashley, ( J ames 
and Philip van Artavelde ) (1883) ; Hutton, 

( James van Artavelde > (1882). 

Artevelde, Philip van, the title of a trage¬ 
dy by Sir Henry Taylor, published in 1834. It 
is one of the best of modern English tragedies 
by an author distinguished for his protest, in the 
spirit of Wordsworth, against the extreme sen¬ 
timentalism of Byron. In this play with admira¬ 
ble power he brings back the stress and storm of 
14th century life. The father of Philip, the great 
Jacob van Artevelde, an immensely rich brewer, 
eloquent and energetic, had played a great part 
as popular leader at Ghent, I 335“45 ; and it fell 
to his son to figure similarly in 1381, but to be 
slain in a great defeat of the forces of Ghent the 
next year. Taylor’s tragedy recalls the events of 
these two years. 

Art'ful Dodg'er, The, the nickname of 
John Daukins, a young pickpocket in Dickens’ 
( Oliver TwistP 

Arthralgia (Neo.-Lat. from Gr. a pdpov y 
joint, + a\yos, pain), pain in a joint; used 
more specifically of neuralgia in a joint. It is 
synonymous with arthrodynia. 

Arthri'tis, an acute or chronic inflamma¬ 
tion of the joints, usually due to bacterial in¬ 
fection. Such infection may follow a wound, a 
perforating injury, an operative incision, or the 
micro-organisms may come to the joint through 
the blood stream, as in rheumatism, gonorrhoea, 
typhoid, or pyemia. In some cases of arthritis 
the causes seem to be resident in defective meta¬ 
bolism — gout is an illustration of this type of 
arthritis. In acute cases there are pain, swelling, 
heat, and occasionally suppuration. In the 
chronic forms the main symptoms are pain and 


ARTHRITIS DEFORMANS 


stiffness. The treatment should include rest, 
counter-irritation, and, in the suppurative cases, 
prompt surgical attention. In the more chronic 
cases counter-irritation, dry, hot air, static elec¬ 
tricity, and potassium iodid are of service. See 
Anthritis Deformans; Gout; Joint; Rheu¬ 
matism. 

Arthritis Deformans (rheumatoid ar¬ 
thritis, or osteo-arthritis), a chronic progressive 
disease of the joints, chiefly affecting the articu¬ 
lar cartilages, bones, and synovial membranes, 
and producing loss of function and great defor¬ 
mity from ossification of some parts of the joint 
and atrophy of others. Its origin is not definitely 
known. Though it is sometimes spoken of as 
rheumatic gout, it is believed to have noth¬ 
ing in common with rheumatism or gout, but 
may co-exist with either. 

It is very rare in children, occurs occasionally 
in old age, is more common between 25 and 50, 
and in females than in males. It most often 
appears after the menopause, though it may oc¬ 
cur earlier, as when following parturition. It is 
doubtful whether the disease is hereditary, al¬ 
though several cases may occur in one family. 
Exposure to inclement weather, dietetic errors, 
injuries, etc., have less causative influence than in 
gout or rheumatism, but poor food, debility, anae¬ 
mia, and cold and damp increase the severity of 
the disease. Mental strain precedes many cases 
■and adds very much to the severity of the disease. 

There are two theories as to the immediate 
cause of the affection. The first, the nervous or 
neuropathic theory, is based upon the symmet¬ 
rical distribution of the joint-lesions, the trophic 
changes in the skin, nails, etc., the frequent pre¬ 
existing mental disturbances, shock, grief, 
worry, and the like, the disproportionate muscu¬ 
lar atrophy, and the similarity of the lesions to 
those of locomotor ataxia and other affections 
■of the spinal cord. The second or infectious 
theory is derived from the facts that micro¬ 
organisms have been found in the fluids and 
tissues of the joints, that the disease sometimes 
begins with an acute onset, as do many of the 
infectious diseases, and that enlargement of the 
•spleen and lymph-glands is found in some cases. 
It is difficult to say which tissue is primarily at 
fault, but sooner or later nearly all are involved. 
The synovial membrane inflames, and papillary 
•outgrowths and cartilaginous nodules form upon 
it. These last may undergo fatty degeneration, 
or they may ossify. They may slip into the 
joint-cavity. If serous effusion occurs it is ab¬ 
sorbed early in the disease. The cartilages lose 
their cells, become fibrillated and soft, and are 
removed by friction and absorption. The ends 
of the bones (the interarticular cartilages being 
absorbed) by friction become smooth, rounded, 
and shiny, like polished ivory (eburnated). The 
eburnated surfaces, by attrition, become grooved, 
.and minute perforations of the Haversian canals 
result. Deposits of new bone form around the 
margins of the joints, and may be often felt ex¬ 
ternally. The muscles atrophy and are of a 
brownish color. Fibrous adhesions and bony 
anchylosis occur. Some of the small joints of 
the fingers, for example, may move a little, 
but the knees, etc., may be interlocked, by reason 
of the rims of bony material deposited. Dis¬ 
location or subluxation may result. The perios¬ 
teum along the shafts of the bones may thicken 
or ossify in nodules. 


The acute form of the general or multiple 
progressive type is rare after 40. Smaller joints 
become simultaneously painful, tender, and 
swollen, but not red as in rheumatism; there is 
no migration from joint to joint, the affected 
joints are inflamed, while others are becoming 
diseased. Patients are anaemic, mentally de¬ 
pressed, and complain of headache and malaise. 
Fever seldom goes above 102°. Temporary im¬ 
provement occurs, but the disease advances. 
The chronic form of this type is insidious and 
more common. One joint (of finger or toe) is 
involved; the disease affects the corresponding 
joint, and then other joints; pain may be mild 
or very severe; there are delusive intervals 
while the disease marches on. After months, or 
it may be years, all or nearly all of the joints 
are thickened, rigid, and distorted. The hands 
are bent toward the ulnar side, fingers strongly 
flexed, nails in the palms of the hands. The 
thumbs, though drawn in, may be used. The 
knees are generally crossed. The general health 
through it all may be fair, as visceral lesions 
are uncommon. 

In the monarticular or localized type, the 
disease is usually confined to one or two of the 
larger joints, occurs mostly in men, and after 
50. The knee, shoulder, elbow, or hip is gen¬ 
erally affected, but the vertebrae may be, the en¬ 
tire spinal column becoming rigid. Motion of 
affected joints often produces a creaking or 
grating sound. The pathological appearances 
are similar to those of the general type of the 
disease, but joint-injuries are more often an ex* 
citing cause. The joint becomes stiff, sore, and 
painful, and there is absorption of the ends of 
the bones, dislocation, and deformity. 

Heberden’s nodes or nodosities, described by 
him in 1805, are small exostoses ( (( small hard 
knobs®), seldom larger than peas, which form 
on either side of the distal joints of fingers. 
They may be present in either type of the dis¬ 
ease, at first are tender and swollen, but later 
on apparently cause little discomfort. Some¬ 
times the bone-enlargement surrounds the joint. 

Arthritis deformans in children, although not 
frequent, is more acute, and is more influenced 
by poor food, cold and damp, etc. There is 
fever, sometimes a chill. The swelling, stiff¬ 
ness, and tenderness seem to be more in the 
soft parts than in harder tissues. The fingers 
are flexed and overlapped, the feet are strongly 
extended, and the joints are rigid. 

The diagnosis of arthritis deformans must 
be made from subacute and chronic rheumatism, 
gonorrhoeal rheumatism, gout, progressive mus¬ 
cular atrophy, Charcot’s disease, etc. Recovery 
is impossible, but the disease is not directly 
dangerous to life. Treatment for relief is 
hygienic and dietetic, a warm, dry, equable 
climate, dry, healthful quarters, change of 
scene, freedom from anxiety, shock, etc., 
woolen underclothes, flannel nightgowns or 
pajamas, and ample diet. Malt extracts, iron, 
and cod-liver oil are of service. Locally there 
should be application of massage, friction, elec¬ 
tricity, douching, hot air in so-called hot-box, 
guiacol and glycerine in equal parts, or bella¬ 
donna ointment, cotton, and oil-silk. Residence 
at one of the spas, with appropriate care and 
treatment, will relieve suffering and prolong life. 
See Arthritis; Gout; Joint; Rheumatism. 


ARTHROCACE — ARTHROPODA 


. . Arthrocace (Neo.-Lat. from Gk. dpdpov, 
joint -f- kclk’/j, evil), a disease of the joints 
in which the bone is disintegrated and carried 
away piecemeal. See Caries. 

Arthro'dia. See Joint. 

. . Arthrodynia (Neo.-Lat. from Gk. tLpOpov, 
joint -f- 65\jvtj, pain), pain in a joint; prac¬ 
tically synonymous with arthralgia. 

Arthrogastra (Neo.-Lat. from Gk. 
& pOpov, joint -f- yao’T'fjp, abdomen), a divi¬ 
sion of the insect class Arachnida (q.v.), hav¬ 
ing the abdomen annulated, and including the 
scorpions (see Scorpion), etc. 

Arthromere (Gk. ttpOpov, joint -f- p-fpos, 
part), one of the series of segments of which 
arthropoda (q.v.) are composed. 

Arthropathia Tabidorum, a disease of the 
joints in connection with spinal disease ( tabes 
dorsalis), very similar to arthritis deformans 
(q.v.). The destruction of the ends of the 
bones in the joint concerned takes place with 
great rapidity and painlessly; there is no fever 
nor appearance of inflammation, even when the 
bones are fractured. 

Arthrophragm (Gk. dpdpov, joint + 
<ppdyp.a, fence), a partition between certain 
articulations, as, for example, in the crayfish 
(q.v.). 

Arthropleure (Neo.-Lat. Arthropleura, 
from Gk. dpOpov, joint -f- irXevpa, side), the 
lateral portions of the arthroderm, or crust, of 
articulated animals. See Articulata. 

Arthrop'oda, a phylum comprising those 
articulated animals which have jointed append¬ 
ages, such as antennae, jaws, maxillae (or ac¬ 
cessory jaws), palpi, and legs, arranged in pairs, 
the two halves of the body thus being more 
markedly symmetrical than in the lower ani¬ 
mals. It is by far the most numerous in species 
of any in the animal kingdom, the insects alone 
probably numbering upward of a million spe¬ 
cies ; other representative or typical forms are 
the trilobites, king crabs, scorpions, spiders, and 
myriopods. The skin is usually hardened by the 
deposition of salts (carbonate and phosphate of 
lime), and of a peculiar organic substance called 
chitine. The segments (somites or arthro- 
meres) composing the body are usually limited 
in number, 20 (or 21) in the crustaceans and 
insects; while each arthromere is primarily di¬ 
vided into an upper (tergum),lower (sternum), 
and lateral portion (pleurum). These divisions, 
however, cannot be traced in the head of either 
the crustaceans or the insects. Moreover, the 
head is well marked, with one or two pairs of 
feelers or antennae, and from two to four pairs 
of biting mouth-parts or jaws, and two com¬ 
pound eyes; besides the compound eyes there 
are simple eyes in the insects. The germ is 
three-layered, and there is usually in the more 
specialized forms a well-marked metamorphosis. 
The Arthropoda are most nearly related to the 
worms, certain annelides, with their soft-jointed 
appendages (tentacles as well as lateral cirri) 
and more or less definite head, anticipating or 
foreshadowing the arthropods. On the. other 
hand, certain low parasitic arthropods, as lingua- 
tula, have been mistaken for genuine parasitic 
worms. 

Segmentation of the Body. — The segments 
(somites, metameres) are merely thickenings of 


the skin connected by a thin intersegmental 
membrane, so that the segments can telescope 
into each other, or extend, thus lending the 
greatest freedom of motion to the trunk as well 
as to the appendages; otherwise a rigid chitinous 
skin would not permit of any movement. As in 
the annelid worms, this segmentation of the in¬ 
tegument is correlated with the serial repetition 
of the ganglia of the nervous system, of the 
ostia of the dorsal vessel, the primitive dispo¬ 
sition of the segmental and reproductive or¬ 
gans, of the soft, muscular dissepiments which 
correspond to the suture between the segments, 
and with the metameric arrangement of the 
muscles controlling the movements of the seg¬ 
ments on each other; and this internal segmenta¬ 
tion or metamerism is indicated very early in 
embryonic life by the mesoblastic somites. 

While we look upon the dermal tube of 
worms as a single but flexible lever, the body 
of the arthropods, as Graber states, is a linear 
system of stiff levers. We have here a series of 
stiff, solid rings, or hoops, united by the inter¬ 
segmental membrane into a whole. When the 
muscles extending from one ring to the next 
behind contract, and so on through the entire 
series, the rings approximate each other. 

The origin of the joints or segments in the 
limbs of arthropods was probably due to the 
mechanical strains to which what were at first 
soft fleshy outgrowths along the sides of the 
body became subjected. Indeed, certain anne¬ 
lid worms of the family Syllidce have segment¬ 
ed tentacles and parapodia, as in Dujardinia. 
We do not know enough about the habits of 
these worms to understand how this metamer¬ 
ism may have arisen, but it is possibly due to 
the act of pushing or repeated efforts to sup¬ 
port the body while creeping over the bottom 
among broken shells, over coarse gravel, or 
among sea-weeds. It is obvious, however, that 
the jointed structure of the limbs of arthropods, 
if we are to attempt any explanation at all, was 
primarily due mainly to lateral strains and im¬ 
pacts resulting from the primitive endeavors of 
the ancestral arthropods to raise and to support 
the body while thus raised, and then to push 
or drag it forward by means of the soft, par¬ 
tially jointed, lateral limbs which were armed 
with bristles, hooks, or finally claws. By adap¬ 
tation, or as the result of parasitism and con¬ 
sequent lack of active motion, the original 
number of segments may by disuse be dimin¬ 
ished. Thus in adult wasps and bees, the last 
three or four abdominal segments may be 
nearly lost, though the larval number is ten. 
During metamorphosis the body is made over, 
and the number, shape, and structure of the seg¬ 
ments are greatly modified. 

History and Present Classification. — The 
group or sub-kingdom (phylum) of Arthropoda 
was founded in 1848 by Siebold. It has been 
supposed until recently to be a natural group. 
In 1893 Kingsley, and also Kennel, first sug¬ 
gested doubts as to the homogeneity of the 
group, and in the same year Packard published 
the view that there are four independent lines 
of development in the Arthropoda, and in 1894 
Kingsley divided the group into three subphyla, 
Laurie and Pocock also considering that the 
group is polyphyletic. In 1898 Packard stated: 
<( It is becoming evident, however, that there was 
no common ancestor of the Arthropoda as a 
whole, and that the group is a polyphyletic one. 


ARTHROSTRACA — ARTHUR 


Hence, though a convenient group, it is a some¬ 
what artificial one, and may eventually be dis¬ 
membered into at least three or four phyla or 
branches.® 

The four phyla as afterward proposed by 
Packard are, beginning with the most primitive: 
( i)Palceostraca, embracing the classes of Tril- 
obita; (2) Merostomata ( Limulns ), and Arach - 
nida; (3) Pancarida ( Crustacea) ; (4) Prosogo- 
neata, including three classes: Pauropoda, Dip- 
lopoda, and Lymphyla (Scolopendrella ) ; and 
(5) Entomoptera, comprising the Chilopoda and 
Insect a; the great majority of the group being 
winged insects. Each of these phyla represent 
independent lines of development, judging by 
their structure and what we know of their de¬ 
velopment, and have no genetic connection be¬ 
yond the theory that they each have descended 
from one or more annelid worms. 

A. S. Packard, 

Late Prof. Zoology , Brow71 University. 

Arthrostraca, Crustacea of the sub-class 
Malacostraca in which the first, sometimes the 
second thoracic segment is fused with the head 
and bears maxillipedes; the remaining seven 
being free and bearing legs. The eyes are usual¬ 
ly sessile. The group is divided into the Am- 
phipoda (q.v.) and Isopoda (q.v.). Common 
examples are pill-bug, wood-louse, etc. 

Ar'thur, king of the Silures in the 6th 
century, an ancient British hero, whose story 
has been the theme of much romantic fiction. 
He is said to have been the son of Uthyr, 
chief commander of the Britons, and to have 
been born about 501. In 516 he succeeded his 
father in the office of general, and performed 
those heroic deeds against the Saxons, Scots, 
and Piets which have made him so celebrated. 
He married the celebrated Guinevere belonging 
to the family of the dukes of Cornwall; estab¬ 
lished the famous order of the Round Table; 
and reigned, surrounded by a splendid court, 
12 years in peace. After this, he is reported to 
have conquered Denmark, Norway, and France, 
slain the giants of Spain, and journeyed to Rome. 
From thence he is said to have hastened home 
on account of the faithlessness of his wife, 
and Modred, his nephew, who carried on an 
adulterous intercourse, and stirred up his sub¬ 
jects to rebellion; to have subdued the rebels, 
but to have died in consequence of his wounds, 
in 542, on the island of Avalon, where it is 
pretended that his grave was found in the 
reign of Henry II. The story of Arthur is 
supposed to have some foundation in fact, and 
it is generally believed that he was one of the 
last great Celtic chiefs who led his country¬ 
men from the west to resist the settlement of 
the Saxons in southern Britain. But many au¬ 
thorities regard him as a leader of the Cymry 
of Cumbria and Strath-Clyde against the Anglo- 
Saxon invaders of the east coast and the Piets 
and Scots north of the Forth and the Clyde. In 
our own day the interest of the old legends has 
been revived by the works of Lytton and espe¬ 
cially Tennyson. See Skene, ( Four Ancient 
Books of Wales ) (1868) ; Stuart-Glennie, jour¬ 
ney through Arthurian Scotland 5 (1867) ; and 
<Arthurian Localities 5 (1869) ; Rhys, ( Studies in 
the Arthurian Legend 5 (1891) ; Sommer, ( Morte 
d’Arthur 5 (3 vols. 1889-91); Brown, Twain: 
A Study in the Origin of Arthurian Romance 5 
(1902). See Arthurian Legends. 


Ar'thur, Prince. See Duke of Connaught. 

Ar'thur, duke of Brittany, the grandson 
of King Henry II. of England: b. 1187; d. 1203. 
On the death in 1199 of his uncle, Richard I., 
who had declared the boy his heir, Arthur was 
proclaimed king of England by the nobles of 
Anjou, Touraine, and Maine, while the English 
lords decided in John’s favor. King Philip of 
France supported the claims of Arthur, but a 
peace being presently concluded between John 
and Philip, Arthur came later into the hands 
of his uncle, King John, and soon mysteriously 
disappeared. According to general belief Ar¬ 
thur was murdered by command of his uncle. 
The story of Arthur forms a portion of Shake¬ 
speare’s ( King John. 5 See John. 

Arthur, Chester Alan, the 21st President 
of the United States: b. Fairfield, Vt., 5 Oct. 
1830; d. New York, 18 Nov. 1886. He gradu¬ 
ated from Union College at 18, was principal 
of an academy at North Pownal, Vt., and in 
1853 began the. practice of law in New York, 
where he argued several important legal cases 
in behalf of the colored people. Through these 
and other cases he became noted in his profes¬ 
sion, and he was also prominent as a Republican 
politician. In April 1861 Gov. E. D. Morgan 
made him acting quartermaster-general, and la¬ 
ter he was made full quartermaster-general. For 
the next decade he was a successful and widely 
known practising lawyer, and a leading Repub¬ 
lican politician of New York, chairman of the 
Grant Club in 1868, and of the executive com¬ 
mittee of the Republican State committee in 
1869. He was appointed by President Grant, 
20 Nov. 1871 to the highest office in the State 
patronage, the collectorship of the port of New 
York, which he held till 11 July 1878. His 
business conduct of the office was not impeached, 
and he was retained by President Hayes for over 
a year after his accession; but he was first of all 
a political manager, in open hostility to civil 
service reform. As a matter of actual practice 
and not theory, however, Mr. Arthur produced 
figures to show that the annual percentage of 
removals under him for all causes had been only 
2)4 per cent, as against an annual average of 
24 per cent since 1857. In 1880 he was nomi¬ 
nated for the vice-presidency, chiefly to concili¬ 
ate the Grant section of the Republicans, sore at 
the defeat of the third-term project, and was 
elected with Garfield. In place of the custom¬ 
ary dignified nullity of his office, he remained 
an active party leader in the patronage contest 
of his State, between the <( Stalwarts 55 or Grant 
section led by Roscoe Conkling (q.v.), and of 
which Mr. Arthur was chief lieutenant, and the 
<( Half-Breeds 55 or more independent wing which 
Garfield was trying to build up. Conkling soon 
resigned his seat in the Senate, declaring that 
Garfield had broken his promises to him, and the 
Garfield party for the time was triumphant; but 
the assassination of Garfield, shortly after, re¬ 
versed the situation. The open lamentations of 
the press at the prospect of the accession of so 
convinced a spoilsman as himself deeply hurt 
Mr. Arthur, who felt that he was misjudged, 
and determined on the most admirable revenge, 
that of disappointing their prophecies of evil. 
He did so; not only was his term of office mea¬ 
surably free from the dominance of patronage, 
but he extended the civil service rules and 
kept faith with them. In other respects his ad- 



CHESTER ALAN ARTHUR. 


21 ST PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED ST ATF e , 




















































































































' 




< 





. 
















. 


. 




























ARTHUR —ARTHURIAN ROMANCES 


ministration was so excellent that the leading 
independents had announced their intention of 
supporting him for President if nominated in 
i<04. its most notable incident was the ap¬ 
pointment of a commission to revise the tariff, 
v Inch, though composed of strong Protection¬ 
ists, 1 eported that the tariff should be reduced 
20 per cent, all around, a recommendation un¬ 
heeded by Congress. Several commercial trea¬ 
ties were passed, however. He vetoed a Chinese 
immigration bill as inconsistent with treaty ob¬ 
ligations ; favored the stringent laws passed 
against polygamy, appointing a Utah commis¬ 
sion to supervise their enforcement; managed 
Indian affairs wisely, promoting Indian educa¬ 
tion and the breaking up of the tribal system; 
extended postal facilities; took measures to in¬ 
crease the navy, improve its discipline and effi¬ 
ciency and provide for coast defense; supported 
the improvement of Mississippi River naviga¬ 
tion, etc. The attempts at remonetizing silver, 
and at forcibly abrogating the Clayton-Bulwer 
treaty to build a Nicaragua canal, were in ac¬ 
cordance with general party feeling at the time. 
The lingering scandal of the Star Route frauds, 
however, injured the party somewhat, and its 
policy and methods were gravely disapproved of 
by the Independents; but this was much more 
than counterbalanced by distrust of the Demo¬ 
cratic party for its alliance with the Greenback 
element. Mr. Arthur’s defeat for the nomina¬ 
tion was not caused by any demerits of his own, 
still less by desire to conciliate the Independ¬ 
ents. but by the personal ambitions of Repub¬ 
lican leaders, which, justly or unjustly, had 
aroused and exasperated the Republicans of the 
State of New York, causing the defeat of C. J. 
Folger for Governor, and resulting in the nomi¬ 
nation of Blaine in 1884. Arthur, although a 
close adherent of Conkling, supported Blaine. 

Ar'thur, Joseph Charles, an American bot¬ 
anist: b. Lowville, N. Y., 11 Jan. 1850. He was 
graduated from Iowa State College in 1872, and 
subsequently studied at the universities of Johns 
Hopkins, Harvard, and Bonn, Germany. He 
was instructor in the universities of Minnesota 
and Wisconsin; botanist at the Experiment Sta¬ 
tion, Geneva, N. Y., and is now professor of 
vegetable physiology and pathology, Purdue 
University, Lafayette, Ind. He has written 
(with Barnes and Coulter) ‘Handbook of Plant 
Dissection ) (1886) ; (with MacDougal) ‘Living 
Plants and Their Properties’ (1898) ; etc. 

Ar'thur, Julia, the stage name of Ida Lewis, 
an American actress: b. Llamilton, Ont., 3 May 
1869. She made her professional debut at the 
age of 14 as the Prince of Wales in ‘Richard 
III.’ Her first New York success was in ‘The 
Black Masque.’ She made her London debut 
February 1895 in Henry Irving’s company, play¬ 
ing roles next to Helen Terry, both of whom 
she accompanied to America in 1896. Since then 
she has starred chiefly in the United States. 
She is the wife of B. P. Cheney. See Strang, 
‘Famous Actresses of the Day in America’ 
(1899). 

Ar'thur, Timothy Shay, an American 
author: b. Newburg, N. Y., 1809; d. Philadel¬ 
phia, 6 March 1885. In 1852 he founded ‘Ar¬ 
thur’s Home Magazine.’ He was a voluminous 
writer of moral and domestic tales. His works 
are over ico in number, and have had a large 
sale in England as well as in the United States. 


His most popular work was the famous ‘Ten 
Nights in a Bar-Room.’ Among his other pub¬ 
lications were ‘Tales for Rich and Poor,’ ‘Tales 
of Married Life,’ and ‘Lights and Shadows.’ 

Arthurian Romances, The. The figure of 
Arthur rests, in all probability, upon a historical 
basis, which has been completely transformed by 
the accretions of mythology, legend, and romance. 
In the ‘Historia Britonum’ of Nennius, a com¬ 
pilation of the 9th or 10th century, mention 
is made of a certain Arthur who was “dux 
bellorum” of the Britons against the Saxon in¬ 
vaders. His most brilliant achievement is stated 
to have been the British victory at Mount Badon, 
early in the 5th century. This testimony is sub¬ 
stantiated by the Latin work of Gildas, an 
ecclesiastic of the 6th century, although Gildas 
does not mention Arthur by name. The memory 
of a conquering leader of this sort may well have 
been cherished by the English Celts in their later 
adversities, and his deeds magnified into the 
exaggerated exploits of a popular hero. The 
more primitive conception of Arthur is revealed 
in certain portions of the Welsh ‘Mabinogion.’ 
In the tale of ‘Kilhwch and Olwen,’ for example, 
he appears as the leader of a far ruder company 
than that generally associated with his name. 
In the course of time, many features belonging 
to Celtic mythology became attached to him and 
his followers, which are occasionally plainly 
visible in the later romantic narratives. Sir 
1 homas Malory describes the strength of Gawain 
as waxing and waning each day, a peculiarity 
originally belonging to a supernatural being. 
Episodes in the story of Arthur’s life may in all 
probability be traced to a similar source. The 
faithlessness of his wife and the treachery of his 
cousin appear to be the rationalized form of an 
old myth. It has even been argued that Arthur 
was originally a Welsh deity or culture-hero, 
but this theory has not met with general accept¬ 
ance. 

The conception of Arthur as the heroic king 
of mediaeval romance is due largely to Geoffrey 
of Monmouth. In his fictitious ‘Historia Regum 
Britannise,’ finished about 1136, he elaborated the 
slight hints offered by Nennius, and presented a 
complete and well-rounded portrait. A romantic 
parentage and a wonderful boyhood are given to 
Arthur, in which supernatural occurrences are 
not absent. A warrior of surpassing valor, he 
not only puts to rout the invading Saxons, but 
subdues Europe to his sway. In the midst of 
his last foreign campaign he learns of the in¬ 
fidelity of his wife Guanhumara and the treason 
of his nephew Modred, to whom he had en¬ 
trusted the government of Britain. Hurriedly 
returning, he defeats Modred in a bloody com¬ 
bat, but himself receives a mortal wound, and is 
borne to Avalon to be healed. Too much im¬ 
portance can hardly be attached to this narrative, 
which forms the beginning of the great body of 
romantic literature which clustered about the 
name of Arthur, although the later romancers 
worked along very different lines from those 
laid down by Geoffrey. Much of the material in 
the ‘Historia’ is no doubt due to the author’s 
own vivid imagination, but it is certain that he 
made use of the Arthurian legends in circulation 
in his native country near the Welsh border. In 
the 12th century there must have been many of 
these current among the Welsh people. On the 
Continent as well, the name and fame of Arthur 


ARTHURIAN ROMANCES 


appear to have been well known in early days. 
The Celts who crossed the Channel from the 
4th to the 6th century and settled in Armorica 
carried these legends with them, developed them 
in their own way, and transmitted them to their 
French neighbors. The question whence the 
early trouveres got the matiere de Bretagne has 
been much discussed. It has been contended by 
some scholars that this was chiefly, if not wholly, 
derived from the Continent. Others have main¬ 
tained that the transmission of the Arthurian 
stories by the Welsh to the Anglo-Normans was 
the most important factor in their later literary 
development. Sufficient evidence exists to prove 
the early circulation of this material both in 
Wales and Brittany, and the most reasonable 
view would seem to be that each locality con¬ 
tributed its share, but that a just apportion¬ 
ment of the indebtedness of the later romances is 
hardly possible. 

The most illustrious shaper of Arthurian 
legend after Geoffrey was a Frenchman, Chres- 
tien de Troyes. A native of Champagne, he 
wrote in the second half of the 12th century a 
series of long poems in octosyllabic couplets 
dealing with prominent knights of Arthur’s 
court, Erec, Lancelot, Yvain, and Perceval. A 
fifth piece ^liges^ is connected with Arthur in 
a different way, while a romance dealing with 
Tristram has not been preserved. Chrestien 
carried still further the process which had been 
begun by Geoffrey. In his hands the knights 
become representative of the highest chivalric 
culture. They are not merely patterns of bravery, 
but men of sensitiveness and refinement, drawn 
with a surprising care for psychological analysis. 
Chrestien introduced into his stories the elabo¬ 
rate love-conventions of the day, which often pro¬ 
duces a certain artificiality. He stood preem¬ 
inent among his contemporaries, and exerted a 
great influence, not only in France, but in 
neighboring countries as well, particularly in 
Germany. The < Erec ) and < Yvain > were trans¬ 
lated by Hartmann von Aue, and the 'ParzivaP 
of Wolfram von Eschenbach probably owes a 
good deal to the { Conte del GraaL although 
the extent of this indebtedness is disputed. 

Chrestien’s sources are no longer extant, but 
it seems likely that these consisted largely of 
short narratives in verse. Some idea of the 
character of these may be gained from the 
Breton lais of the poetess Marie de France, 
although Marie’s poems are no doubt far more 
artistic than the reworkings of popular story of 
which Chrestien made use. Many lays upon 
Arthurian subjects must have been in existence 
at this time. The work of Marie herself, 
although indirectly most significant in consider¬ 
ing the literary evolution of the Arthurian 
legends, is but slightly connected with Arthur, 
only one of her lays having a setting at his court. 

Meanwhile the popularity of Geoffrey of 
Monmouth’s imaginary history was calling forth 
various paraphrases in England. The demand 
for a version in French was met by the rhymed 
translation of Geoffrey Gaimar, produced shortly 
before the middle of the 12th century. Only a 
part of this is extant, but a compensation for its 
loss appears in the poem by the Norman Wace, 
which seems to have been considered a more 
distinguished work than Gaimar’s. Wace treated 
Geoffrey’s material with considerable freedom, 
making additions and omissions as he thought 


fit. His work falls early in the third quarter of 
the 12th century. 

The chronicle of the British monarchs was 
put into English about the year 1205 by Laya¬ 
mon, a monk of Ernley on the Severn, and 
called, after the reputed founder of the royal 
line, the Brut. Of this, about one-third deals 
with Arthur. It was based on the poem of Wace, 
but the simple English monk gave a very differ¬ 
ent coloring to his work than did the elegant 
Norman. Arthur becomes a more truly English 
hero, and his deeds are told in the alliterative 
verse of the Germanic stock, although rhyme 
and even assonance occasionally appear. The 
English character of the work is apparent in 
the vocabulary, which contains very few words 
of Romance origin. Like Geoffrey of Mon¬ 
mouth, Layamon drew from traditions near the 
Welsh border, adding to the Arthurian story 
material of great interest. Particularly note¬ 
worthy is the account of the Round Table, an 
institution borrowed from Celtic sources to 
settle questions of precedence in sitting at meat. 

In the further development of the Arthurian 
romances the tendency to exalt the individual 
knights rather than the great king becomes more 
marked. Arthur is, indeed, the most majestic 
figure of all, but he remains in the background, 
while great exploits are performed by his fol¬ 
lowers. Gradually a number of cycles arise, 
centering about prominent figures, Gawain, 
Lancelot, Perceval, Yvain, Merlin. Tales origi¬ 
nally unconnected with Arthur’s court are partly 
localised there, and their heroes made members 
of the Round Table fellowship, as the Quest of 
the Holy Grail, which consists of the fusion of 
a Celtic narrative of adventure and an ecclesias¬ 
tical legend, or the story of Tristram and Ysolt. 
A vast body of verse-romances thus came into 
existence, together with long compilations in 
prose. Chaucer did his part in telling of 
( tholde dayes of the king ArthouH in the Wife 
of Bath’s tale. In the 15th century the degen¬ 
eration of the minstrel romance was rapid. 
With the decline of the chivalric system came 
the decay of the romantic stories which glorified 
it. Prose redactions, often of inferior artistic 
merit, became more and more common. Mean¬ 
while much Arthurian material reappeared in 
altered form in the popular ballads. A notable 
exception to the general level of romance-writing 
in this period is the ( Morte DarthuH of Sir 
Thomas Malory, a book which unites episodes 
drawn from various sources into one harmonious 
whole, and presents, not merely an account of 
Arthur’s death, but of his whole life, with de¬ 
tailed descriptions of the adventures of the 
knights of his court. For charm of narrative, 
and cadence and melody of language, it has no 
rival among English romances. Written about 
1470, and published 15 years later by Caxton, it 
may be regarded as the classic presentation of 
the Arthurian story for English readers. 

There is little consistency in the legends 
grouped about the figure of Arthur. Not only 
were episodes altered at will, but the conceptions 
of the characters of prominent persons vary in 
different versions. As the taste of the times 
changed, one hero displaced another, and one 
set of romances drove others out of vogue. In 
the Grail romances, for example, the earlier 
heroes Gawain and Perceval were supplanted in 
time of greater insistence upon purity by the 


ARTHUR’S SEAT —ARTICLE 


stainless, but less virile Galahad. Lancelot and 
Merlin were particularly popular in later days. 
Still further changes have been introduced in 
modern times, i he ( Faerie Queene* of Spenser, 
which presents Arthur as the ideal type of man¬ 
hood, bears little resemblance to earlier portraits 
of the hero. It is well known that Milton pro¬ 
jected an epic on the story of Arthur before 
turning to the composition of ( Paradise Lost.’ 
The most important effort of modern times to 
reproduce Arthurian legend is perhaps Tenny¬ 
son’s ( Idylls of the King. ) These are based 
mainly on Malory, but the poet allowed himself 
much freedom both in episode and characteriza¬ 
tion. Swinburne, Matthew Arnold. William 
Morris, and others have rendered several of the 
old stories into verse. In foreign countries the 
Arthurian material has enjoyed considerable 
popularity. Especially noteworthy are Wagner’s 
music-dramas, ‘Parsifal,* and ( Tristan und 
Isolde.* See Mabinogion ; Avalon ; Tristan. 

Bibliography. —Ten Brink, ‘History English 
Literature* (trans. Kennedy, Vol. I) ; Newell, 
‘King Arthur and the Table Round > (2 vols.) ; 
Nutt, ‘Celtic and Med. Romance* ; MacCallum, 
‘Tennyson’s Idylls of the King* ; Rhfs, ‘Studies 
in the Arthurian Legend* ; Paris, Wes Romans 
de la Table Ronde* ; Saintsbury, flourishing of 
Romance*; Schofield, ( English Literature from 
the Norman Conquest to Chaucer* ; Weston, 
‘King Arthur and His Knights* (also separate 
studies on Gawain, Perceval, and Lancelot) ; 
Wulker, ‘Die Arthursage in der engl. Litt.* ; 
Skene, four Ancient Books of Wales* 
(1868); Stuart-Glennie, ( Journey through Ar¬ 
thurian Scotland* (1867); and ( Arthurian 
Localities* (1869) ; Sommer, ‘Morte d’Arthur* 
(1889-91). 

William W. Lawrence, 

Instructor in English , Columbia University. 

Ar'thur’s Seat, a hill overlooking Edin¬ 
burgh, Scotland, said to have been so called 
from a tradition that King Arthur surveyed the 
country from its summit and defeated the Sax¬ 
ons in its neighborhood. It is a steep, and in 
some places precipitous, rock, exhibiting on the 
south side a range of perpendicular basaltic col¬ 
umns, called Samson’s Ribs. The highest point 
is 822 feet above sea-level. From hence may be 
seen a wide expanse of sea, the course of the 
Forth, the distant Grampians, etc., and a large 
portion of the most populous and best cultivated 
part of Scotland, including the picturesque city 
of Edinburgh and its castle. On the north side 
are the ruins of a chapel and hermitage, dedicat¬ 
ed to St. Anthony, and a fine spring called St. 
Anton’s Well. A carriage road called the 
Queen’s Drive goes round its base. 

Ar'tichoke, two species of the natural 
order Composite. The true, sometimes called 
French, artichoke ( Cynnara Cardunculus — 
scalymus of some authors), a native of the Med¬ 
iterranean region, is a coarse, stout, perennial, 
thistle-like herb, 3 to 5 f ee t tall, with rather 
spiny leaves, the lower of which are often 3 feet 
or more long, and large terminal heads of blue 
or white flowers. It is cultivated for the edible 
thickened outer scales and “bottoms** (recep¬ 
tacles) of the flower heads which sometimes 
exceed 4 inches in diameter without becoming 
too old for eating raw as salad, pickled, or 
cooked like cauliflower. Sometimes the young 
stems and leaves are blanched like cardoon, with 


which some botanists consider it to be identical- 
In Europe many varieties are popular; in Amer¬ 
ica the globe variety is planted almost to the 
exclusion of others, with the result that this 
variety has almost become united to the name 
in popular usage. The cultivation of this spe¬ 
cies in America is confined mostly to the south¬ 
ern States, few gardens in the North being sup¬ 
plied with it. Since the plant is rather tender,, 
winter protection must be given where the 
ground freezes. If planted in rich soil and set 
four feet apart the plants will yield two or 
three crops before a new plantation should be 
made; if allowed to stand longer the yield 
gradually diminishes. New plantations are made 
either with seedling or sucker plants. Most 
of the artichokes offered in the northern mar¬ 
kets of the United States come from France and 
Louisiana. 

The Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuber- 
osus), a native of North America, is a perennial 
sunflower-like herb, 5 to 12 feet tall, with rough 
leaves 4 to 8 inches long and many yellow ter¬ 
minal flower-heads often 2 to 3 inches in diame¬ 
ter. The edible pear-shaped purplish, red, white,, 
or yellow tubers for which the plant is often cul¬ 
tivated are numerous, seldom more than 3 inches, 
in diameter, rather watery but of pleasant flavor 
especially when prepared like cauliflower, with 
a white sauce. Perhaps no vegetable is of eas¬ 
ier cultivation. For home use the tubers are 
generally planted in well-drained soil in some 
out of the way corner of the garden and allowed 
to take care of themselves from year to year* 
the few tubers and pieces of root left after dig¬ 
ging sufficing to re-stock the bed. In field cul¬ 
ture the methods are like those practised with 
the potato except that the tubers may be left in 
the ground over winter and dug when needed. 
They are not injured by frost if in the soil, 
but if frozen after being dug they spoil quickly. 
If desired they may be dug and stored in pits, 
like turnips, but with a somewhat lighter cover¬ 
ing of straw and earth. The usual yield is from 
200 to 500 bushels to the acre but 1,000 bushels, 
are sometimes obtained. When land becomes 
infested, as it sometimes does, with the plant, 
pigs, for which the tubers make valuable food, 
may be turned loose upon the field. The tubers 
resemble potatoes in composition and like them 
are used largely in Europe for the manufacture 
of alcohol. The young plants are sometimes 
used as cattle food and the dry stalks for fuel. 
Consult ( Bur or Globe Artichoke* in United 
States Department of Agriculture Year Book, 
1899; Circular 31 (1899); Bailey, ( Cyclopaedia 

of American Horticulture* (1900-02) ; Vilmorin, 
( The Vegetable Garden,* translation by Robin¬ 
son (1885). 

Ar'ticle, in grammar, a part of speech 
used before nouns to limit or define their ap¬ 
plication. In the English language a or an is the 
indefinite article (the latter form being used be¬ 
fore a vowel sound) and the the definite article. 
The English indefinite article is really a modified 
form of the numeral adjective one; so the Ger¬ 
man ein and the French un stand for the numeral 
and the article. There are traces in various lan¬ 
guages showing that the definite article was 
originally a pronoun; thus the English the is 
closely akin to both this and that. The Latin 
language has neither the definite nor the in¬ 
definite article; the Greek has the definite; the 


ARTICLES 


Hebrew and Arabic definite article was prefixed 
to its noun, while, on the other hand, in the 
Syriac and Chaldaic it was affixed to the noun, 
as it is in the Icelandic. In the Scandinavian 
language the definite article is appended to the 
end of the word as hus-et, the house. 

Ar'ticles, divisions of a printed or written 
document or agreement. A specification of dis¬ 
tinct matters agreed upon or established by 
authority or requiring judicial action. In chan¬ 
cery practice articles are a formal written state¬ 
ment of objections to the credibility of witnesses 
in a cause in chancery, filed by a party to the pro¬ 
ceedings, after the depositions have been taken 
and published. The object of articles is to en¬ 
able the party filing them to introduce evidence 
to discredit the witnesses to whom the objections 
apply, where it is too late to do so in any other 
manner (2 Daniel Chan. Pr. 1158), and to notify 
the party whose witnesses are objected to of 
the nature of the objections, that he may be pre¬ 
pared to meet them. Upon filing the articles a 
special order is obtained to take evidence. The 
interrogatories must be so shaped as not to call 
for evidence which applies directly to facts in 
issue in the case. 3 Johns. Ch. N. Y. 558. The 
objections can be taken only to the credit and 
not to the competency of the witnesses. 3 
Johns. Ch. N. Y. 558; 3 Atk. Ch. 643, and the 
court are to hear all the evidence read and judge 
of its value. 2 Ves. Ch. 219. 

Articles of Agreement .— A written memoran¬ 
dum of the terms of an agreement. They may 
relate either to real or personal estate, or both, 
and if in proper form will create an equitable 
estate or trust such that a specific performance 
may be had in equity. The articles of agreement 
should contain a clear and explicit statement of 
the names of the parties, with their additions for 
purposes of distinction, as well as a designation 
as parties of the first, second, etc., part; the sub¬ 
ject-matter of the contract, including the time, 
place, and more important details of the manner 
of performance; the covenants to be performed 
by each party; the date, which should be truly 
stated. It should be signed by the parties or 
their agents. When signed by an agent the 
proper form is, A. B., by his agent( or attorney), 
C. D.. > 

Articles of Confederation .— The title of the 
compact which was made by the 13 original 
States of the United States of America. It was 
adopted and carried into force 1 March 1781 
and remained as the supreme law until the first 
Wednesday of March 1789. 

Articles of Faith .— Summarized statements 
of religious views relating to the central doc¬ 
trines of a theological system. Protestant di¬ 
vines divide these into fundamental and non¬ 
fundamental articles. Familiar examples of 
articles of faith are the Nicene, Apostles’, and 
Athanaisan creeds, the Thirty-Nine Articles, the 
Westminster, Augsburg, and Helvetic Confes¬ 
sions. See Creed. 

Articles of Impeachment .— A written articu¬ 
late allegation of the causes for impeachment. 
Blackstone calls them a kind of bill of indict¬ 
ment, and they perform the same office which an 
indictment does in a common criminal case. 
They do not usually pursue the strict form and 
accuracy of an indictment, but are sometimes 
quite general in the form of their allegations. 
They should, however, contain so much cer¬ 


tainty as to enable a party to put himself on the 
proper defense, and in case of an acquittal to 
avail himself of it as a bar to another impeach¬ 
ment. Additional articles may perhaps be ex¬ 
hibited at any stage of the proceedings. The 
answer to articles of impeachment is exempted 
from observing great strictness of form, and it 
may contain arguments as well as facts. A full 
and particular answer to each article of the ac¬ 
cusation should be given. 

Articles of Partnership .— A written agree¬ 
ment by which the parties enter into a partner¬ 
ship upon the conditions therein mentioned. 
The instrument should contain the names of the 
contracting parties severally set out; the agree¬ 
ment that the parties do by the instrument enter 
into a partnership, expressed in such terms as 
to distinguish from a covenant to enter into a 
partnership at a subsequent time; the date and 
necessary stipulations, some of the more common 
of which follow. The commencement of the 
partnership should be expressly provided for. 
The date of the articles is the time, when no 
other time is fixed by them. The duration of the 
partnership should be expressly stated. It may 
be for life, for a limited period of time, or for a 
limited number of adventures. When a term is 
fixed it is presumed to endure until that period 
has elapsed, and when no term is fixed, for the 
life of the parties, unless sooner dissolved by the 
acts of one of them, by mutual consent, or oper¬ 
ation of law. The duration will not be pre¬ 
sumed to be beyond the life of all the partners, 
but provision may be made in the articles for the 
succession, of the executors or administrators or 
a child or children of a deceased partner to his 
place and rights. Where provision is made for a 
succession by appointment and the partner dies 
without appointing, his executor or administra¬ 
tors may continue the partnership or not at their 
option. A continuance of the partnership be¬ 
yond the period fixed for its termination, in the 
absence of circumstances showing intent, will 
be implied to be upon the basis of the old arti¬ 
cles (15 Ves. Ch. 218), but for an indefinite 
time. The nature of the business and the place 
of carrying it on should be carefully stated. An 
injunction will be granted by a court of equity 
when one or more of the partners endeavors, 
against the wishes of one or more of them, to 
extend such business beyond the provision con¬ 
tained in the articles. The name of the firm 
should be ascertained. The members of the 
partnership are required to use the name thus 
agreed upon, and a departure from it will make 
them individually liable to third persons or to 
their partners in individual cases. The man¬ 
agement of the business, or of some particular 
branch of it, is frequently entrusted by stipula¬ 
tion to one partner, and such partner will be 
protected in his rights by equity, or it may 
be to a majority of the partners, and should be 
where they are numerous. The manner of fur¬ 
nishing capital and stock should be provided for. 
When a partner agrees to furnish his propor¬ 
tion of the stock at stated periods, or pay by 
installments, he will, where there are no stipula¬ 
tions to the contrary, be considered a debtor to 
the firm. Sometimes a provision is inserted that 
real estate and fixtures belonging to the firm 
shall be considered as between the partners, not 
as partnership, but as individual property. In 
cases of bankruptcy, this property will be treated 


ARTICLES — ARTICULATA 


as the separate property of the partners. The 
apportionment of profits and losses should be 
provided for. The law distributes these equally, 
in the absence of controlling circumstances, with¬ 
out regard to the capital furnished by each. 
Periodical accounts of the property of the part¬ 
nership may be stipulated for. These, when set¬ 
tled, are at least prima facie evidence of the facts 
they contain. The expulsion of a partner for 
gross misconduct, bankruptcy, or other specified 
causes may be provided for, and the provision 
will govern when the case occurs. A settlement 
of the affairs of the partnership should always 
be provided for. It is generally accomplished in 
one of the three following ways: First, by turn¬ 
ing all of the assets into cash, and after paying all 
the liabilities of the partnership, dividing such 
money in proportion to the several interests of 
the parties; or, second, by providing that one or 
more of the partners shall be entitled to pur¬ 
chase the shares of the others at a valuation; or, 
third, that all the property of the partnership 
shall be appraised, and that after paying the 
partnership debts it shall be divided in the 
proper proportions. The first of these modes is 
adopted by courts of equity in the absence of ex¬ 
press stipulations. Submission of disputes to ar¬ 
bitration is frequently provided for, but such a 
clause is nugatory, as no action will lie for a 
breach. 

Articles of War .— A code of laws for the reg¬ 
ulation of the military forces of a country. In 
the United States the articles of war form an 
elaborate code, thoroughly revised in 1880, but 
subject at all times to the legislation of Congress. 
Those of Great Britain and Ireland were issued 
prior to 1879, i n pursuance of the annually re¬ 
newed mutiny act. In 1879 the army discipline 
act consolidated the provisions of the mutiny act 
with the articles of war. This act was amended 
in 1881, and now the complete military code is 
•contained in the army act of 1881. 

Ar'ticles, The Six. In English Church his¬ 
tory these were articles of faith imposed by the 
Act 31 Henry VIII. cap. xiv., passed by Par¬ 
liament in 1539, and known as the Six-stringed 
Whip or Bloody Statute, from the merciless per¬ 
secutions to which it gave rise. They are sup¬ 
posed to have been the composition of King 
Henry himself, and they had no formal authority 
from the Church. They enforced belief in tran- 
substantiation; declared communion in both 
kinds unnecessary; the marriage of priests was 
unlawful; that vows of chastity or widowhood 
were absolutely binding; and that private masses 
and auricular confession were expedient and ne¬ 
cessary. The severity of the act was soon miti¬ 
gated, and it was finally repealed in the first year 
■of Edward VI. 

Ar'ticles, The Thirty-nine, of the Church 
■of England, a term applied to a body of divinity, 
chiefly founded on the formulary of Forty-two 
Articles compiled by Archbishop Cranmer in 
1551, in obedience to the command of Edward 
VI. and the privy council, who instructed him 
to “frame a book of articles of religion, for the 
preserving and maintaining peace and unity of 
doctrine in this Church, that, being finished, they 
might be set forth by public authority.” Several 
of these articles (the 1st, 2d, 25th, and 31st) were 
drawn directly from the Augsburg Confession, 
and the 9th and 16th are traceable to the same 
Vol. x—51 


source. During the reign of Mary the Articles 
were suppressed, but the accession of Elizabeth 
offered an opportunity of drawing up a fresh for¬ 
mulary. In 1562-3 a convocation was held, in 
the course of whose sitting King Edward’s Ar¬ 
ticles were carefully considered and revised. As 
the result of this revision (mainly the work of 
Archbishop Parker, assisted by Bishops Grindal, 
Horn, and Fox), four of the original 42 articles 
were omitted, namely, the 10th, 16th, 19th, and 
41st, and articles 5th, 12th, 29th, and 30th were 
newly introduced; 17 other articles were more or 
less modified. On a further revision articles 
39th, 40th, and 42d were struck out, and some 
slight changes made in several others. These 39 
articles were drawn up and ratified in Latin, but 
when printed both in Latin and English the 29th 
was omitted and the first clause of the 20th 
struck out. The 39th was, however, restored on 
a final revision by Parker in 1571, and then im¬ 
posed on the clergy for subscription. They were 
ratified anew in 1604 and 1628. All candidates 
for ordination must subscribe these articles, but 
subscription is no longer necessary on matriculat¬ 
ing or taking a degree at Oxford or Cambridge. 
This formulary is now accepted by the Episco¬ 
palian Churches of Scotland, Ireland, and 
America. 

The first five articles contain a profession of 
faith in the Trinity, the incarnation of Jesus 
Christ, his descent to hell, and his resurrection, 
and the divinity of the Holy Ghost. The three 
following relate to the canon of the Scripture. 
The 8th article declares a belief in the Apostles’, 
Nicene, and Athanasian creeds. The 9th and 
following articles contain the doctrine of original 
sin, of justification by faith alone, of predes¬ 
tination, etc. The 19th, 20th, and 21st declare 
the Church to be the assembly of the faithful, 
and that it can decide nothing except by the 
Scriptures. The 226. rejects the doctrine of pur¬ 
gatory, indulgences, the adoration of images, and 
the invocation of saints. The 23d decides that 
only those lawfully called shall preach or ad¬ 
minister the sacraments. The 24th requires the 
liturgy to be in English. The 25th and 26th de¬ 
clare the sacraments effectual signs of grace 
(though administered by evil men), by which 
God excites and confirms our faith. They are 
two: baptism and the Lord’s Supper. Baptism, 
according to the 27th article, is a sign of regener¬ 
ation, the seal of our adoption, by which faith is 
confirmed and grace increased. In the Lord’s 
Supper, according to article 28th, the bread is 
the communion of the body of Christ, the wine 
the communion of his blood, but only through 
faith (article 29) ; and the communion must be 
administered in both kinds (article 30). The 
28th article condemns the doctrine of transub- 
stantiation, and the elevation and adoration of 
the Host; the 31st rejects the sacrifice of the 
mass as blasphemous; the 32d permits the mar¬ 
riage of the clergy; the 33d maintains the effi¬ 
cacy of excommunication. The remaining arti¬ 
cles relate to the supremacy of the king, the con¬ 
demnation of Anabaptists, etc. 

Artic'ula'ta, a name given by Cuvier to a 
branch of the animal kingdom embracing the 
worms (Annulata) and Arthropoda. The group 
is not now considered a natural one, and 
has been subdivided into several branches or 
phyla. 


ARTICULATION — ARTIGAS 


Ar'ticula'tion. See Joint. 

Artificial Camphor, a product manufac¬ 
tured from turpentine. The sap of the pine tree 
after it is distilled and purified is the turpentine 
of commerce. A couple of thousand pounds of 
this material is placed in great steam reaction 
tanks; these are covered with asbestos to retain 
the heat. A quantity of oxalic acid, which is 
rich in oxygen, is likewise placed in the reaction 
tanks, together with the turpentine, and when 
the chemical action resulting from the union 
has been completed two new chemicals are 
formed and are known as pinol oxalate and pinol 
formate, respectively. These are in liquid form 
and are conveyed to a set of distilling tanks by 
means of a force pump; in these tanks a new 
element is introduced in the form of an alkali, 
and when mixed with the liquid live steam is 
turned on. After distillation camphor results, 
together with some of the essential oils, such as 
oil of lemon and others, but these are dissolved 
in the reaction products, which also contain a 
kind of camphor termed borneol. 

Ar'tifi'cial Flow'ers, flowers manufactured 
from cloth or other substances in close imita¬ 
tion of natural flowers, for purposes of orna¬ 
ment. The leaves and petals are generally made 
of silk or cambric punched out to proper shapes 
and sizes. These are tinted with a brush and 
color, and if necessary glazed with gum or 
sprinkled with fine flock to imitate the glossy or 
velvety surface of natural flowers. The ribs, 
where present, are indented with a warm iron. 
The stamens and pistils are formed of wire cov¬ 
ered with silk and dipped in gum-water to form 
the anthers. The stalk is then made of wire, 
coated with green paper, and fixed to the 
stamens and pistil, around which are attached 
the petals, and lastly the calyx. Buds are made 
of cotton or glass balls covered with cambric of 
a proper color. This industry has been success¬ 
fully carried on in the United States, where a 
large number of women are constantly employed 
in making artificial flowers. The coloring mat¬ 
ter, however, used for these articles is often 
nothing less than the deadly poison arsenic. 
Hoffman and other chemists have shown that 
the most terrible effects may spring from the 
use of these arsenical compounds. 

Ar'tifi'cial Limbs, substitutes for human 
arms and legs and parts thereof, the manufac¬ 
ture of which has received the attention of sur¬ 
geons and mechanics from a very early date. 
In the great work on surgery by Ambrose Pare, 
in 1579, he refers to and gives detailed illustra¬ 
tions of an artificial arm and leg, and although 
the construction was of a rude character they 
showed a very good attempt to conceal the mu¬ 
tilation. In 1696 an artificial leg was invented 
by Verduin, a Dutch surgeon. It was composed 
of a wooden foot, to which was fastened two 
strips of steel extending up to the knee. To 
these strips was riveted a copper socket to re¬ 
ceive the stump; a leather for lacing around the 
thigh was connected to the socket by two steel 
side-joints, thus dividing the points of support 
between the thigh and stump. The construction 
of this leg was improved later by Prof. Serre of 
Montpelier. Improvements and new limbs were 
more recently introduced into England and 
France by Fred. Martin. M. Charriere, MM. 
Mathieu and Bechard, but these were mostly 
unprotected by patents. Thomas Mann secured 


patents for artificial limbs 20 Jan. i/ 90 > an d 1810. 
James Potts of England patented a new leg 15 
Nov. 1800. This soon became celebrated as the 
«Anglesea leg, 8 because it was so long worn by 
the Marquis of Anglesea. An improvement on 
this leg was patented by William Selpho, who 
was the first manufacturer of note in New York, 
where he established himself in 1839. Other in¬ 
ventors and manufacturers soon took a great in¬ 
terest in the business — so many, in fact, that the 
American patent office shows a record of about 
150 patents on artificial legs, or more than double 
that of all European patents on limbs. The Civil 
War, which caused the mutilation of so many 
soldiers and sailors, and the liberality of the 
government in supplying their losses with arti¬ 
ficial limbs, naturally stimulated the efforts of 
inventors in producing such substitutes as would 
be accepted. These soldiers and sailors are sup¬ 
plied once in every five years, and to this de¬ 
mand is added that of those who have lost limbs 
from disease or accident, making in all about 
100,000 in the United States who have to be sup¬ 
plied with new limbs on an average of about 
once in every five to eight years. The perfection 
to which limbs have been brought is wonderful 
and very interesting. A person with two arti¬ 
ficial legs can walk so perfectly as to avoid de¬ 
tection, and a person with a single amputation 
can almost defy detection. Notable improve¬ 
ments in artificial limbs, and more particularly 
in legs, were made by C. A. Frees of New York. 
One of these improvements, and one of the most 
important, consists in the movements of the 
knee and ankle joints, by which the whole limb 
is strengthened and made more durable. An im¬ 
portant feature of this piece of mechanism con¬ 
sists in the introduction of a universal motion at 
the ankle-joint, imitating the astragalus move¬ 
ment with an additional joint, and thus produc¬ 
ing a most perfect artificial substitute. Another 
of his improvements of equal importance, is in 
the knee-joint of the leg for thigh amputation, 
which is so arranged that when in a sitting posi¬ 
tion the cord and spring are entirely relaxed, 
relieving all strain and pressure; and when ris¬ 
ing to an upright position the cord and spring" 
are again brought into proper position without 
strain or unnatural movement, no extra attach¬ 
ments being required. Artificial arms and exten¬ 
sion apparatus for short legs are also wonderful 
examples of American ingenuity. 

Ar'tifi'cial Respira'tion. See Asphyxia; 

Drowning ( Treatment ) ; Respiration. 

Artificial Stone, a combination of hydrau¬ 
lic cement, broken stone, sand, etc., cemented 
together. There are many varieties, some of 
which are exceedingly valuable for building 
purposes, especially in localities where building- 
stone is not readily obtained. Cements thus 
made increase in strength and solidity for an 
indefinite period. This stone is in constantly in¬ 
creasing demand. For the various kinds and 
uses see Cement. 

Artigas, ar-te'gas, Fernando Jos6, a South 

American soldier, dictator of Uruguay: b. Mon¬ 
tevideo, 1755; d. in 1851. In 1811 he joined the 
revolt of Buenos Ayres against Spain, whose 
troops he repeatedly defeated; but acting for 
himself was outlawed by the insurrectionary 
junta, whose troops in turn he routed and com¬ 
pelled it to cede Uruguay to him in 1814. He 
then assumed the dictatorship, but in 1820 was 


ARTILLERY 


defeated and fled to Paraguay, where the dic¬ 
tator Francia banished him to Candelaria. 
1 hereafter he devoted himself to agriculture and 
philanthropy. 

Artillery (a restricted use of a word 
properly meaning simply <( works of skill,® (( clev- 
er inventions®) : (i) All firearms too heavy to 

be carried in the hand and therefore rested on 
carriages or masonry foundations; (2) the divi¬ 
sion of army or navy which uses such arms; (3) 
the science treating of their theory and practice, 
i he first is divided into horse artillery,— light 
guns mainly for cavalry use, with mounted gun¬ 
ners, and much the same as Hying artillery, for 
rapid evolutions in the field, whose gunners are 
either mounted or ride on the gun-carriages of 
ammunition wagons when moving; Held artillery, 
for general infantry service,— sometimes used to 
include the foregoing, but commonly specialized 
to mean the same as foot artillery, with un¬ 
mounted gunners; ( light artillery includes both 
these classes, as distinguished from the follow¬ 
ing) ; and heavy artillery,— all that is not mo¬ 
bile enough for field evolutions,— divided into 
siege or garrison artillery, for breaching the walls 
of fortresses or defending field works, and coast 
artillery, for permanent works, with carriages 
too heavy for transport, classed as siege, case¬ 
mate, barbette, and mortar carriages. 

A park of artillery is a complete set of artil¬ 
lery equipment,— including the guns, carriages, 
caissons (see Ammunition, under (( ammunition 
wagons®), repair outfit, harness, field forges, etc., 
— gathered in one spot, in barracks or in action; 
in the latter case the reserve equipment is 
Sparked® out of range of the enemy’s fire. A 
train of artillery is a certain number of pieces 
mounted on carriages and with all their furni¬ 
ture, ready for marching. (( Artillery carriages® 
means either wagons for carrying ammunition 
or supplies, as above; or gun-carriages, to draw 
the guns with or fire them from, which may be 
either stationary as for coast service and per¬ 
manent works, or movable as in field service. 
The part which rests on the ground in firing is 
called the trail; the detachable pair of wheels 
by which it is drawn about, in addition to the 
fixed pair, is called the limber, and the gun is 
said to be <( unlimbered® when they are taken 
away to let the gun be served, and (< limbered up® 
when they are attached. 

The old word <( cannon® is not now used by 
professionals, but (( gun® instead. The volume of 
a gun’s service is defined either by the diameter 
of its bore, as 6-inch, 12-inch, etc.; or by the 
weight of the spherical iron solid shot it holds, 
as 12-pounder, 18-pounder, etc. (often abbre¬ 
viated to 12’s, 18’s, etc.). The latter character¬ 
ization has long been used to denote calibre only, 
without reference to the actual weight of the pro¬ 
jectile it fires: thus, a 12-pounder may fire a 
30-pound conical shell. This is necessarily so 
since the entire disuse of spherical shot (see 
Ammunition). 

The relation of artillery to small-arms was es¬ 
sentially the same before the invention of gun¬ 
powder as afterward: hand-arms, as arrows, 
darts, slings, swords, etc., corresponded to small- 
arms and the bayonet; while the artillery con¬ 
sisted of machinery too heavy to be held up, for 
throwing large projectiles, the power being 
springs, levers, or weights. Midway between 


them, however,— as the matchlock arquebuse, 
rested on the ground to fire, was between small- 
arms and artillery, but a far more efficient 
weapon,— was the crossbow or arbalist: a heavy 
bow with steel or horn frame, stretched by a 
winch or in its larger sizes by a windlass, and 
shooting a notched quarrel (that is, a quadrate 
or square-headed bolt), or sometimes stones or 
balls of lead. It could be carried by a hunter, 
or fixed on field or deck; could penetrate armor, 
and was so destructive as to be prohibited by the 
Church except in war against the Infidel; and in 
the early Middle Ages was as decisive in naval 
or siege warfare, when well handled, as modern 
artillery, winning many important sea fights and 
others; but in the field it was too slow for the 
highest efficiency, as it could be fired onlv twice 
a minute. Its larger sizes were true artillery in 
the modern sense; and like it, but heavier, were 
the ballista, springal, and onager, which threw 
stones from a bucket or bag, also beams and 
masses of inflammable material, at or over walls 
of besieged places. The catapult, mangonel, and 
trebuchet (the latter a machine of surprising 
accuracy and power, as proved by an experimen¬ 
tal model made by Prince Louis Napoleon in 
1850, and used to breach walls) threw the same 
missiles by means of a spring lever balanced by 
a heavy weight, and held down by a windlass. 

The introduction of modern gunpowder ar¬ 
tillery is clouded by unverifiable legends and 
confused with the use of explosive mixtures to 
make a terrifying noise, and with the throwing 
of inflammable materials by the machines above 
mentioned. If the Chinese invented it, as al¬ 
leged, they did it so ineffectively that the great 
progressive military genius Timur (1333-1405) 
did not think it worth using; and if the Spanish 
Saracens used it in Spanish sieges in the 12th 
century, they did not employ it against Northern 
foes, nor did the latter borrow it; whereas within 
a few years of the first verifiable European notice 
we have it,— a Florentine order of 1326 relat¬ 
ing to the manufacture of cannon and iron balls, 
— it had gone over Europe like wild-fire. The 
Germans used it at Cividale, Italy, in 1331 ; Ed¬ 
ward III. by at least 1338; the latter formed a 
regular artillery train of iron and brass cannon in 
1344 (in which year also Petrarch speaks of it 
as familiar and common), and employed it at 
Crecy in 1346, though ineffectively. Naturally 
cannon came before small-arms: even so, the first 
were excessively clumsy in size and construction, 
—bell-shaped tubes with a touchhole for a train 
of priming powder set off by a fuse or red-hot 
iron above; made of iron bars hooped together, 
or of hand-hammered and bored iron, copper, or 
brass cylinders; and supported on immense plat¬ 
forms drawn by scores or even hundreds (as 
with Mohammed II.’s cannon at the siege of Con¬ 
stantinople in 1453) of draft animals, or of men. 
Sometimes they were not even closed tubes, but 
open at breech as well as muzzle, the shot being 
wedged in; sometimes they had no carriages, but 
were rolled into position and wedged or blocked 
there. They were mortars rather than cannon in 
the modern sense, being short and wide-mouthed, 
and sending off their balls or stones at a great 
elevation, and were known as bombards or vases. 
They were of use mainly in siege work; and it 
was not till toward 1500 that field artillery in its 
modern sense came into much use, Charles VIII. 


ARTILLERY 


of France utilizing it in his Italian campaigns 
from 1488 onward. 

There was no permanent artillery organiza¬ 
tion : the gunners were detailed from garrisons, 
and disbanded and sent back there as soon as the 
campaign was over; and in England the com¬ 
mand in the field was by the Master of the Ord¬ 
nance, an artillery commissary-general in effect. 
The transport cattle were hired or impressed, 
and the drivers of gun-carriages were ordinary 
teamsters hired by contract or secured for the 
occasion. Curiously, these last did not form a 
part of the military body till Napoleon’s time. 

The 16th century developed this arm greatly 
in volume, but not so much in science: projectile 
mathematics were rudimentary, and the imperfect 
mobility of the guns crippled their usefulness in 
battle — once they had fired a few rounds in ad¬ 
vance of the troops to clear a path and cow the 
enemy, their service was nearly at an end, as they 
could not fire when their own troops were in 
front of them nor move in front or flank to 
avoid them (the battle of Pavia was lost by 
this) ; and were regularly captured and retaken 
as either side gained ground. Francis I., how¬ 
ever (1515-47), lightened their make and took 
care to secure the best draft horses, and won 
Marignano (1515) with them; Louis XII. (1498- 
1515) owed much of his success in the Italian 
wars to this arm; and Charles V. (15 1 Q~55) 
shared in its development, his Netherland sub¬ 
jects being so forward in it that Henry VIII. 
employed Dutch gunners to instruct his men. 
The use of cast bronze, giving surer bore and 
calculability, as well as lightness for a given 
power, became common; the bell-shaped mortars 
gave place to 18-pound culverins for siege work, 
and to 2’s, 4’s, 6l4’s, and 8’s (called falcons, 
falconets, and sakers) in the field. The great 
difficulty of carriages also,— to find one easily 
drawn yet stable enough to fire from,— was par¬ 
tially surmounted; and in Holland the miscel¬ 
laneous calibres and classes of cannon were re¬ 
duced to four — 6’s, 12’s, 24’s, and 48’s. The 
Dutch and Huguenot religious wars in the latter 
part of the century developed the rudiments of 
a genuine system of artillery tactics, the use of 
the arm in connection with other arms as part 
of a tactical whole. 

The first half of the 17th century is the 
first great landmark in the history of artillery. 
Henry IV. of France in his later years (d. 
1610) occupied himself greatly with it; his 
minister Sully was master-general of artillery, 
and turned out over 400 pieces; and Maurice of 
Nassau (1584-1625), son of William the Silent, 
was much concerned with it. But its re-creator 
was Gustavus Adolphus (1611-32), who made 
it almost the centre of his system of warfare. 
Seeing that weight of ball was of minor .con¬ 
sequence with the human body as a target, or 
length of range at close quarters, he devoted his 
whole attention to securing mobility and rapidity 
of fire. The former he obtained by putting 
nothing above a 12-pounder into the field, and by 
having a very light gun constructed, the fact 
that it would bear but a small charge being 
immaterial; it was made of a <( thin cylinder of 
beaten copper, screwed into a brass breech, 
strengthened with four iron bands,® the whole 
covered with mastic, cords, plaster, and finally 
boiled and varnished leather. It was called the 
kalter or the Heather gun,® and could be drawn 


about by the two gunners who served it. But 
the light charge it could bear made its range 
too short for the best results, and later it was 
replaced by a four-pound iron cannon, drawn 
by two horses. He had also heavier guns to 
beat down defenses, which in retreat he protected 
by the lighter ones. Rapid fire he secured by 
inventing the cartridge instead of pouring in 
powder, and his cannon could be fired faster 
than the ordinary musket. The kalter guns were 
first introduced during his Polish wars; in the 
Thirty Years’ war his success was greatly 
helped by his improved artillery against the Im¬ 
perialists’ clumsy weapons and methods. At 
Breitenfeld (1631), Tilly’s guns were mainly 
24-pounders requiring 20 horses each and 12 
for the wagons, could hardly be moved in ac¬ 
tion, and were almost at once silenced by the 
advance of their own troops; at the Lech (1632) 
Gustavus converged 72 pieces on the enemy at 
the river bend and make a crossing practicable; 
at Liitzen (1632), Wallenstein’s batteries were 
practically stationary, Gustavus had heavy ones 
on his wings and centre and moving with them. 
He attached two guns to each regiment, under 
the colonel’s orders — the <( battalion system,® but 
whose defect of disoersion of guns he cor¬ 
rected by also massing strong batteries to con¬ 
centrate a crushing fire where needed; and he 
raised the total proportion of guns to 6 per 
1,000 men, fully double that of any other nation. 
He also first saw that field and garrison service 
were essentially distinct, and separated the two 
branches of artillery not only in material but 
men. In England during this century, though 
the leather guns were used by the Scotch in 
1640 on the invasion of England, and the Par¬ 
liamentary army was crushed at Roundway 
Down (1643) by artillery, it remained in a 
comparatively undeveloped state, owing to the 
lack of the constant wars of the Continent; the 
complaint was made that there were no expert 
gunners in England. 

In the latter part of the century, the perpet¬ 
ual wars of Louis XIV. led to a still further de¬ 
velopment of this arm. Even in the first part 
of his reign it was in a very primitive condition. 
The artillery officers had no functions whatever 
in time of peace, their nominal offices being pure¬ 
ly titular; Vauban protested against this, but it 
was not remedied till Valliere’s reforms of 1732. 
In 1671, however, Louvois first established a per¬ 
manent organization for it, creating a regiment 
of artillerymen consisting of gunners and work¬ 
men, and establishing schools of instruction. The 
calibres were reduced in number and made uni¬ 
form—those left (4’s, 6’s, 8’s, 12’s, 18’s, 24’s, 
and 32’s) remain in use still, some of them 
rifled; bronze and iron were both used; car¬ 
riages were much improved, made of wrought 
iron and provided with limbers, a special one 
invented for coast artillery, and platform wag¬ 
ons introduced. The development under him, 
however, was more in siege than field artillery. 
The Dutch and English introduced howitzers (a 
gun with a powder chamber smaller than the 
bore, for horizontal shell-firing, combining some¬ 
thing of cannon accuracy with mortar calibre), 
mortars, and explosive shells, both hand and 
gun; and used canvas cartridges and grape-shot 
(several iron balls in a canvas case). The 
Woolwich arsenal was established in 1672. In 
1682 the gunners were for the first time put un- 




ARTILLERY DRILI 




ARTILLERY DRILL, 























































. 























































u . 












* 

. 










• •« • • 1 ' . 

• •• ' • 








ARTILLERY 


der military discipline, their function being pre¬ 
viously considered that of civil artisans, and in¬ 
deed the master gunners were carried on the 
civil establishment till 1783; in 1794 it was still 
thought needful to give the ordnance officers 
express authority over the gunners, by com¬ 
mission. William III. (1689-1702) formed the 
first English regimental artillery establishment, 
in place of detailing men from other arms as 
needed. England, however, was relatively back¬ 
ward. 

The first half of the 18th century saw great 
extension of the specializing in this arm, and 
the quality of its items; but not very much 
invention. In France, Valliere the elder, a 
practical artillery general of immense ability, 
made great improvements; he reduced the cal¬ 
ibres to five; lengthened the pieces, on the 
ground that short ones had less range and less 
accuracy, less ricochet and greater recoil, took 
more munitions and transport for equal service, 
and could not be used in sieges; he also greatly 
extended the training schools, and the continued 
practice of the arm in time of peace. Less use¬ 
fully, he fought with success against separating 
the field artillery from the engineers, as involv¬ 
ing two artillery trains instead of one. In Eng¬ 
land, Marlborough used it with effect as it was; 
the <( Royal Regiment of Artillery® was formed 
in 1716 (the present body in 1722), and in 1741 
the Royal Military Academy was instituted at 
Woolwich. The manufacture and service were 
both greatly improved; the English artillery was 
noted (< for its lightness, elegance, and the good 
quality of its materials.® The guns in use at 
the middle of the century were 24’s, I2’s, 6’s, and 
3’s, in <( brigades® (batteries) of four, five, and 
six guns, divided into light and heavy brigades; 
each field gun drawn by four horses, the two 
leaders driven by artillerymen. In Frederick’s 
wars, the English artillery w r on great distinction. 
Frederick himself hardly valued this arm at 
its full value till the melting away of his trained 
soldiers compelled him to rely upon it more and 
more. This was perhaps rather from the ex¬ 
tremely poor state in which his father left it, 
than from lack of understanding; that he real¬ 
ized at least a part of its defects and its im¬ 
portance is shown by the fact that finding the 
gunners and engineers mostly mechanics of in¬ 
ferior grade, he at once drafted the worst of 
them into garrisons, replacing them with men of 
competence and position; and as they had no 
commissions, and were consequently scorned by 
the other arms of the service, he gave the officers 
commissions and extra pay, and ranked them 
with officers of the guards. But his father had 
given all his attention to the drill and discipline 
and physical magnitude of his soldiers, to the 
neglect of the artillery, which at his death con¬ 
sisted of only one battalion of field and ope of 
garrison, of six and four companies respectively; 
and Frederick inherited his general policy, 
though with a larger mind. His artillery was 
vastly nferior to the Austrian, raised to a pre¬ 
eminent position by Prince Lichtenstein. There 
were two pieces to a battalion, directed by a cor- 
ooral without independent authority, and the 
battalion commander had enough on his mind 
wdthout attending to artillery, which were ex¬ 
pected always to keep a certain distance in ad¬ 
vance of the troops, thus scanting their time 
to fire during an advance, and were usually cap¬ 


tured in a sudden retreat from lack of time to 
limber up. Still they did good service at Ross- 
bach, Hochkirchen, and Leuthen; and Freder¬ 
ick raised the proportion of guns to men, and 
in 1759 formed the first battery of horse artil¬ 
lery, of 6-pounders and 7-pound howitzers—• 
placing great reliance on howitzers, making much 
use of them against intrenchments, and after 
the war attaching 40 heavy pieces to each corps. 
With only 2*4 or 3 guns per 1,000 at the outset, 
he ended with 5 or 6; he created a horse artillery 
almost as rapid as cavalry; and although at the 
beginning of the Seven Years’ war he had made 
the error Gustavus avoided, of using too' heavy 
pieces in the field, he grew to appreciate mobility 
better, and gradually replaced them by lighter 
ones, saving the others for siege and garrison 
guns. His wars made three important changes 
in artillery tactics; the distribution of small bat¬ 
teries at important points in place of concen¬ 
trating large ones on centre and flank; the 
preparation for an advance and the protection of 
deploying columns by light guns; and the rapid 
change in position of batteries, made possible by 
the horse artillery. The latter was employed 
by the Russians also, each regiment having 
three howitzers with mounted gunners. 

The greatest artillery result of Frederick’s 
wars, however, was in France. This country 
had been very backward in that arm since Louis 
XIV.’s time, ammunition and transport being es¬ 
pecially crude. In 1765 Gen. Gribeauval, termed 
the (< father of the modern artillery system,® — 
who had held an artillery command under Lich¬ 
tenstein in the Seven Years’ war, and admired 
the efficiency of the Austrian system,— under¬ 
took to reconstruct the French one from the bot¬ 
tom; for many years the fierce resistance he 
encountered made it impossible, though he suc¬ 
ceeded in reorganizing the personnel; but in 
1776 he became inspector-general of artillery, and 
carried through the rest of the most far-reaching 
reform ever effected in this arm, much of it per¬ 
manent to this day. He divided it into field* 
siege, garrison, and coast artillery, with a sepa¬ 
rate class of material and separate personnel for 
each. For all material a uniform construction 
was adopted, tables of construction drawn up, 
and all possible parts made interchangeable. For 
lightness and consequent mobility, he made the 
pieces perfectly plain, reduced the length and 
weight of field pieces, which he restricted to 
12’s and under (guns in embrasures or behind 
parapets, of course, could not be shortened), re¬ 
duced the charge, and therefore the necessary 
windage (the difference between the diameter of 
the projectile and that of the gun-bore). Field 
guns were limited to 4’s, 8’s, and 12’s, and 6-inch 
howitzers. In ammunition the old grape and 
case shot were replaced by sheet-iron canisters 
holding cast-iron balls. Accuracy of fire was 
vastly improved by elevating screws and tangent 
scales, the latter based on the mathematical dis¬ 
covery that the path of a projectile is not flat. 
For siege and garrison guns he adopted at first 
the 12’s and 16’s, 8-inch howitzer, and 10-inch 
mortar; in 1785 the 8-, 10-, and 12-inch (( gomer® 
mortar (with conical bore). The carriages were, 
strengthened, lightened in draft, and improved in 
mechanism, and ammunition chests affixed; trun¬ 
nion poles and the prolongs rope (to unite limber 
with trail, for firing in slow retreat) introduced, 
and the horses harnessed in pairs instead of tan- 


ARTILLERY 


dem; and the bricolc devised — a collar with rope 
and hook to which the gunners and foot-soldiers 
harnessed themselves. A new ammunition 
wagon carrying fixed ammunition was built. 
Siege carriages had shafts in place of the field 
carriages’ poles; garrison carriages, wheels in 
front and a truck in the rear; for coast service 
there were traversing platforms, with bolt in 
front and truck in rear on a circular racer. The 
field artillery was divided into regimental guns 
and corps or reserve artillery; the latter was 
subdivided into divisions of eight guns of the 
same calibre, and a company of artillerj r as¬ 
signed to each brigade of four battalions. Eight 
pieces were also attached to the centre and to 
each wing. Horse artillery was not introduced 
till 1791, and horsemen and gunners were com¬ 
bined, each learning the other’s work. 

In the wars of the French Republic, in 1793, 
when the divisional organization was adopted, 
guns were attached to the divisions as well as 
to battalions; in 1796 Napoleon withdrew them 
from the latter and abolished the old (( battalion 
system,® to the great advantage of both arms, 
the infantry regiments being impeded by the 
guns and the guns ill served by the divided com¬ 
mand. In 1800 he took the last step in profes¬ 
sionalizing the arm, by establishing a driver 
corps of soldiers in place of outside teamsters. 
His only change in guns was substituting the 
6-pounder of the 8's and 4’s, and the use 
of a 24-pound howitzer, but his tactical im¬ 
provements were great. He employed with enor¬ 
mous effect the modern system of massing gun¬ 
fire on selected spots, and could not have won 
his prodigious victories without it, and like 
Frederick, as his soldiers were swept away he 
increased his artillery force, rising from 2^2 to 
about 4 per 1,000. His tactics are still part of 
the instruction of all soldiers. 

The British began their long struggle against 
France very ill-equipped in all military points, 
and in none more so than artillery; guns, am¬ 
munition, transport, were alike crude and ill 
arranged, the whole equipment hardly able to 
move faster than foot pace. The field artillery 
was simply garrison artillery drafted into the 
field. Field and siege guns were intermingled, 
in batteries of 12, each battalion having two; 
the horses were in tandem of three, the drivers 
carters on foot. In the years before the Penin¬ 
sular war (1808-14), however, Major Spear¬ 
man had transformed it. Horse artillery was 
introduced in 1793; a battery consisting of two 
9’s and three 6’s (later of 9’s wholly), and a 
51 ' 2 -inch howitzer. A driver corps was formed 
in 1794, consisting of a few subalterns, non¬ 
commissioned officers, artificers, civilian drivers 
and horses — divided into <( troops,® one added 
to each company of foot artillery. Battalion 
guns were abolished in 1802, and six-gun field 
batteries organized, each of five 6 to 12-pound¬ 
ers and a 5k2-inch howitzer; the drivers were 
to be soldiers; the horses were teamed in pairs, 
drivers on the off ones, and eight gunners car¬ 
ried on the limbers and wagons. The equipment 
was lightened and simplified, and ammunition 
well packed instead of flung into rough boxes. 
Excellent additions were made to material by 
the invention of shrapnel shell by Major Shrap¬ 
nel in 1803, and by the development of the an¬ 
tique rocket from a mere fire-signal to a power¬ 
ful engine of destruction, by Sir William 


Congreve in 1806—“the latter first used at Cop¬ 
enhagen in 1807, employed with great efficiency 
at Leipsic in 1813, in the Peninsular war at the 
Adour, and in the War of 1812 at Bladensburg. 

Between 1815 and the Crimean war, the most 
considerable changes in material were the in¬ 
vention of a powerful 12-pounder howitzer 
weighing only 220 pounds, for mountain ser¬ 
vice, used with great effectiveness in the French 
campaigns in Algeria, the gun-carriage and am¬ 
munition going on muleback; the introduction 
in 1852 by Louis Napoleon — a hereditary artil¬ 
lery student, and the great work on artillery 
under his auspices is still a standard — of a 12- 
pounder to fire either solid shot or shrapnel, 
known as the (< 12-pounder Napoleon,® and made 
the sole equipment of a set of field batteries, 
which did great service in his war of 1859 with 
Austria; and the application of rifling, though 
not efficiently developed till later, its use at 
Sebastopol being a failure. Carriages and am¬ 
munition wagons were also improved so that the 
gunners could ride on them, much increasing 
mobility; the trail was strengthened; and am¬ 
munition was carried in boxes on the limber. 
French field batteries, from 1827, consisted of 
four 12’s and two 6-inch howitzers, or four 8’s 
and two 24-pound howitzers. In England in 
1820 the horses for guns and wagons were in¬ 
creased from six and four to eight and six re¬ 
spectively. In 1822, and in 1829 in France the 
driver corps was abolished, men being enlisted 
as «gunners and drivers,» and distributed among 
the battalions; naturally it worked ill, few men 
being adepts in gunnery and horse management 
at once. In 1848 in England, the horse artillery 
was raised from the two guns, to which it had 
been skeletonized after 1815, to four, and in 
1852 to six, as was the foot artillery; and 20 
batteries were formed, several more being added 
in 1855. Even so, this arm was badly under¬ 
manned, and deficient in both number and 
weight of guns, in the Crimean war, where it 
was organized in position batteries, with iS’s 
and 8-incn howitzers; heavy field, with 12’s and 
32-pounder howitzers; field, with 9’s and 24- 
pounder howitzers; horse, with 6’s and 12- 
pounder howitzers; and mountain, with 3’s and 
4-inch howitzers — each field and horse battery 
having a rocket section. The French organiza¬ 
tion was horse artillery, with mounted gunners; 
line or field, with gunners riding on the ammu¬ 
nition chests; and siege or reserve, with gunners 
on foot. As the war consisted mainly of the 
siege of Sebastopol, the field artillery had little 
scope, though used with notable effect at the 
Alma and Inkerman, and mortar fire causing a 
frightful destruction in the Redan at the end; 
and the relatively great increase of range and 
accuracy in small arms over that of artillery 
(not then effective at more than a mile) was 
making the heavier arm subordinate. Later in¬ 
ventions have restored the balance. 

Breech-loading and rifling now come into 
prominence. The earliest cannon were breech¬ 
loaders, a system quicker to charge, easier to 
clean, and more accurate in adjustment of mis¬ 
sile to bore, and thus needing less windage than 
muzzle-loading. But till lately, mechanical sci¬ 
ence was not equal to its requirements of nice 
adjustment, and muzzle-loading superseded it. 
The defect of. smooth-bores, with their straight 
projectile motion, is inaccuracy at long ranges,: 


ARTILLERY 


since, as a projectile’s centre of gravity rarely 
coincides with its longitudinal axis, the farther it 
goes the more its unevenness of mass carries it 
out of the initial path. A whirling motion cor¬ 
rects this by constantly restoring the balance and 
carrying it the other way; and this is provided 
by spiral grooving of the gun channel, which 
was invented by a German early in the 16th 
century, but like the other system, was in ad¬ 
vance of mechanical development. In 1846 it 
was for the first time practically applied to ord¬ 
nance, and rifled siege guns were used against 
Sebastopol, but they were still too imperfect for 
efficiency. In 1858 rifled 12’s and 4’s were adopt¬ 
ed by France, and in the Franco-Austrian war 
of 1859 were used with great effect, increasing 
the accurate range from 1,450 to 2,500 yards, or 
nearly double; while the Austrians, for genera¬ 
tions pre-eminent not only for handling but 
material, had only smooth-bore 6’s and 12’s, and 
32-pounder howitzers, with the lesser range. 
1 he nature of the country stinted the service of 
artillery, but it was well developed at Solferino 
and brilliantly handled by the French at Medole. 
In i860 the introduction of the Armstrong rifled 
breech-loader, first used in the Anglo-Chinese 
campaign of that year, led to a transformation of 
English artillery equipment: 7-inch guns, 82 
hundredweight, for siege and garrison service, 
40’s for position batteries, 20’s for same or heavy 
field, 12’s of 8 hundredweight for light field, 
9’s of 6 hundredweight for horse. Field car¬ 
riages were provided with a gun-metal (( saddle» 
worked by lever and hand wheel, with elevating 
screw. Ammunition wagons were replaced by 
separate ammunition columns. 

At the outbreak of the American Civil War, 
the United States, largely owing to Lieut. Rod- 
man of the Ordnance Department,— inventor of 
the Rodman gun, whose casting by interior cool¬ 
ing and consequent density of channel metal, 
and its thickness at the seat of charge, enable it 
to bear a heavier charge without bursting than 
any other,— headed the world in artillery ma¬ 
terial : both quality and manufacture were un¬ 
surpassed. In 1861 it cast a 15-inch Rodman, 
the most powerful weapon known; and a 20- 
inch smooth-bore firing a 1,080-pound shot. 
Otherwise its equipment was :— Field: wrought- 
iron rifled 3-inch, range 2,800 yards; bronze 6’s 
and 12’s; ((Napoleon® 12’s, range 1,500 yards, 
used very effectively within it all through the 
war; howitzers—12’s, 24’s, and 32’s, and moun¬ 
tain 12’s. Siege and garrison: Cast-iron rifled, 
4j4-inch; 12’s, 18’s, and 24’s; howitzers, 24’s 
and 8-inch; mortars, 8-inch, 10-inch, and bronze 
Coehorn (a small light mortar for throwing 
grenades). Coast (most of it at once turned 
into field batteries): 32’s; 8-, 10-, and 15-inch 
Columbiads (for both shot and shell, like the 
Napoleons) ; 10-inch and 13-inch mortars. 
There were 18 calibres altogether —7 of «guns,» 
3 of Columbiads, 4 of howitzers, 4 of mortars. 
Eastern armies began with four 6-gun batteries 
to each division, about half of them being used 
as a corps reserve when corps were formed; later 
the batteries were reduced to four, and in 1863 
taken from the divisions as formerly from the 
battalions, being formed into artillery brigades 
of 4 to 12 batteries. In the Western armies each 
infantry brigade had a battery of artillery till 
1863, when as in the East a massing system was 


begun. In the Confederate armies each division 
had an artillery battalion of four batteries, and 
each corps two battalions as a reserve. This 
combined system has been substantially adopted 
by other powers. '1 he Civil War greatly ad¬ 
vanced the importance of artillery, and developed 
the Napoleonic massing system. 

The short Austro-Prussian war of 1866 gave 
no time for new developments in military sci¬ 
ence, and in artillery service the victorious Prus¬ 
sians were as usual far behind the Austrians, 
though their material was better. They used for 
the first time steel breech-loading rifled guns, 
nominally 6’s and 4’s, but using 15-pound and 
9-pound oblong shells with percussion fuse; the 
Austrians had muzzle-loading rifled 8’s and 4’s, 
in batteries of eight, employing the brigade sys¬ 
tem and rocket batteries for the last time. Af¬ 
ter this war they adopted breech-loading guns, 
and armed themselves from Krupp’s factories. 

By the time of the Franco-Prussian war in 
1870 the Prussians had made great advances in 
artillerjq and owed a part of their success to 
their superiority to the French', both in numbers, 
power, and tactics of this arm. They disused re¬ 
serve artillery, attaching the batteries to divi¬ 
sions and corps entirely; each cavalry division 
had two batteries of horse artillery; they pushed 
their guns well in advance, preparing the way 
for infantry movements by concentrated fire on 
an objective point, and firing with deliberation at 
ranges from 650 to 3,300 yards ; while the French 
wasted their fire at too long ranges, held it too 
long in reserve, and used it in small batteries in¬ 
stead of masses. Their mitrailleuses, first em¬ 
ployed in this war, were a disappointment, 
though they inflicted great losses on the Prus¬ 
sians in carrying positions, especially when suc¬ 
cessfully masked, and clearly marked out the 
great future of machine guns; but for offensive 
work against field artillery they were not fitted. 
The Prussians used steel breech-loading 9’s and 
4’s, 3-7 guns per 1,000; the French, muzzle-load¬ 
ing 8’s and 4’s, with some (< Napoleon® 12’s, 3 to 
1,000. 

In the Russo-Turkish war of 1878 nothing 
new of any sort was brought forward. The 
Turks had the better guns, the Russians much 
the greater number; the former used Krupp’s 
steel breech-loaders of 3.2 and 3.5 inches, 2.2 
per 1,000 men, the latter bronze breech-loading 
9’s and 6’s, 3.9 per 1,000. In the Spanish-Ameri¬ 
can war of 1898 there was little use for artillery; 
and the only novelty was the furnishing of 
smokeless powder after Santiago, when it was 
no longer needed. A 3.2-inch steel breech-loader 
and a 3.6-inch field mortar were used. As the 
siege train was not used, its composition is im¬ 
material. In the Philippines and China 3.2-inch 
field and mountain guns were used. In the 
Boer war, owing to the nature of the country 
and the operations, artillery played but a small 
part, and developed no new weapons; the Boers, 
however, had for years laid in a stock of much 
more improved material than the English. 

See Armament of the World; Army; 
Army of the United States; Ordnance; Pro¬ 
jectiles. For ammunition see Ammunition; 
Explosives ; Gunpowder. For the relations 
of the artillery arm to other services see 
Coast Defense; Fortification; Siege Works; 
Tactics. 


ARTILLERY COMPANY — ARUNDELIAN MARBLES 


Artillery Company, The Ancient and 
Honorable, a military organization of Boston, 
Mass. It was copied from that of London, was 
formed in 1637, and was the first regularly or¬ 
ganized military company in America. 

Artillery Company, The Honorable, the 

oldest existing body of volunteers in Great 
Britain. It was instituted in 1585, and com¬ 
prises six companies of infantry, besides artil¬ 
lery, grenadiers, light infantry, and yagers. It 
furnishes a guard of honor to the sovereign 
when visiting London. 

Artillery Corps, the official name of the 
entire artillery service of the United States 
army. 

Artillery Schools are institutions estab¬ 
lished for the purpose of giving a special train¬ 
ing to the officers, and in some cases the men 
belonging to the artillery service. An artillery 
school at Fort Monroe, Va., first established in 
1823, discontinued, and re-established in 1867, 
gives instruction, both theoretical and practical. 
The artillery regiments of the regular army have 
each one foot-battery at the school. The course 
of instruction is one year, beginning 1 Septem¬ 
ber, and it includes such subjects as ballistics, 
sea-coast engineering, electricity, mines and 
mechanisms, artillery, coast-defense, chemistry, 
explosives, etc. In Great Britain the artillery 
schools are at Woolwich and Shoeburyness. 
The Department of Artillery endeavors at 
Woolwich to give artillery officers the means of 
continuing their studies after completing the 
usual course at the Royal Military College, and 
of qualifying for appointments requiring excep¬ 
tional scientific attainments. The school of gun¬ 
nery at Shoeburyness gives instruction in 
gunnery to officers and men and conducts all 
experiments connected with artillery and stores. 
See Military Schools. 

Ar'tist’s Letters from Japan, An, a work 
by the noted American artist, John La Farge. 
The drift of the book is toward a purer art; but 
it contains much lively matter — accounts of the 
butterfly dance in the temple of the Green Lotus, 
and of fishing with trained cormorants. A 
thread runs through the letters, tracing the 
character and progress of the usurping Toku- 
gawa family, from the cradle of their fisherman 
ancestors to the graves of the great shogun and 
his grandson in the Holy Mountain of Nikko. 

Ar'tocar'pus, the generic name of the 
bread-fruit tree (q.v.). 

Artois, ar'twa', the name of a former 
province of France anciently one of the 17 
provinces of the Netherlands. It was bounded 
on the south and west by Picardy, on the east 
by Hainault, and on the north by Flanders. It 
is now almost completely included in the depart¬ 
ment of Pas de Calais. Artois is a fertile re¬ 
gion, producing grain and hops. Its capital was 
Arras. 

Ar'totype. See Photography. 

Arts, the designation of branches of study 
in the Middle Ages, originally called the liberal 
arts to distinguish them from the servile arts 
or mechanical occupations. These arts were 
usually classed as grammar, dialectics, rhetoric, 
music, arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy. 
Hence originated the terms (( art classes,® (( de¬ 


grees in arts,® (( master of arts,® still in common 
use in universities, the faculty of arts being dis¬ 
tinguished from those of divinity, law, medicine,, 
or science. 

Aru. See Arru Islands. 

Aruba, ii-roo'ba, an island belonging to. 
Holland, off the north coast of Venezuela. It is. 
a dependency of Caraqao and is about 30 miles, 
long by 7 broad. The climate is healthy. Pop. 
about 7,700. 

A'rum, a small genus of tuberous tropical 
and subtropical perennial herbs (commonly 
called callas) of the natural order Aracece, with 
simple leaves and diversely colored convolute 
spathes, for which they are cultivated either un¬ 
der glass or, in the case of some hardy species, 
in the open air, as ornamental plants. The 
naked topped spadices bear staminate flowers, 
just above the pistillate ones at the bases. The 
tender species are managed like the fancy-leaved 
caladium (q.v.) ; the hardy must be planted in 
rich soil in cool, moist situations and must be 
well mulched during the winter. A. maculatum,. 
lords-and-ladies, cucoo-pint, wake-robin, from 
Europe, is, with its many cultivated varieties,, 
perhaps the best known hardy species grown 
in America. The leaves and corms are acrid 
but the latter when ripe contain starch which 
may be extracted and used as a food. In places, 
where it abounds it has long been converted into, 
a kind of arrow-root and has been proposed as a 
substitute for the potato, but the corms are too 
small for profitable culture. Some closely re¬ 
lated native American plants of somewhat simi¬ 
lar habit are skunk cabbage (q.v.), water calla. 
(see Calla), Indian turnip (see Jack-in-the- 
Pulpit). Anthurium, a well-known genus of 
greenhouse plants, is also nearly allied. 

Arundel, ar'un-del, Thomas, an English 
prelate, third son of Richard Fitz-Alan, Earl of 
Arundel: b. in 1352; d. Canterbury, 19 Feb. 
1413. He was Chancellor of England and Arch¬ 
bishop of Canterbury. He concerted with Boling- 
broke to deliver the nation from the oppressions, 
of Richard II., and was a strenuous opponent of 
the Lollards and followers of Wyclif. 

Ar'undel, Thomas Howard, Earl of. See 

Arundelian Marbles. 

Arundel, a small town in Sussex, England,, 
famous as containing Arundel castle, the fam¬ 
ily seat of the dukes of Norfolk. It is on the 
small river Arun and has a showy Roman Cath¬ 
olic cathedral erected by the Duke of Norfolk. 
Pop. (1901) 2,738. 

Ar'undel Society, a society instituted in 
London in 1848 for promoting the knowledge 
of art by the publication of facsimiles and pho¬ 
tographs. It was named for the collector of the 
Arundelian Marbles. 

Ar'unde'lian Marbles, a series of sculp¬ 
tured marbles discovered by William Petty, who 
explored the ruins of Greece for Thomas How¬ 
ard, Earl of Arundel, in the reign of the first 
Stuart kings, James I. and Charles I., and de¬ 
voted a large portion of his fortune to the col¬ 
lection of monuments illustrative of the arts, and 
of the history of Greece and Rome. These mar¬ 
bles arrived in England in the year 1627, with 
many statues, busts, sarcophagi, etc. John Sel- 
den published some of the inscriptions which he 
thought most interesting, under the title of 


ARUSPICES —ARYAN RACE 


( Marmora Arundeliana ) (1628). Henry How¬ 
ard, Duke of Norfolk, grandson of the collector, 
presented them in 1667 to the University of Ox¬ 
ford, where they still remain. The whole col¬ 
lection of inscriptions was published by Hum¬ 
phrey Prideaux in 1676; by Michael Maittaire in 
1732; by Chandler in 1763. These inscriptions 
are records of treaties, public contracts, thanks 
of the state to patriotic individuals, etc., and 
many of a private nature. The most curious 
and interesting is one usually known by the 
name of the Parian Chronicle, from having been 
kept in the island of Paros. It is a chronolog¬ 
ical account of the principal events in Grecian, 
and particularly in Athenian history, during a pe¬ 
riod of 1318 years, from the reign of Cecrops 
(1450 b.c.) to the archbishop of Diognetus (264 
b.c.). The authenticity of this chronicle has 
been called in question, but has been vindicated 
by many of the most learned men. 

Arus'pices, Roman priests and prophets, 
who foretold events from inspection of the en¬ 
trails of sacrificed animals. They observed, too, 
all the circumstances which accompanied or hap¬ 
pened during the sacrifice; for example, the 
flame, the mode in which the animal behaved, 
the smoke. The origin is to be sought for in 
Etruria. They were introduced into Rome by 
Romulus, where they flourished till the time of 
the emperor Constantine (337 a.d.), who pro¬ 
hibited all soothsaying on pain of death. 

Arus'pices, On the Reply of the, an ora¬ 
tion by Cicero. After Cicero’s recall from exile 
different prodigies alarmed the people of Rome. 
The aruspices being consulted, answered that the 
public ceremonies had been neglected, the holy 
places profaned, and frightful calamities decreed 
in consequence. Thereupon Clodius denounced 
Cicero as the cause of the misfortunes that men¬ 
aced the city, and on the following day the ora¬ 
tor replied in the Senate to the attack. The 
speech takes rank among the greatest of Cicero’s 
orations, though he had little time for prepara¬ 
tion, and suffered under the disadvantage of ad¬ 
dressing an audience at first openly unfriendly. 

Aruwimi, a'roo-we'me, a river of equato¬ 
rial Africa having its source in the hills to the 
west of Albert Nyanza and tributary to the 
Congo. Its length is a little over 800 miles and 
its breadth at its confluence with the Congo is 
about a mile. It is navigable up to Yambuya, 
but beyond that place there are many rapids. 
In its upper course it is called the Ituri. Stan¬ 
ley discovered its mouth in 1877 and traced a 
considerable part of its course in his search for 
Emin Pasha in 1887. 

Arve, arv, a river tributary of the Rhone, 
which it enters near Geneva after a course of 
about 50 miles. It flows through the valley of 
Chamouni, and many of the most famous re¬ 
sorts of Switzerland are found in its vicinity. 

Aryabhatta, Hindu astronomer and math¬ 
ematician of the 5th century: b. 476 a.d. His 
only known work, the ( AryabhattiyaP is a 
mathematical treatise in verse; frequent refer¬ 
ence is made to his writings by later Hindu 
scholars. In the solution of quadratic equations 
and the application of algebra to geometry and 
astronomy, he anticipated some of the discov¬ 
eries of modern algebra. He also announced 
the correct theory of the diurnal rotation of the 


earth, and the correct explanation of solar and 
lunar eclipses. See Algebra, History of. 

Aryan (ar'yan, or ar'i-an) Languages, an 
important language family frequently styled the 
Indo-European or Indo-Germanic family of 
tongues. They have reached a higher develop¬ 
ment than those of the second great family, the 
Semitic, and are far in advance of the next 
one — that comprising the Turanian tongues. 
Like the Syro-Arabian forms of speech they are 
inflectional; while those of Turanian origin are 
only agglutinate. Max Muller separates the 
Aryan family of languages primarily into a 
southern and a northern division. The former 
is subdivided into two classes: (1) The Indie;, 
and (2) the Iranic; and the latter into six: (1) 
The Celtic; (2) the Italic; (3) the Illyric; (4) 
the Hellenic; (5) the Windic; and (6) the Teu¬ 
tonic. It is often said that Sanskrit, spoken by 
the old Brahmins, is the root of all these classes 
of tongues. It is more correct to consider it as 
the first branch and assume the existence of a 
root not now accessible to direct investigation. 
As an illustration of the affinity among the 
Aryan tongues the common word daughter may 
be instanced. It is in Swedish, dotter; Danish,. 
datter; Dutch, dochter; German, tochter; Old 
Hebrew German, tohtar; Gothic, dauhtar; Lith¬ 
uanian, duktere; Greek, thy gat er; Armenian, 
dustr; Sanskrit, duhitri; the last-named word 
signifying primarily ^milkmaid,® that being the 
function in the early Brahman or Aryan house¬ 
hold which the daughter discharged. Not only 
are the roots of very many words akin through¬ 
out the several Aryan tongues, but (a more im¬ 
portant fact) so also are the inflections. Thus 
the first person singular of a well-known verb 
is in Latin, do; Greek, didomi; Lithuanian,. 
dumi; Old Slavonic, damy; Zend, dadhami; 
Sanskrit, dadami; and the third person singular, 
present indicative of the substantive verb is in 
English, is; Gothic, ist; Latin, est; Greek, esti; 
Sanskrit, asti. 

Ar'yan Race, a name sometimes applied 
to that particular ethnological division of man¬ 
kind otherwise called Indo-European or Indo- 
Germanic, but more properly to the Indo-Iranian 
group alone. The Indo-European division in¬ 
cludes two branches, the western, which com¬ 
prises the inhabitants of Europe, with the ex¬ 
ception of the Turks, the Magyars of Hungary,, 
the Basques of the Pyrenees, and the Finns 
of Lapland, and the eastern, which comprehends 
those of Armenia, Persia, Afghanistan, and 
northern Hindustan. From a multitude of de¬ 
tails it has been established that the original 
mother tongue of all these peoples was the 
same. It is supposed that the Aryan nations 
were at first located somewhere in central 
Asia, probably east of the Caspian and north 
of the Hindu Kush and Paropamisan mountains. 
From this centre successive migrations took 
place toward the northwest. The first swarm 
formed the Celts, who at one time occupied a 
great part of Europe; at a considerably later 
epoch came the ancestors of the Italians, the 
Greeks, and the Teutonic people. The stream 
that formed the Slavonic nations is thought to 
have taken the route by the north of the Cas¬ 
pian. At a later period the remnant of the 
primitive stock would seem to have broken up. 
Part passed southward and became the dominant 


ARZACHEL — ASBEN 


race in the valley of the Ganges, while the rest 
settled in Persia and became the Medes and Per¬ 
sians of history. It is from these eastern mem¬ 
bers that the whole family takes its name. In 
the most ancient Sanskrit writings (the Veda) 
the Hindus style themselves Aryas, the word 
signifying “excellent,® “honorable,® originally 
“lord of the soil.® 

Ar'zachel, a Jewish astronomer: b. in 
Spain about 1050. He discovered the obliquity 
of the ecliptic and compiled certain astronomical 
tables known as the “Toledo Tables.® 

Arzamas, a Russian town, the capital of 
a district of the same name, 340 miles east of 
Moscow. It possesses brickyards, tanneries, and 
tallow factories, and in the earlier half of the 
19th century was distinguished for a school of 
painting which furnished the greater part of 
Russia with ikons or sacred pictures. 

As, a word which the Romans employed 
in three different ways: to denote (1) any unit 
whatever considered as divisible; (2) the unit 
of weight, or the pound (libra) ; (3) a coin. 
The as, whatever unit it represented, was divid¬ 
ed into 12 parts, or ounces (uncice) . Scholars 
are not agreed on the weight of a Roman pound, 
but it was not far from 237.5 grains avoirdupois, 
or 327.1873 grammes, French measure. In the 
most ancient times of Rome the copper coin 
which was called as actually weighed an as, o r 
a pound, but in 264 b.c. was reduced to 2 ounces, 
in 217 to 1 ounce, and in 191 to j/2 ounce. In 
269 b.c., when silver money was first struck by 
the Romans, the as was superseded as a money 
of account by the sestertius coined from the 
more precious metal. 

As It Was Written, the title of a romance 
by Sidney Luska (Henry Harland), the scene 
of which is laid in modern New York. Sombre 
and tragic though it is, the romance shows un¬ 
usual vigor of conception and execution and 
extraordinary intuitive knowledge of the psy¬ 
chology of the Jewish race. 

As You Like It, the title of one of Shake¬ 
speare’s comedies. Its realism lies in its gay, 
riant feeling, the fresh woodland sentiment, the 
exhilaration of spirits that attend an escape from 
the artificialities of society. The characters all 
meet in the forest of Arden, where “as you like 
it® is the order of the day. 

A'sa, the third king of Judah. During the 
first 10 years of his reign his kingdom enjoyed 
peace and prosperity, but in the nth year he 
was attacked by the Ethiopian king Zerah at the 
head of a vast army, which he completely routed. 
On his triumphant return Asa was met by the 
prophet Azariah, who encouraged him to per¬ 
severe in the extirpation of idolatry. In the 
36th year of Asa’s reign Baasha, king of Israel, 
occupied Ramah, and proceeded to fortify it as 
a frontier barrier. Asa called in the aid of 
Benhadad, king of Syria, and recovered the city, 
but incurred the rebuke of the prophet Hanani 
for seeking help elsewhere than from the Lord. 
The incensed king threw the prophet into prison. 
He died after a prosperous reign of 41 years. 

Asaba, a-sa'ba, a town in west Africa, on 
the Niger River, 150 miles from the coast. It 
is the seat of the supreme court, and contains 
the central prison, civil and military hospitals, 
and other public buildings. It is a place of large 


present importance, and in the evolution of new 
English interests in Africa may become still 
more conspicuous. 

As'afoet'ida is a gum resin obtained from 
the root of Ferula fcetida. Although the 
United States pharmacopoeia limits the pro¬ 
ducing plant, it is quite probable that asafcetida 
is obtained from two or even three or four 
species of Ferula, F. nartliex, F. fcetidissima, 
F. jaschkeanum. The main sources, however, 
are F. fcetida and F. narthex. These are coarse 
herbs of the Umbelliferce family distributed 
throughout the eastern Asiatic provinces from 
Persia, Turkestan, Afghanistan. The root is 
cleaned from the leaves and while growing 
is cut off close to the ground. This is then 
covered with leaves and in five or six weeks 
a slice is cut off, and from the cut surfaces 
the juice exudes. This on thickening forms the 
asafoetida of commerce. The chemical composi¬ 
tion is complex. It consists of resin, gum, 
ethereal oil, vanillin, and ferulic acid. Asafoe¬ 
tida is highly prized in the East as a seasoning. 
In medicine it is stimulant to the sympathetic 
nervous system and is an excellent carminative, 
and stimulant of unstriped muscle fibre. It is 
particularly valuable in expelling flatus from the 
peristalsis it induces. It is also used in hysteria, 
but in an empirical fashion. Its further study 
is desirable. 

Asa'ma-Yama, a-sa'ma-ya'ma, an active 
volcano of Japan about 50 miles northwest of 
Tokyo, 8,280 feet high. Its latest destructive 
eruption was in 1783. 

A'saph, the Levite and psalmist whom 
David appointed as leading chorister in the tem¬ 
ple. It is supposed that his office became heredi¬ 
tary in his family, or that he founded a school of 
poets and musicians called, after him, “the sons 
of Asaph.® 

As'arabac'ca, a European herb. See 

Asarum. 

As'arum, a small genus of herbs of the 
natural order Aristolochiacece, widely distributed 
in rich, shady woods throughout the northern 
hemisphere. They have odd chocolate or pur¬ 
plish, bell-shaped, three-lobed perianths con¬ 
taining 12 horned stamens. The flowers which 
are borne close to or upon the ground are hid¬ 
den by the kidney-shaped or heart-shaped leaves. 
A. canadense, wild ginger, or Canada snake-root, 
is warmly aromatic and is sometimes used as a 
spice. It is common in the eastern United 
States and is often cultivated in wild gardens 
as are also the following species: A. virgini- 
cum, A. arifolium, both common from Virginia 
southward; A. caudatum, a Pacific coast species, 
A. lemmoni and A. hartwegii, both of the 
Sierra Nevada Mountains, the last found at al¬ 
titudes of 4.000 to 7,000 feet. A. europceum is 
also cultivated. It was formerly used as an 
emetic, a role now played by ipecacuanha. Its 
leaves are still made into snuffs and are deemed 
efficacious as counter-irritants. 

Asben, as-ben', a kingdom of Africa, in 
the Sahara, with an area of about 49,000 square 
miles. It consists of a succession of mountain 
groups and valleys and attains in its highest 
summits a height of over 6,000 feet. The val¬ 
leys, though separated by complete deserts, are 
very fertile. The climate is on the whole 


ASBESTOS 


healthy, and not unsuitable for Europeans. The 
principal vegetable productions are millet, wine 

tabfes Senna> lndlg0 ’ and var ious kinds of vege- 

Asbestos, one of the most remarkable 
substances found in nature. It is a peculiar spe¬ 
cies of the hornblende family of minerals. Its 
composition is chiefly silica, magnesia, alumina, 
and ferrous oxide, and consequently uncon¬ 
sumable, hence its name. I he fibres formed by 
the chemical combination above given are per¬ 
fectly smooth, and in this respect are different 
rom all other known fibres. Paradoxically, it 
*s the link which completes the chain between 
the vegetable and mineral kingdoms, and is in 
xact a mineralogical vegetable possessing the 
curious properties found in both, for it is at 
once fibrous and crystalline, elastic and brittle, 
heavy as a rock in its crude state, yet as light as 
thistledown when treated mechanically. Added 
to this, its fibres, soft, white, and delicate, have, 
by their inherent quality of indestructibility, 
withstood the action of the elements since the 
world began; and through all the countless ages, 
during which the hardest rocks surrounding it 
have been reduced, this mineralogical mystery 
has remained intact, having successfully resisted 
the assaults of fire, acids, and time. Asbestos 
is found widely distributed throughout the 
world, although the principal supply of crude 
asbestos suitable for the manufacture of fire¬ 
proof cloths and curtains comes from Canada, 
about 75 miles from Quebec. The Italian min¬ 
eral has a fine, silk-like fibre, but is lacking in 
the essential characteristic of strength. The 
product obtained from South Carolina has a soft, 
woody, yellowish fibre, which quickly powders 
under pressure. The South African asbestos, as 
one might naturally infer, is of a dark slate or 
black color, with exceptionally long, strong 
fibres, but owing to its stiff and horny texture, 
it cannot be manufactured into a fine fabric, 
hence the superiority of the Canadian asbestos, 
and its large consumption in the United States. 

The mining of asbestos differs radically from 
the mining of other minerals, since no shafts 
are sunk, but excavations are made in the open, 
somewhat after the manner of a stone quarry. 
Canadian asbestos, however, is found in narrow 
veins or seams about an inch and a quarter in 
thickness, and embedded in rock which is easily 
severed from it. The strata of asbestos, which 
may be vertical or horizontal, are found in prac¬ 
tically detached deposits, and are as elusive as 
those of zinc-bearing ore, and can only be de¬ 
termined by exploring for them. The rock to 
which the mineral is attached shows on fresh 
fracture a serpentine mineral of a green shade 
containing finely divided particles of chromic 
and magnetic iron. The asbestos on cleavage 
presents a brilliant, dark-green surface by re¬ 
flected light, but the fibres after they are de¬ 
tached are perfectly white. The act of separat¬ 
ing the mineral from its matrix of rock is 
termed ^'hand cobbing,® and after this process 
the mineral is shipped to various factories in the 
United States. 

The process of manufacture begins by plac¬ 
ing the asbestos mineral in a chaser mill, a 
machine comprising a rotating edge-wheel re¬ 
volving at the end of a radial arm in a trough, 
which crushes the mineral, dividing the fibres 
without destroying them. The result is a snowy 
mass of mineral wool ready for winnowing, a 


method of removing the minute particles of rock 
still clinging to the fibres very much like the 
winnowing of grain; this is done by means of a 
blast of air, which separates and blows away 
' 6 re * gn ma tt er > leaving the fibres in a re¬ 
fined state and in proper condition for the third 
stage of manufacture. This is termed air fibre 
raising, and as the name implies, the fibres are 
raised by a current of air produced by a blower 
of large dimensions through a vertical pipe in¬ 
clined at a small angle. The object of this pro¬ 
cedure will be obvious, when it is stated that 
the air blown across the fibres causes those of 
coarser texture to be deposited in a compart¬ 
ment near the bottom of the pipe. The medium 
fibres will be projected a little higher, and these 
will fall into a second compartment. The finer 
fibres will be blown to a higher point, and there 
collected, while the dust will be carried to the 
top and deposited. The fibres are in this way 
sorted into different lots according to their tex¬ 
ture, and are ready to be made into articles for 
which they are best adapted. The fluffy stuff 
now goes to the carding room, just as though 
it were genuine wool sheared from a sheep or 
pure cotton fresh from the plant on which it 
grows, instead of a mineral substance that in 
its original state was mined like a lump of an¬ 
thracite coal. A carding machine, similar to 
that employed in preparing wool, cotton, or flax 
fibres before spinning, has been adopted by the 
manufacturers. The problem of mechanically 
combing these fibres was no small one, and the 
carding takes place in a machine having a large 
central rotating cylinder covered with card 
clothing, that is, strips of leather set with pro¬ 
jecting wires termed teeth. Around the main 
cylinder there are a number of smaller cylin¬ 
ders, also provided with card clothing, which 
engages the teeth of the central cylinder rotating 
in the reverse direction. This machine straight¬ 
ens out the fibres and lays them parallel; after 
passing through the first breaker, they are fed 
into a second carding engine or breaker, which 
is set to a finer gauge than the preceding. A 
third and last carding process takes place in 
a machine called a finisher or condenser, when 
all the irregularities are eliminated, and the 
fibres are stripped from the final cylinder by 
means of a fly-comb and are converted into 
unspun threads, when they are delivered on a 
traveling apron or endless band, and are gath¬ 
ered into rows by reciprocating scrapers; they 
are then condensed, and the process is continued 
in the coiling cans. In spinning the yarn, the 
rovings are delivered to the spindles on a car¬ 
riage, which then recedes, when the fibres are 
twisted, and returns when the spun asbestos 
yarn is wound on the spindles. The spinning 
frames do not draw the yarn, and no strain is 
placed on it until after it is twisted. This 
brings the manufacture of the fireproof material 
to a point where it is to be woven into cloth, 
packing, or other forms; for asbestos is used for 
divers other purposes than those appertaining to 
theatres. 

While adulterated asbestos may be used in 
some of the mechanical arts, for theatrical hang¬ 
ings its purity should be ioo per cent; it then 
forms one of the safest barriers against the 
calamity of fire. As a matter of fact, much of 
that which is termed commercially pure asbestos 
cloth contains from 5 to 20 per cent of com¬ 
bustible matter, but absolutely pure Amer- 


ASBJORNSEN — ASCENDANTS 


ican-made cloth may be obtained, where price 
is not a primary consideration. Not only is 
purity essential in asbestos cloth where used for 
protection against fire, but strength as well; and 
after asbestos is subjected to a high temperature, 
it has a tendency to powder, when, owing to its 
weight, it may break through, and its utility be 
impaired. 

One of the leading manufacturers has made 
an improvement in weaving asbestos cloth for 
theatre curtains; it consists of two strands of 
asbestos spun around a strand of high-tempera¬ 
ture-melting brass wire, so that the wire is 
completely embedded and concealed. These as¬ 
bestos metallic strands form the warp, so that 
the threads run the long way of the cloth when 
finished. The weft, or filling-in cross threads, 
is made of plain, pure asbestos. Such a curtain 
will stand well under a severe high-tempera¬ 
ture test without breaking. Not only the¬ 
atre curtains, but set scenery of all kinds 
may be constructed of asbestos. Scenic artists 
find it more difficult to paint, but the finer 
textures may be utilized for this purpose; 
and although asbestos cloth does not take colors 
as satisfactorily as cheese cloth and burlap, yet 
its use should be provided for wherever audi¬ 
ences are to be assembled. Flooring and wood¬ 
work in general may be easily replaced by com¬ 
pressed asbestos fibre board, and it has been 
shown that the latter may be stained, polished, 
and finished to as high a degree as wood. All 
the upholstery should be of pure asbestos cloth, 
and carpeting is also made to take the place of 
the combustible vegetable and animal fibres now 
used so extensively. One of the peculiar prop¬ 
erties of asbestos carpeting is that the longer it 
is in service, the tougher it becomes. 

Asbestos is utilized in the arts in many other 
forms than cloth; it may be worked into a pulp, 
and a fireproof paper is obtained. This paper is 
now used on roofs, between walls, flooring, etc. 
Fireproof rope three eighths inch in diameter for 
the suspension of curtains and other uses is 
made, having a tensile strength of 1,650 pounds 
per foot. High-grade asbestos plaster is fire¬ 
proof, soundproof, and hangs together with 
great tenacity when subjected to water. Asbes¬ 
tos mineral with rock as it comes from the mine 
costs $200 per ton, but after it is stripped the 
long fibres are worth $1,500 per ton. When 
these are made into cloth it sells for $3 per 
square yard; when made into curtains, the sew¬ 
ing is done with asbestos thread. 

Asbjornsen, as-byern'sen, Peter Kristen, 

a Norwegian folklorist: b. in Christiania, 15 
Jan. 1812; d. there, 6 Jan. 1885. . While pursuing 
botanical and zoological studies, and subse¬ 
quently during various travels at government 
expense, he collected folk tales and legends, 
aided by his friend Jorgen Moe, with whom he 
published ( Norwegian Folk Tales ) (1842-4) ; 
and ( Norwegian Gnome Stories and Folk 
Legends*. (1845-8; 3d ed. 1870), pronounced by 
Jacob Grimm the best fairy tales in existence. 

Asboth, osh'bot, Sandor (Alexander), a 
Hungarian-American soldier: b. in 1811; d. in 
1868. He came to America with Kossuth in 
1851, and became a United States citizen, serv¬ 
ing in the Civil War in the Federal army, at¬ 
taining the rank of a brevet major-general. He 
was United States minister to Argentina at the 
time of his death. 


Asbury, az'ber-T, Francis, the first bishop 
of the Methodist Episcopal Church in the United 
States. He was born in Handsworth, Stafford¬ 
shire, England, in August 1745; d. in Spottsyl- 
vania, Va., 31 March 1816. He joined the local 
ministry of the Methodists at the age of 16, the 
itinerant ministry six years later, and was sent 
by John Wesley as missionary to America at 
the age of 25. In 1772 he was appointed by 
Wesley general superintendent of the connec¬ 
tion in America, the duties of which office he 
exercised through the entire period of the Amer¬ 
ican Revolution. Until the termination of the 
war, the Methodists of America had called them¬ 
selves members of the Church of England, and 
their ministers laymen. They now considered 
the political changes of the country as separating- 
them from that Church, and therefore estab¬ 
lished an organization for themselves. Francis 
Asbury was constituted the first bishop of the 
new Church (1784), which office he held till his 
death. During the 30 years of his episcopal 
labors he traveled annually from the Andros¬ 
coggin to the Gulf of Mexico, and from thu 
Atlantic to the Mississippi, ordained not less 
than 3,000 preachers, and preached about 17,000 
sermons. Identified with the religious interests 
of this country through the two great struggles, 
which have so greatly modified our political and 
social character, he became eminently American 
in his sympathies and character, and left the 
mark of his native enthusiasm and energy 
upon the ecclesiastical history of the United 
States. 

As'bury Park, N. J., a city and popular 

summer resort in Monmouth County, on the 
Atlantic Ocean, six miles south of Long Branch 
and 40 miles south of New York city. It is on 
the line of the Pennsylvania R.R. and the Cen¬ 
tral R.R. of New Jersey. It adjoins Ocean 
Grove on the north, being separated from it 
by Wesley Lake. It was founded in 1869, and 
given a city charter in 1897. It contains many 
hotels and boarding-houses, attractive summer 
dwellings, electric lights and street railways, a 
national bank, etc. It has a property valuation 
of more than $3,000,000; and is rapidly becom¬ 
ing nearly as popular a winter as a summer 
resort. Asbury Park and Ocean Grove were 
originally laid out by members of the Methodist 
Episcopal Church for camp meetings and other 
purposes. Pop. (1900) 4,148; in summer, 25,000 
and upward. 

As'calon, a ruined town of Palestine, on 
the sea-coast, 40 miles west-southwest of Jeru¬ 
salem. It was noted during the Crusades, God¬ 
frey de Bouillon gaining here a great victory 
over the Egyptians in 1099. Its site is now a 
complete scene of desolation. 

Asca'nius, a son of zEneas and Creusa* 
who accompanied his father to Italy. He sup¬ 
ported Aeneas in his war with the Latins, and 
succeeded him in the government of Latium. 
His descendants ruled over Alba for 420 years. 
He is known also as lulus. 

As'caris. See Round-worms; Thread¬ 
worms. 

Ascendants, in law, the opposites to de¬ 
scendants in succession. When a father suc¬ 
ceeds. his son or an uncle his nephew, etc., the 
inheritance is said to ascend or to go to a* cend- 
ants. 


ASCENSION — ASCHAFFENBURG 


Ascen'sion, an isolated volcanic island, 
near the middle of the South Atlantic Ocean, 
about lat. 7° 55' S.; Ion. 14 0 21' W.; area about 
34 square miles. It belongs to Great Britain; is 
the sanatorium for the British West African 
squadron. There are about 400 inhabitants, 
mainly government employees and their families. 
Ascension is celebrated for its turtle, which 
weigh in many cases from 500 to 800 pounds. 
This island was discovered on Ascension Day, 
1502, by the Portuguese, and hence its name; 
but it was never formally occupied by any na¬ 
tion till Great Britain took possession of it in 
1815, after the transportation of Napoleon to 
St. Helena. 

Ascen'sion, Right, a term employed in as¬ 
tronomy in allusion to the position of a star or 
other heavenly body. Such position is known 
when we know the right ascension and declina¬ 
tion, these terms corresponding respectively to 
longitude and latitude as applied to the position 
of places on the globe. Right ascension is mea¬ 
sured on the equinoctial or celestial equator, the 
first point of Aries being taken as the starting- 
point ; and the right ascension of any star is the 
distance measured eastward along the celestial 
equator from the first point of Aries to the 
point where an hour-circle, passing through the 
star, cuts the equator. The right ascension is 
easily found by means of the sidereal clock, 
which, when the first point of Aries passes the 
meridian, gives the time as o hours, o minutes, 
o seconds. By noting on the clock the time at 
which the body is on the meridian, we obtain the 
right ascension in time, which may be converted 
into degrees, minutes, and seconds at the rate 
of one hour to 15 0 . 

Ascen'sion Day, a religious festival of 
many churches in commemoration of the ascen¬ 
sion of the Saviour. It is a movable feast, 
always falling on the Thursday but one before 
Whitsuntide. It was first observed about the 
4th century. 

Asceticism is the exercise of the faculties 
in moral and religious practices, the application 
of St. Paul’s comparison between an athlete s 
and a Christian’s life (1 Cor. ix. 24, 27). It 
is negative, when the object of this exercise is to 
avoid evil, to curb vicious tendencies, moderate 
excessive passion, and deny the soul and body 
any indulgence which might become inordinate 
or unlawful, and whenever it implies active 
measures against such disorders as gluttony, 
sloth, anger, pride, and lust, by abstinence, fast¬ 
ing, watching, self-restraint, modesty, _ and 
habits conducive to continence. It is positive, 
when its object is the exercise or training in the 
virtues which perfect life, and the cultivation 
of the means most efficacious for this end, such 
as devout reading, especially of the scripture, 
meditation, prayer, examination of conscience, 
exertion, and sacrifice for the good of others, 
zealous promotion of good enterprises; in a 
word, anything that can help one to do what 
is best, constantly, unhesitatingly, and _ with 
facility. This is the aim of all true asceticism, 
whether based on the principles of natural or of 
positive and revealed law. This aim, as well as 
many of the means above numerated, is found 
to some extent in Pagan and Jewish, as well as 
in Christian asceticism. The latter employs 
additional means of inculcating and developing 


the habit of virtue, such as the religious life, 
divine worship, and in particular the sacramen¬ 
tal system of the Church. Asceticism has some 
part in every rightly regulated life, even in one 
based on purely ethical principles; but in Chris¬ 
tian life it is most systematic and far-reaching. 
The whole Christian economy depends on self- 
denial and the active pursuit of virtue accord¬ 
ing to fixed principles. Every sincere Christian 
is, accordingly, an ascetic, some are professedly 
so, men and women, whether in the conventual 
cloister or domestic circle, who strive to acquire 
by daily practice habits of virtue, and to advance 
in holiness. Naturally counsel and direction are 
needed in a matter so difficult, and it is for 
want of due attention to these that asceticism is 
often misunderstood, and is regarded by some 
as grotesque, a shield for certain excesses and 
extravagances, associated often with the external 
observances of communities like the Essenes, 
with the singularities of some hermits and 
anchorites, the frenzy of fanatics like the Flagel¬ 
lants, the exclusiveness of the Brahmins, the 
ablutions of the Mohammedan, the dream of 
men like those composing the Brook Farm Com¬ 
munity. To appreciate asceticism in its normal 
exercise, one must study it in the examples of 
men and women noted for its exercise, or in 
the books whose guidance they followed, in 
works of the great ascetical and sermon writers, 
but chiefly in scripture, and in the life of Christ 
and of persons distinguished for holiness. See 
Kempis, ( Imitation of Christ ) ; Rodriguez, 

( Christian Perfection 1 * ; Scaramelli, ( Ascetical 
Di rectory. > 

Ascet'ics, a name anciently given to those 
Christians who devoted themselves to severe ex¬ 
ercises of piety, and strove to distinguish them¬ 
selves from the world by abstinence from sensual 
enjoyments and by voluntary penances. Hence 
those writings which teach the spiritual exer¬ 
cises of piety are termed ascetic writings. Even 
before Christ, and in the time of the early 
Christian Church, there were similar ascetics 
among the Jews, such as the Essenes, also among 
the philosophers of Greece, and in particular 
among the Platonics. The expression is bor¬ 
rowed from the Greek word askcsis (exercise), 
used to signify the spare diet of the athletse, 
who, to prepare themselves for their combats 
abstained from many indulgences. 

Asch, ash, a manufacturing town in the 
extreme northwest corner of Bohemia. It con¬ 
tains a large Protestant and a newly-erected 
Roman Catholic Church, a real-school, schools 
of design, weaving, etc. The inhabitants are 
mainly employed in cotton, woolen, and silk 
manufacture, bleachfields, and dye-works. Pop. 
(1900) 18,700. 

Aschaffenburg, a-sha'fen-burg, a town of 
Bavaria, 26 miles east-southeast of Frank¬ 
fort. The chief edifice is castle of Johannisberg, 
built in 1605-14. There is also the Pompeianum, 
an edifice built by King Louis of Bavaria, in 
imitation of the Casa del questore (commonly 
called the Castor and Pollux House) at Pom¬ 
peii. The principal industries are the manu¬ 
factures of colored paper, tobacco, and liquors. 
There are also large breweries, and an extensive 
trade is done in wine and timber. Aschaffen¬ 
burg long belonged to the archbishops of Mainz. 
Pop. (1900) 18,091. 


ASCHAM 


ASCIDIAN 


Ascham, as'kam, Roger, an English 
scholar: b. Kirby, Wiske, Yorkshire, 1515; d. 
London, 30 Dec. 1568. While still a child, he 
was taken into the family of Sir Anthony Wing¬ 
field and educated with the latter’s children. He 
made rapid progress in English and classical 
studies, and was taught archery by Sir Anthony 
himself. The same generous patron sent him in 
15,30 to St. John’s College, Cambridge, where 
he read nearly all extant Latin literature, ac¬ 
quiring an elegant Latin style that proved most 
useful to him later, and developed an especial 
aptitude for Greek, which he taught to students 
younger than, himself. Besides this, he paid 
some attention to mathematics, became an ac¬ 
complished musician, and acquired remarkable 
skill in penmanship. Lie received his B.A. de¬ 
gree in February 1533-4, an d became a Fellow of 
his college. His reputation for Greek learning 
soon brought him many pupils, several of whom 
later rose to distinction, and students from other 
colleges attended his lectures. In five years, he 
afterward said, Sophocles and Euripides had be¬ 
come at his college as familiar as Plautus had 
been previously, and Demosthenes was as much 
discussed as Cicero. The beauty of his hand¬ 
writing and the purity of his Latin led to his 
being employed to write the official letters of 
the university. He took an active part in the 
controversy as to the correct mode of pro¬ 
nouncing Greek, opposing Sir John Cheke’s sys¬ 
tem, but later adopting it. In 1543-4 he wrote 
his famous treatise on archery, 'ToxophilusP 
and in person presented a copy of it to Henry 
VIII., who so approved of the work that he 
gave the author an annual pension of iio, which 
was renewed by Edward VI., whose Latin secre¬ 
tary Ascham became. In 1548 he was appoint¬ 
ed tutor to Princess Elizabeth. He read with 
her all 'CiceroP the greater part of 'LivyP the 
'New Testament, } in Greek, 'IsocratesP 'Soph¬ 
ocles, 5 and portions of 'Cyprian* and 'Melanc- 
thonP Two years later he was nominated secre¬ 
tary to Sir Richard Morysin, ambassador to the 
Emperor Charles V. Their headquarters were 
at Augsburg, but Ascham made trips to Louvain, 
Halle, Innspruck, Venice, and Brussels, visiting 
famous teachers and scholars. He lived on ex¬ 
cellent terms with Sir Richard, reading Greek 
with him five days in the week. The death of 
Edward caused the recall of the embassy in 
1553- Ascham became Latin secretary to Queen 
Mary and gave proof of his industry by writ¬ 
ing for her within three days 47 letters to 
persons of high rank, of whom cardinals 
w r ere the lowest in degree. With the accession 
of Elizabeth, he was continued in his offices 
and became in addition private tutor to the 
queen, reading several hours a day with her in 
the learned languages. She bestowed on him the 
prebend of Wetwang in York Cathedral 5 Oct. 
1559. His last years were filled with anxiety 
and care due to domestic afflictions and pe¬ 
cuniary embarrassment. Between 1563 and his 
death he found relief in the composition of his 
best known work, 'The Scholemaster,* of which 
he completed two books. The first is a general 
discussion of education with arguments in favor 
of inducing a child to study by gentleness rather 
than by force. The second is an exposition of his 
famous method of teaching Latin, by means of 
"double translation,® etc., a method which has 
received high praise from all subsequent writers 


on the theory and methods of education. When 
Queen Elizabeth heard of Ascham’s death, she is 
said to have exclaimed that she would rather 
have cast £10,000 into the sea than to have lost 
her tutor, Ascham. Scholars in England and 
on the Continent mourned for him, and ex¬ 
pressed their grief in stately Latin verses. In 
English literature Ascham has a secure place on 
account of the strength and vigor of his English 
prose, highly Latinized though it was in con¬ 
struction and vocabulary. In an age when seri¬ 
ous literary composition in English was culti¬ 
vated but little, and regarded less, the famous 
words in his dedication of 'Toxophilus* to 
Henry VIII. sounded a noble and patriotic note. 
"Althoughe to have written this boke either in 
Latin or Greeke . . . had been more easier 

and fit for mi trade in study, yet nevertheless, I 
supposinge it no point of honestie, that mi com- 
modite should stop and hinder ani parte either 
of the pleasure or profite of manie, have writ¬ 
ten this Englishe matter in the Englishe tongue, 
for Englishe men.® His style is without the 
tricks that Lyby introduced, and has an easy 
flow and straightforwardness. 

Bibliography. — By far the best edition of 
Ascham’s writings is 'The Whole Works of 
Roger Ascham . . . with a Life by Dr. J. A. 

Giles ) (3 vols. in 4 parts, Lond. 1864-5). This 
edition includes 295 Latin and English letters, 
many printed for the first time. 'Toxophilus > 
was first published in 1545; other editions ap¬ 
peared in 1571, 1589, 1788, 1821, 1865 (by J. A. 
Giles), 1868 (by E. Arber). 'The Schole- 
master ) was first issued 1570, and was followed 
by editions in 1571, 1572, 1573, 1579, 1583, 1589, 
I 7 II » ! 743 - Prof. J. E. B. Mayor published best 
modern edition in 1863, and E. Arber reprinted 
the first edition in 1870. The best exposition of 
Ascham’s educational system is in R. H. Quick’s 
'Essays on Educational Reformers ) (1868). 
Cf. also article by Sidney Lee in 'Dictionary of 
National Biography.* 

Aschersleben, a'sher-la/ben, a town of 
Prussian Saxony, in the district of Magdeburg. 
It is walled and entered by five gates, and con¬ 
tains several churches, a synagogue, and a real- 
school of the first class. There are manufactures 
of woolen goods, paper, sugar, artificial manures, 
earthenware, etc. Among several interesting 
ruins in the vicinity is the old castle of Askanien, 
the cradle of the house of Anhalt. Pop. (1900) 

27,245. 

Ascid'ian, a marine animal, so called from 
Ascidia, a genus of Tunicata. Ascidians were 
once regarded as mollusks, and afterward as 
worms, but when their embryology and early 
stages were studied and it was found that they 
passed through a tadpole-like stage, in which the 
tail is supported by a notochord, and that in 
other respects they approached the vertebrates, 
they were placed with the vertebrates in the group 
Chordata. The simple ascidians attain to a 
large size, A. callosa being about two inches 
in diameter, quite round, and in shape and color 
much like a potato. The "sea-peach® ( Cynthia 
pynformis ) is of the size and general shape of 
a peach, with its rich bloom and reddish tints. 
It is common at a depth of 10 to 50 fathoms on 
both sides of the north Atlantic. While other 
forms, as Boltenia, are stalked and fixed to the 
bottom, certain pelagic forms, as Pyrosoma 


ASCLEPIADACEiE — ASELLIO 


and Salpa (q.v.), are free-swimming. The 
compound ascidians, such as A mar cerium, grow 
in white or reddish masses on sea-weeds, rocks, 
shells, etc., the individual animals being minute. 
The interesting form Perophora grows in 
bunches on piles and wharves on the southern 
coast of New England; it is perfectly trans¬ 
parent, so that the heart and circulation of the 
blood can readily be observed under the micro¬ 
scope. The heart is a straight tube, open at 
each end; after beating for a number of times, 
throwing the blood with its corpuscles in one 
direction, the beatings or contractions are regu¬ 
larly reversed, and the blood forced in an oppo¬ 
site direction. For a general account of the 
anatomy, development, and metamorphoses of 
these animals, see Tunicata. 

Ascle'piada'ceae, a natural order of more 
than 200 genera and 2,000 species of dicotyledon¬ 
ous herbs and shrubs, most of them with milky 
juice and many of them twining. The species 
are widely distributed in the temperate and 
tropical zones of both hemispheres and are es¬ 
pecially abundant in Africa. They differ greatly 
in their characteristics and uses; some, like 
Stephanotis Uoribunda, are delightfully fra¬ 
grant ; others, like Stapelia gigantca, carrion 
flower, are repellantly odoriferous. Some spe¬ 
cies yield a fibre from their stems or their pods; 
some are used in medicine; others are planted 
for ornament. They are characterized by op¬ 
posite or whorled, seldom scattered, entire leaves 
without stipules; umbels of symmetrical flow¬ 
ers, without calyx and with a five-parted corolla 
with often reflexed lobes; five stamens attached 
to the corolla and more or less united around 
the stigma; pollen grains more or less coherent; 
the ovary composed of two carpels; style short; 
stigma discoid; fruit a follicle or pod; seed 
flattened, with long silky hairs, which buoy it up 
in the air for dispersal; cotyledons flat. In the 
United States Asclepias (q.v.), or milkweed, is 
the principal genus. The more important genera 
are grouped as follows: Tylophore^e, Mars- 
dinia, Stephanotis, Cereopegia, Stephelia, Hoya; 
Gonoglob2e, Gonoglohus; Periploch^e, Periplo- 
cha, Streptocaulon; Asclepiad^:, Asclepias, Cy- 
nanchum, Vincetoxicum. 

Asclepiades, as'kle-pl'a-dez, the name of 
several ancient Greek writers — poets, gram¬ 
marians, etc.— of whom little is known, as well 
as of several physicians, the most celebrated of 
whom was Asclepiades, of Bithynia, who ac¬ 
quired considerable repute at Rome about the 
beginning of the 1st century b.c. 

Ascle'pias, milkweed, silkweed, swallow 
wort, the type genus of about 125 species of 
the natural order Asclepiadacea (q.v.), the spe¬ 
cies of which are mostly North American erect 
perennial weeds with thick, deep roots common 
in pastures and waste places. Some furnish a 
fibre strong enough for ropes, and the silky 
down attached to which is useless for spinning, 
is often used for stuffing pillows, etc. The 
young shoots of some species are occasionally 
cooked like asparagus, which they are said to re¬ 
semble somewhat. A. tuberosa, butterfly-weed, 
pleurisy root, common in dry banks and fields 
from Ohio to Georgia, is very showy and seems 
to deserve a place in the flower-garden. Other 
well-known American species are A. rubra, A. 
purjpurascens, A. syriaca, etc. The few species 


cultivated for ornament in America are mostly 
foreign. The genus is named in honor of the 
Greek god Asclepine, since some of the species 
are reputed carminatives, sudorifics, and expec¬ 
torants. Medicinally the milkweeds are of sec¬ 
ondary value only. They are irritants, and cause 
nausea, vomiting, and diarrhoea. They also 
cause diuresis and diaphoresis, but their exact 
action is in need of investigation. The eclectic 
school have been the chief investigators. 

Ascoli, as'ko-le, or Ascoli Piceno, as'ko-le 
pecha'no (the ancient Asculum), an Italian 
town, 90 miles northeast of Rome. The town, 
one of the most ancient in Italy, is well built, 
and contains many handsome edifices and noble 
mansions, and the remains of an ancient theatre, 
temples, etc. It has manufactories of woolen 
cloths, leather, hats, cream of tartar, china-ware, 
sealing-wax, paper, and glass. It has an active 
trade, and its port, at the mouth of the river 
Tronto, is much frequented by coasting vessels. 
Pop. (1901) 28,882. 

Ascoli Satriano, as'ko-le sa'tre-a'no (anc. 
Asculum Apulum), a town of southern Italy, 20 
miles south of Foggia. Pop. (1901) 8,550. 

As'comyce'tes, a large and important 
group of fungi, so called from their spores be¬ 
ing contained in asci or sacs. This group in¬ 
cludes mildews, rusts, smuts, the truffle, the 
morel, and (according to Schwendener and oth¬ 
er authorities) the lichens. See Engler and 
Prantl, ( Die Natiirlichen PflanzenfamilienP See 
Fungi. 

Asco'nius (Quintus A. Pedianus), a Ro¬ 
man historian of the 1st century a.d., who wrote 
a life of Sallust, a reply to the critics of Virgil, 
and valuable commentaries to Cicero’s orations, 
some of which are extant. 

As'cot, a celebrated English race-course near 
the southwest extremity of the Windsor park. 
The annual races, which take place in the sec¬ 
ond week in June, are attended by the fashion¬ 
able and sporting public. From the accounts of 
the Master of Horse for the year 1712, it would 
appear that they were instituted, not in 1727, as 
is commonly supposed, but by Queen Anne on 6 
Aug. 1711. 

Ascutney, as-kut'm, an isolated granitic 
mountain on the boundary between Windsor 
and Weathersfield, Vt. Its summit is 3,320 feet 
above tide-water; and from it is presented an ex¬ 
tensive and beautiful prospect of the valley of 
the Connecticut. 

As'dood, or Asdoud, a seaport of Pales¬ 
tine, on the Mediterranean, 35 miles west of 
Jerusalem. It was the Ashdod of scripture, one 
of the five confederate cities of the Philistines, 
and one of the seats of the worship of Dagon 
(1 Sam. v. 5). It occupied a commanding posi¬ 
tion on the high road from Palestine to Egypt, 
and was never subdued by the Israelites. It 
sustained against Psammetichus a siege of 29 
years; was destroyed by the Maccabees, and 
restored by the Romans. It is now an insignifi¬ 
cant village, from which the sea is constantly 
receding. 

Aselli, a-sel'lee, Gasparo, a famous Ital¬ 
ian physician: b. Cremona about 1580; d. 
1626. He was professor of anatomy and surgery 
at Padua, and in 1622 discovered the lacteal 
vessels, which he seems, however, never to have 


ASELLUS —ASH 


understood or described with complete accuracy. 
He left a treatise, ( De Lactibus ) (1627). 

Asel'lus, a fresh-water isopod crustacean, 
allied to the wood-lice (q.v.), common in ponds 
and standing water, under sticks and stones, and 
in open caves. These crustaceans differ from the 
common pill bugs of the land in having a pair 
of rather long forked two-jointed caudal ap¬ 
pendages and antennae of the second pair reach¬ 
ing to the telson. The body is broad and flat, 
with a broad shield-like telson, formed by the 
fusion of the last abdominal segments. There 
are six pairs of legs arising from the middle 
region of the body between the head and tel¬ 
son. The female carries her eggs under her 
breast, behind the head. Respiration is carried 
on by several pairs of broad, gill-like sacks ap¬ 
pended to the broad, flat abdominal legs. Blind 
individuals occur in caves, which are allied to 
the true blind Asellus ccecidotcca. 

Asen, a'sen, in northern mythology, the 
most powerful of the gods. They included 12 
gods and the same number of goddesses, among 
the most renowned of whom were Odin, Thor, 
Baldur, Freyr, Frigga, Freyja, Idunna, Eira, 
and Saga. Their dwelling-place was Asgard. 
Though this worship was native only to the 
tribes of Scandinavia, its influence extended 
throughout ancient Germany, and may still be 
traced in many German proper names. Thus 
the German names of the days of the week, 
which through the Saxons became incorporated 
into the English language, are derived from this 
mythology. (See Asgard.) Asen was also the 
name of several mediaeval czars of Bulgaria. 

As'enath, the daughter of Potipherah, 
priest of On, and the wife of Joseph (Gen. xli. 
45 , 50 ). 

Asepsis. See Antiseptics. 

Asex'ual Generation. See Parthenogene¬ 
sis. 

Asgard, as'gard, the home of the EEsir, 
or Asen, and the Olympus of northern mythol¬ 
ogy. The city of Asgard is fabled to have been 
built in the middle of Ida’s plain, the very centre 
of the universe. Here the EEsir erected a court 
for themselves with seats for 12 and one high 
seat for Odin, the All-father, and also a lofty 
abode for the goddesses, called Vingolf. They 
worked diligently, played at games, were rich 
in gold and all precious things, and happy, till 
three maidens from Jotunheim, the giants’ 
world, crossed Ida’s plain and entered Asaheim, 
when corruption spread among its inmates. As¬ 
gard had many mansions, the largest and noblest 
of which was Gladsheim; while another, not so 
spacious, but the fairest of all and brighter than 
the sun, was called Gimli. See Scandinavian 
Mythology. 

Asgill, as'gil, John, an eccentric English 
writer: b. Hanly Castle, 1659; d. 1738. He 
was bred to the law, and gained considerable 
reputation, not only by skill in his profession, 
but from his pamphlet declaring that man might 
pass into eternal life without dying. In 1703 he 
took his seat in the Irish Parliament, but was 
dismissed after four days on account of his so- 
called blasphemous pamphlet. In 1705 he sat in 
the English Parliament for Bramber; but in 1707 
he was expelled, nominally on account of his un¬ 
lucky pamphlet, but really perhaps because of 


his debts. The remainder of his life he spent in 
the Fleet and King’s Bench prisons, in one of 
which he died. He wrote a number of pam¬ 
phlets on the Pretender and on the Hanoverian 
succession. 

Ash ( Fraxinus ), a genus of about 50 spe¬ 
cies of hardy, ornamental trees of the natural 
order Olcacccc, natives mainly of North America, 
Europe, and western Asia. The species are 
prized for street and park planting for which 
their usually tall pyramidal or broad-topped hab¬ 
its and light, green foliage, which turns yellow 
or purple in autumn but which falls early, 
makes them specially attractive. From the ele¬ 
gance of their forms several species, notably the 
first mentioned below, have been called the 
Venus of the forest; the oak being the Her¬ 
cules. The leaves are rather large opposite, pin¬ 
nate, and deciduous; the flowers greenish or 
whitish in panicles, appearing either before, with, 
or after the leaves; the fruits are rather small 
samaras. Since grass and other plants do not 
grow well in the immediate vicinity of the ash 
it is not a good lawn species. The common 
ash ( Fraxinus excelsior) , a native of Europe 
and western Asia, found in its perfection upon 
loamy soil, often attains a height of 120 or even 
150 feet. It also thrives in exposed and elevated 
situations better than many other trees. Its 
naked flowers appear long before the leaves, 
which drop early in the autumn, but during the 
summer are very ornamental. Its leaflets are ses¬ 
sile and serrated toothed. Its tough, hard, white 
wood makes excellent fuel and is highly valued 
for turning (for carriage wheels especially) 
when the tree has grown rapidly, since the 
toughness is then very great. It is then particu¬ 
larly valuable for carriage shafts, ladders, 
handles of agricultural tools, such as rakes, 
pitchforks, and hoes, where pliability, toughness, 
and lightness are essential. For such uses its 
only important rival in America is the hickory. 
When gnarled, as it occasionally is, it is pre¬ 
pared like ^curly® maple for cabinet work and 
furniture, specially fine-grained specimens being 
used as veneer. The bark is used to some ex¬ 
tent in leather tanning. A large number of cul¬ 
tivated varieties have been produced, among 
which the most remarkable are: Monophylla 
(erroneously raised by some botanists to the 
rank of a species), with simple instead of com¬ 
pound leaves or with only one or two small leaf¬ 
lets at the base of the main leaf-blade; albo- 
marginata, the leaflets of which are bordered 
with white; albo-variegata, with mottled white 
and green leaflets; anrea, yellow branched; 
ciurea-pendula, drooping yellow branches; pen- 
dula, one of the best weeping trees; crispa, with 
curled and twisted very dark green leaves. The 
American or white ash ( F. ame v icana) , a very 
variable. species common from New Brunswick 
to Florida and westward to Minnesota and 
Texas, but rare south of New Jersey, attains 
about the same size as the preceding species, but 
has lighter bark and leaves. The leaflets have 
short stalks and are entire. In rich, moist, dense 
woods the trunks often attain a height of 40 
feet without a branch, thus furnishing valuable 
timber, which is used for the same purposes as 
that of the preceding species. There are many 
varieties which more or less resemble those of 
the common ash. The black or water ash ( F. 
nigra), common in swamps and upon stream 


ASH (Fraxinus excelsior). 



i, 2. The unfolding of the Dad. 3. A shoot in flower. 4, 5,6. Androgynous flower, from differ¬ 
ent sides. 7. The stamen, exposed with two anthers on their filament. 8. The pistil. 9. The seed-pod, 
exhibiting the hanging seeds. 10. Section of the seed-pod. 11. Spray of hanging fruit. 12. Fruit laid 
open, exposing seed. 13. The two lobes of the seed, showing inner and outer side. 14. Seedling plant. 





























































ASH 


banks from Nova Scotia to Minnesota and 
southward to Missouri and Virginia, often at¬ 
tains a height of 80 feet. Its wood is softer 
than that of the preceding, but, being tough and 
easily separable longitudinally into layers, is 
largely used for veneer, baskets, barrel staves 
and hoops. The name F. sambucifolia, by which 
this species is sometimes called, was given it 
because the bruised leaves smell like those of 
elder. The red ash (F. pubescens or F. penn- 
sylvanica ) is common in low ground from mari¬ 
time Canada to Florida, being especially abun¬ 
dant in the swamps of Pennsylvania, Maryland, 
and Virginia. It is rare west of Ohio, though 
found as far west as Dakota and Minnesota. It 
resembles the American ash in uses and in gen¬ 
eral appearance. The interior of the outer bark 
of the branches is cinnamon color or red when 
fresh. The blue ash (F. quadrangalata) , com¬ 
mon in rich, dry, or moist woods from Michigan 
and Minnesota to Tennessee and Arkansas, and 
especially abundant in Ohio and Kentucky, at¬ 
tains a height of 80 to 120 feet. Its branches 
are more or less four-angled, hence the spe¬ 
cific name, and the membranes which give the 
smaller branches this form are specially no¬ 
ticeable on the young shoots. The inner bark 
yields a blue color when steeped in water, hence 
the common name. The green ash (F. viridis), 
a species very widely distributed over Canada 
and the United States from ocean to ocean, is 
so called from the brilliant green of its young 
shoots. It is extensively planted to form wind¬ 
breaks in Minnesota and the Dakotas on account 
of its extreme hardiness and because it is easily 
propagated by seeds and also because it grows 
very rapidly. It is less valued for its wood 
than the white ash, but is useful for fuel. The 
Carolina or water ash (F. caroliniana, also re¬ 
ferred variously to F. platicarpa and F. ameri- 
cana ) seldom exceeds 40 feet in height, but is 
noted for its very large leaflets. It is distributed 
from Virginia to Florida and westward to Ar¬ 
kansas and Texas, being most plentiful in 
swamps, along water courses and in damp, rich 
woods. Its wood is used like that of the white 
ash. F. cuspidata, a native of the southwestern 
United States and northern Mexico, is a shrub 
or small tree which seldom exceeds 20 feet in 
height, and on account of its conspicuous pani¬ 
cles of fragrant flowers is often planted in tem¬ 
perate climates for ornamental purposes. F. 
velutina, also sometimes referred to F. pistacia - 
folia, another species of the same region, sel¬ 
dom attains a height of 50 feet, and not being 
hardy is confined to southern planting. The 
manna or flowering ash (F. Ornns or Ornus 
europaa), a native of southern Europe and 
western Asia, is a small tree 25 feet tall which 
resembles the common ash. It furnishes manna 
(q.v.), as does also F. rotundifolia which by 
some botanists is considered a variety of F. 
Ornus. It is a native of Greece. Many other 
species are of botanical, economic, or ornamen¬ 
tal interest, but probably none of as much im¬ 
portance as the species mentioned. The moun¬ 
tain ash (q.v.), a member of the natural order 
Rosacea, obtains its name from its ash-like 
lcsvcs* 

Consult: Nicholson, dictionary of Garden- 
ing ) (1888) ; Bailey and Miller, <Cyclopaedia of 
American Horticulture 1 * (1900-2). 

Vol. 1—52 


Ash, or Ash'es, the fixed residue obtained 
by burning any part of an organized substance 
in air. Ash usually contains the following, or 
some of the following, metallic and non-metalhc 
elements: 

Metals 

Potassium 
Sodium 
Calcium 
Barium 
Iron 

Manganese 
Aluminum 
Copper 
Zinc 

These substances are combined in various 
forms in the living body of the plant or animal. 
They are derived from the soil in the case of 
plants, and chiefly from plants in the case of 
animals. Different parts of the animal or vege¬ 
table frame are characterized by differences in 
the ash which they leave when burned; thus ash 
of bones consists largely of phosphate of cal¬ 
cium; the animal fluids and the juices of plants 
contain chlorid of sodium; sea-plants leave an 
ash rich in alkaline carbonates and also charac¬ 
terized by the presence of bromids and iodids of 
the alkalies. (See Barilla; Kelp.) Many 
grasses contain large quantities of silica, which 
appears in the ash of these plants. An examina¬ 
tion of the ash of plants often leads to impor¬ 
tant conclusions as to the most suitable manure 
to employ for enriching the soil in which the 
plants are to be grown. 

Ashes. — The non-volatile, inorganic portion 
of an animal or vegetable substance left behind 
after incineration. Ashes consist of the most 
part of carbonates, sulphates, sulphids, silicates 
and phosphates of potassium, sodium, calcium, 
magnesium, manganese, and iron, with occa¬ 
sional admixture of unusual elements such as 
aluminum. In certain seaweeds iodin is a prom¬ 
inent constituent of the ash, and silica occurs in 
many rushes. The solid matters taken up by 
plants are not absorbed in anything like the 
proportions in which they occur in the soil 
whence they are derived. This is well illustrated 
by analyses of the ashes of different plants, 
growing side by side in the same soil. Thus 
Kerner gives four such analyses, made on the 
ashes of (1) the water-soldier ( Stratitoes alo - 
ides) ; (2) the white water-lily (Nymphaa 

alba) ; (3) a stonewort ( Chara fcetida), and 
(4) a reed ( Phragmites communis) . The re¬ 
sults, so far as potash, soda, lime, and silica are 
concerned, are as follows: 


PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF ASH. 



Water 

soldier 

Water 

lily 

Stone¬ 

wort 

Reed 

Potash. 

30.8 

2.7 
10.7 

1.8 

144 

29.7 

18.9 

0 5 

0.2 

0.1 

54.8 

0.3 

8.6 

0.4 

5-9 

71.S 

Soda .. 

Lirne . 

Silicic Acid . 


These four plants grew close together and the 
soil from which they drew their supplies was 
identical, so far as could be discovered. The 
stonewort, it will be seen, contained a very large 
quantity of lime, and barely a trace of potash, 
soda, or silica; while nearly three quarters of 
the ash of the reed consisted of silica, and there 


Non-metals 

Chlorine 

Bromine 

Iodine 

Phosphorus 

Sulphur 

Silicon 

Carbon 


















ASH-FLY — ASHANTEE 


was less than one ninth as much lime as was 
found in the stonewort. If we pass from the 
consideration of different plants growing in the 
same soil to that of the same plant growing in 
different soils, the results are equally surprising. 
Thus Kernel* gives analyses of the ash obtained 
from the foliage and branches of the yew tree 
(Taxus baccata ), the specimens analyzed being 
taken from soils rich in serpentine, limestone, 
and gneiss, respectively. The results are pre¬ 
sented in the accompanying table. It will be 
seen that there are some slight differences 
in composition, but when the wide difference in 
the soils is taken into account it is remarkable 
that the proportions are so nearly alike. 



Nature of 

Soil 

Substance Found 





Serpen- 

Lime- 

Gneiss 


tine 

stone 

Silicic Acid . 

3.9 

3-6 

3-7 

Sulphuric Acid . 

l -9 

1.6 

1.9 

Phosphoric Acid. 

8-3 

5-5 

4.2 

0.6 

Iron Oxid . 

2.1 

i -7 

Lime and Magnesia. 

Potash . 

38.8 

28.6 

41.2 

21 8 

36.3 

27.6 

Carbonic Acid. 

14.1 

23-1 

24.4 


One feature that was prominent in the 
analyses of the yew-tree ash has been purposely 
obscured in the table by counting the lime and 
magnesia together. It appears that when a 
plant needs a certain substance for its growth 
it will sometimes make use of another substance 
whose chemical properties are closely similar, 
provided the more desirable one cannot be had in 
sufficient quantities. Thus the ash of the yew- 
trees growing over limestone contained 36.1 per 
cent of lime and 5.1 per cent of magnesia; and 
that of the trees growing over gneiss contained 
30.6 per cent of lime and 5.7 per cent of mag¬ 
nesia. The serpentine soil, however, was much 
poorer in lime than either of the others,— ser¬ 
pentine being composed almost entirely of mag¬ 
nesium, silicon, and oxygen,— and the trees 
growing upon this soil, being unable to obtain 
the necessary quantity of lime, accepted, in the 
place of the lime, an equal weight of magnesia, 
which strongly resembles lime in its chemical 
properties; the observed quantity of lime in 
these trees being only 16.1 per cent, while mag¬ 
nesia was present to the extent of 22.7 per cent. 
The ashes of plants show that in certain cases 
the plants from which they are obtained possess 
a wonderful power of collecting large amounts 
of some particular substance, even when this 
substance is present in the soil or water in which 
they are growing in such minute quantities that 
it can barely be detected by the most delicate 
chemical tests. For example, the sea-weeds of 
the North Sea are so rich in iodin that their 
ashes formed the chief supply of this substance 
for years,— in fact, until the extensive South 
American deposits of sodium iodid were dis¬ 
covered. It would naturally be inferred that 
the North Sea contains considerable quantities 
of soluble iodids; but the fact is, that no trace 
of iodin or of iodids has yet been detected in 
it, by the most delicate tests. Wood ashes have 
long been used as a source of potash, this sub¬ 
stance being readily obtained from them by mere 
leaching with water. The greater part of the 


potash of commerce is now obtained from °^ ier 
sources, but the leaching process is still in use 
in country places where wood ashes are plentiful* 
the potash so obtained being chiefly used for the 
manufacture of soap. Wood ashes are also valu¬ 
able for fertilizing purposes, on account of the 
potash and phosphorus they contain. 

Ash'-fly, the gall-fly of the oak (Cymps 
quercifolia ). See Galls; Gall-fly. 

Ash'-leaved' Ma'ple. See Box Elder. 

Ash'-Wednesday, the first day of Lent. 
The name is derived from the ancient custom 
of putting ashes upon the head as a symbol of 
humble repentance for sin. In the Roman Cath¬ 
olic Church it is part of the religious service on 
this day for the priest to put ashes on the fore¬ 
head of each worshipper while kneeling at the 
altar rails. In the English Church and in the 
American Episcopal Church the day is observed 
with especial solemnity as the opening of the 
penitential season, and also in the Unitarian 
(( King’s Chapel, )) in Boston, Mass. 

Ashantee, a-shan'te, a negro kingdom of 
western Africa and practically a part of the 
British colony of the Gold Coast. Its bounda¬ 
ries cannot be stated with any definiteness, but 
its area may be roughly estimated at 10,000 
sauare miles. It is in general hilly and is 
largely covered with forests. It is well watered 
and extremely fertile, but the climate is un¬ 
healthy. Among the trees are the baobab, palms, 
and cotton trees. The crops are chiefly rice, 
corn, sugar-cane, and yams, the last forming the 
staple vegetable food of the natives. The domes¬ 
tic animals are cattle, horses of small size, goats, 
and a species of hairy sheep. The larger wild 
animals are the elephant, rhinoceros, buffalo, 
lion, hippopotamus, etc. Birds are numerous and 
crocodiles and other reptiles abound. Gold is 
obtained, being found either in the form of dust 
or in nuggets. The Ashantees long made them¬ 
selves well known as being warlike and fero¬ 
cious, with a love of shedding human blood 
amounting to a passion. Human teeth and jaw¬ 
bones were worn as personal ornaments, and 
human sacrifices used to be frequent. On the 
death of a king or chief enormous numbers of 
victims were slaughtered with circumstances of 
revolting cruelty, and there were regularly re¬ 
curring periods, at intervals of 18 or 24 days, 
called the great and little adcii, when human 
sacrifices were made. Notwithstanding this 
there exist among the Ashantees certain of the 
arts of civilization. They excel in the manufac¬ 
ture of cotton cloths and in the fabrication of 
articles in gold; they make good earthenware, 
tan leather, and make sword-blades of superior 
workmanship. The native government is a mon¬ 
archy. The chief town is Coomassie or Kumasi. 
The British first came in contact with the Ashan¬ 
tees in 1807, when a treaty was concluded by the 
governor of Cape Coast with the king of 
Ashantee, acknowledging the sovereignty of the 
latter by right of conquest over the coast, includ¬ 
ing Cape Coast Castle. In 1823 war was pro¬ 
claimed by the Ashantees against the British, 
and they succeeded in the following year in de¬ 
feating a small body of troops led by the gov¬ 
ernor, who perished with almost all his officers; 
but in 1826 the Ashantees were completely de¬ 
feated near Accra. At the close of another war, 
in 1831, the river Prah was fixed as the bound- 



















ASHBURNER — ASHEVILLE 


ary between the Ashantee kingdom and the 
states protected by Great Britain, but the Ashan- 
tees soon began to interfere beyond the boun¬ 
dary. Early in 1873 the Ashantees again in¬ 
vaded the territory protected by Great Britain, 
an d Gen. Wolseley (subsequently Viscount 
Wolseley) was now sent against them. The 
Ashantee general Amanquantia had concentrated 
his troops, 20,000 strong, at Amoaful, 20 miles 
from Coomassie. The British general led to the 
attack 1,481 English and 708 native troops, 
whom he formed into a square. The battle be¬ 
gan on 31 January, on which day Amoaful was 
taken. Ihe British continued to advance fight- 
ing, the enemy at the same time attempting to 
break in upon their rear by attacking the troops 
left at Fommanah. On the 4th Coomassie was 
entered. The loss of the British in killed and 
wounded was 300, and a large number ultimately 
succumbed to the climate. As the king refused 
to enter Coomassie to sign a treaty, the British 
set fire to the town and began their return march 
on the 6th. The treaty signed soon after stipu¬ 
lated that the king of Ashantee should renounce 
his claims to the protectorate over the allies of 
Great Britain; that free trade and open commu¬ 
nication should be established with the coast, 
and that the king should pay an indemnity of 
50,000 ounces of gold. The last condition was 
not faithfully observed, but the result of the 
war was greatly to weaken the power of the 
Ashantees. The conduct of King Prempeh, a 
successor of King Koffee, led to the dispatch of 
another British expedition, which in 1896 en¬ 
tered Coomassie without resistance, and received 
the abject submission of the king, who was taken 
and sent into banishment. A British resident 
has since been stationed in the country, which 
is now a British protectorate, subordinate to the 
governor of the Gold Coast, and will no longer 
be the scene of human sacrifices and slave trad¬ 
ing. In June 1898 an agreement was arrived at 
between Great Britain and France with regard 
to the boundaries between their respective terri¬ 
tories here. The population of Ashantee is es¬ 
timated at from 1,000,000 to 3,000,000. 

Ash'burner, Charles Albert, an American 
geologist: b. Philadelphia, 9 Feb. 1854; d. Pitts¬ 
burg, 24 Dec. 1889. He graduated at the head 
of his class at the University of Pennsylvania, 
and was appointed assistant State geologist in 
1875. He originated a method of surveying and 
representing the geology of the anthracite coal 
fields which received the approbation of mining 
engineers throughout the world. Pie was also 
an accepted authority on the natural-gas fields. 
In 1886 he entered private practice as an expert 
and became closely associated with the Westing- 
house interests. He prepared over 20 of the 
Pennsylvania State geological survey reports, 
and contributed to scientific and technical jour¬ 
nals. 

Ash'burnham, Sir Cromer, an English 
military officer: b. 1831. He served with dis¬ 
tinction in the Indian Mutiny campaign, Afghan¬ 
istan campaign, the Boer war (1881), the Egyp¬ 
tian, and eastern Sudan campaigns; and was 
subsequently governor of Suakim. 

Ash'burton, Alexander Baring, Lord, an 

English statesman and financier: b. London, 27 
Oct. 1774; d. 13 May 1848. He was the second 
son of Sir Francis Baring, and the affairs of 


the famous mercantile house established by his 
father kept him employed in Canada and the 
United States for many years. In 1810 he be¬ 
came the head of the house of Baring Brothers, 
and in 1812 sat in Parliament for Taunton. He 
was created Baron Ashburton in 1835. He was 
appointed special ambassador to the United 
States in 1842 to settle the Northwestern boun¬ 
dary question and other matters in dispute be¬ 
tween England and America. A street in Bos¬ 
ton, known as Ashburton Place, was named in 
his honor. 

Ash'burton River, a stream in western 
Australia flowing 400 miles and emptying into 
the Indian Ocean, lat. 22° S.; Ion. 115 0 W. 

Ash'burton Trea'ty, a treaty concluded at 
Washington in August 1842 by Alexander Bar¬ 
ing, Lord Ashburton, and the President of the 
United States. It defined the boundaries be¬ 
tween the United States and Canada. 

Ash'by, Turner, an American soldier: b. 
1824; d. June 1862. He entered the Confed¬ 
erate army in 1861 and became a brigadier- 
general. He was especially distinguished for 
his gallantry. He was killed in a skirmish at 
Harrisburg, Va. 

Ashby-Sterry, Joseph, a well known Eng¬ 
lish writer on the staff of the Daily Graphic. 
He is novelist and poet, as well as journalist, 
and among his published books are: ( Nutshell 
Novels ) (1890) ; ( The Lazy Minstrel,> a collec¬ 
tion of brilliant verse (1892) ; ( Naughty Girl, a 
Story of i 893 ) (1893) ; ( A Tale of the Thames 
in Verse^* (1896) ; ( The Bystander, or Leaves 
for the Lazy* (1900). 

Ashby-de-la-Zouche, ash'bT-de-la-zooch', a 
market town in Leicestershire. England, on the 
borders of Derbyshire, 17 miles northwes^ of 
Leicester. It has wide, well-paved streets, avd 
its parish church of Saint Helen is a handsomt 
building with stained-glass windows, carvings, 
and monuments. The Ivanhoe baths attract vis¬ 
itors, the waters being beneficial for some ail¬ 
ments. The ruins of Ashby Castle, well known 
to readers of Hvanhoe,* which received Mary 
Queen of Scots as a prisoner, are still visible. 
Pop. (1901) 4700. 

Ash'dod. See Asdood. 

Ashe, ash, John, an American soldier: b. 
in North Carolina, 1720; d. 24 Oct. 1781. Fie 
was a member of the first Provincial Congress 
and served in the American Revolution as a 
brigadier-general of North Carolina troops. 
Asheville, N. C., was called in his honor. 

Ash'er, the name of the eighth son of 
Jacob. He founded the tribe called after him, 
which occupied a fertile territory in Palestine 
along the coast between Carmel and Lebanon. 

Asheville, ash'vil, N. C., a city and county- 
seat of Buncombe County, on the Southern R.R., 
near the French Broad River; 275 miles west of 
Raleigh. It is in a tobacco-growing region; has 
manufactories of cotton goods, shoes, ice, to¬ 
bacco, and flour; and is widely famed as a win¬ 
ter and summer resort. The city is 2,350 feet 
above the level of the sea and is surrounded by 
impressive mountain scenery. It has the Asiie- 
ville College for Young Women, Bingham Mili¬ 
tary School, Asheville School for Boys, Normal 
College and Collegiate Institute for Young 


ASHEVILLE COLLEGE — ASHLEY 


Women, Home Industrial School for Girls, 
Asheville Farm School for Boys, Industrial 
School for Colored Youth, an auditorium cen¬ 
trally situated seating 2,000, and free to conven¬ 
tions, weather bureau, three national banks, and 
nearly 50 hotels and boarding-houses. It has 
modern sewerage, electric light and gas plants, a 
water supply by 17 miles of pipe line from trout 
streams on the water shed of Mt. Mitchell, and 
an electric street car system with a trolley road 
to Sunset Mountains. In the suburbs are the 
grand estate of Biltmore, established by George 
Vanderbilt of New York city; one of the finest 
botanical gardens in the world; Pisgah forest, a 
hunting preserve of 84,000 acres; Riverside 
Parks; and Mount Beaumont, 2,800 feet high. 
Pop. (1900) 14,694. 

Ashe'ville College, a non-sectarian edu¬ 
cational institution for women, in Asheville, N. 
C. It was organized in 1842, and at the end of 
1899 had 17 professors, 135 students, and 
grounds and buildings valued at $100,000. 

Ash'ford, a market-town in Kent, Eng¬ 
land, pleasantly situated on the river Stour. 
There are corn and cattle markets, and the 
Southeastern Railway Company have their prin¬ 
cipal locomotive and carriage establishments 
here. Pop. (1901) 12,808. 

Ash'hurst, John, an American surgeon: b. 
1839; d. 1900. He was graduated at the Uni¬ 
versity of Pennsylvania in 1857; served as an 
army surgeon in the Civil War; became sur¬ 
geon of several Philadelphia hospitals after his 
return; and was made president of the College 
of Physicians in Philadelphia in 1898. He held 
surgical chairs in the University of Pennsyl¬ 
vania; was a member of the principal medical 
and surgical associations of the country; and 
besides many individual publications edited the 
( International Encyclopedia of Surgery ) (1881- 
1886) ; and ( Lippincott’s New Medical Diction¬ 
ary. > He was the author of Unjuries of the 
Spine ) (1867) ; and Principles and Practice of 
Surgery > (1871). 

Ashikaga, a'she-ka'ga, a town in Japan, 
17 miles by rail from Tokyo. From the 9th to 
the 17th century it was of much importance as 
a seat of learning. It is now noted for its trade 
in silk and cotton. Pop. (1898) 21,348. 

Ash'kelon. See Ascalon. 

Ash'land, Ky., a city of Boyd County, sit¬ 
uated on the Ohio River; on the Chesapeake & 
Ohio, Norfolk & Western, and other railroads. 
It was chartered as a city in 1870. Its manufac-' 
tures include cut and wire nails, steel billets, 
sheet steel, leather furniture, etc., and it is a 
shipping point for iron ore and coal. Pop. 
(1900) 6,800. 

Ash'land, Ky., an estate in the suburbs of 
Lexington, famous as the home of Henry Clay. 
It consists of about 600 acres, 200 of which form 
a park similar to the large private parks of Eng¬ 
land. The house in which Mr. Clay lived was 
a plain structure, two stories in height. After 
his death the property passed by public sale 
into the hands of his eldest son, James B. Clay, 
who took down the old house and rebuilt it. 

Ash'land. Ohio, a town and county-seat of 
Ashland County; on the Erie R.R., 65 miles 
southwest of Cleveland. It has important manu¬ 
factures, large trade, a national bank, and sev¬ 


eral newspapers, and is the seat of Ashland Uni¬ 
versity, a non-sectarian institution, founded in 
1878. Pop. (1900) 4.087. 

Ashland, Ore., city and county-seat of Jack- 
son County; situated in the extreme southern 
part of the State, on the Southern Pacific Rail¬ 
road, 341 miles south from Portland, and 431 
miles northerly from San Francisco. Ashland 
is the seat of the Southern Oregon State Nor¬ 
mal School, and has three public school buildings 
and eight church buildings. The city has an ex¬ 
cellent municipal organization and police regula¬ 
tion. Ashland owns its own water system. There 
is an extensive electric-light and power plant, 
flour-mill, ice plant, sash and door factories, box 
factory, quartz-mill, foundry and machine shops, 
and three newspapers. The Southern Oregon 
Chautauqua Association is located here. There 
are valuable gold mines in the mountains near 
by, some of them almost within the city limits. 
In the vicinity are found great varieties of other 
valuable minerals, such as cinnabar, kaolin, mar¬ 
ble, sandstone, etc. In the vicinity are many 
mineral springs, whose waters contain much 
in the way of medicinal properties. Pop. (1902) 
4,000. 

Ash'land, Pa., a borough in Schuylkill 
County, in the valley of the Mahanoy, and on 
several railroads; 12 miles northwest of Potts- 
ville. It is in the centre of the great anthracite 
coal field, has extensive mining industries, large 
machine shops, foundries, and factories, and 
contains the State Miners’ Hospital, a national 
bank, public hall, and several churches. Pop. 
(1900) 6,538. 

Ash'land, Va., a town of Hanover County, 
situated on the Richmond, F. & P. R.R., 17 
miles north of Richmond. It is the seat of Ran- 
dolph-Macon College. It was the scene of sev¬ 
eral battles during the Civil War. Henry Clay’s 
birthplace is within seven miles of the town. 
Pop. (1900) 1,147. 

Ash'land, Wis., a city and county-seat of 
Ashland County, on Chequamegon Bay, Lake 
Superior, and several railroads; 80 miles east of 
Duluth. It has one of the finest harbors on the 
lake, and beside its general lake iraffic is a ship¬ 
ping port for the hematite ore of the great 
Gogebic Iron Range. To accommodate its iron 
interests it has a number of enormous ore docks. 
Other important interests are lumber and brown 
stone. It has very large charcoal blast furnaces, 
used for the manufacture of pig iron, and since 
1885, when the real development of the Gogebic 
iron mines began, the city has grown rapidly. 
Near . by is. the group of Apostles’ Islands. 
The institutions include the North Wisconsin 
Academy, Sisters’ Hospital (Roman Catholic), 
and Rhinehart Hospital. Pop. (1900) 13,074. 

Ash'lar. See Masonry and Building. 

Ash'ley, Anthony Evelyn Melbourne, an 

English statesman: b. 1836. He is the fourth 
son of the seventh Earl of Shaftesbury, and in 
1882 succeeded Mr. Courtney as under-secretary 
of state for the colonies. 

Ash'ley, Lord. See Shaftesbury. 

Ash'ley, William James, an Anglo-Ameri¬ 
can economist: b. London, England, 25 Feb. 
i860. He was graduated from Balliol College, 
Oxford, in 1881; was Fellow of Lincoln College, 
Oxford; lecturer in history in Lincoln and Cor- 


ASHMEAD-BARTLETT — ASHTAVAKRA 


pus Christi, 1885-8, and professor of political 
economy and constitutional history at the Uni¬ 
versity of Toronto, Canada, 1888-92. He has 
been professor of economic history at Harvard 
University, 1892-1901, and since 1901 professor of 
commerce and public finance in the University 
SA Bu'mingham. He has written ( Jmnes and 
lnlip van Artevelde ) (1883); ( Introduction to 
-English Economic History and Theory> (1888- 
93 ) >.A^TT rve ys, Historic and Economic (1900) ; 

Ianff Problem> (1903) ; ( Progress of the Ger¬ 
man Working Classes> (1904); edited <Eco- 
nomic Classics >; translated Schmoller’s ( Mer¬ 
cantile System. > 

Ash mead-Bart lett, Sir Ellis, an English 
politician: b. Brooklyn, N. Y., 1849; d. London, 
England, 19 Jan. 1902. He was educated at Christ 
. College, Oxford, and admitted to the bar 

in 1877. He was examiner of the education de¬ 
partment, 1874-80; Conservative member of Par¬ 
liament from Suffolk, 1885, and from Sheffield, 
1885-1902 ; civil lord of the admiralty, 1885, 1886 ; 
and was knighted in 1892. His popularity with 
political audiences in the early 80s was second 
only to that of Lord Randolph Churchill, but he 
lost much of this influence in later years owing 
to his association with the Turks and Swazis — a 
connection which subjected him to considerable 
ridicule in the House of Commons and the press. 
His chief literary production was ( The Battle¬ 
fields of lhessaly ) (1897), a record of his experi¬ 
ences in the last war between Greece and Turkey. 

Ash'mole, Elias, a celebrated English anti¬ 
quary: b. Lichfield 1617; d. 1692. He prac¬ 
tised as a chancery solicitor till the breaking out 
of the Civil War, when he retired to Oxford and 
entered himself of Brasenose College, and en¬ 
gaged in the study of natural philosophy, math¬ 
ematics, and astronomy. At the Restoration he 
received the post of Windsor herald and other 
appointments, both honorable and lucrative. In 
1672 appeared his ( History of the Order of the 
G'arterP Other works of his are: ( The Anti¬ 
quities of Berkshire ) (1719) and his ‘Diary) 
(1717). He presented to the University of 
Oxford his collection of rarities, to which he 
afterward added his books and MSS., thereby 
commencing the Ashmolean Museum. 

Ashmolean Museum, a museum at Oxford 
University, founded by Elias Ashmole (q.v.) in 
1679. The building was erected by Sir Christo¬ 
pher Wren in 1682. 

Ash'mun, George, an American lawyer: b. 
Blanford, Mass., 1804; d. 1870. He served for 
several years in the legislature of his native State 
and was prominent in Congress in 1845-50. He 
presided over the Chicago Convention which 
in i860 nominated Lincoln for the presidency. 

Ashmun, Jebudi, an American missionary: 
b. Champlain, N. Y., April 1794; d. Boston. 
Mass., 25 Aug. 1828. He prepared for the Con¬ 
gregational ministry, and became professor in 
Bangor Theological Seminary. Later he joined 
the Protestant Episcopal Church and edited one 
of its periodicals, ‘The Theological Repertory. 5 
He discovered his true vocation when he became 
an agent of the American Colonization Society 
and took charge of a reinforcement for the 
colony of Liberia in 1822. He found the colony 
ntterlv disorganized, but in six years his energy 
and ability had thoroughly reorganized it and he 
left it in a prosperous and orderly condition. He 


died soon after his return to the United States. 
He wrote ( Memoirs of Samuel Bacon ) (1822), 
and his own life was written by R. R. Gurley 
(1839). 

Ashochimi, ash-6-che-me, or Wappo. A 
tribe of North American Indians who formerly 
ranged in California from the geysers to Cal- 
istoga hot springs and in Knight’s Valley. 

Ashraf, a-schraf', a town in Persia, near 
the southern coast of the Caspian Sea, 56 miles 
west of Astrabad. It was a favorite residence 
of Shah Abbas the Great, and was adorned by 
him with splendid buildings, of which only a few 
miserable ruins now remain. 

Ashtabula, Ohio, city in Ashtabula County, 
on Lake Erie, at the mouth of the Ashtabula 
River; 54 miles east of Cleveland; on the New 
York, C. & St. L., the Pittsburg, Y. & A., and 
the Lake Shore & M. S. R.R.’s. It is the centre 
of an extensive agricultural and dairying re¬ 
gion, and has large manufactories of leather, 
woolen goods, and farm implements. It has a 
Carnegie public library, three national banks, 
city hospital, and numerous large buildings. Its 
extensive railroad and lake commerce makes 
it an important transfer shipping point, espe¬ 
cially for iron and coal. The city was first set¬ 
tled in 1801, was organized as a township in 
1805, and incorporated as a city in 1892. On 29 
Dec. 1876, a railroad accident here at a high 
bridge over the river resulted in the loss of 
over 100 lives. The city is governed by a mayor 
and city council elected biennially. Pop. (1890) 
8 , 338 ; (1900) 12,949. 

Ash'taroth, a goddess anciently wor¬ 
shipped by the Jews. Ashtaroth is the Astarte 
of the Greeks and Romans, and is identified by 
ancient writers with the goddess Venus (Aphro¬ 
dite). She is probably the same as the Isis of 
the Egyptians. In Scripture she is almost al¬ 
ways joined with Baal, and is called god, Scrip¬ 
ture having no particular word for expressing 
goddess. She was the goddess of the moon; her 
temples generally accompanied those of the sun, 
and while bloody sacrifices or human victims 
were offered to Baal, bread, liquors, and per¬ 
fumes were presented to Astarte. 

Ashtavakra, ash-ta-va'kra. In Hindu leg¬ 
end, the hero of a story in the Mahabharata. 
His father, Kahoda, devoted to study, neglected 
his wife. Ashtavakra, though still unborn, re¬ 
buked him, and the angry father condemned the 
son to be crooked (hence the name, from Asli- 
tan, eight, and vakra, crooked). At the court 
of Janaka, king of Mithila, Kahoda was defeated 
in argument by a Buddhist sage and was 
drowned in accordance with the conditions. In 
his 12th year Ashtavakra set out to avenge his 
father, and worsted the sage, who declared him¬ 
self to be a son of Varuna sent to obtain Brah¬ 
mins to officiate at a sacrifice. Kahoda was re¬ 
stored to life, and commanded his son to bathe 
in the Samanga River, whence the boy becomes 
perfectly straight. In the Vishnu Purana some 
celestial nymphs see Ashtavakra performing pen¬ 
ance in the water and worship him. He prom¬ 
ises them a boon and they ask the best of 
husbands. When he offers himself they laugh 
in derision at his crookedness. Pie cannot re¬ 
call his blessing, but condemns them to fall into 
the hands of thieves. 


ASHTON —ASIA 


Ash'ton, John, an English antiquarian: b. 
London, 22 Sept. 1834. He has published a 
long list of works on history, chap-books, leg¬ 
ends, ballads, manners, and customs, caricature 
and satire, among which are ( Social Life in the 
Reign of Queen Anne ) (1882) ; ( History of the 
Chap-books of the 18th Century* (1882) ; ( So¬ 
cial England under the Regency 1 * (1890) ; 
< When William IV, was King ) (1896); <Gam¬ 
bling in England* (1898); <Gossip in the First 
Decade of Victoria’s Reign* (1903). 

Ashton, Lucy, the heroine of Sir Walter 
Scott’s novel, ( The Bride of Lammermoor.* 
Engaged to a man she loves, she is forced to 
marry another, and dies a maniac on her wed¬ 
ding day. 

Ashton-in-Mak'erfield, a town of Lanca¬ 
shire, England, 15 miles from Manchester, and 
noted for its potteries, collieries, and cotton- 
mills. Pop. (1901) 18,700. 

Ash'ton-Un'der-Lyne, a market-town of 
Lancashire, England, 6 miles east of Manchester, 
on the north bank of the river Tame. It was 
an ancient Saxon town; the most interesting 
building is the parish church built in the reign 
of Henry V. Since 1769 it has grown rapidly 
through the extension of the cotton manufacture, 
both the spinning of cotton yarn and the weaving 
of calicoes being carried on in the town to a 
great extent. Upward of 20,000 work people 
are employed in factories. There are also col¬ 
lieries and iron-works in the neighborhood 
which employ a great many persons. Pop. (1901) 
43 , 900 . 

Ashura'da, a small island in the south¬ 
east corner of the Caspian Sea. It is occupied 
by Russia as a naval and trading station. 

Asia, the largest of the five continental 
divisions of the earth, lying eastward of the Eu¬ 
ropean and African continents, and separated 
from the American continent by Bering Strait 
and the Pacific Ocean. It is bounded north, east, 
and south, respectively, by the Arctic, Pacific, 
and Indian Oceans, with their various branches 
and inlets ; it is divided from Africa on the south¬ 
west by the narrow isthmian Suez Canal; and is 
connected with Europe on the northwest across 
the whole breadth of that continent. The nat¬ 
ural western boundaries are the Ural Mountains, 
the Caspian Sea, Caucasus Mountains, the Black 
Sea, Aegean Sea, the Mediterranean and Red 
Seas. The sinuosities of the Asiatic coast are 
very extensive; on the south the chief ocean in¬ 
lets are the Gulf of Aden; the Arabian Sea with 
its inlets, the Gulf of Oman, the Persian Gulf, 
and the Gulfs of Cutch, Cambay, and Manar; 
and the Bay of Bengal containing the Gulf of 
Martaban. On the eastern or Pacific coast pro¬ 
ceeding northward the principal indentations are 
the China Sea with the Gulfs of Siam and of 
Tonkin; the Tung-hai or Eastern Sea; the 
Hwang-hai or Yellow Sea with the Gulf of 
Pechili and Korea Bay; the Sea of Japan with 
the Gulf of Tartary; the Sea of Okhotsk; and 
Bering Sea with the Gulf of Anadyr. On the 
north or Arctic coast are the Nordenskjold Sea 
and the Kara Sea with the Gulf of Obi. The 
coast line is about 35,000 miles, giving a pro¬ 
portion of one mile of coast line to 496 square 
miles of surface. From the extreme southwestern 
point of Arabia, at the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb 


to the, extreme northeastern point of Cape 
Deshnef or East Cape, the length of Asia is 
about 6,900 miles, its breadth from Cape Chel¬ 
yuskin or Northeast Cape in Siberia to Cape 
Romania, the southern extremity of the Malay 
Peninsula, is about 5,300 miles. The total area 
is estimated at 17,296,000 square miles. The 
most prominent features of the southern coast 
are the three great peninsulas of Arabia, India, 
and the Indo-Chinese Peninsula. The east coast 
is also flanked with insular and peninsular pro¬ 
jections, forming a series of sheltered seas and 
bays. A series of large islands extends to the 
southeast of the continent, forming a connection 
with Australia; while a multitude of smaller is¬ 
lands are scattered over the Pacific and Indian 
Oceans. The principal peninsulas on the east 
are Kamchatka and Korea. The larger islands, 
proceeding from the northeast coast, are Sagha- 
lien, the Japanese Islands, the Philippine Is¬ 
lands, Borneo, Sumatra, Java, Celebes, the Mo¬ 
luccas, Papua or New Guinea, which, however, 
is Australasian rather than Asiatic, and lastly 
Ceylon at the southeastern extremity of the In¬ 
dian Peninsula. The Kurile Islands, between 
Kamchatka and Japan, the islands of Loo Choo, 
Formosa, and Hainan on the Chinese coast, and 
the Andaman and Nicobar islands in the Indian 
Ocean, may also be noticed. On the west or 
Mediterranean coast the principal islands be¬ 
longing to Asia are Cyprus and Rhodes. The 
northern coast, from East Cape or Deshnef, 
in Bering Strait, and on the Arctic Circle, to 
the Yalmal Peninsula, in the extreme northwest, 
is almost entirely contained within that circle. 
The highest point. Cape Chelyuskin, is about 
78° N. The largest group of islands on the 
north coast is the Liakhov Islands (New Si¬ 
beria) ; the largest indentation is the Gulf of 
Obi, which reaches below the Arctic Circle, and 
receives the river Obi about that latitude. 

Mountains .— The mountain systems of Asia 
are of great extent, and their culminating 
points are the highest in the world. There are 
also vast plateaus and elevated valley regions, 
but large portions of the continent are low and 
flat. Such are the greater portions of Siberia, 
from the Ural Mountains across the north of the 
continent, and the western central region of 
the continent, where an area of great depression 
culminates in the Caspian. The greatest moun¬ 
tain system in Asia, and so far at least as alti¬ 
tude is concerned, of the world, is the Hima¬ 
layan system, the principal mass of which lies 
between Ion. 65° and iio° E. and lat. 28° and 
37° N. It thus occupies a position not very far 
from the centre of the continent, though nearer 
the southern edge than the northern. It ex¬ 
tends, roughly speaking, from northwest to 
southeast, its total length being about 2,000 
miles, while its breadth varies from 100 to 500 
or 600. Different names have been given to dif¬ 
ferent portions of the system, such as Hindu 
Kush (the northwestern extremity), Karako¬ 
ram, and Kuen-Lun, while Himalaya is more 
especially confined to the portion forming the 
northern barrier of Hindustan; but all these 
are really portions of the same connected moun¬ 
tain mass. The Kuen-Lun simply forms the 
northern flank of the mass, and is not, as it 
has been represented, a distinct chain; while 
the Karakoram Mountains have so little to dis¬ 
tinguish them from the rest of the elevated mass 



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ASIA 


to which they belong that they may be crossed 
without the traveler being aware of it. The 
broadest part of the system, the elevated table¬ 
land of 1 ibet, lies between the Himalaya proper 
and the Kuen-Lun. Ihe Tibetan Mountains are 
connected on the east with the mountains of 
China and with those that spread to the south¬ 
east over the Indo-Chinese Peninsula. The 
1 hian-Shan is another great mountain system of 
Central Asia connected with the Himalayan 
system by the important Pamir Plateau or 
<<r o°f wor ld )> in Ion. 7o°-8o° east; lat. 

37 °~ 4 0 ° north. The point of junction forms 
Hi huge boss or knot,® from which the Thian- 
Shan runs northwestward for a distance of 
some 1,200 miles. Between these two systems, 
which curve round it on the west, lies eastern 
1 urkestan, right in the centre of Asia. The 
greatest elevations of the Himalayan system are 
to be found among the Himalayas proper, 
where is Mount Everest, 29,002 feet high, Kun- 
chinjinga, 28,156, etc. The principal passes here, 
which rise to the height of 18,000 to 20,000 feet, 
are the highest in the world. The Kuen-Lun 
summits reach a height of 22,000 feet. The 
Himalayas descend by successive slopes to the 
plain of northern India, which has an elevation 
of about 1,000 feet above the level of the sea. 
The Vindhyas cross the peninsula, dividing 
northern from southern India; the latter 
is further bounded by the eastern and the 
western Ghats, which run along the coasts; 
while the interior consists of elevated table¬ 
lands rising toward the south, where they 
-attain in the neighborhood of the Nilgiri 
Hills an elevation of 7,000 feet. The Him¬ 
alayas are not only connected with the moun¬ 
tains in the interior of India, and with 
ramifications into China and the Indo-Chinese 
peninsula, but on the west with the mountains 
•of Baluchistan and Afghanistan. The Suliman 
and Hala ranges bound India on the west, and 
unite with the mountains of Baluchistan ; while 
the Hindu Kush, passing westward through the 
north of Afghanistan, has continuations more or 
less distinct through Persia to the Elburz range 
south of the Caspian, and so onward to Mount 
Ararat. From this point again it forms connec¬ 
tions with the mountains of Armenia, with the 
Caucasus, with the Taurus range in Asia Minor, 
and with the mountains which run to the south 
•of Persia. The mountains belonging to this 
series form the boundaries of an elevated 
plateau extending from the Mediterranean to the 
Indus. On the north they are frequently of 
great elevation, Mount Demavend in the El¬ 
burz range reaching the height of 18,460 feet, 
while Ararat is nearly 17,000. The Thian-Shan 
•system is continued to the northeast by the 
Altai and Sajansk ranges, the whole separating 
the Chinese Empire from Russian Turkestan and 
Siberia. Tengri-Khan in the 1 hian-Shan Moun¬ 
tains is estimated to have a height of 21,320 
feet. A line of moderate elevation extends 
from the Altai westward to the Ural Mountains. 
To the east of the Sajansk range the Yablonoi 
Mountains run northeast toward the coast, along 
which they are continued northward under the 
name of Stanovoi to Bering Strait. 

Table-lands, Plains, and Deserts .— Tibet 
forms the most elevated table-land in Asia, its 
mean height being estimated at 15,000 feet. Its 
.surface is very rugged, being intersected by a 


number of mountain ranges running generally 
in an easterly and westerly direction. On the 
east it is bounded by lofty mountains which 
separate it from China. Some of the largest 
rivers of southern and southeastern Asia have 
their origin in Tibet, including the Indus, the 
Brahmaputra, the Yang-tse, and the Hoang-Ho. 
In this region, a numerous series of lakes run 
in a chain parallel to the Himalayas. Another 
great plateau, much lower, however, than that 
of Tibet, is the plateau of Iran, occupying a 
large portion of western Asia, extending from 
the Indus to the Mediterranean, and from the 
Persian Gulf to the Caspian Sea. It comprises 
the countries known as Afghanistan, Baluchi¬ 
stan, Persia, Armenia, and Asia Minor. It lies at 
altitudes varying from 2,000 to 8,000 feet above 
the sea. The eastern half of it consists to a 
large extent of unproductive wastes. Of great 
political and strategical importance at the junc¬ 
tion of Turkestan, Afghanistan, and India, is 
the Pamir Plateau, already alluded to, called by 
the natives (< the roof of the world.® Its valleys 
are at an elevation of from 11,000 to 13,000 feet 
above the sea. Another table-land of smaller 
extent and elevation is the Deccan Plateau, In¬ 
dia, south of the parallel of lat. 25 0 N. The 
principal plain of Asia, as already mentioned, is 
that of Siberia, which extends along the north of 
the continent and forms a vast alluvial tract 
sloping to the Arctic Ocean, and traversed by 
large rivers, such as the Obi, the Yenisei, and 
the Lena, that convey its drainage to that ocean. 
Vast swamps of peat-mosses called tundras 
cover large portions of this region. Southwest 
of Siberia, and stretching eastward from the 
Caspian to the Thian-Shan Mountains, is a 
low-lying tract, consisting to a great extent 
of steppes and deserts, and including in its 
area the Sea of Aral, Bokhara, Khiva, and 
other districts. This is a region of internal 
drainage, the rivers, among which are the 
Amu Daria and the Syr Daria, either falling 
into the Sea of Aral or into other smaller sheets 
of water. In the east of China there is an al¬ 
luvial plain of some 200,000 square miles in ex¬ 
tent, most of it productive and highly cultivated; 
in Hindustan there are plains extending for 
2,000 miles along the south slope of the Hima¬ 
layas ; and between Arabia and Persia, watered 
by the Tigris and Euphrates, is the plain of 
Mesopotamia or Assyria, one of the richest in 
the world. Of the deserts of Asia the largest 
is that of Gobi, which is bounded on the north 
by the Yablonoi and Thian-Shan Mountains, 
on the south by Tibet, on the east by the Khin- 
gan Mountains on the borders of China; while 
in the west it extends into eastern Turkestan. 
Large portions of it are covered with nothing 
but sand or display a surface of bare rock. This 
desert forms a large part of the country known 
as Mongolia, the whole of which forms an area 
of internal drainage, deficient in rainfall. There 
are also extensive desert tracts in Persia, Ara¬ 
bia, and Hindustan. An almost continuous des¬ 
ert region may be traced from the African desert 
through Arabia, Persia, and Baluchistan to the 
Indus. 

Rivers and Lakes .— Asia contains some of 
the largest rivers in the world. It is remarkable 
among the continents for the number of its 
rivers, some of them of large size, that never 
find their way to the ocean, their waters either 


ASIA 


being lost in the sand or falling into lakes that 
have no outlet. The chief rivers in western 
Asia are the Tigris and Euphrates, that rise in 
the Armenian plateau and fall into the Persian 
Gulf; the Indus, from the Tibetan plateau, 
flows through northwestern Hindustan and 
falls into the Arabian Sea; the Ganges, which 
rises in the Himalayas and flows eastward 
through northern Hindustan, and the Brahma¬ 
putra, which rises in Tibet and flows through 
Assam and Bengal, both enter the Bay of 
Bengal; the Irrawaddy and the Salwen, rising in 
the mountains of the Indo-Chinese Peninsula, 
and both flowing through Burma, likewise en¬ 
ter the Bay of Bengal; the Mekong or Cam¬ 
bodia, the largest river of this peninsula, has 
its sources in the same mountains, and flowing 
southeastward enters the South China Sea; the 
Yang-tse and the Hoang-Ho, the two great 
rivers of China, rise in the Tibetan plateau; and 
enter the ocean after a winding easterly course; 
the Amur, the only other great river of eastern 
Asia, rises in Mongolia, and after a circuitous 
course enters the Sea of Okhotsk; the great 
rivers of northern Asia, the Lena, Yenisei, and 
Obi, have already been mentioned. The Yenisei 
is believed to have a length of 3,400 miles, the 
Yang-tse of at least 3,000, the Lena of 2,770, the 
Hoang-Ho of 2,600. The basin of the Obi, 
including of course those of its tributaries, the 
Tobol and the Irtish, is believed to be the largest 
of any river in the world, except the Amazon 
and the Mississippi, being considerably over 
1,000,000 square miles in area. 

The largest lake of Asia is the Caspian Sea, 
which, however, is partly in Europe, its largest 
tributary being the Volga. The chief Asiatic 
rivers falling into this sea are the Kur from 
the Caucasus, the Aras from Armenia, and the 
Atrek from northern Persia — the river Ural 
being partly European, partly Asiatic. The Cas¬ 
pian lies in the centre of a great depression, 
being 83 feet below the level of the Sea of 
Azof. East from the Caspian, as already men¬ 
tioned, is the Sea of Aral, which, like the Cas¬ 
pian, has no outlet, and is fed by the rivers 
Amu Daria and Syr Daria. Its area is esti¬ 
mated at 27,000 square miles. Still farther east, 
to the north of the Thian-Shan Mountains, and 
fed by the Hi and other streams from this sys¬ 
tem, is Lake Balkash, a somewhat crescent¬ 
shaped sheet of water, with an area of 8,400 
square miles. The lake has no outlet; its water 
is clear but very salt and disagreeable. There 
are also several other smaller lakes in this re¬ 
gion, such as Issik-Kul, Kara-Kul, Ala-Kul, 
Baratala, etc. In the south of Siberia, between 
Ion. 104° and no° E., is Lake Baikal, a moun¬ 
tain lake from which the Yenisei draws a por¬ 
tion of its waters; its area is estimated at 
about 12,500 square miles. In the very centre 
of the continent is the Lob Lake, or Lob Nor, 
to which all the drainage of eastern Turkestan 
converges, being conveyed to it by the Yarkand, 
Kashgar, and other streams. These unite to 
form the Tarim River, which, from the source 
of the Yarkand, has a total length of over 1,200 
miles. Lob seems to be rather a swampy tract 
than a lake proper. On the borders of Afghan¬ 
istan, Persia, and Baluchistan, is a similar 
swampy lake that receives the Helmund and 
other streams from Afghanistan. Of the nu¬ 
merous lakes in Tibet Dangra-yum Nor and 


Tengri Nor seem to be the largest; the former is 
45 miles long and 25 broad. 

Geology .— Though in population and history 
the most ancient continent, geologically speaking 
Asia is considered, as regards its present aspect, 
to be one of the newest. The principal moun¬ 
tain chains are composed largely of granitic 
rocks. The Himalayan range of mountains bears 
a striking resemblance in geological structure 
to the Alps; they are composed of granite 
gneiss and mica-schist, with syenite and am¬ 
phibolites or trap-rocks, particularly primitive 
greenstone; the Altai Mountains contain granite 
in layers without alternation of gneiss, argilla¬ 
ceous schist in contact with greenstone, and 
containing augite, jasper, calcareous rocks, ar¬ 
gentiferous lead ore, and copper. The ramifica¬ 
tions of the Altai into Russian Asia contain also 
coal-grit, schists, quartz, and greenstone, rich 
with lead, silver, and auriferous sand. The 
lower ranges are covered with transported layers 
of rolled stones of granite, gneiss, and porphyry, 
in which are found agates, carnelians, and 
chalcedonies. In the Kuen-Lun group are found 
rubies, lapis-lazuli, and turquoises. In the east¬ 
ern part of the Urals the granite, of which the 
chain is composed, along with gneiss and other 
rocks, is extremely rich in iron and copper. 
The Caucasus contains granite, argillaceous 
schist, and basaltic porphyry. The great plains 
of northern India, Mesopotamia, central Asia, 
and Siberia are regarded as of very recent geo¬ 
logical origin. From various indications many 
geologists are of opinion that the greater part 
of western Asia was occupied at no very distant 
period by an ocean, of which the Caspian and 
Aral Seas are the remains. It is also conjec¬ 
tured that a continental area extending across 
the Indian Ocean united Asia during the Per¬ 
mian period to Africa and Australia. Siberia is 
supposed to have been twice submerged during 
the Palaeozoic and the later Tertiary period. A 
line of volcanic action extends on the eastern 
coast from Kamchatka through the Philippines 
and the Malay Archipelago to Aracan in the 
Bay of Bengal. In Kamchatka there are eight 
or nine active volcanoes; in the interior of the 
continent there appear to be none at present 
active. 

Climate, Soil, etc .— The size of Asia, the 
great altitudes and depressions of the continent, 
along with the variations of latitude and the dis¬ 
position of sea and land, etc., afford an inex¬ 
haustible source of complexity in the variety and 
distribution of climate. In Tibet, with a mean 
elevation of about 15,000 feet, the climate is 
rigorous, combining great cold with drought; 
vegetation is scanty, trees almost absent, and 
the population mostly nomadic; except in the 
lower valleys, where there is an agricultural 
population, it is very sparse. The climate of 
central Asia generally presents extremes of heat 
and cold, and great deficiency of rain. It has 
accordingly a deficient vegetation and a scanty 
nomadic population. The great region of Si¬ 
beria, which, as already mentioned, is a level 
or slightly undulating plain, lying wholly within 
the temperate and frigid zones, has a climate 
which generally resembles that of similar lati¬ 
tudes in Europe, with the exception of greater 
heat and drought in summer and greater cold 
in winter. The rainfall is very moderate, but the 
drainage is deficient and the soil often becomes. 


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ASIA 


swampy. The vegetation is scanty, consisting 
mostly of grasses and shrubs in the plains and 
pine forests on the mountains. r I here is very 
little land under cultivation and the population 
is very thin. The northern part of China to the 
east of central Asia has a temperate climate 
with a warm summer, and in the extreme north 
a severe winter. It is well watered and wooded, 
possesses a fertile and well-cultivated soil yield- 
ing the usual products of temperate regions, and 
is thickly peopled. The district lying to the 
south of the central region, comprising the two 
Indian peninsulas, southern China, and the ad¬ 
jacent islands, presents the characteristic climate 
and vegetation of the southern temperate and 
tropical regions. Here, however, the modifying 
effects of altitude come most largely into play, 
and every variety of climate and form of vege¬ 
tation is to be found on the slopes of the 
Himalayas, and the mountains and plains of 
southern India and of the eastern peninsula. 
I he part of Asia south of the Himalayas, though 
not all lying within the tropics, is all subject to 
tropical influences. Among the principal of 
these may be reckoned the effects of the tropical 
heat upon the air-currents. To this cause are 
due the trade-winds, which, carrying the mois¬ 
ture of the southern seas to the continents to be 
condensed by the mountain masses against 
which they strike, by determining the rainfall 
of the various continental districts, and affecting 
the size and course of the rivers, produce so 
many climatic effects. More local in their ef¬ 
fects as well as arbitrary in their occurrence, 
and consequently fatal in their violence, are the 
cyclones, or circular storms, common in the Bay 
of Bengal and the China Sea. The normal di¬ 
rections of the monsoons are northeast and 
southwest; the northeast monsoon begins in 
April and the southwest in October; but the 
direction, duration, and intensity of these winds 
are greatly modified, especially on land, by lo¬ 
cal circumstances. The soil of the southern 
regions is usually good, and where moisture is 
sufficient vegetation is rich and even exuberant. 
The soil of India is so finely comminuted that 
it has been said it is possible to go from the 
Bay of Bengal to the Indus and return again 
to the sea without finding a single pebble. The 
rainfall in those regions is extremely irregular. 
There are belts where hardly any rain falls at 
all, others of moderate, and others of very heavy 
rainfall. On the Khasia Hills, to the northeast 
of the delta of the Ganges and Brahmaputra, 
the heaviest rainfall in the world takes place, the 
average fall observed being 550 inches a year. 
The principal period of rain is during the south¬ 
west monsoon. On the mountains which direct¬ 
ly face the winds, charged with vapor as they 
come from the sea, the rain will fall in abun¬ 
dance, while they pass over intermediate plains 
without parting with their moisture. The rain¬ 
fall, the course of the rivers, and the irrigation 
and fertility of the plains of India is accordingly 
determined by the position of the Himalayas, 
the Ghats, and other mountain ranges. The 
high plateau which extends from Asia Minor to 
the Indus has a temperate climate, with some 
extremity of heat in summer and cold in winter. 
Rain falls chiefly in winter and spring. The 
eastern part of this plateau is deficient in rain, 
and the soil is poor and unproductive, the west¬ 
ern portion, consisting of Asia Minor, is more 


favored of nature. The desert character of 
large parts of Arabia, Persia, and Baluchistan 
has already been alluded to. Some parts of the 
coast of Arabia, as Yemen and Oman, are fertile, 
but the greater part, especially on the Red Sea, 
is barren and desolate. A desert belt surrounds 
an interior plateau of 1,000 to 3,000 feet in 
height, and of moderate fertility. Syria is divid¬ 
ed between hilly and fertile and low desert 
tracts. The Japanese Islands, which are tra¬ 
versed by mountains of considerable elevation, 
and extend over about 15 0 of latitude, experi¬ 
ence a great variety of climates. In the north 
the climate is rigorous, owing to the Siberian 
winds; in the south it is mild. The eastern 
coast is milder than the west, being sheltered by 
the mountain ranges from the cold winds of the 
continent. The country generally is fertile and 
populous. The character and productions of the 
other islands are mostly tropical. 

A greater extreme of cold is reached in 
North America than in northern Asia, the mean 
temperature of the east coast of Siberia being 
above the zero of Fahrenheit; and the heat of 
southern Asia is less than that of Africa, which 
has more land lying within the tropics. In Si¬ 
beria the extremes of temperature are great, ex¬ 
ceeding ioo° between the mean of the hottest 
and coldest month on the coast, and being 
commonly over 6o° throughout the country. As 
the equator is approached the extremes of tem¬ 
perature diminish till at the southern extremity 
of the continent they approach within 5 0 . The 
highest temperature attained in southern Asia 
is about 112 0 , the highest mean about 82°. The 
summers of the northern latitudes, though short¬ 
er, attain a maximum of heat not much short 
of the tropics, the greater length of the day 
compensating for the less intensity of the mid¬ 
day heat. On the Persian plateau the summer 
heat is increased by the want of rain, and the 
severity of the winter by the elevation. 

Vegetation .— The plants and animals of 
northern Asia generally resemble those of sim¬ 
ilar latitudes in Europe, though the extremes 
of climate are greater. The plateau extending 
from Asia Minor to the Himalayas resembles 
southern Europe in its productions, and the 
desert belt of Asia has an affinity to the African 
desert. The characteristic types of Siberia are 
continued to the high regions of central Asia. 
The community of type with European forms 
also extends to North China, where is developed 
besides a relation with the types of North Amer¬ 
ica. The whole of northern Asia differs from 
Europe more in species than in genera of veg¬ 
etable productions. Oaks and heaths are absent 
in Siberia. The principal mountain trees are 
the pine, larch, and birch; the willow, alder, and 
poplar are found in lower grounds. The culti¬ 
vated plants of Asia Minor and Persia resemble 
those of southern Europe. In the central region 
European species reach as far as the western 
and central Himalayas, but are rare in the east¬ 
ern. They are here met by Chinese and 
Japanese forms. The lower slopes of the Hima¬ 
layas are clothed almost exclusively with trop¬ 
ical forms; higher up, between 4,000 and 10,000 
feet, is the region of forests and cultivation, 
producing all the types of trees and plants that 
belong to the temperate zone, and having ex¬ 
tensive forests of conifers; in the east forest 
trees are met with at a height of 13,000 feet. 


ASIA 


Rhododendrons extend to 14,000 feet, and pha¬ 
nerogamous plants are found at the height of 
19,500 feet. The southeastern region, including 
India, the Eastern Peninsula, and China, with 
the islands, contains a vast variety of indigenous 
species, varying with the humidity of the climate 
and the elevation, the forms of higher latitudes 
being represented on the mountains. In this 
region we find growing wild a number of plants 
that have become of the utmost importance to 
man, such as the sugar-cane,- rice, cotton and 
indigo, pepper, cinnamon, cassia, clove, nutmeg, 
.and cardamons, banana, cocoanut, areca and 
sago palms; the mango and many other fruits, 
with plants producing a vast number of drugs, 
•caoutchouc and gutta-percha. The forests of 
India contain the oak, teak, sal, deodar, and 
•other timber woods, besides bamboos, palms, 
sandal-wood, laurels, fig-trees, etc. The Malay 
Peninsula contains dense forests of similar 
kinds. The cultivated plants of India include 
wheat, barley, rice, maize, millet, sorghum, tea, 
indigo, jute, opium, etc. North of the tropic 
wheat is sown in November, and reaped early 
in April, and a crop of rice or other tropical 
cereal is sown in June and July, and reaped in 
September and October. Wheat and barley do 
not grow in southern India, the winter not be¬ 
ing sufficiently severe to prepare the ground for 
them. Cotton, indigo, sugar, tea, tobacco, coffee, 
pepper, plantains, mangoes, etc., are cultivated 
in China. Of the Chinese flora the larger por¬ 
tion resembles the Indian, while much is local. 
In North China, the country between it and the 
Amur (Manchuria), and the Japanese Islands, 
large numbers of deciduous trees occur, such 
as oaks, maples, limes, walnuts, poplars, and 
willows, the genera being European but the indi¬ 
vidual species Asiatic. Among cultivated plants 
;are wheat, and in favorable situations rice, cot¬ 
ton, the vine, etc. Japan and the northern parts 
•of this region are rich in species of the pine 
tribe. According to elevation the islands of the 
Asiatic Archipelago display an equal diversity 
with the mainland, the more tropical types being 
represented on the lower elevations, the more 
northern on the higher. Coffee, rice, maize, etc., 
are extensively grown in some of the islands. A 
line of demarkation called Wallace’s line has 
been drawn at the Strait of Macassar, at which 
the flora and fauna of Australia begin to appear, 
and gradually become more pronounced as the 
distance from Asia and the proximity to Austra¬ 
lia increases. The variety of plants of the desert 
region of Arabia, Persia, and Baluchistan is 
comparatively small. The predominance of a 
few species gives character to the whole region. 
Vegetation is most abundant in spring, when 
herbaceous and bulbous plants, which extend 
through this region from Syria to the Hima¬ 
layas, are abundant. In Arabia Felix, and the 
warmer valleys of Persia, Afghanistan, and 
Baluchistan, where the hills are high enough to 
afford a sufficient rainfall, aromatic shrubs are 
abundant. Wheat, barley, cotton, and indigo 
are cultivated in Arabia, and the date-palm 
flourishes in the desert. On the mountain slopes 
•of western Arabia (Arabia Felix) the coffee- 
plant, which has probably been derived from 
Africa, is cultivated. Gum-producing acacias 
are, with the date-palm, the commonest trees in 
Arabia; the latter also extends through Persia, 
and even reaches the shore of the Caspian. 


Fleshy plants are characteristic of the most aria 
portions. In the higher parts of Persia and 
Afghanistan numerous forms of Umbellifert f of 
great* size, as well as thistles and the borage 
tribe, are abundant. African forms are found 
not only extending from the African desert 
along the desert region of Asia, but from south 
Africa to Ceylon. The Caspian lowlands is the 
tract where the saline vegetation that is spread 
over the whole region of steppes and deserts 
has its greatest development. This region is 
regarded as the native country of the melon. 

Zoology. — There is a still closer resemblance 
in the fauna than in the flora of northern Asia 
to that of Europe. Asia south to the Hima¬ 
layas, together with Europe and North Africa, 
forms a continuous region, which Dr. Sclater 
has designated as the Palaearctic; southeastern 
Asia, with Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and the Phil¬ 
ippines, he calls the Indian region; Africa south 
of the Atlas, with Arabia, Palestine, South Per¬ 
sia, the dry part of Baluchistan and Sind, form 
the Ethiopian region; Celebes and the other is¬ 
lands beyond Wallace’s line, with Australasia, 
the Australian region. Nearly all the mammals 
of Europe occur in northern Asia, with numer¬ 
ous additions to the species. Quadrurnana are 
rare, Carnivora numerous, especially bears, 
wolves, and weasels. Moles, shrews, and hedge¬ 
hogs are common among Insectivora. Rodents 
are represented by marmots, the pika, jerboas, 
rats, mice, etc. There are numerous species of 
wild sheep, antelopes, and deer. Of the last, 
the musk and many others are characteristic. 
In the Indian region there are several peculiar 
genera of the Quadrurnana or monkey tribe. 
Among the distinctive forms of this region is 
the elephant, the Asiatic species being distinct 
from the African. The lion, tiger, leopard, 
which are considered as Ethiopian forms, the 
bear, civets, ichneumons, and other carnivorous 
animals are found. The lion inhabits Arabia, 
Persia, Asia Minor, Baluchistan, etc., and ex¬ 
tends as far east as India, being now, however, 
confined to Guzerat. The tiger is the most 
characteristic of the larger Asiatic Carnivora. 
It extends from Armenia across the entire con¬ 
tinent, being absent, however, from the greater 
portion of Siberia and from the tableland of 
Tibet; it extends also into Sumatra, Java, and 
Bali. The horse, ass, and camel have their true 
home in Asia. In the Indian region we also 
find the rhinoceros, buffalo, ox, deer, squirrels, 
porcupines, as well as various species of Eden¬ 
tata. The ornithology of Europe and northern 
Asia are identified to a still greater extent. A 
large number of European species extend over 
northern Asia as far as Japan. In the Malay 
Archipelago marsupial animals first occur in the 
Moluccas and Celebes, while various mammals 
common in the western part of the archipelago 
are absent. A similar transition toward the 
Australian type takes place in the species of 
birds. Of marine mammals the dugong is pecu¬ 
liar to the Indian Ocean; in the Ganges is found 
a peculiar species of dolphin. In birds, nearly 
every order except ostriches is represented. 
Among the most interesting forms are the horn- 
bills, the peacock, the Impey pheasant, the trago- 
pans, and other gallinaceous birds, the pheasant 
family being very characteristic of the region. 
The pheasant proper in the wild state is peculiar 











































































































ASIA 


10 northern Asia, the golden pheasant and sev¬ 
eral other species of pheasants to the northeast. 
1 ne genera and species of passerine birds are 
very numerous. The desert region, extending 

11 om Arabia to Sind, is chiefly distinguished by 
the absence of many Indian forms and the pres¬ 
ence of some African ones, which, however, are 
not widely spread, most of them being limited to 
Arabia and Syria. The chief haunts of the Rcp- 
tiha of Asia are the northern portion of Hindu¬ 
stan, the southeastern peninsula, China, and the 
islands of Ceylon, Sumatra, and Java. At the 
head of the reptiles stands the Gangetic croco¬ 
dile, frequenting the Ganges and other large 
rivers; the helmeted crocodile and the double- 
crested crocodile are numerous in various quar¬ 
ters, both insular and continental. Among the 
serpents are the cobra da capello and the Ceylon¬ 
ese tic-palonga, both among the most deadly 
snakes in existence; there are also very large 
pythons, besides sea and fresh-water snakes. 
1 here are also a number of species of frogs and 

toads and of fresh-water tortoises, as well as 
many terrestrial and aquatic lizards. The seas 
and rivers of Asia produce a great variety of 
fish. The Salmonidce are found in rivers flowing 
into the Arctic and North Pacific oceans, but 
not in southern Asia. Large numbers are 
caught. Trout are found in the feeders of the 
Indus and the Caspian. Sturgeons abound in 
the Black Sea and the Caspian. Two rather 
remarkable kinds of fishes are the climbing 
perch and the eriapthalmus. The well-known 
gold-fish is a native of China. 

Asiatic Races .— The Mongolian race is the 
most numerous in Asia. It occupies the Chi¬ 
nese empire, Tartary, and probably Japan, with 
part of the Indo-Chinese Peninsula. It is part¬ 
ly settled, as in China, Japan, and the peninsula; 
partly nomadic, as in Tartary and Mongolia. 
The Aryan is the next in numbers, and the most 
civilized of the Asiatic races. It was until the 
Mohammed conquest the dominant, as it is still 
the most numerous, race in India. It also pre¬ 
vails in Persia and in the middle region from 
Afghanistan to Asia Minor. The Semitic race 
is widely spread in southwestern Asia, and for¬ 
merly at least extended to Africa. The Dravid- 
ian race in South India, the Malays in the 
eastern peninsula, and other races locally dis¬ 
tributed, have no well-defined relation with the 
larger races. The Dravidians are variously 
associated with the Mongols and the Australians. 
The latter theory is connected with the hy¬ 
pothesis of a southern continent, which also con¬ 
nects these races with Africa. See Ethnology. 

Political Divisions .— A large portion of Asia 
is under the dominion of European powers. 
Russia possesses the whole of northern Asia 
(Siberia) and a considerable portion of cen¬ 
tral Asia, together with a great part of ancient 
Armenia, on the south of the Caucasus; Tur¬ 
key holds Asia Minor, Syria, and Palestine, part 
of Arabia, Mesopotamia, etc.; Great Britain 
rules over India, Ceylon, a part of the Indo- 
Chinese Peninsula (Upper and Lower Burma), 
and one or two other possessions; France has 
acquired a considerable portion of the Indo- 
Chinese Peninsula (Cochin-China, Anam, Ton¬ 
kin, Cambodia), and has one or two small 
settlements besides, while to Holland belong 
Java, Sumatra, and other islands or parts of is¬ 
lands in the Asiatic or Malay Archipelago. The 


chief independent states are the Chinese empire, 
much the most populous of all; Japan, Korea, 
Siam, Afghanistan, Persia, and the Arabian 
states. I he total population of the continent 
is estimated at 905,000,000. 

Religions .— Asia has been the birthplace of 
religions; the Jewish, Buddhist, Christian, and 
Mohammedan having their origin in Asia, 
where they grew up under the influence of still 
older religions, the Babylonian and that of 
Zoroaster, both also of Asiatic origin. At 
present the. inhabitants of Asia belong chiefly to 
the Buddhist religion, which has 530,000,000 to 
560,000,000 of followers, that is, nearly one third 
of mankind. The old faith of Hinduism has 
187,000,000 of followers in India. Most of the 
inhabitants of western Asia, as also of part of 
central Asia, follow the religion of Islam; 
they may number about 90,000,000. The Chris¬ 
tians number about 20,000,000 in Armenia, Cau¬ 
casus, Siberia, and Turkestan. Jews are scat¬ 
tered mostly in western and central Asia. A 
few fire-worshippers, Guebers or Parsi of India 
and Persia, are the sole remnant of the religion 
of Zoroaster; while vestiges of Sabseism are 
found amidst the Gesides and Sabians on the 
Tigris. 

Civilisation .— There are to be found in Asia 
all varieties of civilization, the primitive tribes 
of northeastern Siberia, the confederations of 
nomadic shepherds, and great nations in pos¬ 
session of a common stock of national customs, 
beliefs, and literature, like China; the tribal 
stage; the compound family, forming the real 
basis of China’s social organization; the rural 
community, both of the Indian and Mussulman 
type; the loose aggregations of Tchuktchis, hav¬ 
ing no rulers and no religion beyond the wor¬ 
ship of forces of nature, but professing with re¬ 
gard to one another principles of morality and 
mutual support often forgotten in higher stages 
of civilization; and despotic monarchies with 
a powerful clergy. So also in economic life. 
While the tribes of the northeast find their 
means of subsistence exclusively in fishing and 
hunting, carried on with the simplest imple¬ 
ments, among which stone weapons have not 
yet quite disappeared, and the tribes of central 
Asia carry on primitive cattle-breeding and lead 
a half-nomadic life, others are agriculturists, 
and have brought irrigation (in Turkestan) to 
a degree of perfection hardly known in Europe. 

Internal Communication .— Caravans of cam¬ 
els are the chief means of transport for goods and 
travelers in the interior; donkeys, yaks, and even 
goats and sheep are employed in crossing the 
high passages of the Himalayas; horses are the 
usual means of transport in most parts of China 
and Siberia, and in the barren tracts of the north 
the reindeer and, still farther north, the dog, are 
made use of. Fortunately the great rivers of 
Asia provide water communication over immense 
distances. The deep and broad streams of China, 
allowing heavy boats to penetrate far into tne 
interior of the country, connect it with the sea; 
a brisk traffic is carried on along these arteries. 
In Siberia the bifurcated rivers supply a water¬ 
way, not only north and south along the course 
of the chief rivers running toward the Arctic 
Ocean, but also west and east; thus a great 
line of water communication crosses Siberia, 
and is, with but a few interruptions, continued 
in the east by the Amur, navigable for more 


ASIA 


than 2,000 miles. In the winter the rivers and 
olains of Siberia become excellent roads for 
sledges, on which goods are still chiefly trans¬ 
ported. 

Railways .— In 1900 the lines in existence 
had a total length of about 30,000 miles, of 
which two thirds belonged to British India. 
The portions of the trans-Caspian and trans- 
Siberian railways already constructed had a 
length of 3,200 miles. A number of European 
syndicates held concessions for 3,600 miles of 
railroads in China, which will traverse regions 
rich in minerals and agriculture; many of these 
lines were then in process of construction. The 
Chinese government owned about 300 miles of 
railway. The lines are very remunerative, espe¬ 
cially that from Peking to Tien-Tsin. Japan is 
well provided with railroads; the length being 
3,200 miles. French Indo-China had only 120 
miles, but the French possessions in Cochin- 
China, Anam, and Tonkin are expected soon 
to have 2,400 miles, which will greatly help to 
develop their mineral and agricultural resources. 
The Dutch Indies are well supplied. Java alone 
has 1,000 miles. There are as yet no railroads in 
Persia of any consequence; but Turkey oper¬ 
ates 1,500 miles in Asia, and 600 miles more 
are in construction or projected. 

Telegraph communications are in a much 
more advanced state than the roads. St. Peters¬ 
burg is connected by telegraph with the mouth 
of the Amur and Vladivostock (on the frontier 
of Korea) ; while another branch, crossing 
Turkestan and Mongolia, runs on to Tashkend, 
Peking, and Shanghai; Constantinople is con¬ 
nected with Bombay, Madras, Singapore, 
Saigon, Hong-Kong, and Nagasaki in Japan; 
and Singapore stands in telegraphic communi¬ 
cation with Java, and Port Darwin in Australia. 
Finally, Odessa is connected by wire with Tiflis 
in Caucasus, Teheran, and Bombay. 

Trade .— Notwithstanding the difficulties of 
communication a brisk trade is carried on be¬ 
tween the different parts of Asia, but there is 
no possibility of arriving at even an approxi¬ 
mate estimate of its aggregate value. The mari¬ 
time exports to Europe, the United States, and 
overland to Russia, have an annual value of 
about $900,000,000, and the imports of about 
$750,000,000. Asia deals chiefly in raw mate¬ 
rials, gold, silver, petroleum, teak, and a variety 
of timber-wood, furs, raw cotton, silk, wool, 
tallow and so on; the products of her tea, 
coffee, and spice plantations; and a yearly in¬ 
creasing amount of wheat and other grain. 
Steam industry is only now making its ap¬ 
pearance in Asia, and, although but a very few 
years old, threatens to become a rival to Euro¬ 
pean manufacture. Indian cottons of European 
patterns and jute-stuffs already compete with the 
looms of her European sister countries. Several 
of the petty trades carried on in India, China, 
Japan, Asia Minor, and some parts of Persia, 
have been brought to so high a perfection that 
the silks, printed cottons, carpets, jewelry, and 
cutlery of particular districts far surpass in their 
artistic taste many like productions of Europe. 
The export of these articles is steadily increas¬ 
ing, and Japan supplies Europe with thousands 
of small articles — applications of Japanese art 
and taste to objects of European household 
furniture. 

History — The origin of the name Asia is in¬ 


volved in obscurity, and it is not certainly 
known whether it arose among the Greeks or 
was borrowed by them from some Asiatic peo¬ 
ple. The Greeks seem to have applied it origi¬ 
nally only to Lydia, the part of the continent 
with which they first became acquainted. Mod¬ 
ern scholars are inclined to believe that the 
name Asia is connected with the Sanskrit 
ushas, the dawn, as Europe may be connected 
with the Hebrew ereb, the west or the sun¬ 
setting. . . 

The oldest historical documents are of Asiatic 
origin, and next to the immediately contiguous 
kingdom of Egypt Asia possesses the oldest his¬ 
torical monuments in the world. 

The oldest historical monuments in Asia are 
those of Assyria (see Assyria), and with them 
are associated traditions which carry us back 
to a remote and indefinite antiquity. A similar 
vague antiquity belongs to the historical tradi¬ 
tions of India and China. Criticism, however, 
reduces all these claims to moderate dimensions, 
and assigns to the oldest ascertained facts a 
period not more remote than some 4,000 years 
from the present. 

The earliest facts in the history of Asia, apart 
from documents and monuments, consist in the 
migrations of races, the evidence of which is de¬ 
rived from tradition, from language, from cus¬ 
toms, and from religion. The earliest known 
seat of the Aryan race was on the banks of 
the Oxus. Hence probably from the pressure 
of the Mongolian tribes to the north they spread 
themselves to the southeast and southwest, 
pressing upon the Dravidian inhabitants of In¬ 
dia and the Semitic races of southwestern Asia. 
Finally they drove the Dravidians to the south 
of India and occupied Persia and other parts 
of western Asia, spreading into Europe. It is 
a remarkable circumstance that in this invasion 
the Aryans appear to have acquired the use of 
letters from the peoples with whom they came 
in contact, the Dravidian letters being borrowed 
in India and the Semitic in Persia as the origi¬ 
nal basis of the Sanskrit and Zendic alphabets. 
At a later period the Greeks likewise adopted 
a Semitic alphabet from the Phoenicians. The 
Semites have spread within historical times into 
northern Africa, and their migrations had prob¬ 
ably taken a similar course before they were re¬ 
corded in history. A large portion of the Mon¬ 
gols are still, as they have always been, a 
nomadic race, and their migrations, carrying 
everywhere the terror of predatory arms, have 
spread from the settled part of their own race 
in China along the north of Asia into northern 
Europe. 

The early religion of the Aryan race,— a 
nation of shepherds,— divided itself after their 
separation into two related but widely different 
developments, Brahmanism and Zoroastrianism. 
(See India ( Religion ) ; Zend-Avesta.) The 
former became rich in mythological, theologi¬ 
cal, and philosophical literature; but historical 
literature properly so called is wanting, and 
consequently there is a great absence of cer¬ 
tainty with regard to the dates of early events. 
The war which the Mahabharata (see San¬ 
skrit Language and Literature) professes to 
narrate is believed to be the earliest event in 
Indian history that can be regarded as historical, 
and probably took place about 1200-1400 b.c. 
In China authentic history extends back prob- 


ASIATIC ART 



1. Dancing Staff from Sumatra, 

2. Fetich from Nias. 

3. Aino Shuttle. 


4. Bashkir Ornament 

5. Bronze Buddha. 

6. Helmet. 


7. Gauntlet. 

8 . Japanese Kettle, Silver and Bronze 

9. Singhalese Work. 











































































































































ASIA 


ably to about noo b.c., with a long preceding 
period of which the names of dynasties are pre¬ 
served without chronological arrangement. The 
kingdoms of Assyria, Babylonia, Media, and 
Persia, _ alternately predominated in southwest¬ 
ern Asia. The arms of the Pharaohs also ex¬ 
tended into Asia, but their conquests there were 
short-lived. From Cyrus (b.c. 559), who ex¬ 
tended the empire of Persia from the Indus to 
the Mediterranean, while his son, Cambyses, 
added Egypt and Libya to it, to the conquest of 
Alexander (b.c. 330), Persia was the dominant 
power in Asia. The administration of Persia 
was not without vigor and policy, yet the Mace¬ 
donian conquest was an event of great impor¬ 
tance to Asia, bringing it, along with northern 
Africa, into closer relation with the more ad¬ 
vanced and progressive continent of Europe. 
The division of Alexander’s empire led to the 
protracted struggle between the Greek dynasties 
of Egypt and Syria, which ended in the absorp¬ 
tion of both kingdoms in the Roman empire. 
After the unfortunate issue of the second Punic 
war Hannibal took refuge with Antiochus the 
Great of Syria, who, in the course of his con¬ 
quests, had come in contact with the Romans, 
and was at length incited to try his strength 
with them. In the course of the war with An¬ 
tiochus L. Scipio, together with his brother, the 
conqueror of Carthage, passed into Asia. The 
kingdom of Antiochus was spared after his 
overthrow; but in b.c. 65 Syria became a Roman 
province. The Roman empire ultimately ex¬ 
tended to the Tigris. 

The knowledge of Asia possessed by the 
Greeks and Romans was at its widest extent 
very limited. The countries with which they 
were best acquainted were naturally in the west. 
China they knew as the country of the Seres or 
Sinse, and the northern portions of the con¬ 
tinent, inhabited by predatory Mongol tribes, 
were vaguely designated as Scythia. Of India 
the northwestern and western parts were known, 
and Ceylon likewise, under the name of Tapro- 
bane. The country traversed by the Hindu 
Kush, and the sources of the Oxus, was known 
as Bactria; that between the Oxus and the Jax- 
artes as Sogdiana; a large and vaguely defined 
central district, including Persia, was known as 
Ariana. Ptolemy had some acquaintance with 
the Indian Peninsula, with the table-land of 
cental Asia, with the Himalayas (Imaus) and 
China. The better known countries of the 
•southwest comprised Asia Minor, Armenia, 
Arabia, Persia, Media, Parthia, Mesopotamia, 
Babylonia, Assyria, Syria. 

Soon after the most civilized portions of the 
three continents had been reduced under one 
empire the great event took place which forms 
the dividing line of history. Christianity spread 
rapidly in the Roman empire; but Armenia was 
the first country which received it as a national 
religion. In a.d. 226 the Parthian monarchy 
which had arisen in eastern Persia about b.c. 
250, and had disputed the empire of Asia with 
the Romans, was overthrown by the revived 
Persian dynasty of the Sassanidse. The empire 
of Asia was now disputed with the Romans by 
the Persians. In the revived Persian empire 
the Magian religion was restored, and after the 
establishment of Christianity in the Roman em¬ 
pire religious jealousy embittered the feud be¬ 
tween the two powers. The possession of Ar¬ 


menia was the subject of a protracted struggle 
between them; but its religion inclined it to the 
Roman alliance. The Tigris formed the most 
permanent boundary between the two empires, 
neither being able long to maintain any con¬ 
quests beyond it. Christianity was persecuted 
in the Persian empire, and could not extend 
itself freely beyond the Roman limits. After 
the division of the Roman empire (a.d. 364) the 
struggle continued between the eastern and the 
Persian empires until the rise of a new power 
destined to absorb them both. While the East¬ 
ern empire was struggling more and more feebly 
with the Persians, the Mongols, and the bar¬ 
barians of Europe, a new religion arose in Ara¬ 
bia (a.d. 622), which gathered around it a band 
of enthusiasts, small at first, but inspired with 
the most ardent zeal of proselytism. The cen¬ 
tral tenet of the unity of God gave them the 
sympathy of the Monophysite sect, which, per¬ 
secuted in the empire, was powerful in Egypt, 
Syria, Mesopotamia, and Armenia. Arabia, the 
country of the Prophet, soon gave its adherence 
to the new faith. The sword was consecrated 
as the instrument of its propagation. Persia 
was the first great conquest of the Arabians. 
Syria and Egypt soon fell before their arms, 
powerfully aided by the defection of the heretics 
of the empire, and within 40 years of the cele¬ 
brated flight of Mohammed from Mecca, which 
constitutes the era of his followers, the sixth 
of the Caliphs, or successors of the Prophet, 
was the most powerful sovereign of Asia. He- 
raclius, one of the most warlike, and in the 
early part of his reign one of the most success¬ 
ful of the eastern emperors, had succumbed to 
this torrent of conquest, and his successors 
trembled at the names of their rivals. The suc¬ 
cessors of Mohammed were at first austere and 
simple in their manners, and narrow and zealous 
in their religious faith; but from the accession 
of Moawiyah (a.d. 661), the time when the seat 
of empire was transferred first to Damascus and 
subsequently to Bagdad, the throne of the Ca¬ 
liphs was as splendid as it was powerful. The 
generous blood of Arabia, nourished by more 
genial climes, showed an aptitude for all that 
is great, not only in military achievement, but in 
learning, science, literature, and art. The em¬ 
pire was soon divided, but wherever the Arab 
sway prevailed a liberal patronage of learning 
and toleration even of speculative inquiry dis¬ 
tinguished it. The career of conquest was not 
soon ended. It spread with astonishing rapidity 
over Africa and Europe, and was finally checked 
only by the fatal divisions which originated in 
the disputes between the descendants of the 
Prophet and the dynasty of the Ommiades, de¬ 
scended from his mortal foe and tardy convert, 
Abu Sophian. 

Among the alternate protectors and op¬ 
pressors of the eastern Roman empire were the 
various Mongol tribes, whose predatory course 
led them to the west. In these also the Arab 
rulers found dangerous converts, who first sup¬ 
plied the place of their own troops, grown ef¬ 
feminate with luxury, and then supplanted them¬ 
selves in the throne of which they had 
superseded the natural defenders. While the 
Caliphs of Bagdad still held a nominal sway, 
subject to the dictation of their Turkish guards, 
Mahmud, the Mongolian Mohammedan ruler of 
Ghazni, asserted his independence ( 999 ), con- 


ASIA; ASIA MINOR 


quered India, and established the Mogul dy¬ 
nasty. Another revolt from the empire of Mah¬ 
mud founded the Seljuk dynasty, which estab¬ 
lished itself in Aleppo, Damascus, Iconium, and 
Kharism, and which was distinguished for its 
struggles with the Crusaders. Othman, an amir 
of the Seljuk sultan of Iconium, established 
the Ottoman empire in 1300. About 1220 Gen¬ 
ghis Khan, an independent Mongol chief, made 
himself master of central Asia, conquered north¬ 
ern China, overran Turkestan, Afghanistan, and 
Persia; his successors took Bagdad and extin¬ 
guished the remains of the Caliphate. In Asia 
Minor they overthrew the Seljuk dynasty. His 
grandson, Kublai Khan, conquered China in 
1260. The successors of Genghis Khan also in¬ 
vaded Russia, and the Christian empire estab¬ 
lished by Vladimir was overthrown by the Gold¬ 
en Horde, led by his grandson Batu (1240). 
Timur or Tamerlane, who professed to be a de¬ 
scendant of Genghis, carried fire and sword over 
northern India and western Asia, defeated and 
took prisoner Bajazet, the descendant of Oth¬ 
man (1402), and received tribute from the 
Greek emperor. The Ottoman empire soon re¬ 
covered from this blow, and Constantinople was 
taken and the Eastern empire overthrown by 
the Sultan Mohammed II. in 1453. China re¬ 
covered its independence about 1368 and was 
again subjected by the Manchu Tartars (1618- 
45), soon after which it began to extend its em¬ 
pire over central Asia. Siberia was conquered 
by the Cossacks on behalf of Russia (1580-4). 
The same country effected a settlement in the 
Caucasus about 1786, and has since continued 
to make steady advances into central Asia. The 
discovery by the Portuguese of the passage to 
India by the Cape of Good Hope led to their 
establishment on the coast of the peninsula 
(1498). They were speedily followed by the 
Spanish, Dutch, French, and British. The 
struggle between the two last powers for the 
supremacy of India was completed by the de¬ 
struction of the French settlements (1760-65), 
and from that time the conquest of India by the 
British progressed with uninterrupted success. 
In 1858 India came directly under the British 
crown. The extension of the influence and pos¬ 
sessions of European powers, especially Russia, 
Great Britain, and France, has latterly been a 
most striking fact in Asiatic history. For par¬ 
ticular phases of the modern history of Asia 
see China; Korea; Japan; Manchuria; Rus¬ 
sia and Turkey. Also Boxers and Triple 
Alliance. 

A'sia, Central, a designation loosely applied 
to Asiatic territory east of the Caspian, also 
called Turkestan, and formerly Tartary. The 
eastern portion belongs to China, the western 
now to Russia. Russian central Asia comprises 
the Kirghiz Steppe (Uralsk, Turgai, Akmolinsk, 
Semipalatinsk, etc.), and what is now the 
government-general of Turkestan, besides the 
territory of the Turkomans, or Tanscaspia and 
Merv. The entire area is about 1,350,000 square 
miles. See Bouvalot, ( Through the Heart of 
Asia* (1889); Phibbs, ( Central Asia ) (1899). 

Asia Minor (Asia the Less) is the extreme 
western peninsular projection of Asia, forming 
part of Turkey in Asia. The name is not very 
ancient; originally the Greeks seem by Asia 


to have meant only the western part of Asia 
Minor, but with their geographical knowledge 
the scope of the name Asia gradually widened. 
The late Greek name for Asia Minor is Ana¬ 
tolia— Anatole, <( the Fast,” whence is formed 
the Turkish Anadoli. Asia Minor includes the 
peninsula; the eastern boundary, somewhat ar¬ 
tificial, being a line from the Gulf of Skan- 
deroon to the upper Euphrates, and thence to 
a point east of Trebizond. The area of the 
peninsula exceeds 220,000 square miles. It con¬ 
stitutes the western prolongation of the high 
table-land of Armenia, with its border mountain 
ranges. The interior consists of a great plateau,, 
or rather series of plateaus, rising in gradua¬ 
tion from 3,500 to 4,000 feet, with bare steppes, 
salt plains, marshes, and lakes; the structure- 
is volcanic, and there are several conical moun¬ 
tains, one of which, the Ergish-dagh (Argaeus),. 
with two craters, attains a height of 11,830 feet,, 
towering above the plain of Kaisarieh, which 
has itself an elevation of between 2,000 and 
3,000 feet. The plateau is bordered on the- 
north by a long train of parallel mountains,. 
4,000 to 6,000 feet high, and cut up into groups, 
by cross valleys. These mountains sink abrupt¬ 
ly down on the northern side to a narrow strips 
of coast; their slopes toward the interior are 
gentler and bare of wood. Similar is the char¬ 
acter of the border ranges on the south, the an¬ 
cient Taurus, only that they are more con¬ 
tinuous and higher, being, to the north of the 
Bay of Skanderoon, 10,000 to 12.000 feet, and 
farther to the west, 8,000 to 9,000 feet. The 
western border is intersected by numerous val- 
veys opening upon the archipelago, to the north¬ 
ern part of which Mounts Ida and Olympus be¬ 
long. Between the highlands and the sea lie 
the fertile coast-lands of the Levant. Of the 
rivers the largest is the Kizil Irmak (Halys), 
which, like the Yeshil Irmak (Iris), and the 
Sakaria (Sangarius) flows into the Black Sea;, 
the Sarabat (Hermus) and Meinder (Msean- 
der) flow into the Higean. 

fl he climate has, on the whole, a southern 
European character; but a distinction must be 
made of four regions. The central plateau,, 
nearly destitute of wood and water, has a hot 
climate in summer, and a cold one in winter; the 
southern coast has mild winters and scorching 
summers; while on the coast of the Higean 

there is the mildest of climates and a magnifi¬ 
cent vegetation. On the northern side the cli¬ 
mate is not so mild, but the vegetation is most, 

luxuriant. 

In point of natural history, Asia Minor 

forms the transition from the continental char¬ 
acter of the East to the maritime character of 
the West. The forest-trees and cultivated 
plants of Europe are seen mingled with the 
forms characteristic of Persia and Syria. The 
central plateau, which is barren, has the charac¬ 
ter of an Asiatic steppe, more adapted for the 
flocks and herds of nomadic tribes than for 
agriculture; while the coasts, rich in all Euro¬ 
pean products, fine fruits, olives, wine, and silk,, 
have quite the character of the south of Europe* 
which on the warmer and drier southern coast 
shades into that of Africa. 

The inhabitants, some 7,000,000 in number,, 
consist of the most various races. The dom¬ 
inant race are the Osmanli Turks, who number 
about 1,200/100, and are spread over the whole 


ASIATIC ART 



10. Dancing Staff from Sumat ra. 

11. Head Covering from Luzon. 

12. Hat from Borneo. 

13-16. Articles from Samoa and Tongu Islands. 

17. Bashkir Ornament. 


18. Suit of Armor. 

19. Armored Shoe. 

20. Aino Quiver. 

21. Mandarin’s Staff in Red Lacquer. 

22. Japanese Water Bottle. 





























































































































































































































































































































■ 


























ASIARCH —ASKEW 


country; allied to these are the Turkomans and 
\ uruks, speaking a dialect of the same language. 
The latter are found chiefly on the table-land, 
leading a nomadic life; there are also hordes of 
nomadic Kurds. Among the mountains east of 
Trebizond are the robber tribes of the Lazes. 

1 he Greeks and Armenians are the most 
progressive elements in the population, and have 
most of the trade. While the Greeks monopo¬ 
lize the professions, the ownership of the land 
is largely passing into the hands of Greeks, 
Armenians, and Jews. Administratively the 
country falls into eight vilayets or governments, 
with their capitals in Brusa, Smyrna, Konieh 
(Iconium), Adana, Sivas, Angora, Trebizond, 
and Kastamuni respectively. In ancient times 
the divisions were Pontus, Paphlagonia, Bi- 
thynia, in the north; Mysia, Lydia, Caria, in the 
west; Pisidia with Pamphylia, and Cappadocia, 
in the south; and Galatia with Lycaonia and 
Phrygia, in the centre. The Turkish islands of 
the archipelago belong, most of them, to Asia 
Minor. 

Here, especially in Ionia, was the early seat 
of Grecian civilization, and here were the coun¬ 
tries of Phrygia, Lycia, Caria, Paphlagonia, 
Bithynia, Lydia, Pamphylia, Isauria, Cilicia, Ga¬ 
latia, Cappadocia, etc., with Troy, Ephesus, 
Smyrna, and many other great and famous 
cities. Here, from the obscure era of Semira- 
mis (about 2000 b.c.) to the time of Osman 
(about 1300 a.d.), the greatest conquerors of 
the world contended for supremacy; and here 
took place the wars of the Medes and Persians 
with the Scythians; of the Greeks with the Per¬ 
sians; of the Romans with Mithridates and the 
Parthians; of the Arabs, Seljuks, Mongols, and 
Osmanli Turks with the weak Byzantine empire. 
Here Alexander the Great and the Romans suc¬ 
cessfully contended for the mastery of the civil¬ 
ized world. But notwithstanding all these wars 
the country still continued to enjoy some mea¬ 
sure of prosperity till it fell into the hands of 
the Turks, under whose military despotism its 
ancient civilization has been sadly brought to 
ruin. Recently, considerable portions of Arme¬ 
nia have been absorbed by Russia. In 1878 
Great Britain made a secret engagement to 
guarantee against Russian aggression the Asi¬ 
atic dominions of the Porte. 

In Asia Minor an extensive system of rail¬ 
roads has long been under consideration. The 
first survey for this proposed trunk line was 
made as far back as 1874, and was from An¬ 
gora to Bagdad. The financial crisis of 1875 
resulted, however, in the abandonment of the 
scheme, but it was again considered in 1888 by 
foreigners interested in railroad enterprise in 
Asia. The Suitari-to-Angora line was conceded 
in October of that year to the Bank of Berlin, 
and on 27 Nov. 1892 the first train was run. A 
branch line was shortly after built between Eski- 
Schehir and Konia and connected with the line 
to Smyrna. The success of this undertaking 
influenced the Sultan’s desire to have the line 
extended to Bagdad across Mesopotamia, and 
the German syndicate was instructed accord¬ 
ingly. The survey was made in the winter of 
1899-1900 by a commission under the presidency 
of the German consul-general at Constantinople. 
Matters were hastened by the request of the 
Emperor William that the work be pushed for¬ 
ward as rapidly as possible. 


Asiarch, a/shl-ark, a Roman officer ap¬ 
pointed as director-general of religious cere¬ 
monies in the province of Asia. The expression* 
occurs in the Greek Testament, Tines de kai ton 
Asiarchon, <( And certain also of the Asiarchs^ 
(Acts xix. 31). Properly speaking there was 
but one Asiarch residing at Ephesus; the others, 
referred to were his subordinates. 

A'siat'ic Broth'ers, the designation of a 
secret society organized in Germany about 1780.. 
See Rosicrucians. 

A'siat'ic Societies, learned associations 
formed for the purpose of collecting and dis¬ 
seminating valuable information respecting the 
different countries of Asia. The Royal Asiatic 
Society of Great Britain and Ireland was es¬ 
tablished 19 March 1823. With it in 1828 was. 
connected a very active translation committee, 
which publishes English, French, and Latin 
translations of Oriental works, occasionally ac¬ 
companied with the originals. Similar societies 
have been formed in Asia itself, such as the 
Asiatic Society of Bengal at Calcutta, founded 
in 1784 by Sir William Jones. Since 1846 the 
Bibliotheca Indica,— a series of Oriental works 
in text and translation,— has been published 
under the supervision of this society at the ex¬ 
pense of the Anglo-Indian government. There 
are similar societies on the Continent and in 
America, such as the Societe Asiatique at Paris,, 
founded in 1822, the Oriental Society of Ger¬ 
many (Deutsche Morgenlandische Gesellschaft), 
founded in 1845, and the American Oriental So¬ 
ciety. 

Asimina, a-sim'i-na, or as'im-i-na, Papaw, 
a genus of nine species of shrubs or small trees 
of the natural order Anonacece, eight of which are 
natives of eastern North America, the West In¬ 
dies, and Mexico, with attractive foliage and 
large purple or whitish axillary flowers appear¬ 
ing in early spring, and large edible berries. 
Two species are cultivated for ornament and de¬ 
serve more attention at the hands of horticul¬ 
turists. One of these, A. triloba, which has pro¬ 
duced some varieties, is the only arborescent 
species of the genus. It is hardy as far north ac 
Massachusetts and produces very large seeded 
fruits, often more than three inches long and 
too highly aromatic to suit all palates. The 
other species, A. grandiflora, is found in Georgia 
and Florida, and is said to produce delicious 
fruits. 

A'siphona'ta, an order of lamellibranchi- 
ate, bivalve mollusks, destitute of the siphon or 
tube through which, in the Siphonata, the water 
that enters the gills is passed outward. It in¬ 
cludes the oysters, the scallop shells, the pearl 
oyster, the mussels, and in general the most use¬ 
ful and valuable mollusks. 

Ask, in Scandinavian mythology, the 
name of the first man created. According to 
the legend, the gods, Odim, Hsener, and Loder, 
found two trees by the seaside, an ash and an 
elm. From these they created the first man 
and first woman, Ask and Embla, and gave them 
the earth as their dwelling place. 

Askew, as'ku, Anne, an English martyr: 
b. 1521; d. 16 July 154^- She is described 
as a lady of great beauty and learning, married, 
much against her inclinations, to Thomas Kyme, 
who was as attached to the old religion as she 
was to the new. She was arrested for heresy 


ASKHABAD — ASPARAGIN 


and led before Bonner, Bishop of London, who 
induced her to sign a recantation. She was 
again arrested, however, committed to Newgate, 
and condemned to death as a heretic. Some 
days later she was suddenly removed to the 
Tower, and the rack was appiied in the presence, 
and it is said even by the hands, of Wriothes- 
ley, the chancellor, who hoped to extort confes¬ 
sion concerning those ladies of the court with 
whom she corresponded. Before her frame had 
time to recover from the effects of the rack she 
was carried in a chair to Smithfield, chained to 
a stake, and along with four others was burned 
to death. 

Askhabad, as'kha-bad', the thriving ad¬ 
ministrative centre of the Russian province of 
Transcaspia, situated in the Akhal Tekke oasis, 
and occupied by Skobeleff in January 1881, after 
the sack of Geok Tepe. Its distance from Merv 
is 232 miles, from Herat 388 miles. Pop. (1897) 
about 20,000. 

Askja, ask'ya, a volcano in the centre of 
Iceland, first brought into notice by an eruption 
in 1875. Its crater is 17 miles in circumference, 
surrounded by a mountain-ring from 500 to 
1,000 feet high, the height of the mountain itself 
"being between 4,000 and 5,000 feet. 

Aslauga’s (a-slow'gaz) Knight, the title 
of a romantic tale of mediaeval chivalry, by 
Fredrich, Baron de la Motte, Fouque. It was 
published in 1814. The story is told with sim¬ 
plicity and grace, and with it may be com¬ 
pared ( The Fostering of Aslang ) in Wm. Mor¬ 
ris’ ( Earthly Paradise^ 

Asmai, as'mi, or Asmayi, an Arabic 
writer, the instructor of Harun-al-Raschid: b. 
about 740; d. 830. His history of the kings of 
Arabia and Persia, prior to Islam, is of great 
value, while his romance of ( Antar } has been 
called <( the iliad of the desert.® 

As'manite, a variety of silica, occurring in 
small grains in certain meteoric irons, and now 
believed to be identical with tridymite (q.v.). 

Asmannshausen, as'mans-how'zen, a Prus¬ 
sian village on the Rhine, in the district of 
Wiesbaden, below Riidesheim, celebrated for its 
wine, which is produced on a soil formed of 
blue slate. The red kind, the production of a 
small red Burgundy vine, is the more valuable, 
but retains its value only three or four years. 
After this time it grows worse every year, and 
precipitates the whole of its red coloring-matter. 
It is distinguished by color and taste from all 
other Rhenish wines. 

As'mode'us, or Asmo'dai, in Hebrew 
mythology, an evil spirit which slew seven hus¬ 
bands of Sara, daughter of Raguel, at Rages. 
By the direction of the angel Raphael the young 
Tobias exorcised Asmodeus with the smell of a 
fish’s liver burned on the coals, into the utter¬ 
most parts of Egypt, where the angel bound him. 

As'mode'us, The Lame Devil ( ( Le Diable 
Boiteux*). A novel by Alain Rene Le Sage, 
first published in 1707, and re-published by the 
author, with many changes and additions, in 
1725. It is sometimes known in English as ( As- 
modeus^ and sometimes as ( The Devil on Two 
Sticks,> under which title the first English trans¬ 
lation appeared, and was dramatized by Henry 
Fielding in 1768. 


As'monae'ans, a family of high-priests and 
princes who ruled over the Jews for about 130 
years, from 153 b. c. See Maccabees. 

Asmus, as'mus, Georg, a German-Ameri- 
can poet: b. Giessen. 27 Nov. 1830; d. Bonn, 
31 May 1892. He came to the United States 
to conduct some mining operations in the 
copper region of Lake Superior; then lived in 
New York until 1884, when he returned to Eu¬ 
rope. Among the German population of the 
United States he had an enormous success with 
his ( American Sketch-Booklet > (1875), an epis¬ 
tle in verse, written in Upper Hessian dialect 
and overflowing with delicious humor. It was 
followed by ( New American Sketch-Booklet > 
(1876). He also wrote ( Camp Paradise ) 
(1877), a story, and a collection of miscellaneous 
poems (1891). 

Asnieres, as-nyar, a northern suburb of 
Paris, a favorite boating resort with the Pari¬ 
sians. Pop. (1897) 24,317. 

Asnyk, as'nek, Adam, a Polish patriot and 
poet: b. Kalish, 11 Sept. 1838; d. Cracow, 
2 Aug. 1897. He participated in the insurrec¬ 
tion of 1863, for which he had to spend some 
years in exile in Germany. He was author of 
< Poezye, ) (1872-80), and several successful 
dramas. 

Asoka, a-so'ka, an Indian sovereign, who 
reigned 255-223 b.c. over the whole of northern 
Hindustan. He embraced Buddhism, and forced 
his subjects also to become converts. Many 
temples and topes still remaining are attributed 
to him. 

Aso'ka ( Jonesia asoca), an Indian tree, of 
the natural order Leguminosos, sub-order Ccesal- 
pinece, with a flower, showing orange, scarlet, 
and bright-yellow tints. It is sacred to the god 
Siva, and often mentioned in Indian literature. 

As'olan'do: Facts and Fancies, the latest 

volume of poems written by Robert Browning 
and published on the day of his death, 12 Dec. 
1889. 

Aso'pus, the name of several rivers in 
Greece. The most celebrated of this name are 
those in Achaia and Bceotia. 

Asp, a venomous snake. The name as 
applied in the Bible probably refers to the hood¬ 
ed, or African cobra ( Naja haje ), common in 
Egypt, and often represented in hieroglyphics. 
The naja haje is from three to five feet long, 
and the loose skin on its neck can be dilated 
into a hood, like that of the Indian cobra, but 
its markings differ. (See Cobra.) The asp em¬ 
ployed for suicide by Cleopatra was probably the 
small-horned viper ( Aspis hasselquistii) . The 
asp of southern Europe is Vipera aspis, found 
from France to the Tyrol and in Italy. (See 
Viper.) 

Asparagin, Asparagine, a nitrogenous sub¬ 
stance having the formula GiHsNoOs, or CONH 2 . 
CH 2 CH (NH 2 ).COOH, occurring in the juice 
of most plants, and notably in the growing buds 
of asparagus. It is readily obtained by filtering 
the plant juice, and evaporating it to a syrupy 
consistency. The asparagin then separates in the 
form of trimetric prismatic crystals, which are 
soluble in water and in acids and alkalis, but 
insoluble in alcohol or ether. Asparagin un¬ 
doubtedly plays a very important (though yet 


ASPARAGUS 


unknown) part in the chemistry of plants, since 
it occurs in large amounts in germinating seeds, 
and wherever growth is actively proceeding. 

Aspar'agus, a genus of about 150 species 
of mostly tuberous-rooted, climbing, drooping, 
trailing, or erect perennial herbs or shrubs wide¬ 
ly distributed in tropical and warm temperate 
countries, especially in southern Europe and 
southern Africa, but more or less cultivated for 
food or ornament in all civilized countries. 
Some species rival and even excel the most deli¬ 
cate ferns in beauty of habit and foliage, which 
botanically considered, consists not of leaves 
but leaf-like stems. The ornamental species 
with the exception of A. verticellatus (see be¬ 
low), must all be grown in green-houses, except 
in southern Florida and southern California, 
where they may be planted with safety out of 
doors. They are readily and usually propagated 
by seeds, but often also by cuttings and by divi¬ 
sion. Among the best-known ornamental spe¬ 
cies cultivated in America are the following: 
A. medeoloides, also known as Myrsiphyllum 
asparagoides, the smilax of the florist, is widely 
grown for decorative purposes, for which its 
glossy green leaves specially commend it. (For 
culture, see Smilax). A. sprengeri, a species 
recently introduced from Natal, with long droop¬ 
ing branches, glossy light-green leaves (white 
in one variety) ; small white fragrant flowers in 
small racemes and little red berries. It is very 
popular, especially for planting in hanging 
baskets. A. plumosus, a tall climbing species 
from South Africa with horizontal branches of 
beautiful form, texture and color, which quali¬ 
ties are retained for weeks or even months after 
cutting. Deservedly one of the most popular of 
decorative plants. It has developed several va¬ 
rieties, some of which, especially the variety 
tenuissimus, are even more popular than the 
original species. A. verticellatus, a hardy species 
with tufts of hair-like leaves and small red 
berries, is a native of Persia and Siberia, and 
climbs to a height of 12 to 15 feet from a 
woody root stock. The stout young shoots are 
said to be edible, but they quickly become woody 
and spiny, and are then unfit for the table. Sev¬ 
eral other species are cultivated for ornament 
in America. 

Best and most widely known, however, is A. 
officinalis, esculent asparagus, which is also used 
to some extent as an ornamental plant. It is a 
perennial herb, native of Europe and Asia, and 
commonly found growing in sandy loam or sea 
shores, river banks, and among shrubby under¬ 
growth. In a wild state it rarely exceeds a foot 
in height and a stem diameter of more than 
one third of an inch; but in gardens sprouts are 
sometimes obtained as thick as a man s wrist, 
and the plants often grow more than four feet 
tall. For more than 2,000 years it has been 
cultivated for its succulent young shoots, pro¬ 
duced from the thick root stocks in spring. An 
excellent method of growing the plant may be 
epitomized as follows: 

The land chosen for the bed should be a rich, 
friable and warm loam, preferably exposed to 
the south or east. Manure should be applied 
without stint before the plants are set, and the 
preparation of the soil should be deep and 
thorough. The plants may be home-grown or 
purchased. One-year-old plants, if sturdy, are 
Vol. 1 —53 


preferable to older ones. For home growing a 
separate nursery bed should be prepared, and the 
seed previously soaked 24 hours in order to 
hasten germination, when sown in early spring, 
about two inches apart and one inch deep, at 
which rate an ounce should be enough for 200 
or more feet of drill. Some radish seed of a 
small early maturing variety should be sown 
in the same drill, so that the young radish 
plants, which quickly appear, may mark the 
position of the rows of the slower-appearing and 
less-conspicuous asparagus plants. As soon as 
the radishes are of edible size, or even before, 
if necessary, they should be pulled and the as¬ 
paragus plants, then an inch or two tall, left in 
possession of the ground. Beyond keeping down 
weeds, destroying pests, and thinning the plants 
to four inches asunder, no further attention is 
necessary during the first year. In the spring 
of the second year, if properly managed during 
the first, the plants should be large enough to 
be transplanted to the permanent bed. If too 
small they should be transplanted at least eight 
inches asunder, and grown a second year in a 
nursery bed. In the permanent bed the plants 
should stand at least two feet asunder in rows 
not less than four feet apart. Five or even six 
feet for the larger growing varieties is much 
better. Staminate plants are more productive 
of shoots than pistillate, but are difficult to 
recognize until the plants flower. The furrows 
are plowed six inches deep or deeper, the plants 
set in the bottom, but at first covered with only 
about two inches of earth. After growth starts 
the trench is gradually filled by cultivation 
which must be thorough, both among the plants 
and between the rows. Not before the second 
spring after planting in permanent quarters 
should any shoots be gathered. At the time of 
planting a liberal dressing of some slowly de¬ 
composing fertilizer, such as ground bone, should 
be given in the drill, and in the spring of each 
year complete fertilizers should be applied lib¬ 
erally. (See Fertilizers.) In addition to 
such applications many growers spread stable 
manure upon the bed in the autumn after 
the tops have been removed, a necessary prac¬ 
tice to prevent the scattering of the seeds 
upon the bed. In the spring as soon as the 
soil can be worked the land is either plowed shal¬ 
low or cultivated deeply to bury the manure. 
Since the plants are gross feeders there need be 
little fear of fertilizing too heavily. Methods of 
gathering depend somewhat upon whether the 
stalks are to be blanched or left green. Blanching 
is done by ridging the soil 13 inches deep above 
the crowns. Stalks so produced are gathered as 
soon as the tips appear above the soil; green 
stalks are cut when about nine inches long, in¬ 
cluding the base of two or more inches below 
the surface of the ground. In each case the 
stalk may be cut with an asparagus knife or 
preferably snapped near the crown, or at least 
at the proper depth, if blanched, by plunging the 
hand down in the loose soil beside the stalk and 
severing it with the fingers. By the latter meth¬ 
od there is less danger of injuring other shoots. 
All cutting should cease when green peas, grown 
in the same locality, are ready for the table, 
because the plants must be given opportunity to 
store up food for the following year. The 
stems are usually sold in bunches of various 
sizes, the grade depending upon the length and 


ASPARAGUS-STONE; ASPASIA 


number of stalks in the bunch. The bunch com¬ 
monly sold is eight and one half inches long, 
weighs about two pounds, and contains 30 spears. 
As a rule, the thicker the spear the better. First 
class spears are three quarters of an inch thick 
or thicker. Every care must be taken in hand¬ 
ling to prevent bruising, since a gummy juice 
collects in the broken cells, and the injured 
stalks spoil by heating. After washing, the 
stalks should be dried and kept cool. If to be 
shipped long distances, their butts should rest 
in damp sphagnum moss or similar material. 
In the home garden, where horse cultivation is 
not practicable, the plants may be set even as 
close as 18 inches by two feet, but the manur¬ 
ing, cultivation and other care must be in¬ 
creased in order to obtain choice shoots. Each 
spring the very liberal dressing of manure ap¬ 
plied the previous autumn should be forked, not 
dug, in, and a lavish amount of commercial fer¬ 
tilizer, rich in potash, phosphoric acid, and ni¬ 
trogen, applied. Soap suds may be emptied upon 
the bed; they have more or less potash in them. 
Asparagus sometimes is forced in hot beds, un¬ 
der greenhouse benches, in cellars, etc., by set¬ 
ting mature crowns (plants) close together and 
supplying heat and moisture. A large amount 
ctf light is not essential. It is also forced in the 
field by covering the beds with cloth and ap¬ 
plying heat by means of portable steam pipes, 
either in or upon the ground. In the former 
case the roots are ruined by the process; in 
the latter, they are not, but should be given 
one or more years to fully recuperate. (See 
reports and bulletins of Cornell Experiment 
Station and of Missouri Experiment Station). 
Several other species furnish edible shoots; for 
example, A. acutifolius, A. albus and A. tennui- 
folius, all European species. The tubers of A. 
lucidus are eaten in China and Japan, where 
the species is indigenous. The shoots of A. 
scaber, which resemble those of A. oflicialis, are 
inedible because bitter. 

Enemies. — Asparagus has only two impor¬ 
tant enemies, and when compared with other 
general crops, long cultivated, only a few less 
serious ones. Asparagus rust ( Puccinia as - 
paragi ) has been known for about 100 years, 
but only during the last decade of the 19th 
century did it do serious damage. In a badly 
infested field the plants as a whole seem to be 
maturing very early, their deep green having 
been replaced by a tawny brown. The stems 
examined closely, show a blistered and ruptured 
skin, beneath which are brown masses of spores 
or in late autumn, almost black winter spores. 
In the spring the <( cluster cup® is the form ob¬ 
served. The most effective control is the resin- 
Bordeaux mixture, made by adding to each 48 
gallons of standard Bordeaux mixture two gal¬ 
lons of resin stock solution, made as follows: 
Heat five pounds of resin and one pint of fish- 
oil in a kettle until the resin is dissolved. If 
very hot, allow to cool somewhat. Then slowly 
stir in one pound of potash lye and heat again 
till the mixture becomes the color of amber, 
when five gallons of water must be added. If 
the potash be added while the resin is too hot, 
the mixture may ignite. This solution increases 
the adhesiveness of Bordeaux mixture. (See 
Fungicide.) With the mixture 50 per cent 
greater yield has been obtained in unfavorable 
seasons, and 70 per cent in favorable. Growers 


cutting 800 bunches or more per acre find that 
thorough spraying each week for four, five or 
even more weeks pays well. For detailed ac¬ 
count of this disease and specific methods oi 
control, see New York Experiment Station- 
Report (1901). The asparagus beetle ( Crio - 
ceris asparagi), a European insect introduced 
about 1856, the only seriously injurious insect 
pest, is about one quarter of an inch long with 
black and yellow or red wing-covers. It be¬ 
longs to the Chrysomelidce. It appears as the 
adult in spring, and lays eggs on the shoots. In 
a few days grayish-green grubs appear and 
gnaw the green parts of the plants. When full 
grown they burrow in the ground to pupate for 
a short time. The broods succeed each other at 
intervals of about a month, if the weather be fa¬ 
vorable. Their natural enemies are lady-bird 
beetles and soldier beetles. The popular reme¬ 
dies are the corralling of chickens, ducks, and 
turkeys in the plantation; cutting all volunteer 
plants in waste places; cutting new shoots daily; 
allowing spindling shoots to remain in alternate 
rows for the insects to deposit their eggs upon 
and burning the shoots not less often than once 
a week; dusting with air-slaked lime or road 
dust while the dew is on; brushing the grubs to 
the hot ground from the full grown plants, the 
middle of the day being chosen for this opera¬ 
tion ; spraying with arsenites, hellebore or other 
stomach poisons; etc. A case of fight early and 
fight late! The 12-spotted asparagus beetle 
(Crioceris 12-punctatus) , about the same size 
as its relative just described, but orange red with 
black dots, has a similar life history, and may 
be controlled in the same way but is not yet 
seriously troublesome, except in a few localities. 
Several plant bugs, moth larvae, beetles and ap¬ 
hids also feed upon asparagus, but have not be¬ 
come serious pests. Consult: Year-book United 
States Department of Agriculture (Washington, 
1896), and Bulletin No. 10 (1898). See In¬ 
secticides. 

For fuller details of asparagus culture con¬ 
sult: Hexamer, ( Asparagus Culture ) (1901); 
Bailey and Miller, ( Cyclopedia of American Hor- 
ticulture ) (1900-02). In the latter will also 
be found specific instruction for the cultivation 
of ornamental asparagus. 

Asparagus-stone, a variety of apatite, 
found in Murcia, Spain, in the form of small, 
transparent, yellowish-green crystals. 

Aspasia, as-pa'shi-a, a celebrated woman 
of ancient Greece: b. in Miletus in Ionia, but 
spending a great part of her life in Athens. Her 
house was the general resort of the most virtu¬ 
ous, learned, and distinguished men in Greece. 
She inspired the strongest and most enduring af¬ 
fection in the heart of Pericles, who had separat¬ 
ed from his own wife and united himself to As¬ 
pasia as closely as was permitted by the Athenian 
law, which declared marriage with a foreign 
woman illegal. When the Athenians were dis¬ 
satisfied with Pericles, instead of attacking him 
they persecuted the objects of his particular 
favor, and accused Aspasia of contempt of the 
gods ; Pericles defended her in the Areopagus, 
but it required all his influence to procure her 
acquittal. After his death (b.c. 429) Aspasia is 
said to have attached herself to a wealthy but 
obscure cattle-dealer, of the name of Lysicles, 
whom she soon made, however, an influential 


ASPECT - ASPHALT 


citizen in Athens. She had a son by Pericles, 
who was legitimated by a special decree of the 
people. 

As'pect, a term in astronomy and astrol¬ 
ogy, denoting the situation of the planets and 
stars with respect to each other. There are five 
principal aspects: (i) sextile aspect, when the 
planets or stars are 6o° distant, and marked 
thus, *; (2) the quartile or quadrate, when 
they are go° distant, marked □ ; (3) trine, 
when 120 0 distant, marked A; (4) opposition, 

when 180 0 distant, marked § ; and (5) con¬ 
junction, when both are in the same degree, 
marked c 5 . Kepler added eight more. It is to 

be observed that these aspects, being first intro¬ 
duced by astrologers, were distinguished into 
benign, malignant, and indifferent; and Kepler’s 
definition of aspect, in consequence, is <( Aspect 
is the angle formed by the rays of two stars 
meeting on the earth, whereby their good or bad 
influence is measured.® The aspects now in use 
are conjunction, opposition, and quadrature. 

As'pen, Col., a city and county-seat of 
Pitkin County, on the Roaring Fork of Grand 
River, and the Colorado Midland, and the Den¬ 
ver & R. G. R.R.’s; 30 miles west of Lead- 
ville. It was incorporated in 1883; and has 
since become the centre of one of the rich¬ 
est mining sections in the country. In the 
city and vicinity are more than 20 mines, for 
which there are a number of silver, zinc, and 
lead ore mills. While the smelting and con¬ 
centrating of ores is the distinctive industry, 
the city has several minor factories, and it 
is also the principal mining trade centre of the 
Roaring Fork Valley. Pop. (1900) 3,303. 

As'pen, tremulous poplar, a tree of the 
order Salicacece and genus Populus, native 
of the cooler parts of Europe and Asia, and 
succeeding best upon moist, gravelly soils. It 
grows quickly; usually attains a height of 50 
to 60 feet, sometimes even 100 feet; has light, 
small, thin-toothed leaf-blades upon long, slen¬ 
der, flattened petioles which permit the blade to 
flutter with the least breeze, hence the specific 
name P. tremula, tremulous. The wood being 
white, light, soft, and porous, is not a valuable 
fuel, but is useful for making charcoal for the 
manufacture of gunpowder, and for turning, 
often being employed for making bowls, trays, 
troughs, and pails. The wood may be made 
harder and thus rendered useful for interior 
work in houses by peeling off the bark and al¬ 
lowing the stem to dry before felling it. In places 
where this tree abounds, and other timber is 
scarce or expensive, this method of hardening 
is very useful. The bark is rich in a glucoside 
called salicin and used in leather tanning. In 
the United States the tree is best known as an 
ornamental one, its variety, pendula, with grace¬ 
ful drooping sprays, being perhaps the best 
weeping poplar. The male plants are preferred 
because of the abundance of their catkins 
which appear in early spring before the catkins 
of American species blossom. The American 
aspen ( Populus tremuloides) , very generally 
distributed from Alaska to Labrador and south¬ 
ward to Pennsylvania and California, and, in 
the mountains to Mexico, so closely resembles 
the preceding species that many botanists 
consider it merely a variety. Its light-gray 


branches render it conspicuous in clearings 
where it is one of the first trees to appear. It is 
said to attain a height of 100 feet when grown 
in the forest. This tree, like the following, is 
widely used in the manufacture of wood pulp. 
The large-toothed aspen ( Populus grandiden- 
tata ) is a large American species found from 
Nova Scotia to Minnesota and southward to 
Tennessee. It is a tall tree, often reaching 75 
feet, and has bluish or rusty-white leaves thicker 
and larger and with more spreading teeth than 
the former two species. Except its drooping 
varieties, it is rarely used as an ornamental tree. 
See Poplar. 

Aspern, as-pern, and Esslingen, two vil¬ 
lages a few miles east of Vienna, on the oppo¬ 
site bank of the Danube, celebrated for the bat¬ 
tle fought 21 and 22 May 1809, between the 
Archduke Charles and Napoleon I. After the 
fall of the capital the Austrian general re¬ 
solved to suffer a part of the enemy’s forces to 
pass the Danube, and then to surround them 
with his own army and drive them if possible 
into the river. Everything depended on the 
possession of these two villages: Aspern was at 
first taken by the Austrians, again lost and re¬ 
taken, till they at length remained masters of 
it: from Esslingen they were continually re¬ 
pulsed. The battle was renewed on the 22d; 
the French army being now increased so as at 
least to equal the Austrians in number. Thou¬ 
sands of lives were sacrificed in vain attempts 
to capture the villages. Aspern continued to be 
the stronghold of the Austrians and Esslingen 
of the French. When the army of Napoleon 
gave up all hopes of gaining the victory by for¬ 
cing the centre of the Austrians, Esslingen 
served to secure their retreat to the island of 
Lobau. The loss of the Austrians in killed, 
wounded, etc., was estimated at less than a third 
of the whole army; that of the French at half. 
The latter lost on this occasion Marshal Lannes. 
The Austrians had 4,000 men killed and 16,000 
wounded, the French 8,000, 30,000 wounded. By 
the French the engagement is known as the bat¬ 
tle of Essling or Esslingen, but the Austrians 
style it the battle of Aspern. 

Asphalt. The general term asphalt is 
applied to the several varieties of hydrocarbons 
of an asphaltic base which exist in all condi¬ 
tions from the liquid to the solid state. It is 
more specifically employed to include the purer 
forms of hard and soft bitumen, such as elater- 
ite, albertite, gilsonite, nigrite, wurtzilite, brea, 
etc. The term bituminous rock includes sand¬ 
stones and limestones impregnated with bitu¬ 
men or asphalt. This rock, usually shipped 
without previous refining, is used principally for 
street pavements and is mixed with other in¬ 
gredients at the place of use. 

The importation of asphalt into the United 
States is chiefly from the Island of Trinidad, 
off the coast of Venezuela. Other imports are 
made from Bermudez and Venezuela. Bitu¬ 
minous limestones are imported from Neuchatel 
and Val de Travers, in Switzerland, from Seys- 
sel in France, and in small quantities from 
Germany, Italy, Russia, Austria-Hungary, Spain, 
Turkey in Asia, Great Britain, the United States 
of Colombia, Canada, the Netherlands. Cuba, 
and Mexico. The total imports from Trinidad 
and Venezuela in 1900 amounted to 134,189 long 
tons, and at the present time the value of our 


ASPHALT 


domestic product is about equal to that of the 
imported asphalt, at the point of shipment. The 
Island of Trinidad, one of the British West 
Indian possessions, is, next to France, the largest 
producer of asphalt in the world. The deposits 
are operated by an American corporation under 
a concession from the British government, and, 
also, independently, from land not belonging 
to the crown, acquired by purchase. The chief 
source of supply is a lake of pitch filling the 
crater of an extinct volcano. This lake lies 138 
feet above sea-level, and has an area of about 
114 acres. The supply is partly renewed by a 
constant flow of soft pitch into the centre of the 
lake from subterranean sources. The shipments 
of this lake pitch average over 80,000 tons per 
year, and the flow into the lake is at the rate of 
about 20,000 tons per year. The depth of this 
lake is about 135 feet at the centre. Distinct 
from the lake pitch is what is known as (( land 
pitch,® the overflow in past times of pitch from 
the lake, and deposits of similar nature. During 
recent years strenuous efforts have been made to 
discredit all asphalt mined from properties lo¬ 
cated outside of Pitch Lake. These efforts seem 
to have failed, however. Careful analyses of 
samples of asphalt taken from different parts of 
Pitch Lake, from deposits outside the lake and 
from the district of La Brea show that these 
asphalts are so similar in composition that for 
practical purposes they may be considered as 
identical in quality. The samples have a com¬ 
mon origin, for the presence of mineral matter 
in these asphalts cannot be regarded as ad¬ 
ventitious, since it is thoroughly incorporated 
with the bitumen in the same proportion and has 
the same percentage of composition, as regards 
the relative proportions of matter soluble in 
water, in acids and insoluble substances. There 
is no doubt that the pitch found in the deposits 
outside the lake has been divided from the lake 
itself by the subterranean flow of pitch to the 
viscous condition, a condition rarely assumed 
under the combined influence of heat and pres¬ 
sure. It is true there is a difference in the crude 
materials in these asphalts; one is softer than 
the other, because of containing more volatile 
oils. Nature simply began on the asphalt out¬ 
side the lake; it being more exposed to the rays 
of the tropical sun, the process of refining it 
drove those volatile oils off, a necessary accom¬ 
plishment to make the material fit for paving 
purposes. It would appear, therefore, that a 
part of the labor of refining has been done on 
the land or overflow asphalt which remains to be 
done with the lake asphalt. 

In 1875 the asphalt paving industry was in its 
infancy in the United States. In 1903 there 
were about 42,000,000 square yards of asphalt, 
sheet and block, which- has been laid at a cost 
of about $110,000,000. These pavements are fre¬ 
quently called bituminous pavements, inasmuch 
as bitumen is the largest constituent of the 
asphalt, frequently running as high as 9 per 
cent. Asphalt is manufactured into a cement by 
mixing it with other forms of bitumen, and this 
cement is in turn used to bind together particles 
of sand and limestone in the asphalt pavement. 
No two asphalts are alike. The life of the 
pavement depends upon the crude bitumen used, 
the skill in its manufacture into bituminous 
cement, the proper proportioning and mixing of 
the cement with the sand and dust and in the 
selection of the mineral aggregate. 


In 1870, Prof. E. J. Smedt, a Belgian chem¬ 
ist, laid the first sheet asphalt pavement in this 
country, in Newark, N. J. Prior to this date, 
coal tar had been used as the cementing mate¬ 
rial, but with little satisfaction. In 1876 Con¬ 
gress appointed a commission, consisting of 
Gens. Horatio G. Wright and Quincey A. Gil¬ 
more, of the corps of engineers, and Edward 
Clark, architect of the capitol, to select the best 
pavement for Pennsylvania Avenue in Wash¬ 
ington. Forty-one proposals, for stone, macad¬ 
am, tar and asphalt pavements, were received. 
The commission selected two, and decided to 
use Neuchatel rock asphalt, and De Smedt’s 
artificial Trinidad mixture, in the proportion of 
two to three. The artificial Trinidad mixture 
has been most satisfactory. When it was de¬ 
cided, in 1889, to repave Pennsylvania Avenue 
in Washington, the entire avenue was relaid 
with it, and the Neuchatel was discarded. 

Trinidad Pitch Lake has furnished over 85 
per cent of the asphalt used in the United 
States. The liquid asphalt passing through clay 
saturates it or carries it in suspension and be¬ 
comes a brown, earthy, non-viscous substance, 
chemically composed as follows: 

Bitumen .47 per cent 

Infusorial earth .28 per cent 

Water .25 per cent 

The water is evaporated in refining and the 
residue (approximately one third clay and 

two thirds hard asphalt) regains some of its 
viscosity and requires the admixture of some 
flux or softening agent to give it the proper 
consistency for paving operations. Samples 
taken at 100 and 150 feet deep at the centre of 
Pitch Lake do not differ in composition from 
those taken on the surface near the shore, show¬ 
ing the homogeneousness of the entire mass. 
The surface is in constant motion, and gradually 
lowers as the asphalt is removed. Refined as¬ 
phalt is shipped from Trinidad to Mexico, South 
America and other foreign countries ; but, owing 
to the very high duty on refined asphalt coming 
into the United States, it is cheaper to refine 
here. 

In 1892, the New York and Bermudez Com¬ 
pany began the importation of a very pure and 
hard asphalt from a deposit in the State of Ber¬ 
mudez, Venezuela, and up to the present time 
about 3,000,000 square yards of pavement have 
been laid with this material. The Bermudez 
Asphalt Lake, covering an area of about 1,000 
acres, lies about 20 miles from the Gulf of 
Paria, in a straight line. There are many 
springs of soft asphalt or maltha, the largest 
being about 7 acres in area. Outside of the 
springs, where new material is constantly exud- 
ing, the surface of the lake is covered with veg¬ 
etation and trees, which must first be cut off to 
reach the asphalt. The quality of the asphalt 
varies from maltha or liquid asphalt exuding 
from the springs, to a hard glance pitch. The 
crude Bermudez asphalt contains on an average 
about 31 per cent of water, which is present as 
a mixture and not as an emulsion, and about 66 
per cent of bitumen.. This asphalt is softer and 
more brittle than Trinidad, but possesses all es¬ 
sential cementitious qualities. 

As early as 1879 asphalt found in Southern 
California was laid at an intersection on Market 
Street, San Francisco, which is the heaviest 
traveled street in that city. In 1884 the late 
Jesse Warren reported on these California 





ASPHALT PAINTING — ASPIDIUM 


asphalts, the only indications of which were 
slight surface exudations of liquid asphalt and 
large banks of bituminous sandstone (sand sat¬ 
urated with asphalt). In 1895, the Alcatraz 
Company successfully laid two streets in New 
York city and acquired a high standing for the 
California product which was subsequently con¬ 
trolled by the Asphalt Company of America. It 
has been laid in many Eastern cities, under the 
trade name of (( Alcatraz,® “Standard,^ (( Ven¬ 
tura, w etc., and has been uniformly successful 
when refined, mixed and laid intelligently, by 
men experienced in handling asphalt in all its 
stages. Shortly after the organization of the 
Asphalt Company of America, beds of very pure, 
high grade, liquid asphalt were discovered in 
Southern California. This being a nearly pure, 
viscous bitumen, it does not require a softening 
agent or flux, nor the admixture of other bitumi¬ 
nous material, to make it of the proper con¬ 
sistency for paving. 

Asphalt Painting. Asphalt was once 
largely used in painting, especially in the old 
Dutch school. It was dissolved in spirits of 
wine to ensure greater permanence. Because of 
its unreliability it ceased to be used. 

Asphalt Process, a photographic process 
devised about 1814 by J. N. Niepce (q.v.). He 
coated a plate of polished metal with asphalt 
varnish, and then placed it with a drawing in a 
camera obscura for from 4 to 6 hours. The 
parts of the asphalt which had been acted upon 
by the light became insoluble. The parts of the 
asphalt film that had been protected were dis¬ 
solved by essential oils, and thus a copy of the 
drawing was brought out. The “heliographs** 
thus made were not particularly successful. 
This method has been modified in the asphalt 
process of photo-mechanical printing. See 
Photo-Engraving. 

Asphaltic Coal, coal-like substances which 
though they have sometimes been classi¬ 
fied as coals, differ from all the true coals in 
respect to both their geological position and 
their composition. They do not occur in strata, 
but occupy cavities and fissures, into which 
they appear to have flowed when plastic. They 
have been found in Devonian, Carboniferous, 
and Tertiary rock. The regions in which they 
are principally mined are Albert County, New 
Brunswick (albertite), the Uinta Mountains, 
Utah (gibsonite and uintahite), and Colorado, 
West Virginia, Texas, and Mexico (grahamite). 
Wurtzilite is found also in Utah. Their chief 
uses are as a basis for varnishes, and as insu¬ 
lators. Consult: Blake, ( Uintahite, # Albertite, 
etc.* ; transactions* of the American Insti¬ 
tute of Mining Engineers, Vol. XVIII. (1890). 

As'phodel, a small genus, Asphodelus, of 
hardy annual and perennial fleshy-rooted herbs, 
natives of the Mediterranean region, belonging 
to the natural order Liliacecc, but by some bot¬ 
anists made the type genus of the natural order 
Asphodelcc. A. luteus, lutea, king’s spear, or 
yellow asphodel, the true asphodel of the an¬ 
cients, attains a height of two to four feet, has 
numerous long (3 to 12 inches) narrow rough- 
margined leaves which embrace the stem, and in 
early summer yellow flowers in long racemes 
(6 to 18 inches), and large persistent membra¬ 
nous bracts. A. albus, branching or white aspho¬ 
del, which has radical leaves, blossoms about 


the same time as the preceding species, and pro¬ 
duces its white funnel-shaped blossoms in 
branched clusters. Both species are readily 
propagated by division and are of easy cultiva¬ 
tion in any soil. They thrive fairly well in 
partial shade, but do better when more or less 
exposed to the sun. A. ramosus, a species 
which by some botanists is made to include A. 
albus and many other species, is cultivated in 
Algeria and some other countries for its starchy 
roots which are used to make alcohol. The 
refuse from this manufacture, together with the 
leaves and stems, is employed in paper and 
cardboard-making. Several other related plants 
are often called asphodel, among which are 
Narthecium ossifragum, bog asphodel, common 
on European moors; N. americanum, by some 
botanists considered a form of the preceding, 
and A. calif ornicum, similarly called in America. 
False asphodel is a name given to several spe¬ 
cies of Toldedia. The asphodel of the poets is 
Narcissus pseudo-narcissus. 

Asphyxia, etymologically, pulselessness, 
but literally a condition of partial or complete 
loss of consciousness because of defective oxida¬ 
tion of the blood. The symptoms may be de¬ 
veloped rapidly or slowly. In sudden occlusion 
of the air passages, such as caused by a foreign 
body in the larynx, or compression of the throat 
as in hanging, there is usually a quiet period of 
from 20 to 30 seconds after which respiratory 
movements, both of inspiration and of expira¬ 
tion, follow. These gradually increase in fre¬ 
quency and depth until in about a minute pow¬ 
erful expiratory convulsions occur; convulsive 
movements of inspiration are also produced, but 
these are usually milder in character. A period 
of exhaustion sets in, the respiratory movements 
become slower and more irregular, and grad¬ 
ually cease. During this period the face has be¬ 
come pallid, and then deeply cyanosed and 
flushed, the lips blue to purple, and the body 
temperature, at first increased, gradually dimin¬ 
ishes. The blood pressure is at first increased, 
and then falls gradually to zero. Unconscious¬ 
ness develops about a minute after the occlusion, 
although there is great individual variation, the 
sphincters relax and the urine and faeces are 
passed. There is a loss of muscle-tone, and the 
reflexes are abolished. In asphyxia both lack of 
oxygen and increase of carbonic-acid gas in the 
blood are important factors. Asphyxia may re¬ 
sult from an excess of carbonic-acid gas with 
a normal amount of oxygen, and may be pro¬ 
duced, if the amount of oxygen is diminished 
one half, with no variation of the carbon diox¬ 
ide. For treatment, see Drowning. 

As'pic, a dish consisting of a clear, savorv 
meat jelly, containing fowl, game, fish, etc. 

Aspid'ium, a widely distributed genus of 
ferns, numbering upward of 500 species, of 
which more than a dozen are found in the 
United States, including the male _ and shield 
ferns. Their only economic use is in medicine. 
The active principles in this and allied species 
are filicic acid, aspidin and other phloroglucin- 
like bodies. The action is largely on the tape¬ 
worm, for which parasite this drug is given. 
Poisonous symptoms sometimes are produced. 
These are pain, muscular weakness, purging, 
collapse, and even death. Temporary blindness 
has been produced by male fern. 


ASPINWALL —ASS 


As'pinwall, William, an American physi¬ 
cian: b. Brookline, Mass., 23 May 1743; d. 
16 April 1823. He studied medicine in Phila¬ 
delphia, and practised in his native town. He 
served as surgeon with the Revolutionary army, 
and later became interested in the subject of 
vaccination and established that preventive in 
American practice. 

As'pinwall, William H., an American con¬ 
structor of railroads: b. New York city 16 Dec. 
1807; d. 18 Jan. 1875. He was for many years 
a partner in a large shipping firm in New York, 
but retiring from it in 1850, turned his attention 
to building the Panama Railroad, whose eastern 
terminus of Aspinwall is named in his honor. 
He was likewise prominent in forming the 
Pacific Mail Steamship Company. 

Aspiroz, as-pe'roth, Manuel de, Mexican 
soldier, statesman, and diplomat: b. Puebla 9 
June 1836; d. Washington, D. C., 24 March 
1905. He graduated from the University of 
Mexico in 1855, was licensed to practise law in 
1863, but upon the French invasion entered the 
army. In the Juarez insurrection of 1863 
against Maximilian, he served in the insurgent 
army with great distinction, rising from 2d 
lieutenant to colonel. After the fall of Quere- 
taro he was appointed judge-advocate of the 
military court which sentenced the emperor to 
death, thereby incurring the lasting hatred of 
the imperial house of Austria, of which Maxi¬ 
milian was a member. In 1867 Aspiroz became 
assistant secretary of state for foreign affairs 
in the new republic; in 1872 did much to settle 
amicably the claims between the United States 
and Mexico, which dated from the Mexican 
war in 1845: in 1873-5 was consul at San Fran¬ 
cisco ; and in 1875 was elected senator from his 
native province to the Mexican national con¬ 
gress. In 1881 he left the senate to become a 
member of the commission appointed to make 
treaties with the powers of the world; was law 
professor in the College of Puebla from 1883 to 
1890, when he was again appointed by President 
Diaz assistant secretary of state, serving in that 
capacity until appointed, in 1899, first Mexican 
ambassador to the United States, a position he 
held till his death. In 1900 he was the Mexican 
representative at the Hague tribunal; was a 
member of several scientific organizations, a 
knight commander of the military Order of Our 
Lord Jesus Christ of Portugal, and had been 
presented by the Shah of Persia with the dec¬ 
oration of the Order of the Lion and Rising 
Sun, and by the dowager empress of China with 
the insignia of the Order of the Dragon, in 
both cases in appreciation of his services in 
negotiating treaties between their respective 
countries. He published: ( Codigo de extran- 
jeria de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos ) (1876) ; 
and ( La libertad civil como base del derecho 
internacional privado ) (1896). 

Asple'nium, a genus of about 200 species 
of small ferns of world-wide distribution, be¬ 
longing to the sub-order Polypodiacecu, char¬ 
acterized by free veins and elongated sori 
covered by an indusium. Many of the species 
are very beautiful and are consequently favorites 
with cultivators whose space is limited. A. 
viride, A. adiantum-nigruni, A. trichomanes, and 
other species are commonly called spleenwort 
from their formerly supposed efficacy in internal 


medicine. The two last-mentioned species also 
bear the name of maiden-hair, but are not the 
true maiden-hair fern (Adiantum) . In the 
eastern United States a dozen or more species 
are to be found growing wild, among which the 
more common are A. thclyptcvoidcs, A. angusti- 
folium and A. felixfccmia, which reach a height 
of from one to four feet. In cultivation, slight 
shade is almost essential, as is also abundant 
water at the roots, but the air must not be very 
moist else the leaves will turn brown. The 
plants thrive in peaty soil. See Ferns. 

As'quith, Herbert Henry, an English 
statesman: b. Morley, Yorkshire, 12 Sept. 1852, 
and educated at Balliol College, Oxford. He 
studied law and was admitted to the bar of 
Lincoln’s Inn in 1852. He entered Parliament 
in 1886 as member for East Fife, and was re¬ 
elected in 1892 and in 1895, and was home sec¬ 
retary in Gladstone’s last cabinet. He was con¬ 
spicuous as a debater during the Home Rule 
discussions, and in 1894 drew up the Welsh 
Church Disestablishment Bill. In December 1905 
he was appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer 
in the Liberal cabinet of Sir Henry Campbell- 
Bannerman. 

Ass (As. assa, Goth, asilus, Rus. oselu, 
Lat. asinus, probably of Eastern origin; cf. Heb. 
athon, she-ass) or, when domesticated, Don¬ 
key. A member of the family Equidce and 
usually placed in the genus Equus, with the 
horse, though sometimes made the type of a 
separate genus Asinus. There are at least three 
species, one Asiatic, and the others African. 
From the North African species the domesti¬ 
cated ass or donkey has probably descended, 
although many of its characteristics, particularly 
its spirit and bearing, are greatly altered. In 
size, in the short hair and terminal tuft of the 
tail, and in the fact that only the fore-legs 
present callosities, the ass resembles the zebra 
rather than the horse; and although not striped 
like the zebra, it has a varying tendency to 
stripes on the legs. The Asiatic ass ( Equus 
liemionus ) is divided into three local varieties, 
of which the one found in Persia and Syria must 
be that which the Old Testament writers used 
as a type of unhampered wildness. Of the oth¬ 
ers, the kiang, koulan, or dziggetai of Thibet, is 
the largest and most strikingly colored. Its 
height is sometimes four feet at the shoulders. 
Like all asses, it is pale underneath, but the color 
above is a dark red with a narrow black stripe 
along the mane and backbone from head to tail. 
The third variety, the onager or ghorkhar, like 
the first, is smaller and paler; sometimes it is 
even silvery, and its dorsal stripe is broader in 
proportion than that of the Thibetan ass. It in¬ 
habits the plains of northwestern India, Afghan¬ 
istan, and Beluchistan. Unlike the donkey, these 
wild asses are so extremely swift, enduring, and 
agile that on the plains they cannot be over¬ 
taken by a single horseman. In the mountains 
they are less shy, and sometimes voluntarily 
approach travelers. Wild asses are hunted for 
sport, and it is said of their flesh, that, while 
resembling venison, it has an even finer quality. 
The asses of the plains migrate to the hills in 
summer when the plains are dry. See Kiang; 
Onager. 

The African ass (Equus Africanus ) differs 
widely from the Asiatic, being larger and hav¬ 
ing a bluish tint rather than a tendency to red. 


ASS —ASSAM 


It is sometime's as much as 14 hands high, and 
has the very large ears which characterize the 
donkey. 1 he dark stripe on the back begins 
only at the shoulder, but extends from the tail 
down the withers; the hair of the mane and 
tail is short, and varies little from that of the 
body in color. It is found in all the open re¬ 
gions of northeastern Africa, and westward 
through the Sahara and. Sudan. Like the 
Asiatic ass, it is extremely wild and fleet. A 
second species of African wild ass (Equus somal- 
icus ) was found in Somaliland a few years ago 
(see Proc. Zool. Soc. of London, 1884, p. 540), 
which is distinguished by its grayer color, and 
faintness of its stripes; it also has smaller ears 
and a more flowing mane. Living examples 
have been kept in London. 

The leading authorities on these animals are 
Blanford and Tegetmeier, the latter the author 
of ( Horses, Asses, and Zebras ) (1895). 

The donkey, or domestic ass, was probably 
first tamed in Egypt, where it was known before 
the horse, and has always been much used; some 
of the Eastern breeds of the donkey are far 
larger and finer than those commonly seen in 
Europe, though in Spain and Italy, where they 
are more used, they are superior to those of 
other European countries. In England they are 
little employed, but in America are kept by 
stock raisers in the Middle and Southern States 
for the breeding of mules and hinnies. (See 
Mule.) Their milk is recommended in cases 
©f consumption and dyspepsia, and their skins 
furnish the leather called shagreen, besides an 
excellent shoe-leather and the covering of drums. 

Ass, Feast of the, a mock ceremony ob¬ 
served in northern France in the Middle Ages. 
It was originally a good-natured parody on the 
church service without intentional irreverence, 
but degenerated into an indecent performance. 
It was in substance a brief farce in which 
Balaam’s ass appeared before the church altar to 
prophesy the coming of Christ. 

Assab, as-sab', an Italian trading station 
on the coast of the Red Sea, 40 miles from the 
Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb. The neighboring dis¬ 
trict with an area of 243 square miles, was sold 
in 1870 by some Danakil chieftains to an Italian 
steamship company for a coaling station on the 
road to India. In 1880 it was taken over by the 
Italian government, which, since 1884, has im¬ 
proved the harbor and erected a lighthouse. 

Assai, as-sl', a food made from the fruit 
pulp of various species of Brazilian palms 
closely allied to the cabbage palm (q.v.) and 
largely used in the lower Amazon region. The 
principal species are Euterpe edulis and E. Ca- 
tinga. The first species grows in tide-flooded 
swamps, where it may attain a height of 90 
feet with a diameter of only four or five inches. 
It produces upon branched spadices an abun¬ 
dance of small pea-like purple fruit with a thin 
firm pulp and a hard seed. These fruits are 
kneaded in warm water to produce the thick 
purplish assai which is generally eaten with 
starchy foods. The terminal bud of this species 
is eaten like that of its close relative, E. oleracea, 
the cabbage palm, and its stems are used as 
rafters and poles. The other species grow on 
dry, sandy, upland soils, its smaller quantity of 
fruit furnishing a sweeter assai. 


, Assai, as-sal', a large salt lake in the dis¬ 
trict of Adal, in eastern Africa, near the coast of 
the Bay of Tajura. It is nearly 600 feet below 
the level of the sea. Abyssinian caravans resort 
to Assai for the purpose of carrying off the salt, 
thickly encrusted on its shores. 

Assam', a chief-commissionership of Brit¬ 
ish India, situated mainly between Upper Bur¬ 
ma and the Himalayas, with an area of 52,078 
square miles. It may be considered as a long 
series of fertile valleys watered by the Brah¬ 
maputra and its tributaries. The valley of the 
Brahmaputra consists of rich alluvial plains, 
either but little elevated above the flood-level 
of the Brahmaputra and its feeders, or so low 
that large extents of them are flooded for three 
or four days once or twice in the year. The 
Surma valley is even more subjected to inunda¬ 
tions than the plains of the Brahmaputra, but 
the Surma and its tributaries having more per¬ 
manent banks, the shifting is trifling compared 
with the banks of the Brahmaputra. In Assam 
are found the valuable teak and sissoo trees, 
date, and sago palms, the areca palm (the betel- 
nut-tree), the Indian fig tree, etc. But the ar¬ 
ticle of most commercial importance grown in 
Assam is tea. The plant was discovered grow¬ 
ing in this region in 1823, but not till 1838 did 
the first shipment reach England. The plant 
producing it, though not regarded as specifically 
distinct from that of China, is much larger and 
more vigorous. There are now about 300,000 
acres under tea; the yield is about 100,000,000 
pounds annually. Rice covers a large extent 
of the cultivated soil, occupying about 1,500,000 
acres. The other crops include maize, pulse, 
oil-seeds, sugar-cane, hemp, jute, potatoes, etc. 
In the jungles and forests roam herds of ele¬ 
phants, in the dense and swampy parts of the 
forests the rhinoceros is met with, and tigers and 
wild buffaloes abound; leopards, bears, and wild 
hogs are numerous, and among other animals are 
jackals and foxes, goats, deer, and the veno¬ 
mous cobra. Coal, petroleum, limestone, and 
iron are found, and gold-dust is met with in 
many of the rivers. The coal-beds are sup¬ 
posed to be co-extensive with the main valley, 
but coal is only worked to the south of the 
Brahmaputra. The inhabitants are mostly en¬ 
gaged in agriculture. There is no Assamese 
nation proper, various ethnical groups being 
represented. The people seem to be contented, 
good-natured, and indolent, and have few wants 
beyond what can be easily supplied from their 
fertile fields, for which they pay but a very 
small rental. Great respect is paid to the 
aged; parents, when no longer able to work, 
are supported by their offspring; they are ten¬ 
derly attached to their children, kind to their 
relatives, and hospitable to people of their own 
caste. Assam, known in ancient Indian history 
as Kamarupa, formed in the 7th century a.d. a 
powerful independent kingdom under a Brah¬ 
man sovereign, but in the 15th century it broke 
up into 12 separate states, which, in spite of 
their numerous internal struggles, were gener¬ 
ally able to resist the attacks of the powerful 
Mogul emperors. Late in the 18th century its 
condition encouraged the Burmese to make the 
country a dependency of Ava, but the Burmese 
encroachments on the territory of the East In¬ 
dia Company brought about war with the British. 
In 1826 Assam became a possession of Great 


ASSAS —ASSAULT 


Britain under the administration of the lieuten¬ 
ant-governor of Bengal, and in 1874 was erected 
into a chief-commissionership. There are no 
towns properly so-called, but some large vil¬ 
lages. The seat of administration is Shillong. 
Pop. (1901) 6,122,201. 

Assas, as'sa, Nicolas, Chevalier d’, a 
French officer, celebrated for an act of patriot¬ 
ism which cost him his life. He was captain 
in the regiment of Auvergne when the French 
army was stationed near Gueldres, in 1760, and 
on 15 October, while engaged in reconnoitering, 
was taken prisoner by a division of the enemy 
advancing to surprise the French camp, and 
threatened with death if a word escaped him. 
He shouted, *A moi, Auvergne , voila les enne- 
mis /® and was instantly struck down. An an¬ 
nual pension was allowed to his descendants. 

Assas'sina'tion, a term denoting the mur¬ 
der of any one by surprise or treachery. It is 
commonly applied to the murder of a public per¬ 
sonage by one who aims solely at the death of 
his victim. In ancient times, assassination was 
often even applauded, as in the Scriptural in¬ 
stances of Ehud and Jael, and in the murder of 
Hipparchus by Harmodius and Aristogeiton; but 
assassination by enthusiasts and men devoted to 
an idea first became prominent in the religious 
struggles of the 16th and 17th centuries. To 
this class belong the plots against the life of 
Queen Elizabeth; while the succession of assas¬ 
sinations of Roman emperors is but a series of 
murders prompted by self-interest or revenge. 
Omitting these last, the following list includes 
the most important assassinations, arranged in 
chronological order. Fuller accounts of the per¬ 


sons mentioned will be found under their par¬ 
ticular headings: 

Philip of Macedon. b.c. 366 

Julius Caesar .Mar. 15 B.c. 44 

Thomas Becket.Dec. 29, a.d. 1170 

Albert I. Emperor of Germany.May 1, 1308 

James I. of Scotland.Feb. 21, 1437 

Alessandro de Medici.Jan. 5, 1537 

Cardinal Beaton.May 29, 1546 

David Riccio.Mar. 9, 1566 

Lord Darnley.Feb. xo, 1567 

James, Earl of Murray, Regent.Jan. 23, 1570 

William of Orange.July 10, 1584 

Henry III. of France.Aug. 1-2, 1589 

Henry IV. of France.May 14, 1610 

Villiers, Duke of Buckingham.Aug. 23, 1628 

Wallenstein.Feb. 25, 1634 

Archbishop Sharp.May 3, 1679 

Gustavus III. of Sweden, Mar. 16; d.Mar. 29, 1792 

Marat, by Charlotte Corday.July 13, 1793 

Gen. Kleber at Cairo.June 14, 1800 

Paul, Czar of Russia.Mar. 24, 1891 

Spencer Perceval, premier.May 11, 1812 

Kotzebue, the dramatist.Mar. 23, 1819 

Due de Berri.Feb. 13, 1820 

Charles III., Duke of Parma, Mar. 26; d.. .Mar. 27, 1854 
President Abraham Lincoln, April 14; d.. .April 15, 1865 

Michael, Prince of Servia.June 10, 1868 

Marshal Prim, Dec. 28; d. .Dec. 30, 1870 

Georges Darboy, Archbishop of Paris.May 24, 1871 

Earl of Mayo, governor-general of India... Feb. 8, 1872 

Sultan Abdul-Aziz...June 4, 1876 

Alexander II., Czar of Russia.Mar. 13, 1881 

President James A. Garfield, July 2; d. Sept. 19, 1881 

Lord Frederick Cavendish and T. H. Burke. 

in Phoenix Row, Dublin.May 6, 1882 

President Sadi Carnot, France.June 24, 1894 

Ex-Premier Stefan Stambuloff, Bulgaria, 

July 15; d...July 18, 1895 

Premier Canovas del Castillo, Spain.April 22, 1897 

President Juan Idiarte, Uruguay.Aug. 25, 1897 

Empress Elizabeth of Austria, in Geneva. . Sept. 10, 1898 

President Ulisses Heureaux, Santo Domin¬ 
go.July 26, 1899 

King Humbert of Italy.July 29, 1900 

President McKinley, Sept. 6; d.Sept. 14, 1901 

Alexander of Servia . June 11, 1903 


Many attempts at assassination have been 
unsuccessful. Among those within the last cen¬ 
tury may be named: Against Alexander III. of 
Russia, repeatedly; Alfonso XII. of Spain, 1878 
and 1879; Amadeus of Spain, 1872; Due d’Au- 
male, 1841; Prince Bismarck, 1866 and 1874; 
Francis Joseph of Austria, 1853; George III. of 
England, 1786 and 1800; George IV. (when Re¬ 
gent), 1817; Humbert I. of Italy, 1878 and 1897; 
Isabella II. of Spain, 1847, 1852, and 1856; Louis 
Philippe, six attempts, from 1835 to 1846; Lord 
Lytton, viceroy of India, 1878; Napoleon I., 
by infernal machine, 1800; Napoleon III., twice 
in 1855, and Orsini’s attempt in 1858; Queen 
Victoria, 10 June 1840, 30 May 1842, 3 July 1842, 
19 May 1849, and 2 March 1882; William I. of 
Germany, 1861, 1875, and twice in 1878; Presi¬ 
dent Diaz of Mexico and President Morales of 
Brazil, both in 1897; and the Prince of Wales in 
1900. 

Assas'sins, a term applied to a secret 
order of religious fanatics who flourished in the 
nth and 12th centuries. They derived their 
name of assassins originally from their immod¬ 
erate use of hasheesh, which produces an in¬ 
tense cerebral excitement, often amounting to 
fury. Their founder and lawgiver was Has- 
san-ben-Sabah, to whom the Orientals gave the 
name of Sheikh-el-Jobelz, but who was better 
known in Europe as the (< 01 d Man of the Moun¬ 
tain.® Their principal article of belief was that 
the Holy Ghost was embodied in their chief, and 
that his orders proceeded from the Deity. They 
believed assassination to be meritorious when 
sanctioned by his command, and courted danger 
and death in the execution of his orders. They 
were frequently styled Ismaili. A feeble residue 
of the sect, from whom proceeded the Druses, 
about a.d. 1020, has survived in Persia and Sy¬ 
ria. The Syrian Ismaili dwell around Mesiode, 
and on Lebanon. They are under Turkish do¬ 
minion, with a sheik of their own, and formerly 
enjoyed a productive and flourishing agriculture 
and commerce. Since the war with the Nas- 
sarians, 1809-10, they have dragged out a miser¬ 
able existence, but are commended by modern 
travelers for their hospitality, frugality, gentle¬ 
ness, and piety. 

Assault'. In law, an assault is a move¬ 
ment virtually implying a threat to strike, as 
when a person raises his hand or his cane in a 
menacing manner, or strikes at another but 
misses him. It is not needful to touch one to 
constitute an assault. When a blow actually 
takes effect, the crime is not simple assault, but 
assault and battery. Assault, however, is usual¬ 
ly coupled with battery, and for the reason that 
they generally go together; but the assault is 
rather the initiation or offer to commit the act 
of which the battery is the consummation. An 
assault is included in every battery. An aggra¬ 
vated assault is one performed with the inten¬ 
tion of committing some additional crime, such 
as an assault with intent to commit rape, assault 
with intent to murder, an assault with a deadly 
weapon, an indecent assault. The defenses usu¬ 
ally interposed in cases of assault are self-de¬ 
fense, recapture of property, ejectment of tres¬ 
passers, defense of property, defense of family, 
accident, etc. A person assaulting another may 
be prosecuted by him for the civil injury, and 
also be punished by the criminal law for the in¬ 
jury done to the public. 







































ASSAYE; ASSAYING 


In military language an assault is a furious 
effort to carry a fortified post, camp, or fortress, 
where the assailants do not screen themselves 
by any works. It is the appropriate termination 
of a siege which has not led to the capitulation 
of the garrison. To give an assault: To attack 
any post. To repulse an assault: To cause the 
assailants to retreat; to beat them back. To 
carry by assault: To gain a post by storm. In 
fencing, an assault of arms is an attack on each 
other (not in earnest), made by two fencers to 
exhibit or increase their skill. (Sometimes it 
is used in a wider sense for other military exer¬ 
cises.) 

Assaye, as-sl', a village in southern India, 
where Wellington gained a famous victory in 
1803. With only 4,500 troops at his disposal he 
completely routed the Mahratta force of 50,000 
men and 100 guns. The victory, however cost 
him the loss of more than a third of his men. 

Assaying, the art of testing ores or al¬ 
loys, for the purpose of determining the amount 
of some particular metal that is present in the 
material analyzed. Assays may be made by 
“wet® or “dry® methods, and will vary greatly in 
detail, according to the metal to be determined. 
The present article will be chiefly devoted to the 
usual process of estimating gold and silver in 
the “dry® way. The mode of procedure is sub¬ 
stantially the same, whether the assay is made 
upon ore or upon bullion, except as to the 
method of obtaining the sample to be examined. 
If the material proposed for the assay is bul¬ 
lion, or any metallic alloy, the sample for exam¬ 
ination is obtained by drilling into the specimen 
in different places, and mixing the borings. In 
the case of an ore, the usual method of obtaining 
a sample for assaying is by “quartering.® If 
this is done by hand, every tenth shovelful of 
the ore to be examined is thrown upon the 
floor, until a conical heap containing perhaps 
ten tons has been accumulated. This heap is 
next flattened somewhat, and divided into four 
quarters, as nearly equal as possible. 1 wo of 
the diagonally opposite quarters are thrown back 
into the main body of ore, and the remaining 
two quarters are thoroughly mixed, spread out 
into a second pile, and “quartered® again in the 
same manner. The process is continued (the ore 
being crushed in the meantime as often as ap¬ 
pears necessary) until the original sample has 
been reduced to from one to three pounds, after 
which it is ground fine, and the specimens desired 
for examination are made up by random selec¬ 
tions from the final pulverized product. More 
commonly, ores are sampled by mechanical or 
semi-mechanical methods, and the sampling is 
not done by the miner, but by a “campling mill,® 
which acts as the agent both of the miner and 
of the smelting works. In such cases the ore 
is first shipped to the sampling mill, where it 
is unloaded, weighed, crushed, and passed 
through a chute, in which one quarter is mechan¬ 
ically selected and passed into a separate bin. 
The quarter thus mechanically reserved is next 
thoroughly mixed, after which. the “cutting 
down® is commenced. This consists in remov¬ 
ing the ore from the floor by means of a spe¬ 
cially-constructed sampling shovel which catches 
about half of it, and lets the remainder fall into 
a barrow. The ore retained by the shovel is 
thrown into three buckets, in rotation, and the 
contents of the buckets are then coned up in one 


pile, and divided again in the same manner. 
The ore is then further crushed, and the process 
is continued until, finally, three samples, weigh¬ 
ing about ten pounds each, are obtained. Part 
of each of these is sent separately to the as- 
sayer, who assays all three. If the results are 
not adjudged to be sufficiently accordant, the 
sampler concludes that the mixing was not well 
done, and the operations described are repeated. 
But if the three samples agree fairly well, their 
average is taken as representing the value of the 
ore; and on this basis the sampler settles with 
the miner, and afterward with the smelter, thus 
acting as a middle-man in the sale of the ore. 

The specimen of ore received by the as- 
sayer is ground fine enough to pass through a 
60-mesh or a 100-mesh screen, any “metallics® 
(or particles of metal that will not pass through 
the screen being carefully collected and reserved 
for a separate assay. If the ore is new to the 
assayer, his next step is to examine it micro¬ 
scopically, and to apply various preliminary 
tests, so that the general nature of the ore 
may be known before the quantitative work 
begins. If assays of the same material have 
been made before, and the only object is to as¬ 
certain the richness of this particular lot of 
ore, he may proceed directly to the process of 
“scorification,® by which the gold and silver 
present in the ore are obtained in the form of 
a metallic button. The scorification process de¬ 
pends for its success upon the fact that when 
an ore of gold and silver is strongly heated with 
metallic lead in the presence of air, the baser 
metals that are present will oxidize, and the 
lead oxid that is also formed will dissolve the 
silica (or quartz) that is present; while the 
gold and silver will not oxidize, but will be 
left in the metallic state, alloyed with that por¬ 
tion of the lead which remains unoxidized. To 
apply this principle, 50 grains or so of the 
ore are mixed with some 500 grains of granu¬ 
lated lead, and placed in a sort of crucible, called 
a ® scorifier.® Another charge of 500 grains of 
lead is spread evenly over the mass, and a 
few grains of borax are sprinkled upon the 
top. The crucible and its contents are next 
heated for about three-quarters of an hour in a 
muffle to which a small amount of air is ad¬ 
mitted, after which the melted mass in the cru¬ 
cible is poured into a mold to “set,® or cool. 
When the mold is cold, it will be found to 
contain a button of metallic lead (in which 
the gold and silver originally in the ore are 
concentrated), and also a considerable amount 
of slag, consisting of oxid of lead, oxids of the 
base metals that are present in the ore, and 
silicates of lead, derived from the combina¬ 
tion of the melted lead oxid with the quartz of 
the ore. The slag is readily detached from the 
metallic button by taps with a hammer. 

The next step is to “cupel® the button, so 
as to obtain the gold and silver in a pure state. 
Cupellation is based upon the fact that when 
an alloy of gold, silver, lead, and base metals 
is heated in a current of air, the lead and the 
other base metals will oxidize, and the melted 
lead oxid (“litharge®) will retain the other 
oxids in solution. Moreover, if the crucible in 
which the operation is carried out is porous, 
the melted lead oxid will soak into it, carry¬ 
ing the base oxids with it, and leaving a button 
of pure gold and silver behind. 


ASSAY OFFICES —ASSEMBLAGES 


The <( cupel® in which this is performed is 
made of bone-ash, and after the button left 
from the scorification process has been heated 
in the cupel for a short time, the process indi¬ 
cated above takes place, its completion being 
indicated, to the practised eye, by a play of ir¬ 
idescent colors on the cupelled button. The 
button is finally allowed to cool, and after it 
has been taken from the cupel, any small parti¬ 
cles of bone-ash that remain adhering to it are 
removed by a brush. 

If the original ore contained no silver, the 
assay is now completed, and it only remains to 
weigh the gold button, and compare its weight 
with that of the sample of ore used in the 
assay. But if silver is present, one other process, 
known as ^parting,® must be carried out, in 
order to separate the gold from the silver. 
Parting depends upon the fact that nitric acid 
will dissolve the silver out of an alloy of silver 
and gold, provided the weight of silver present 
is at least 2.5 times as great as the weight of the 
gold. In order to ensure the fulfillment of this 
necessary condition, the button, as it comes from 
the cupel, is melted with 2.5 or 3 times its own 
weight of silver that is known to be free from 
gold, and the alloy so formed is flattened out 
into a thin plate or ribbon, which is then rolled 
up into a little spiral, or (( cornet,® and boiled in 
nitric acid. The cornet is next washed in dis¬ 
tilled water, and boiled again in nitric acid, to 
remove the last traces of silver; after which it 
is thrown into a crucible and melted into a but¬ 
ton, for weighing. The button obtained by this 
final process consists of pure gold. 

Assay Offices in the United States are gov¬ 
ernment establishments in which citizens may de¬ 
posit gold and silver bullion, receiving in re¬ 
turn its value, less charges. The offices are in 
New York city; Boise City, Ida.; Helena, Mont.; 
Denver, Col.; Seattle, Wash.; San Francisco, 
Cal.; Charlotte, N. C.; and St. Louis, Mo. 

The assay office in New York was estab¬ 
lished by law in 1853, and was opened in the 
autumn of 1854. The first assayer of the New 
York assay office was Dr. John Torrey of Co¬ 
lumbia College, who was appointed in 1854 and 
held his position till 1873. On his death he was 
succeeded by his son, Herbert Gray Torrey, who 
has been in the office for 40 years. The su¬ 
perintendent of the assay office is Andrew 
Mason, who was appointed to his present posi¬ 
tion in 1883, having previously been assistant 
assayer and melter and refiner. While holding 
the latter office he substituted the use of sul¬ 
phuric for nitric acid in the refining process, 
thus saving this one assay office $100,000 per 
annum. 

The United States assay office is in a build¬ 
ing located beside the more imposing suF 
treasury building, at the intersection of Wall 
and Broad streets, which marks one of the 
most historic spots in the country, namely, the 
site of the old Federal Hall, where Washington 
took the oath as first President of the United 
States. Although the building is small, yet it 
only masks a really large, inner building sur¬ 
rounded on all sides by office buildings and the 
sub-treasury. The assay offices, and particu¬ 
larly this one, have an important position in 
the world of finance, for here the precious met¬ 
als— gold and silver — in all forms and con¬ 
ditions of fineness are assayed and refined. In 


brief, the work of this office consists in assay¬ 
ing or determining the value of gold and silver, 
in whatever form presented, as coin, jewelry, or 
in any other shape. Any one wishing to have 
gold or silver assayed in quantity or wishing 
to sell to the government, may present his 
property at the assay office, where he may have 
the metal reduced and made into bars, or if 
he prefers, he may sell his bullion to the gov¬ 
ernment. The charge for doing the work is 
merely nominal, and based on the actual cost. 
Millions of dollars are stored at all times in 
the vaults. When the metal is received, the first 
step consists in weighing the coin, bars, jewelry, 
or tableware. This is done with great^ exact¬ 
ness and a receipt is given. Each person’s hold¬ 
ings are placed in a box and are taken to the 
melting-room, where they are placed in cruci¬ 
bles with a flux and smelted and cast in ingot 
molds, the pouring being a highly picturesque 
operation. A small chip is taken from the bar 
for assay. See Coinage. 

If the depositor wishes to part with his 
bullion, the government pays for it at the pre¬ 
vailing price and proceeds to separate or part 
the gold from the silver. The price of gold 
never varies, costing $20.67 a fine ounce. Sil¬ 
ver fluctuates with the market. 

The importance of the assay office in its rela¬ 
tion to the financial world, the treasury, and the 
mint cannot be overestimated. During the fis¬ 
cal year ending 30 June 1900, the fineness of 
11,802 melts of gold and silver deposits, 993 
melts of fine gold and silver, also 1,050 melts of 
mixed metal, about 500 special deposits, 350 
barrels of sweeps, 83,178 gold and silver bars 
were estimated, and about 60,000 cupels and 
the necessary <( proof® gold and silver were made. 

Assay Offices. See Assaying. 

Assegai, as'se-ga, a short spear employed 
as a weapon among the Kaffirs of South Africa. 
It is made of hard wood tipped with iron, and 
used for throwing or thrusting. 

Assemani, as'se-ma'ne, (1) Joseph Si¬ 
mon, a famous Orientalist: b. of a Maronite 
family in Tripoli, Syria, 1687; d. Rome, 14 
Jan. 1768. He traveled on the Pope’s com¬ 
mission through Egypt and Syria, collecting 
many Oriental manuscripts and coins for the 
Vatican library, of which he was appointed 
keeper. Of his numerous learned works, the 
most important is ( Bibliotheca Orientalist is¬ 
sued by order of Clement XI. and containing 
(in manuscript form) the Vatican codices in 
Syriac, Arabic, Persian, Turkish, Hebrew, Sa¬ 
maritan, Armenian, Ethiopian, Greek, Egyptian, 
Iberian, and Malabaric. (2) Stephen Epho- 
dius (1707-82), also a learned author of books 
on Oriental learning. He was titular archbishop 
of Apomaca, Syria. Yet another nephew and 
Orientalist was (3) Joseph Aloysius (1710-82), 
professor at Rome. (4) Simon, a relative of the 
preceding, b. in Tripoli 1752; d. Padua 8 April 
1821. He filled the chair of Oriental languages 
at Padua. He wrote an important work on 
ancient coins, ( Museo Cufico Naniano Illus- 
trato > (1787-8). 

Assemblages, General Theory of. The 

doctrine variously entitled Mengenlehre and 
Mannigfaltigkeitslehre by the Germans, Thcorie 
dcs ensembles by the French, and sometimes re¬ 
ferred to in English as the theory or doctrine of 



1 Humid Assay for Silver. * Muffle Furnaces for Fire Assay. 8 Weighing Room. 4 Pressing the Assay Sample. 

6 Melting Gold Bullion. 6 Extracting the Silver with Boiling Acid. 

ASSAYING GOLD AND SILVER BULLION AT THE NEW YORK ASSAY OFFICE. 









































■ 




















■ 


































- 














* 









ASSEMBLAGES 


manifolds or aggregates or by other analogous 
designations. Many of its ideas are at least 
as ancient as historical thought and have figured 
in important ways in logic, philosophy and 
mathematics steadily from the earliest times. 
On the other hand, many of the chief concepts 
involved in it, its characteristic notions, and 
their organization into a distinct and self- 
supporting body of coherent doctrine, may be 
said to constitute the latest great mathemati¬ 
cal creation. Indeed the majority of the 
founders and builders of the doctrine, including 
Georg Cantor as easily the primate of them all, 
are still among the living. As mathematics is 
the most fundamental of the sciences, the theory 
of assemblages seems destined to be regarded, 
if it be not already regarded, as the most fun¬ 
damental branch of mathematics. Viewed in 
retrospect, it appears as an inevitable product 
of the modern critical spirit. Already it is seen 
to underlie and interpenetrate both geometry 
and analysis. Its connection with mathemati¬ 
cal logic is most intimate, often approximating 
identity with the latter; and even philosophy 
is surely, if but slowly, beginning to recognize 
in the theory of manifolds her own most inviting 
and promising field. 

The Notions, Assemblage and Element .— 
Roughly speaking, any collection of objects or 
things of whatever kind or kinds is an assem¬ 
blage. Each object in the collection is called 
an element of the assemblage. An assemblage, 
to be mathematically available, must be de¬ 
fined, or, as usage has it, well-defined ( wohlde - 
finirt, bien defini). An assemblage is defined 
when, by the logical principle of excluded 
middle, it can be regarded as intrinsically deter¬ 
mined whether an arbitrarily given object is 
or is not an element of it. Means may or may 
not be known for making the determination 
actual or extrinsic. Thus if the elements of the 
assemblage be completely tabulated, the deter¬ 
mination can be actually effected by comparing 
the given object with the elements of the table. 
Again, if an assenffffage, such as that of the 
endless sequence 1,2,3,... of integers, be given 
by a definite law of formation of its elements, 
the law will generally enable one to determine 
actually whether any given object, as 5 or | 
or an apple or a sunset, is an element of the 
assemblage or not. But the possession of such 
means is not essential to the notion of defined 
assemblage. A real * number is called algebraic 
or transcendental according as it is or is not a 
root of an equation of the form, a 0 x n + aix n ~ l 
+ a ? v "“ 2 + . . . + a n —\X + a n = o, having integral 
coefficients. Any real number, no matter what 
its origin or definition, is either algebraic or 
transcendental; it cannot be both and it cannot 
be neither. Hence the real algebraic numbers 
constitute a defined assemblage, and so, too, 
the transcendentals. Nevertheless no means 
is known for ascertaining in every case whether 
a given number is algebraic or not. It was 
really a great achievement when the transcen¬ 
dental character of the long familiar classical 
numbers e and r was proved, for e by Hermite 
in 1874 and for n nine years later by Lindemann. 
Even the existence of non-algebraic numbers 


* The exigencies of the present undertaking demand the 
•xpository use of data drawn from the Theory of the Real 
Variable (which see) and other theories, although these are 
themselves branches of assemblage theory. 


was unknown till it was proved by Liouville 
in 1851. 

Depiction and Correspondence. —Assemblages 
will be denoted by large and elements by small 
letters. If, in any way, each element a of A 
is associated with an element b of B, A is said 
to be depicted on B. The b’s so used are the 
pictures of the a’s. If all the b’s are thus made 
pictures, B is also depicted on A and the a’s 
are pictures of the b’s. If an a is a picture of 
a b and reciprocally, and if this relation holds 
for all the a’s and b’s, so that there is a one- 
to-one correspondence between them, the de¬ 
piction is called similar. Obviously an assem¬ 
blage can be depicted either similarly or dis¬ 
similarly on itself, generally in more than one 
way, often in an endless variety of ways. 

The Concept Chain .—If the elements of A are 
elements of B, A is part of B. If in this case 
not all b's are a’s, A is proper part of B. Any 
assemblage is part, but not proper part, of 
itself. One of the most important ideas con¬ 
nected with that of the depiction of an assem¬ 
blage on itself is the notion of chain-, if A be 
depicted on itself in any definite way, then any 
part of A that is thereby depicted on itself is a 
chain. In case of a given depiction of an A 
on itself, the most important of the chains so 
arising is that one that is composed of the ele¬ 
ments, each taken but once, of all the chains 
having in common a previously chosen part 
of A. There is always one such special chain 
for a given part and given mode of depiction, 
but it changes with the part and with the mode 
independently. The theory of chains, due to 
Dedekind, has fundamental bearings in logic 
(see Induction, Mathematical). 

The Concept of Equivalence and Sameness of 
Power. —If A and B are such that each may be 
similarly depicted on the other, i.e., if a one-to- 
one correspondence can be established between 
the elements of A and those of B, A and B are 
said to be equivalent or to have the same power 
(Machtigkeit ), a relation symbolically expressed 
by writing A^B or B-~~A. Thus if A denote 
the assemblage of positive integers and B denote, 
say, the even positive integers, A-— B, for plainly 
one may pair 1 with 2, 2 with 4, 3 with 6, 
and so on. Other ways of pairing A and B in 
this case will readily occur to the reader. 

Distinction of Finite and Infinite .—An assem¬ 
blage is finite or infinite according as it has not 
or has the same power as some proper part of it¬ 
self. Thus A of the last example is infinite. So, 
too, is B, for it is easily seen that if A^B and 
if either A or B is infinite, so is the other. Also, 
if A~~J 9 and if A or B is finite, so is the other. 
The foregoing definition of infinite is one of the 
most fruitful of modern concepts. It is due 
independently to Dedekind and Georg Cantor. 
Sometimes an infinite assemblage is defined to 
be one that cannot be exhausted or emptied 
by removing from it one element at a time. 
It has been proved that the two definitions are 
logically equivalent. But for the purposes of 
investigation, the former is found to be by far 
the better instrument. An infinite assemblage 
is often described as transfmite. 

Denumerability. —Let A denote the asseim 
blage of positive integers. Any assemblage B 
such that B —A is said to be denumerable or to 
have the power of the denumerable assemblage. 
As A—A, A is itself denumerable, and it serves 
conveniently as the type of denumerable assem- 





ASSEMBLAGES 


blages. The domain of such assemblages is 
exceedingly rich and is replete with surprises. 
For example, though the rational fractions, that 
is, fractions having integral terms, are so numer¬ 
ous that between any two of them, however 
near to each other in value, there is an infinity 
of others, nevertheless the assemblage of rational 
fractions including the integers is denumerable. 
Of this the reader can quickly convince himself 
by reflecting that there is but a finite number 
of such fractions of which each has a specified 
integer « for sum of its terms. Thus, if 11=2, 
one has 1 or {; if n=3, one has £ and f; if 
n — 4, $, I, f; and so on. Some are repeated; 
repetitions may be kept or rejected. Keeping 
them, the required equivalence is seen in the 
pairing: (1, 1); (2, ±), (3, f); (4, $), (5, f), 

(6,f);.... In ordinary speech one is justified 
in saying that rational numbers are neither 
more nor less numerous than the integers or 
than the odd or the even integers. It is plain 
that the classic axiom, the whole is greater 
than any of its parts, is not valid for infinite 
assemblages. For finite assemblages it Is valid 
absolutely, but for none other. For another 
example, consider the algebraic numbers, before 
mentioned. These include the rationals and 
infinitely many besides. Nevertheless the as¬ 
semblage of all algebraic numbers is denumer¬ 
able. The proof is too long to insert here. Yet 
more astonishing is the theorem that an assem¬ 
blage composed of all the elements of a denu¬ 
merable infinity of denumerably infinite as¬ 
semblages is denumerable. 

The Power of the Continuum. —At this stage 
the query is natural: is every possible assem¬ 
blage denumerable? The answer is negative. 
The assemblage of all real numbers, i.e., of 
all rationals and irrationals, is said to con¬ 
stitute a continuum. So, too, the assemblage 
of points of a straight line is a continuum, in 
particular a linear continuum. The last two 
assemblages are in fact of the same power, but 
neither is denumerable. This is demonstrated 
by letting a x , a 2 , . . . , a n , . . . represent any 
denumerable assemblage of real numbers and 
then proving that between any two arbitrarily 
assumed numbers a and ft there is one number 
and therefore an infinity of numbers not in 
the given sequence. From this proposition of 
Cantor’s the existence of transcendental num¬ 
bers, which had been otherwise previously proved 
by Liouville, follows as a corollary. Any 
assemblage equivalent to that of the real num¬ 
bers or to that of the points of a straight line 
is said to have the power of the continuum, The 
assemblage of points of any line-segment how¬ 
ever short or, what is tantamount, the assem¬ 
blage of numbers between any two numbers 
however nearly equal, has the power of the con¬ 
tinuum. Indeed, either of these assemblages is 
a continuum. But an assemblage may have 
the power of the continuum without being a 
continuum. For example, the assemblage of 
transcendental numbers, though it is not a 
continuum, has the power of a continuum. 
In fact, the assemblage left on suppressing from 
a continuum any denumerable assemblage of 
elements is equivalent to the original assem¬ 
blage. This last is a special case of the proposi¬ 
tion: ii A be infinite, and if the remainder R 
on suppressing a denumerable part of A be 
infinite, then R-~~A. As above seen the power 
of the continuum is higher than that of the 


denumerable assemblage, but whether it is tht 
next higher is an outstanding question. There 
are higher powers than that of any given power 
(unless this last be that of the assemblage of all 
things, a concept whose admissibility is ques¬ 
tioned), but no assemblage of points has a power 
higher than that of a continuum. On the con¬ 
trary, it is one of the most marvelous of known 
facts that the assemblage of points on a line- 
segment however short is equivalent to the 
assemblage of all the points of space, nay, is 
equivalent to all the points of a space having 
not merely, like our own, three dimensions, but 
a denumerable infinity of dimensions. 

Limit-points , Dense and Derived Assemblages. 
—The neighborhood or vicinity of a point p is a 
region small at ivill taken about p. If p be in 
space, the neighborhood may be a sphere having 
p as center; if p be in a plane or in a line, the 
neighboihood will naturally be a circle or a 
line-segment. The following discussion, con¬ 
ducted for assemblages of points of a straight 
line, is readily extensible to other point assem¬ 
blages. Denote by P any given assemblage of 
points of a line. If there be a point p, in P 
or not, such that in the neighborhood of p 
there is one point (and hence an infinity of 
points) of P, then p is a limit-point of P. If 
p be in P but not a limit-point, p is an isolated 
point of P. The assemblage of all the limit- 
points of P is the first derived assemblage 
P (1) of P. The first derived of P (1 > is the 
second derived of P, namely, P <2 >; and so on. 
If P be finite, its P U) contains no points, it is 
empty. If P be infinite and in a segment, P (1) 
contains at least one point—a proposition of 
exceeding importance in function theory. If 
the nth derivative P in) be empty and the pre¬ 
ceding derivative contains one or more points, 
P is said to be of first genus and nth species. 
If P (n) contain points for every positive integral 
value of n, P is said to be of second genus. 
Every point of a given derivative of P is appoint 
of each preceding derivative, but P may contain 
points not in any of its derivatives. " If some 
or all of the points of P are in an interval 
(a . . .ft) and if every sub-interval of the given 
one contains a point or points of P, P is said 
to be dense throughout the given interval. For 
example, the assemblage of points whose dis¬ 
tances from a fixed point of the line are rational 
numbers is dense throughout every interval. 
If P be dense throughout a given interval, so 
is every derivative; in fact, each derivative in 
such case contains all points of the interval, 
and conversely. Hence one might define: P is 
dense throughout an interval when and only 
when P (1) contains every point of the interval. 
Obviously, if P is dense throughout an interval, 
P is of second genus, and so, too, are its deriva¬ 
tives. It follows that if P or one of its deriva¬ 
tives be of first genus, P is not dense in any 
interval. But it is not true that every P of 
second genus is dense throughout some interval. 

Greatest Common Divisor , Least Common Mul¬ 
tiple. —The equation P=Q will signify that the 
point assemblages P and Q are identical. Two 
assemblages having no element in common are 
said to be without connection. If P contains all 
and only the points of the assemblages P,, 
P 2 , • • • , every two of the latter being without 
connection, the fact is expressed by writing 
P s (P lt P 2 . • • •)• A part of P is called a divisor 
of it, and P is a multiple of each of its divisors. 


ASSEMBLAGES 


The symbol, D(P U P 2 , . . .), is read greatest 
common divisor of P u P 2 , . . . and is the assem¬ 
blage of their common points. M(P X , P 2 , . . .) 
is read least common multiple of P x , P ,. . 
and is the assemblage of all the different points 
of the P’s, it being understood that the latter 
have no common point. To express that P 
is empty, one may write P = o. If and only if 
P and Q are without connection, D(P, Q) = o. 
Each derivative of P is a divisor of every pre¬ 
ceding derivative. If P is of second genus, then 
P (1) = (Q, P), where Q is the assemblage of those 
points of P (1) that are not common to P (1 >, 
P (2) , . . . , and R is the assemblage of those 
that are common. 

Trans finite Derivatives.—R is therefore de¬ 
fined by the equation P=P(P< 1 >, P< 2 >, . . ) or 

by P=P(P< 2 >, P (3) , . . .), or by P=P(p( n i), 

P^ n2 l f . . .), where n 2 , . . . are a denumerably 
infinite assemblage of increasing positive in¬ 
tegers. R is obviously a derivative of P, but 
the order of the derivative is not expressible by 
a number of the sequence 1,2,3,...; these 
numbers are finite, the order of the derivative 
is transfinite, is denoted by to, and one may 
write P = P (W) . The first derivative of P (6J) 
is denoted by P (w+1) , and the nth by P^'+n). 
If P (uj) have a derivative of transfinite order to, 
it is denoted by P (2cu) . Continuation of the 
process yields P(^ 2 ), PU W ) ==D(P<">, PU 2 ), 

P(- 3 ), . . .), p(^ w ), and so on endlessly. For 
any assemblage P of first genus, P (tW) =o, an 
equation serving to characterize assemblages of 
first genus. Assemblages of second genus are 
definable for which the derivative of any given 
transfinite order shall consist of a single speci¬ 
fied point. 

If D(P , P (1 ) )=o, P is an assemblage of 
isolated points. From any assemblage P, an 
assemblage Q of isolated points is obtainable 
by suppressing from P the assemblage D{P, P (1) ), 
and one may write Q=P — D(P, P (1) ). It is 
known that if P be an assemblage of isolated 
points, it is denumerable, though, as above 
noted, the converse is not true. Also, if P (1) 
is denumerable, so is P; but not conversely, 
for, for example, the assemblage of rational 
fractions is denumerable, while its first deriva¬ 
tive is a continuum, namely, the assemblage 
of real numbers. Again, if P be of second 
genus, and if P (a) , a being finite or transfinite, 
be denumerable, so, too, is P denumerable. A 
very remarkable theorem is the following: if 
P be in any given interval and if P (1) be de¬ 
numerable, the points of P can be enclosed in 
a finite number of sub-intervals having a sum 
less than any prescribed length. 

Perfect Assemblages .—If P and P (1) coincide, 
P is called a perfect assemblage; in the contrary 
case, imperfect. For example, if P is the assem¬ 
blage of points of the interval from p x to p 2 , 
including p x and p v P is perfect; but if P in¬ 
cludes only the points between p\ and p 2 , P is 
imperfect, for clearly P (1) includes p x and p 2 . 
The definition just given is Cantor’s. Another 
current definition is that by Jordan: P is perfect 
if it includes P (1) . It has been proposed to 
distinguish the two by describing an assem¬ 
blage, if perfect in Cantor’s sense, as absolutely 
perfect, and, if perfect in Jordan s but not in 
Cantor’s sense, as relatively perfect. It has been 
proved that if P be relatively perfect, the assem¬ 
blage R which results on suppressing P (1) from 


P is denumerable. But it is not true that every 
absolutely perfect assemblage is decomposable 
into a relatively perfect assemblage and a 
denumerable assemblage. The theory of per¬ 
fect assemblages, though exceedingly subtle, is 
far simpler than that of imperfect assemblages. 
Every derivative of P is relatively perfect. 
There are absolutely perfect assemblages not 
dense in any interval. 

Measure and Measurable Assemblages .—An 
assemblage P of all the points in a denumerable 
infinity of intervals that do not overlap and 
whose total length is 5 is said to have the measure 
s. If P and P' be without connection and have 
measures 5 and s', the measure of M(P,P') 
is s+s'. If 5 and s' be the measures of P and 
P', and if P' be a divisor of P, the measure of 
P — P' is s—s'. The measure of an assemblage 
is always zero or positive. The measure of any 
denumerable assemblage is zero, but zero may 
be the measure of a non-denumerable assem¬ 
blage, and an assemblage is non-denumerable 
if its measure be not zero. An assemblage is 
said to be measurable only in case the foregoing 
definitions associate with it the notion of meas¬ 
ure. A restricted or limited assemblage is one such 
that the distance between every pair of its points 
is less than a prescribed number. It has been 
proved that every restricted assemblage that 
is perfect relatively or absolutely is measurable. 
The doctrine of the measurability and content 
of assemblages is of great importance, but it 
cannot be further entered into here. 

Improper Infinite and Proper Infinite, or Trans- 
finite .—The ordinary notion of mathematical 
infinity is that of a finite variable, such as 
tan a, which can take a finite value greater than 
any previously specified finite value; and such 
an equation as tan 90° = 00 is understood by 
mathematicians to be a kind of short-hand for 
saying that, by taking a near enough to 90°, 
tan a can be made to exceed any preassigned 
finite number, and it does not mean that 00 is 
a value that tan a may assume. Similar illus¬ 
trations abound. Such a variable as thus 
remains always finite but may be made large 
at will is sometimes described as an Infinite 
(variable) in analogy with the reciprocal notion 
of Infinitesimal, a variable that remains always 
finite but may be made small at will. Such 
infinites are described by Cantor as improper 
infinites. On the other hand both geometry 
and analysis have long recognized another sort 
of infinite, viz., one that is not variable but is 
constant. Such an infinite, for example, is the 
distance from any finite point of a range (see 
Projective Geometry) to the point common 
to the range and any parallel range. Another 
example is the distance from any finite point of 
the complex plane and the (( infinite point w 
of the plane (see Complex Variable). Such 
infinites are styled by Cantor proper infinites, 
or transfinites. The examples just given of 
transfinites are transfinites just beyond the 
border of the finite. Cantor has generalized 
the generalization, and by one of the boldest 
procedures in the annals of mathetic genius he 
has created higher and higher classes of trans¬ 
finite assemblages and numbers and subjected 
them to a logically consistent system of laws 
of operation. Of that procedure and of its 
results a brief account will now be given. 

Principles of Number Generation, or of Defini¬ 
tion of Classes .—These principles are three in 


ASSEMBLAGES 


number: (i) adding unity, or i, to a number 
already formed; (2) in case of any given endless 
succession of integers having among them no 
greatest, positing a new integer that shall be the 
first greater than each integer of the succession; 
(3) the imposition on numbers generable by (1) and 
(2) of the condition that the succession of numbers pre¬ 
ceding any given number so generated shall have the 
power of a class of numoers already defined. The 
last is known as the principle of arrest or limita¬ 
tion. Cantor names the principles (( the three log¬ 
ical moments }) , an ideally improper designation, 
for the applications of the principles are precisely 
the points in his procedure where it transcends 
logic and rises to the level of the creative or 
generalizing will. Generalization is neither 
logical nor illogical, it is always superlogical, 
an act of will directed by immediate perception. 

The first class (I) of integers is the denumer- 
ably infinite assemblage of finite integers 1, 2, 
3, ... v, ... ; generated or generable by (1). 
(I) contains no greatest and no last. By (2) 
the number to is given to be the first integer 
greater than every number of (I). Combina¬ 
tion of (1) and (2) yields to + 1, to+ 2, . . . , 

2 tO, 2W + I, . . . , V 0 tO/JL + Vito (1—^ -f- . . . + V/z— \tO-\-V[i, 

. . . , to 10 , . . . , to wW , . . . , a, . . . , in endless suc¬ 
cession. Herewith, however, is not defined a class 
of numbers that can be transcended by (1) and (2). 
The second class (II) of integers is defined by 
aid of (3) thus: it consists of those numbers 
that are generable by (1) and (2), that are 
orderable as in the preceding sequence, and that 
are such that all those which come before any 
specified one of them, say cv, shall have the 
power of class (I). It has been proved that (II) 
has a power different from, indeed next higher 
than, that of (I). Combination of the three 
principles suffices to define distinct classes of 
higher and higher power, there being no re¬ 
striction on the sublime crescendo except such 
as may inhere in the constitution of mind. 

Transfinite Cardinal Numbers and their Laws. 

■—The reader will naturally ask: Are the trans¬ 
finite integers subject to law? They are, a fact 
best seen on approaching the matter from 
another but closely related point of view, as 
follows: Denote by A any assemblage of ele¬ 
ments a; symbolically, A = \a }. On disre¬ 
garding both the character of the a’s and any 
and every order of their arrangement, a new 
assemblage, an orderless assemblage of character¬ 
less elements {units), arises, called the power 
or cardinal number of A and denoted by the 

symbol A. Herewith the term power ( Mach- 
tigkeit) is itself defined; sameness of power was 
defined above. Plainly every assemblage has 
a definite power, or cardinal number. Note 
that the cardinal number of an assemblage is 
by definition a definite assemblage: that which 
results on abstracting (the attention) from the 
order and kind of its elements. The equation 

A =B means that A and B have the same or 
equal powers or cardinal numbers. It is easily 

seen that, when and only when A- — B, A ~B. 
If A, B, C , . . . have no common element, the 
assemblage of all the elements involved will 
oe denoted by (A, B, C, . . .). If also A', B', 
C', . . . have no common element, and if A — A', 
B-^B', C — C', . . . , then (A, B, C, . . .)^~(A ', 
B' , C' , . . .),and the cardinal numbers of these 
composite assemblages are equal, or the same. 


Notion of Greater and Less Powers or Cardi- 
nals .—If A and B are such that A has no part 
equivalent to B and that B has a part equiva¬ 
lent to A, the cardinal number of A is said to 
be less than that of B, that_of B_greater __than 

that of A; symbolically, A <B, or B>A. 
If a, p, y are cardinal numbers, and ii a<p, 
and p<y, then a<y. Any one of the relations 
a=p, a<P, a> P, excludes the other two. But 
it does not follow that every pair of cardinals 
a and /? must satisfy one of the three relations, 
though they in fact do. This last proposition 
belongs to the theory of well-ordered assemblages, 
a term explained at a later stage of this writing. 

Addition of Powers or Cardinals .—If a and P 
be the cardinal numbers of A and B , A and B 
having no common element, and if y be the 
power of {A, B)\ then ct+p=y. Such is the 
definition of addition. As a power is an order¬ 
less assemblage, a+P=P+a, and, in case of 
any three powers, a + (P + y) =(a+P) + y, that 
is, addition of powers is commutative and asso¬ 
ciative. 

Multiplication .—Let A = \a\ and B = \b}. 
Associate each a with each b. Consider each 
pair {a, b ) as an element. The assemblage of 
these is denoted by {A-B). Hence {A-B) — 

{(a, b )}. The power y of this last obviously de¬ 
pends only on the powers a and /? of A and B. 
Hence the definition of product : «•/? = y. As 
the power, or cardinal number, of an assemblage 
is orderless, it is readily seen that a - p =p- a, 
and that, for any three powers. a-{p-y) =(«•/?)•?', 
a • (P + y) = a -p + a - y \ that is, multiplication of 
powers is commutative, associative, and distribu¬ 
tive. 

Involution. —If with each a of A a b of B be 
associated, any a and the associate b will be a 
pair. The same b may enter two or more pairs. 
The assemblage of all the pairs resulting from 
any such definite association is called a covering 
of A with B, and is denoted by/(A). A different 
covering results if with any a there be associated 
a b not associated with it before. The assem¬ 
blage of all possible coverings of A with B is 
denoted by (B\A); then (B|A) = |/(A)}. The 
power y of (B\A) depends only on the powers 
a and p of A and B\ hence the definition : 
ctP = y. It is readily seen that, if a, p, y denote 
any three powers, a.P-a r = aP+ r , a r - P 7 = {a- P ) r » 
and {a^) r = a^’ r . 

It is an interesting fact that by means of the 
foregoing definitions of power, and addition, 
multiplication, and involution of powers, the 
definition and the fundamental properties of 
the ordinary (finite) cardinals 1, 2, 3, . . . , 
v. . . . can be rigorously deduced. 

The Smallest Transfinite Cardinal .—The car¬ 
dinal number of the assemblage { v\ of finite car¬ 
dinals is denoted by N 0 , alef-null. Symboli¬ 
cally, N 0 =jy|. The transfinite number N, has 
the properties: N 0 + i=tf 0 ; &*„>/*, where n is 
any finite cardinal; £S 0 <a, where a is any 
transfinite cardinal different from N 0 ; N 0 -fN 0 = 
tf 0 ; y-N 0 =N 0 -V = N 0 . where v is any finite cardi¬ 
nal; N 0 -N 0 =fc$ 0 ; N 0 „=£* 0 ; etc. It is one of 

the wondrous facts met with in the doctrine of 
transfinite assemblages that the cardinal num¬ 
ber of the points of space or other continuum 
is precisely 2tf 0 . 

Simply Ordered Assemblages, Order-types.—A 
is simply ordered when and only when its el®- 


ASSEMBLAGES 


ments a are so disposed that of every pair 
ci\, a 2 of them, one, as a x , precedes, i.e., has 
lower rank and the other, as a 2 , comes after, 
i.e., has higher rank, and of every triplet a x , a 2 , a 3 , 
a i is lower than a 3 , if a x is lower than a 2 and o’ 
is lower than o 3 . To say symbolically that a x 
is lower in rank than a 2 and that a 2 is higher 
than ai, we write either a x { o 2 or o 2 } a x . A 
simply ordered assemblage that is further so 
arranged that it has an element of lowest rank, 
a first element, and that every part of it has 
a first element, is said to be well-ordered. For 
example, the assemblage of rational fraction 
greater than zero and less than one, if arranged 
in natural order, so that the larger the fraction 
the higher its rank, is simply ordered but not 
well-ordered. The same assemblage can, how¬ 
ever, be well-ordered, thus: £, |, §, \, 

4, • • • , where the scheme is that — shall have 


■p 

lower rank than — when p x + q x is less than p 2 + q 2 , 

0.2 

and if pi-\-q x =p 2 - J rq 2 , then the fraction having 
the smaller number for sum of its terms shall 
have the lower rank. It has been very recently 
proved that every assemblage can be well- 
ordered. Immediate important consequences 
are: (1) every transfinite assemblage can be so 
ordered that after each element there shall 
be a next; (2) every assemblage can be so 
arranged that every sequence a x , a 2 , a 3 , . . . of 
its elements, for which a x } a 2 , a 2 { a 3 , . . . , 
shall have an end; (3) every pair “of assem¬ 
blages are comparable in respect to their car¬ 
dinal numbers. 

If A be a simply ordered assemblage, the new 
assemblage obtained by abstracting from the 
character of the elements of A is called the 


order-type of A and is denoted by A. Ob¬ 
viously, A is simply ordered. If A and B are 
simply ordered, and if their elements can be 
paired in one-to-one fashion so that the rank 
relation of every two elements a x and a 2 of A 
shall be the same as the rank relation of their 
correspondents b x and b 2 in B, then A and B 
are said to be similar, and to be depictable on 
one another. This definition of similar and 
depictable, it is noteworthy, are more re¬ 
stricted than that above given. The simi¬ 
larity of two similar simply ordered as¬ 
semblages A and B is expressed by writing 
A—B. If A is simply ordered, A^A, and if 
B and C are simply ordered, and if A^xC 
and B—C, then A^B. It is plain, too, that 

either of the relations, A =B, A—B, implies the 
other. 

To every order-type, or ordinal number, 
corresponds a power, or cardinal number. 

Thus to A corresponds A. The distinction of 
ordinal and cardinal is of no importance for 
finite assemblages, but is absolutely indis¬ 
pensable in the doctrine of transfinites. All 
order-types corresponding to a finite cardinal 
a are similar, but those corresponding to a 
transfinite cardinal present a countless variety 
and are said to constitute a type-class [a]. To 
everv transfinite cardinal corresponds such a 
type-class. Any tvpe-class is itself an assem¬ 
blage, namely, of order-types, and as such has 
its own cardinal number, which may be shown 
to be greater than that of each of the order- 
types involved. 


Addition and Multiplication of Order-types .—* 
If A and B are simply ordered, it will be under¬ 
stood that in their union (A, B) the elements of 
A have the same rank relation as in A, that the 
like is true of B, and that every a is of lower 
rank than every b. Hence (A, B) is simp]} 
ordered. If A' and B' are simoly ordered and 
if A—A' and B^B f , then (A, £)—(A', B'). 
Hence the order-type of ( A,B ) depends only 

on a=A and ft =B. Hence the definition of 

addition: a + ft = (A, B). Here a is the augend 
and ft the addend. If a, ft, y be any three 
types, « + (/? +7 ■) =(a + ft)+y; i.e., addition of 
ordinals is associative; but, unlike cardinals, 
ordinals do not in general obey the commutative 

law. For example, if co=E, where E denotes 

e x , e 2 , . . . , e v . e v j e v + x , and if / be any 

new element, then 1 + co does not equal 10 + 1, 
for (/, E) and ( E, f) are not similar, the latter 
having a last element, while the former has not. 

Next from the simply ordered assemblages A 
and B, form the assemblage 5 by replacing 
each b by an assemblage Ab—A. It is easily 
seen that the order-type of S depends only on 

a=A and ft=B. Hence the definition of mul¬ 
tiplication: a-ft=S. Here a: is multiplicand and 
ft is multiplier. It is readily proved, in respect 
to three types a, ft, y, that {a-ft)-y — a.-{ft-y) 
and that a • {ft + y) = a -ft + a • y. That is, multi¬ 
plication of ordinals like that of cardinals is asso¬ 
ciative and distributive. But in general ordinals 
do not obey, while cardinals always obey, the 
commutative law. The reader can easily con¬ 
vince himself that, for example, io- 2 ^ 2 • uj. 

Order-type of Rationals .—Denote by R the 
rational numbers greater than 1 and less than 

zero, taken in natural order. Let 77 =R. Ob¬ 
viously 77 belongs to the type-class [N 0 ], for we 
have seen that R is denumerable. Moreover, 
R is dense and has no element of lowest rank 
and none of highest. By these three properties, 
R is completely characterized; that means that 
if A is simply ordered, dense, denumerable, 
and has neither lowest nor highest element, 

A and R are similar, and 77= A. It follows 
that 17 + 77=77, 77• 77 = 77, (1+77)77=77, (77 + 1)77=77, 
(1 + + 1)77 =77, but 77 + 1^1+77, and, though 

77 + 1+77=77, 77 + ^ + 77^77, if y>i. 

Order-type of Linear Continuum .—Denote by 
0 the order-type of the linear continuum X = \x \, 

where o < x < 1, and where X is disposed in 

natural order, i.e., so that if .v and x' be any 
two elements of X, x { x', when and only when 
x<x'. Now X is dense and perfect. It also 
contains R in such way that in respect to rank 
there are elements of R between every pair 
of v’s. So is suggested the following "funda¬ 
mental theorem, which serves to characterize 
the type of the linear continuum completely: 
If a■ simply ordered assemblage A is perfect and 
if it contains a denumerable assemblage P such 
that in respect to rank P has elements between 

every two elements of A, then 0 — A. 

For detailed elaboration of the foregoing 
notions and for extensions of the doctrine, the 
reader is referred to the 

Bibliography. — Bolzano, ( Paradoxien des 
Unendlichen ) (1850); du Bois-Reymond, ( Die 
Allgemeine Funktionlehre ) (1882); G. Cantor, 
< Grundlagen einer allgemeine Mannigfaltig- 
keitslehre ) (1883), and many other contribu- 



ASSEMBLY, CONSTITUENT— ASSESSMENT 


cons by Cantor in ( Mathematische Annalen ) and 
in vol. II. of ( Acta Mathematica ) ; Bettazzi, 
'Teoria delle grandezze ) (1891) ; Veronese, 
( Fondamenti di geometria ) (1891, also in Ger¬ 
man) ; Borel, ( Legons sur la theorie des fonc- 
tions ) (1898); Vivanti gives resume of chief 
ideas and results in ( Bibliotheca mathematica, 
neue Folge 6 > (1892) ; Schonflies gives a more 
comprehensive digest, vol I. of ( Encyklopadie 
der Mathematischen Wissenschaften* (1899) ; 
Zermelo has an important contribution in vol. 
59, ( Mathematische Annalen ) (1904). 

Cassius J. Keyser, 

Adrian Professor of Mathematics, Columbia 
University. 

Assem'bly, Constituent. See Assembly, 
National. 

Assem'bly of Divines, a celebrated assem¬ 
bly appointed by the Long Parliament, and held 
at Westminster to determine upon the doctrine 
and liturgy of the English Church. By an ordi¬ 
nance passed 12 June 1643, 121 clergymen, with 
10 Lords and 20 Commoners as lay asses¬ 
sors, were nominated as constituents of the as¬ 
sembly. The assembly began its sittings in 
July 1643, in Westminster Abbey, but in the 
meantime a royal proclamation had been issued 
forbidding the assembly to meet, which had the 
effect of inducing the greater part of the Episco¬ 
pal members to absent themselves. The ma¬ 
jority of those who remained were Presbyte¬ 
rians, but there was a strong minority of inde¬ 
pendents. A deputation was now sent along 
with commissioners from the English Parlia¬ 
ment to the General Assembly of the Scottish 
Church and the Scottish Convention of Estates, 
soliciting their co-operation in the proceedings 
of the Westminster Assembly, and in Septem¬ 
ber four Scottish clergymen, with two laymen, 
were admitted to seats and votes. The assem¬ 
bly continued to hold its sittings till February 
1649. Among the results of its deliberations 
were the Directory of Public Worship, the Con¬ 
fession of Faith, and the Larger and Shorter 
Catechisms, which remain practically the stand¬ 
ards of the Presbyterians to the present day. 
At the Restoration the whole proceedings of the 
Westminster Assembly were annulled as invalid. 
See Hethorington, ( History of the Westminster 
Assembly* (1843) ; Masson, ( Life of Milton ) 

(1858-79). 

Assem'bly, General, the name applied to 
the highest ecclesiastical court of the Estab¬ 
lished Church of Scotland. It consists of dele¬ 
gates from every presbytery, university, and 
royal burgh in Scotland, holds meetings annu¬ 
ally, in the month of May, and usually continues 
to sit for 12 days. In its judicial capacity and 
as the court of last resort, the General Assembly 
has a right to determine finally every question 
brought from the inferior courts, by reference, 
complaint, or appeal. The laws enacted by the 
assembly, after receiving the sanction of a 
majority of presbyteries, are the established and 
permanent statutes of the Church, by which 
everything belonging to the ecclesiastical state, 
or to the Church courts, is authoritatively reg¬ 
ulated. The United Free Church of Scotland 
has a General Assembly similar in its constitu¬ 
tion and functions to that of the Established 
Church, and the same is true of the Presby¬ 
terian churches (q.v.) of Ireland and America. 


Assem'bly, National, a body established in 
France in 1789. Upon the convocation of the 
states-general by Louis XVI., the privileged 
nobles and clergy refused to deliberate in the 
same chamber with the commons, or tiers-etat 
(third estate). The latter, therefore, on the 
proposition of the Abbe Sieyes, constituted 
themselves an Assemble Nationale, with legis¬ 
lative powers, 17 June 1789. They bound them¬ 
selves by oath not to separate until they had 
furnished France with a constitution, and the 
court was compelled to give its assent. In the 
3,250 decrees passed by the assembly were laid 
the foundations of a new epoch, and having ac¬ 
complished this task, it dissolved itself 30 Sept. 
1791. The term is also applied to a joint meet¬ 
ing of the Senate and Corps Legislatif, for the 
purpose of electing a chief magistrate or the 
transaction of other extraordinary business. See 
Stephens, ( History of the French Revolution* 
(1886-91) ; Doniol, ( La Revolution et la Feoda- 
lite* (1874). 

As'sen, a'sen, the capital of the province of 
Drenthe, Holland. Near it are the Giants’ 
Caves, to which Tacitus makes allusion. Pop. 
11,191. 

Assent', in law, an undertaking to do 
something in compliance with a request. Ap¬ 
proval of something done. Express assent is 
that which is openly declared. Implied assent 
is that which is presumed by law. Assent must 
be to the same thing in the same sense. It must 
embrace the whole of the proposition, must be 
exactly equal to its extent and provisions, and 
must not qualify them by any new matter. Un¬ 
less express dissent is shown, acceptance of 
what it is for a person’s benefit to take, is pre¬ 
sumed, as in the case of a conveyance of land. 

The Royal Assent is the approbation 
given by the sovereign in Parliament to a bill 
which has passed both houses, after which it be¬ 
comes a law. It may be given in person, when 
the sovereign comes to the House of Peers 
and the assent (in Norman French) is declared 
by the clerk of Parliament; or may be declared 
by letters-patent under the great seal, signed by 
the sovereign. 

Assess'ment is the determining of the 
value of a man’s property or occupation for 
the purpose of levying a tax. Determining the 
share of a tax to be paid by each individual. 
Laying a tax. Adjusting the shares of a con¬ 
tribution by several toward a common beneficial 
object according to the benefit received. As¬ 
sessment of damages includes fixing the amount 
of damages to which the prevailing party in 
a suit is entitled. It may be done by the court 
through its proper officer, the clerk or protho- 
notary, where the assessment is a mere matter 
of calculation, but must be done by a jury 
in other cases. Insurance assessment is an 
apportionment made in general average upon 
the various articles and interests at risk, accord¬ 
ing to their value at the time and place of be¬ 
ing in safety for contribution for damage and 
sacrifices purposely made, and expenses incurred 
for escape from impending common peril. An 
assessment is also made upon premium-notes 
given by the members of mutual fire insurance 
companies, constituting their capital, and being 
a substitute for the investment of the paid-up 
stock of a stock company, the liability to such 


ASSETEAGUE — ASSINIBOIN 


assessments being regulated by the charter and 
by-laws, 12 N. Y. 477; 14 Bart. N. Y. 374. 

Asseteague (as'se-teg') Island, a small 
island off the coast of Virginia in Northampton 
County. Upon it is a lighthouse 150 feet in 
height. 

Assiento, asyan'to (Spanish, asiento, seat, 
contract, treaty), a term especially applied to 
an agreement between the Spanish government 
and a foreign nation to import negro slaves from 
Africa into the Spanish colonies in America, for 
a limited time, on payment of certain duties. 
The English were the sole possessors of this 
assiento till 1701. In 1713 the celebrated as¬ 
siento treaty with Britain for 30 years was 
concluded at Utrecht. By this contract the Eng¬ 
lish, among other privileges, obtained the right 
of sending a permission or assiento ship , so 
called, of 500 tons every year, with all sorts of 
merchandise, to the Spanish colonies. By the 
treaty of Madrid, 5 Oct. 1750, the contract was 
annulled. 

As'signa'tion. See Assignment. 

Assignats, a-se-nya, or as-ig-nats, a term 
applied to the paper money issued during the 
French Revolution. The French National As¬ 
sembly after appropriating to national purposes 
the land belonging to the Church, instead of sell¬ 
ing it at a time when its value was greatly de¬ 
preciated, because of the unsettled state of af¬ 
fairs, issued bonds on the security of it, which 
were called assignats, as representing land as¬ 
signed to the holder. This paper currency con¬ 
sisted chiefly of notes for one hundred francs 
each, though many of them were for lower 
sums. The first issue in 1790 amounted to 400,- 
000,000 francs. The government was relieved 
by this plan, for the time being the assignats 
saved the Revolution. This arrangement for 
relieving the necessities of the government 
seemed so easy that recourse was repeatedly had 
to it, as the property of wealthy emigres, until 
the amount arose to the vast sum of 46,000,000,- 
000 francs, besides many forged notes. The con¬ 
sequence was that the value of assignats sank to 
almost nothing. In March 1796, a Iouis d’or 
(24 francs) bought 7,200 francs in assignats. 
They were withdrawn from the currency after 
this, and redeemed at a thirtieth of their nominal 
value, by ^territorial mandates,® a new kind of 
paper currency, which empowered the holder at 
once to take possession of public lands at the 
estimated value, while assignats could only be 
offered at a sale. These territorial mandates 
afterward became almost worthless and were 
returned to the government in payment of taxes 
or of land. Early in 1797 the system came sud¬ 
denly to an end. 

Assign'ment, a term denoting a transfer 
by deed of any property, or right, title, or. in¬ 
terest in property, real or personal. Assign¬ 
ments are usually given for leases, mortgages, 
and funded property. In the United States, as¬ 
signment is of broader signification and applies 
also to the transfer of real property by certain 
conveyance. In general, every right of property, 
real or personal, and every demand connected 
with a right of property, real or personal; and 
all choses in action, as bonds, notes, judgments, 
mortgages, debts, contracts, agreements, relating 
both to real and personal property, are as- 
Vol. 1—54 


signable, and the assignment thereof will pass 
to the assignee a right of action in the name 
of such assignee against all parties liable 
to an action. Assignment carries with it all 
collateral securities held by the assignor for the 
collection of a debt or the fulfillment of a con¬ 
tract, and is subject to all the equities and 
charges which attached in the hands of the as¬ 
signor. A personal trust, as the right of a 
master in his indentured apprentice, or the du¬ 
ties of a testamentary guardian, or the office of 
executor, trustee, etc., is not' assignable. The 
validity of an assignment must be determined 
by the law of the State in which it was made, 
provided the thing assigned is subject of muni¬ 
cipal or State law; but copyrights, patents, and 
government claims are governed by acts of 
Congress. In general, assignments should be 
recorded in the office prescribed by law, or are 
void as against those claiming under subsequent 
assignments. See Bankruptcy Laws. 

Assimilation, a term denoting the trans¬ 
formation of foods into living substance. The 
animal body is constantly changing. New com¬ 
pounds are being made from others; old prod¬ 
ucts are cast off. There is a constant inter¬ 
change of materials, some building up, others 
breaking down. The chief factors in the 
assimilative process are the foods and the oxy¬ 
gen in the air. For a discussion of the former, 
see Digestion; Nutrition; for the latter, see 
Respiration. See also Metabolism. 

Assiniboia, as-sm'i-boi'a, a district in 
northwestern Canada, west of Manitoba, having 
the district of Saskatchewan on the north and 
Alberta on the west, and contains an area of 
34.000,000 acres. It has a length of about 450 
miles east and west by 205 miles north and 
south. Eastern Assiniboia, for a distance of 
some 120 miles west from its eastern boundary, 
is practically a continuation of the grain-grow¬ 
ing area of Manitoba, and the soil is productive, 
producing excellent crops of wheat, coarse grain 
and vegetables. The main line of the Canadian 
Pacific Railway (q.v.) extends east to west 
almost through the centre of Assiniboia, and 
branch lines extend from Moose Jaw to the 
southeast corner of the district, and from Re¬ 
gina to the north through the central portion. 
The Manitoba and Northwestern Railway ex¬ 
tends into the northwestern portion of the dis¬ 
trict from Manitoba, giving good facilities in 
the way of transportation. Other branches are 
being projected into southern Assiniboia. The 
district is well watered by the South Saskatche¬ 
wan, the Qu’Appelle, Assiniboine, and other 
rivers, and the valleys along the rivers and 
creeks are very fertile and generally adapted to 
mixed farming. Similar conditions prevail in 
western Assiniboia. A marked development is 
taking place along the <( Soo® line, and the land, 
which is very fertile, has been largely taken up 
by settlers from the United States. The prin¬ 
cipal towns are Regina, the capital, Halbrite, 
Weyburn, Yellow Grass, Milestone, Rouleau, 
Moosomin, Grenfell, Wolseley, Indian Head, 
Qu’Appelle, Saltcoats, Yorkton, and Medicine 
Hat. Pop. (1904) about 70,000. On 1 Sept. 
1905 Assiniboia was united with the province 
of Saskatchewan and the eastern portion of 
Athabasca to form the new province of 
Saskatchewan. 


ASSINIBOINE—ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS 


Assin'iboine, a river of Canada, whichf 
flows through Manitoba and joins the Red 
River at Winnipeg, about 40 miles above the 
entrance of the latter into Lake Winnipeg. It 
has a somewhat circuitous course of about 500 
miles and steamers ply on it for over 300 miles. 

Assisi, as-se'se, a hill town in Italy, in 
the province of Umbria, 20 miles from Spoleto. 
It is the see of a bishop and is famous as the 
birthplace of Saint Francis, founder of the 
Franciscan Order, and of Saint Clara, foundress 
of a religious community for women. The 
splendid church built over the chapel where 
Saint Francis received his first impulse to de¬ 
votion is one of the finest remains of the archi¬ 
tecture of the Middle Ages. Pop. (1901) 
17,378. See <( Assisi® in ( Mediaeval Towns 
Series ) (1901). 

Assize' of Jerusalem, a code of laws in 
force in the Christian kingdom of Jerusalem 
and Cyprus. It consisted of two parts, the as¬ 
size of the high court with jurisdiction over the 
nobles, and the assize of the court of burgesses, 
or code of the common people. It was sup¬ 
posed for some time that the laws were framed 
by Godfrey de Bouillon; but this is now known 
to be incorrect. The assize of the high court 
was first framed as a code about 1255, the as¬ 
size of the court of Burgesses, in the latter 
part of the 12th century, but the exact date is 
uncertain. 

Assiz'es, ap English legal term signifying 
the sessions of the courts held at intervals in 
every country by the judges. The whole coun¬ 
try is divided into circuits, and three times in 
the year two judges, who are members of the 
highest courts in England, hold assizes in all 
the counties of their respective circuit. In Lon¬ 
don and Middlesex, instead of circuits, what are 
known as courts of nisi prius are held. At the 
assizes all the justices of the peace of the county 
are bound to attend, or else are liable to a 
fine; and also all the persons who have been 
summoned as grand jurymen or petit jurymen 
by the sheriff. At these assizes the judges sit 
under five separate commissions, some of which 
relate to civil and some to criminal causes or 
business. In this manner, and by these means, 
the jails are in general cleared, and offenders 
tried and convicted or acquitted at least every 
half year. In America there are no courts or 
sessions of courts technically called assizes. The 
judges, however, perform the same duties in 
the counties, within their respective circuits and 
jurisdictions, as the English judges, and gener¬ 
ally in the same manner, that is to say, accord¬ 
ing to the course of the common law. Since 
1808 there have been assize courts in the judi¬ 
cial system in France. With the English insti¬ 
tutions, however, they have scarcely anything 
in common but the name. In the law of Scot¬ 
land assize is the technical term applied in cases 
tried in the court of justiciary to the jury of 
15 sworn men, selected by ballot from a greater 
number not exceeding 45. 

Asso'ciated Press. See Press Associa¬ 
tions. 

Association Areas. In the brain of many 
lower animals as well as in that of man there 
are definite areas associated with other areas 
by sets of fibres, known as association fibres. 


These different areas act together in performing 
many of the complicated acts of human life. 
Thus, the general sensory area in the brain, 
that feels the skin sensations and determines 
their character, is in close association with the 
motor area determining the movements of the 
body in correspondence with the knowledge 
given by the sensory areas. Under the head¬ 
ing Aphasia several of these association areas 
are discussed. The studies of psychology and 
of mental diseases are largely concerned with 
the relations and connections of the association 
areas in the brain. 

Bibliography .— Flechsig, c Die Gehirn und 
Seele ) (1896); Barker, < Journal of Nervous 
and Mental Diseased 1897, pp. 326-356. 

Association Fibres, a term applied to 
those fibres that connect different parts of the 
brain, particularly those that unite different 
areas in the same hemisphere, distinguishing 
them from the commissural fibres that connect 
areas in different hemispheres, or projection 
fibres that bind the cerebrum with the lower 
cerebellar or spinal systems. These association 
fibres form late in childhood and on their de¬ 
velopment depends much of the increased intel¬ 
lectual growth of the individual. 

Association of Ideas, a phrase current in 

philosophy and psychology since the days of John 
Locke. The term ^association® has had, in this 
connection, many different meanings. In pop- 
ular psychology, it indicates the way the mind 
passes from idea to idea; or the way one idea 
suggests or ^reproduces® another. Thus, in 
passing from the thought of gold to the recol¬ 
lection of a recent visit to a mining camp 
and then to the plot of a novel laid in a 
mountainous region, one may be said to ®as- 
sociate® the story with the idea of the min¬ 
ing camp, and this, in turn, with the idea of 
gold. (See Memory.) It is but a step from 
this popular conception of association — asso¬ 
ciation as ^reproduction®—to the notion that 
association is an explanation of reproduction. 
Association then becomes (to change the figure) 
not the actual passage from idea to idea, but 
the intangible bond which holds ideas together 
and which enables one idea (that is, the <( gold® 
idea) to drag after it another (the (< camp® idea). 
This second interpretation of the term is in dis¬ 
repute among psychologists because no evidence 
of such a bond as the interpretation implies 
is to be found in consciousness. It may be 
urged, however, that even if association in this 
causal sense be undiscoverable by introspection 
it may, nevertheless, be regarded as a general 
principle of mental activity; — as the means by 
which the mind creates knowledge. When, 
however, association is thus interpreted to mean 
a principle underlying and conditioning the 
process of knowing it passes from psychology 
to epistemology. (See Psychology.) The doc¬ 
trine of- Associationism, which is connected-.with 
the names of. David Hume, James Mill, Alex¬ 
ander Bain and other <( associationists,® rests 
upon this epistemological meaning of the 
term. 

Returning to the psychological use of the 
word ^association,® we may note that the popular 
conception stands in need of modification and 
precision. (1) To say that mind “associates® 
idea with idea implies that ideas are by nature 


ASSOCIATION FOR PROTECTION ADIRONDACKS — ASSOS 


separate and distinct and require some ^gentle 
f?rce» (as Hume puts it) to bring them together. 
1 his is not true. Ideas are interwoven; they 
are organically connected; they are not held 
together as in a bundle. (2) In the second place, 
the popular use of the term is too narrow; a 
chain of actions, or of emotions, or of feelings, 
may be associated as well as a chain of ideas. 
In habitual performances, for example,— such as 
dressing —one act calls forth the next, this 
in turn the next, and so on; or emotion may be 
linked with emotion, as anger following fear; 
or, finally, associations may set out from a per¬ 
ception, as the thought of home from the sight 
of a letter.. (3) Again, association does not 
necessarily imply a sequence of associated ele¬ 
ments. It may be simultaneous, as well as suc¬ 
cessive; for example, I see the table before me 
and, at the same time, I apprehend it as a hard 
resisting substance, or I hear the rumble of a 
carriage behind me and I see, in my (< mind’s 
eye,” its form and color. (See Perception.) 
(4) Finally, association in the popular sense 
simply states that idea follows idea; it tells us 
nothing of the nature of the associated conscious¬ 
ness ; of how, that is, an association differs from 
a perception. Now association, in its strict tech¬ 
nical sense, means the associated elements of 
consciousness; to illustrate, it means the mass 
of constantly shifting processes which make up 
mind while one is thinking gold — mining- 
camp— novel. Just as there exist typical groups 
of mental processes which underlie the percep¬ 
tion of a landscape, a swinging pendulum or a 
musical composition, there exist other typical 
groups — such as those already mentioned — 
which are known as associations. 

Psychological work upon association has been 
directed, for the most part, upon the conditions 
under which associative groups arise. These 
conditions have, since the days of Aristotle, 
been set down under the heading of ^principles” 
or Haws” of association. Thus a is said to call 
up or reproduce b when a and b have, at some 
previous time, stood together in consciousness 
(law of contiguity), or when a has been the 
cause of b (law of causality), or when a re¬ 
sembles b (law of similarity), etc. At the pres¬ 
ent time, these Haws” of association are usually 
reduced to two; the law of contiguity and the 
law of similarity. But even these are by no 
means final or adequate statements of the condi¬ 
tions under which associations arise; for — to 
point to only two or three of their imperfections 
— (( similarity” is an extremely ambiguous term; 
it may mean simple likeness, or partial identity, 
or likeness of relationship; and (( contiguity” is 
indefinite — it does not determine how near 
processes must lie in consciousness in order for 
one to reproduce the other. Moreover, it should 
be said that there are thousands of contiguity 
and similarity connections that are never realized 
in association; this follows from the fact that 
almost everything is, to some extent, similar to 
everything else, and that the elementary pro¬ 
cesses of mind have appeared ^contiguously” 
in almost every conceivable form of combination. 
Both terms are, then, too broad to have much 
significance. If we set them down as Haws,” 
we have still to determine under what particular 
conditions a given association is formed. Many 
of these particular and more important condi¬ 
tions have been determined; they include re¬ 
cency, frequency, vividness (the more recently 


or frequently or vividly a process or group of 
processes has stood in consciousness the greater 
the liability of its appearing in an associative 
connection), the general interests of the indi¬ 
vidual mind (for example, botanical ideas crop 
up in the botanist’s mind, geological ideas in the 
mind of the geologist), the presence or absence 
of inhibitory associations (if a has already stood 
associated with b and c, its chances for associat¬ 
ing with d will be lessened), mood (unpleasant 
subjects crowd into mind when one is de¬ 
pressed), etc. The actual liability of a given 
association being formed is thus seen to rest upon 
a great number of possible conditions. So far 
as there is any truth in a general all-inclusive 
Haw” of association it is best expressed as a law 
of neural habit. This law is formulated by 
W. James as follows: (( when two elementary 
brain-processes have been active together or in 
immediate succession, one of them, on reoc¬ 
curring, tends to propagate its excitement into 
the other.” The relation of this law to the law 
of contiguity is obvious. 

Consult: James, Principles of Psychology> 
(1890), ch. xiv.; Titchener, Experimental 
Psychology,> pt. II. (1901), 402; Kuelpe, Out¬ 
lines of Psychology > (trans. 1895), I77ff; 
Calkins, introduction to Psychology* (1901), 

I 57ff* I. M. Bentley, 

Assistant Professor of Psychology, Cornell 
U niversity. 

Association for the Protection of the 

Adirondacks, a society organized in 1902 
and incorporated the same year for the purpose 
of preserving the forests, waters, game, and 
fish, and to maintain healthful conditions in the 
Adirondack region. 

Assollant, as'so'lan', Alfred, a French 
novelist and political writer; b. Aubusson, 20 
March 1827; d. Paris, March 1880. Having 
traveled extensively over the United States, he 
published, on his return, ( Scenes from Life in 
the United States ) (1858), a series of tales 
which attracted a good deal of attention. 
Among his numerous novels are ( Two Friends 
in I792 ) (1859), a story of the Reign of Terror; 
( Brancas > (1859), a picture of the corruption 
under Louis Philippe; ( Gabrielle de Chenevert* 
(1865), portraying the provincial nobility be¬ 
fore the Revolution; ( Pendragon ) (1881), and 
< Plantagenet ) (1885). 

Assommoir, L\ la'so'mwar', a novel by 
Emile Zola, entitled < Gervaise ) in the English 
translation, published in 1877. It forms one of 
the series dealing with the fortunes of the 
Rougon-Macquart family, and is a series of re¬ 
pulsive pictures unrelieved by one gleam of a 
nobler humanity, but only <( realistic” as scraps: 
the life as a possible whole is as purely imagi¬ 
native as if it were lovely instead of loathsome. 

As'sonance, in poetry, a term used when 
the lines end with the same vowel-sound, but 
make no proper rhyme. Such verses having 
what we should consider false rhymes are reg¬ 
ularly employed in Spanish poetry; as in ligera, 
cubierta, tierra, mesa. 

Assos, as'os, an ancient Hellenic port on 
the Gulf of Edremid, from whose still imposing 
remains the successful excavations, in 1881-3, 
of the American Institute of Archaeology have 
brought to light the agora, with senate house 
and colonnade, a bath, theatre, gymnasium, stat¬ 
ues of heroes, and seven Christian churches. 


ASSOUAN 


Assouan, a-swan', or Assuan, also called 
Eswan (Arabic al suaan, (( the opening,® that is, 
of the Nile; the ancient Syene, whence the red 
granite of the vicinity — from whose famous 
quarries were cut under the earliest dynasties so 
many of the huge obelisks and colossal statues 
that adorned the temples and palaces of Egypt 
— is called syenite), the southernmost city of 
Egypt proper, near Nubia, on the right or eastern 
bank of the Nile, and beside the first or lowest 
cataract. Near it are the islands of Philae and 
Elephantine, the ruined monuments of the for¬ 
mer of which are of such fascination to tourists; 
on the left bank are many rock tombs of the 
ancient dynasties. It is a garrison town, the 
central depot for the Sudan caravan trade, and 
the terminus of a railway to Alexandria which 
enhances its prosperity. Of still greater im¬ 
portance is the new dam which will add sev¬ 
eral hundred square miles outright to the arable 
soil of Egypt, besides steadying the fertility of 
the older lands, and which is described in ex- 
tens o below. Pop. about 10,000, including the 
suburbs. 

The monumental dam at Assouan, by far the 
greatest achievement of the kind in ancient or 
modern times, forms a reservoir in the Nile val¬ 
ley capable of storing 1,000,000,000 tons of water. 
It will not only produce a revolution in the 
primitive and laborious methods of irrigation in 
Egypt, but will reclaim vast areas of land that 
have hitherto been accounted as arid and worth¬ 
less. The old system of irrigation was lit¬ 
tle more than a high Nile flooding of differ¬ 
ent areas of land or basins surrounded by 
embankments. Less than a hundred years ago, 
the introduction of perennial irrigation was first 
attempted by cutting deep canals to convey the 
wateT to the lands when the Nile was at its low 
summer level. When the Nile rose, these ca¬ 
nals had to be blocked by temporary earthen 
dams, or the current would have wrought de¬ 
struction. As a result, they silted up, and had to 
be cleared of many millions of tons of mud each 
year by enforced labor, much misery and extor¬ 
tion resulting therefrom. About half a century 
ago the first serious attempt to improve mat¬ 
ters was made by the construction of the cele¬ 
brated Barrage at the apex of the delta. This 
work consists, in effect, of two. brick-arched via¬ 
ducts crossing the Rosetta and Damietta, branch¬ 
es of the Nile, having together 132 arches of 
16 feet 4 inches span, which were entirely closed 
by iron sluices during the summer months, thus 
heading up the water some 15 feet and throwing 
it at a high level into the six main irrigation 
canals below Cairo. In the summer months the 
whole flow of the Nile is arrested and thrown 
into the aforesaid canals. The old Barrage was 
constructed under great difficulties by French en¬ 
gineers, subject to the passing whims of their 
Oriental chiefs. About 15 years elapsed between 
the commencement of the work and the closing 
of all the sluices, and another 20 years before 
the structure was sufficiently strengthened by 
British engineers to fulfil the duties for which it 
was originally designed. Forced labor was large¬ 
ly employed in its construction, and at one time 
12,000 soldiers, 3,000 marines, 2,000 laborers, and 
1,000 masons were at work at the old Barrage. 

In connection with the Nile reservoir, sub¬ 
sidiary weirs were constructed below the old 
Barrage to reduce the stress on that structure. 


The system adopted was a novel one, devised by 
Major Brown, inspector-general of irrigation in 
lower Egypt. His aim was to dispense almost 
entirely with plant and skilled labor; and so, 
without attempting to dry the bed of the river, he 
made solid masonry blocks under water by 
grouting rubble dropped by natives into a 
movable timber caisson. Both branches of the 
Nile were thus dammed in three seasons, at a 
ccfst, including navigation locks, of about $2,- 
500,000. Many other subsidiary works have 
been and will be constructed, including regula¬ 
tors, such as that on the Bahr Yusuf canal. The 
most important of the works is the Barrage 
across the Nile at Assiout, about 250 miles above 
Cairo, which was commenced by Sir John Aird 
& Co. in the winter of 1898 and completed in 
1902. The great dam at Assouan, 850 miles 
above Cairo, is not a solid wall, but is pierced 
with sluice openings of sufficient area for the 
>flood discharge of the river, which may amount 
to 15,000 tons of water per second. There are 
180 such openings, mostly 23 feet high by 6 
feet 6 inches wide; and where subject to heavy 
pressure when being moved they are of the well- 
known Stoney roller pattern. The total length 
of the dam is about iRj miles; the maximum 
height from foundation, about 130 feet; the dif¬ 
ference of level water above and below, 67 
feet; and the total weight of masonry over 
1,000,000 tons. Navigation is provided for by 
a (< ladder® of four locks, each 260 feet long by 
32 feet wide. As was the case at Assiout, the 
difficulties in dam construction are not in de¬ 
sign, but in the carrying out of the works. 
When the (< rotten rock® in the bed was dis¬ 
covered, Sir Benjamin Baker reported to Lord 
Cromer frankly that he could not say what the 
extra cost or time involved by this and other un¬ 
foreseen conditions would be, and that all that 
could be said was that, however bad the condi¬ 
tions, the job could be done. Lord Cromer re¬ 
plied that the dam had to be completed whatever 
the time and cost involved. The contract was let 
to Sir John Aird & Co., of London, with Messrs. 
Ransomes and Rapier, of London, as sub-con¬ 
tractors for the steel work, in February 1898. Two 
months after signing the contract the permanent 
works were commenced, and before the end of 
the year thousands of native laborers and hun¬ 
dreds of Italian granite masons were hard at 
work. On 12 Feb. 1899, the foundation stone 
of the dam was laid by the Duke of Connaught. 
Many plans were considered by the engineers 
and contractors for putting in the foundations 
of the dam across the roaring cataract channels, 
and it was finally decided to form temporary 
rubble dams across three of the channels be¬ 
low the site of the great dam, so as to break 
the force of the torrent and get a pond of com¬ 
paratively still water up stream to work in. 
Stones of from 1 ton to 12 tons in weight were 
tipped into the cataract, till finally a rubble 
mound appeared above the surface. The first 
channel was successfully closed on 17 May 1899, 
the depth being about 30 feet and the velocity 
of current nearly 15 miles an hour. In the case 
of another channel the closing had to be helped 
by tipping in railway cars themselves, loaded 
with heavy stones and bound together with wire 
ropes, making a mass of about 50 tons, the great 
mass being necessary to resist displacement by 
the torrent. 



V: S 

WMmlw 


0AHHA.G, 




ylQHAMMlP A LI 


ArcK of Diocletian 


**^M^ m ^* ofHaihor 


ASSOUAN DAM. 

r}ird’s-eye View of the Structure and Surrounding Region 



















































































































































































































































































' 




■ 

























































ASSUMPSIT — ASSUMPTION 


These rubble dams were well tested when the 
high Nile ran over them; and on work being re¬ 
sumed in November, after the fall of the river, 
water-tight sandbag dams, or “sudds,® were 
made around the site of the dam foundation in 
the still waters above the rubble dams, and 
pumps were fixed to lay dry the bed of the river. 
This was the most exciting time in this stage 
of the operations, for no one could predict 
whether it would be possible to dry the bed, or 
whether the water would not pour through 
the fissured rock in overwhelming volume. 
Twenty-four 12-inch centrifugal pumps were 
provided to deal, if necessary, with one small 
channel; but happily the sandbags and gravel 
and sand embankments stanched the fissures 
in the rock and interstices between the great 
boulders covering the bottom of this channel, 
and a couple of 12-inch pumps sufficed. The 
masonry of the dam is of local granite, set in 
British Portland cement mortar. The interior 
is of rubble set by hand, with about 40 per cent 
of the bulk in cement mortar, four of sand to 
one of cement. All the face work is of coursed 
rock-faced ashlar, except the sluice linings, 
which are finely dressed. This was steam crane 
and Italian masons’ work. There was a great 
pressure at times to get a section completed be¬ 
fore the inevitable iise of the Nile, and as much 
as 3,600 tons of masonry was executed per 
day, chiefly at one point in the dam. A triple 
line of railway and numerous cars and locomo¬ 
tives were provided to convey the materials from* 
quarries and stores to every part of the work. 
The maximum number of men employed was 
11,000, of whom 1,000 were European masons 
and other skilled men. Mr. Wilfred Stokes, 
chief engineer and managing director of Messrs. 
Ransomes and Rapier, was responsible for the 
detailed designing and manufacture of the 
sluices and lock gates; 140 of the sluices are 23 
feet high by 6 feet 6 inches wide, and 40 of 
them half that height; 130 of the sluices are on 
the “Stoney® principle with rollers, and the re¬ 
mainder move on sliding surfaces. The larger 
of the Stoney sluices weigh 14 tons, and are 
capable of being moved by hand under a head of 
water producing a pressure of 450 tons against 
the sluice. There are five lock gates, 32 feet 
wide, and varying in height up to 60 feet. They 
are of an entirely different type from ordinary 
folding lock gates, being hung from the top on 
rollers, and moving like a sliding coach-house 
door. This arrangement was adopted for safe¬ 
ty, as 1,000,000,000 tons of water are stored up 
above the lock gates, and each of the two upper 
gates is made strong enough to hold up the 
water, assuming that the four other gates were 
destroyed. When the river is rising the sluices 
will all be open, and the red water will pass free- 
ly through, without depositing the fertilizing 
silt. After the flood when the water has become 
clear, and the discharge of the Nile has fallen 
to about 2,000 tons per second, the gates without 
rollers will be closed, and then some of those 
with rollers* so that between December and 
March the reservoir will be gradually filled. 
The reopening of the sluices will take place be¬ 
tween May and July, according to the state of 
the Nile and the requirements of the crops. Be¬ 
tween December and May, when the reservoir is 
full, the island of Philae will in places be slightly 
flooded. As the temples are founded partly on 


loose silt and sand, the saturation of the hith¬ 
erto dry soil would cause settlement, and no 
doubt injury to the ruins. To obviate this risk, 
all the important parts, including the well-known 
Kiosk, or “Pharaoh’s bed,® have been either 
carried on steel girders or underpinned down to 
rock; or failing that, to the present saturation 
level. It need hardly be said that having regard 
to the shattered condition of the columns and 
entablatures, the friability of the stone, and the 
running sand foundation, the process of under¬ 
pinning was an exceptionally difficult and anx¬ 
ious task. It is impossible to estimate the far- 
reaching beneficial influence these irrigation 
works will bestow upon Egypt; but the recla¬ 
mation of so many thousands of acres of desert 
for agricultural development cannot fail to im¬ 
prove the agricultural possibilities of the land, 
and assist Egypt to regain the prosperity it en¬ 
joyed in the era of the Pharaohs, with a greater 
cultivable area than it had even then. See 
Irrigation ; Nile. 

Assump'sit, in law, an action to recover a 
compensation in damages for non-performance 
of a simple contract; that is, a promise, whether 
verbal or written, not contained in a deed under 
seal. The word assumpsit (Latin) means, he 
undertook, and was taken as the name of this 
action from its occurrence in declarations, that 
is, formal statements of the plaintiff’s cause of 
action, when these were in Latin. Assumpsits 
were of two kinds, express and implied; the 
former being where the contracts were actually 
made in word or writing; the latter being such 
as the law implies from the justice of the case; 
as, for instance, if one is employed to perform 
service or labor, the obvious justice of paying 
him a reasonable sum therefor when completed 
raises an implication, in law, of a promise to 
make such payment. 

Assumption, a city in Paraguay. See 
Asuncion. 

Assumption, a Church festival celebrating 
the translation into heaven of the Virgin Mary, 
kept on 15 August. The legend first ap¬ 
peared in the 3d or 4th century, and the fes¬ 
tival was instituted some three centuries later. 
The story has been made the subject of a num¬ 
ber of paintings by the most celebrated artists 
in history. The following are the best known: 

(1) Titian: in the Accademia in Venica; repre¬ 
sents the Virgin being carried on bright clouds 
to heaven, surrounded by rejoicing angels, while 
the apostles look up from earth in amazement; 

(2) Titian: another painting in the Cathedral of 
Verona; (3) Correggio: frescoes in the cupola 
of the cathedral in Parma, Italy; (4) Rubens: 
painting in the cathedral at Antwerp, Belgium; 
representing the Virgin being carried to heaven, 
surrounded by angels, while several apostles and 
women are gathered at the empty tomb below; 
(5) Perugino: in the Accademia, in Florence; 
showing, in addition to the Virgin, four saints 
in the foreground; the representation of the Vir¬ 
gin is considered one of Perugino’s most beau¬ 
tiful figures; (6) Guido Reni: a large canvas in 
Bridgewater House, in London; (7) Gaudenzio 
Ferrari: fresco in the Church of San Cristo- 
foro, in Vercelli, Italy; showing figures of the 
Father, the Virgin, the angels, and the apostles; 
(8) Murillo: painting in the Hermitage Museum, 
St. Petersburg; representing the Virgin floating 


ASSURANCE — ASSYRIA 


upward on clouds, with bands of cherubs above 
and below her; (9) Guercino: a painting, also in 
the Hermitage Museum; showing the Virgin, 
with uplifted face, being borne upward on a 
cloud, with angel attendants, and the apostles 
standing about her empty tomb. ( The Assump¬ 
tion of Moses ) is the title of an apocryphal book, 
giving an account of the reception of Moses in 
heaven, written probably 20 a.d. 

Assurance, Sisters of the, a teaching Order of 
Sisters in the Catholic Church, founded by Mon¬ 
signor Affre in Paris in 1839. 

Assu'rance. See Insurance. 

Assurbanipal, as'soor-ba'ne-pal'. See As¬ 
syria; Nineveh; Sardanapalus. 

As'sus. See Assos. 

Assynt, as'int, a wild and rugged district 
of Scotland. There are inexhaustible quarries 
of marble, both white and variegated. Fresh¬ 
water lakes are numerous; the largest, Loch 
Assynt, is about seven miles in length and one 
mile in breadth. 

Assyr'ia (the Asshur of the Hebrews, 
Athurd of the ancient Persians), the ancient 
name of a portion of Mesopotamia, lying main¬ 
ly between the Euphrates and the Tigris, the 
seat of the earliest recorded monarchy. In the 
earliest times it was probably limited to the low- 
lying tract between the Jebel Makloub and the 
little Zab (Zab-Asfal), on the left bank of the 
Tigris; but at its greatest extent Assyria must 
have been nearly 500 miles long, with an area of 
about 100,000 square miles. Toward the north 
Assyria bordered on the mountainous country 
of Armenia, which may at times have been un¬ 
der Assyrian dominion, but which at no time 
was considered as an actual part of the country. 
On the east dwelt numerous independent and 
warlike tribes, sheltered by the fastnesses of the 
Zagros Mountains. On the south Susiana or 
Elam was the frontier state east of the Tigris, 
while Babylonia occupied the same position be¬ 
tween the rivers. West of Assyria lay Arabia, 
and higher up Syria and the land of the Hittites. 
The chief cities of Assyria in the days of its 
greatest prosperity were Ninevah, whose site is 
marked by the mounds opposite Mosul (Nebi 
Yunus and Koyunjik), Calah or Kalakh (the 
modern Nimrud), Asshur or A 1 Asur (Kalah 
Sherghat), Sargina, Khorsabad), Arbela (Ar- 
bil), etc. The surface of the country within its 
widest limits was of a diversified character. On 
t-he north and east the lofty mountain-ranges of 
Armenia and Kurdistan are succeeded by low 
ranges of arid limestone hills, occasionally en¬ 
closing fertile plains and valleys. Immediately 
south of this is a well-watered, productive, and 
undulating belt of country, into which run lime¬ 
stone rocks of a golden color, and wooded with 
dwarf-oak. This sinks suddenly down upon the 
great Mesopotamian plain (the modern El Jez- 
ireh), about 250 miles in length, interrupted only 
by a single limestone range rising suddenly out 
of the plain and branching off from the Zagros 
Mountains. The numerous remains of ancient 
habitations show how thickly this vast flat must 
have once been peopled; now, for the most part, 
it is a mere wilderness. 

History .— Scripture tells us that the early 
inhabitants of Assyria went from Babylon, and 


the traditions of later times, as well as inscrip¬ 
tions on the disinterred Assyrian monuments, 
and the character of those remains, go to show 
that the power and civilization of Babylon were 
earlier than those of Assyria. In Genesis x. 11 it 
is mentioned that Nineveh was founded by As¬ 
shur, but for long the country was subject to 
governors appointed by the kings of Babylon. 
We learn from monumental inscriptions that 
about 1820 b.c., when Asshur was the capital 
of the country, Samsi-vul founded temples there 
to Asshur, the great national deity, and to Anu 
and Vul, besides a temple to the goddess of 
Nineveh in the city of that name. The Assyrian 
rulers gradually began to treat with their south¬ 
ern neighbors on equal terms, the boundaries of 
the two countries were for a time clearly marked 
out, and intermarriages among the reigning fam¬ 
ilies occasionally took place. About the latter 
end of the 14th century Shalmaneser acquired 
the whole of Naharain (the country round the 
sources of the Euphrates and Tigris) by con¬ 
quest, and planted Assyrian colonies there; he 
also founded the city of Kalakh or Calah, and 
restored the great temple at Nineveh. About 
1300 b.c. he was succeeded by his son Tiglath- 
ninip, who conquered the whole of the valley 
of the Euphrates, and built or restored the palace 
at Asshur. The five following reigns were 
occupied with wars, more or less successful, 
with the Babylonians. About the year 1120 b.c. 
Tiglath-Pileser I., one of the most eminent of 
the sovereigns of the first Assyrian monarchy, 
ascended the throne, beginning his reign by the 
conquest of the Syrians and Hittites in the west. 
He then carried his arms far and wide, subjugat¬ 
ing the Moschians, Cominagenians, Urumians, 
and other tribes in the north; on the south he 
shattered the Babylonian power, and captured 
their capital. But this empire, acquired and 
ruled by the energy and genius of one man, be¬ 
gan to fall to pieces at his death (1100). The 
period of decline lasted over 200 years, during 
which time little is known of Assyrian history. 
Under Assur-nazir-pal, who reigned from 884 to 
859 b.c., Assyria once more advanced to the 
position of the leading power in the world. The 
extent of his kingdom was greater than that of 
Tiglath-Pileser, and the magnificent palaces, 
temples, and other buildings erected during his 
reign, with their elaborate sculptures and paint¬ 
ings, prove that wealth, art, and luxury must 
have reached a high stage of development. 
When he ascended the throne Nineveh was the 
capital of the kingdom, but he restored and 
beautified Calah, which had suffered during the 
troubled and declining years of the country, made 
it his favorite residence, and raised it to the dig¬ 
nity of the chief city of the state. Among the 
first acts of his reign was the suppression of a 
revolt by the Assyrian colonists of Naharain 
(883).. This was followed by the victorious 
campaigns in Zamua on the eastern frontier 
(882-881), against several rebellious provinces in 
the northwest (880), and against the Shukhi or 
Shuhites, who then occupied a tract of country 
between Babylon and Assyria (879). In another 
expedition he crossed the Euphrates and ad¬ 
vanced to the Mediterranean, near the mouth of 
the Orontes. In 859 Assur-nazir-pal was suc¬ 
ceeded by his son Shalmaneser II., whose career 
of conquest was equally successful. The clos¬ 
ing years of his reign were troubled by the re- 


ASSYRIA 


bellion of his eldest son, Assur-dain-pal, who had 
gained over to his side the cities of Nineveh, 
Assur, Arbela, and other important towns. Af¬ 
ter much fighting the rebellion was put down by 
Shalmaneser’s second son Samsi-vul (Samas- 
Rimmon), who succeeded to the throne in 824. 
The old dynasty came to an end in the person of 
Assurnirai II., who was driven from the throne 
by a usurper, Tiglath-Pileser, in 745, after a 
struggle of some years. No sooner was this able 
ruler firmly seated on the throne than he made 
an expedition into Babylonia, followed by an¬ 
other to the east in 744. In the following year 
an alliance was formed against Assyria between 
Sarduri, king of Armenia, and several neigh¬ 
boring princes, and the Syrians came to their 
assistance at Arpad, on the Euphrates. Here 
they were defeated with great slaughter by Tig¬ 
lath-Pileser, and the Armenian king was chased 
to the gates of his capital, Turuspa. The con¬ 
queror now advanced against Syria, overthrew 
the ancient kingdoms of Damascus and Ha¬ 
math, and placed his vassal Hosea on the throne 
of Samaria. A protracted campaign in Media 
( 737 - 735 ), another in Armenia, and the mem¬ 
orable expedition into Syria mentioned in 2 
Kings xvi., are among the most important events 
of the latter years of his reign. Tiglath-Pileser 
was one of the greatest of the Assyrians; he 
carried the Assyrian arms from Lake Van on 
the north to the. Persian Gulf on the south, and 
from the confines of India on the east to the 
Nile on the west. Yet he was not able to keep 
his seat on the throne, being driven from it by 
another claimant named Shalmaneser (727). 
Little is known of the five years’ reign of this 
prince. He blockaded Tyre for five years, and 
on the revolt of Hosea, king of Israel, in league 
with Sabako, king of Egypt, he invaded Israel 
and besieged Samaria, but died before the city 
was reduced. His successor Sargon (722-705) 
claimed descent from the ancient Assyrian 
kings. At the very opening of his reign, after 
taking Samaria and leading over 18,000 people 
captive, he overthrew the combined forces of 
Elam (Susiana) and Babylon. In 719 Sargon 
turned his arms against the revolted Armenians, 
and in 717 he besieged and took the rich trading 
city of Carchemesh, which had also risen against 
his authority; here an immense spoil fell into 
his hands. In 716 the Armenians and several 
tributary princes in the north again took up 
arms for independence, but the Assyrians having 
again triumphed the Armenian king committed 
suicide and the other princes submitted. The 
attitude of Babylonia now began to look ex¬ 
tremely dangerous. Merodach-Baladan, a Chal- 
dsean leader, taking advantage of the troubles 
which closed the reign of Tiglath-Pileser, had 
possessed himself of Babylonia, and held it for 
12 years, strengthening himself by alliances 
with Egypt and the various rulers of Palestine. 
In 710 Merodach-Baladan was driven out of 
Babylonia; in a single campaign the allies were 
crushed, Judah was overrun, and Ashdod level¬ 
ed to the ground. Sargon spent the latter 
years of his reign in internal reforms, and in 
founding or beautifying several cities of his 
kingdom. A new city, called Dur-Sargina, was 
founded to the north of Nineveh, the library 
of Calah was restored and enlarged, and spe¬ 
cial attention was devoted to law reform. In 
the midst of these labors Sargon was murdered, 


and was succeeded by Sennacherib, one of his 
younger sons, in 705. 

No sooner was Sennacherib seated on the 
throne than he was compelled to take up arms 
against Merodach-Baladan, who had again ob¬ 
tained possession of Babylon. In 701 fresh 
outbreaks in Syria led him in that direction. 
He first swept down on Zidon, drove the king 
into Cyprus, and seated Tubal on his empty 
throne. Next he deposed Zidqa of Askelon, and 
advanced against Ekron and Judah. The peo¬ 
ple of Ekron had dethroned Padi their king, 
and gave him into the hands of Hezekiah, king 
of Judah. The Egyptian and Ethiopian forces 
advanced to the assistance of their Judean allies, 
but Sennacherib totally routed the confederates 
at Altaqa in Judah, which he rapidly overran, 
taking 46 of its fortified cities. Hezekiah now 
submitted, agreeing to pay the conqueror a sum 
of 30 talents of gold and 800 talents of silver. 
Padi was given up and restored to Ekron, and 
after Sennacherib had chastised the rebels he 
returned to Assyria. The threatening aspect of 
affairs in Babylonia and Elam again called his 
attention to the south in 700, and in 699 he ad¬ 
vanced to the northern boundaries of his king¬ 
dom to quell the insurrections which had broken 
out among the hill tribes. His second expedi¬ 
tion into Syria is one of the most memorable 
in the history of Assyria, and is briefly recorded 
in 2 Kings xix. But his career of conquest 
was stopped by an appalling catastrophe: his 
army lay before Libna, when in one night <( the 
angel of Jehovah went out and smote in the 
camp of the Assyrians 185,000 men® (2 Kings 
xix. 35). Sennacherib himself returned to As¬ 
syria, and occupied the last years of his reign 
in repressing the outbreaks of the Babylonians 
and Elamites, in constructing canals and aque¬ 
ducts, and in entirely rebuilding Nineveh. In 
681 he was murdered by his two sons, Adram- 
melech and Sharezer, but they soon found them¬ 
selves confronted by a veteran army under Esar- 
haddon, their father’s younger and favorite son, 
who defeated them in a battle at Kanirabbat, 
and assumed the crown (680). 

Esar-haddon fixed his residence at Babylon, 
where he governed in person during the whole 
of his reign. The most important event of this 
reign was the conquest of Egypt, which' left As¬ 
syria the mistress of the world. In 672 Esar- 
haddon led his forces into Egypt, drove out 
Tirhakah, its Ethiopian ruler, and divided the 
land into 20 separate kingdoms, the rulers of 
which were his vassals. Feeling unable to cope 
in person with his rebellious tributaries, Esar- 
haddon associated his son Assurbani-pal with 
him in the government of the kingdom (669), 
dying two years later. But constant wars were 
beginning to exhaust the men and treasure of 
the empire; and luxury, which had flowed sud¬ 
denly in like a flood, was enervating the people. 
The king now no longer appeared at the head of 
his army, but intrusted it to generals, and aban¬ 
doned himself to indolence and sensuality. As¬ 
surbani-pal was a zealous patron of the arts; 
learned men fom all countries were welcomed to 
his court; literary works were collected from all 
sources; the library of Nineveh was greatly aug¬ 
mented ; the study of the dead language of Accad 
was encouraged, and dictionaries and grammars 
were compiled. The buildings were unrivalled 
for magnificence, his palace glittering with gold 


ASSYRIA 


and silver, and adorned with the rarest sculp¬ 
tures. Unfortunately the king’s character was 
marked by cruelty and sensuality, and his exam¬ 
ple descended through the court to the people. 
He died in 625, and was succeeded by his son 
Assurebilili-kain, under whom Babylon definite¬ 
ly threw off the Assyrian yoke. The country 
continued rapidly to decline, fighting hard for 
mere existence until, under its last king Sarcus, 
Nineveh was captured and burned by the allied 
forces of the Medes and Babylonians in 606 b.c. 

Ethnology, Language , Religion, etc .— The 
original inhabitants of Assyria and Babylonia 
belonged to that race variously called Turanian, 
Ural-Altaic, Scythian, or Tatar, and which ap¬ 
pears at one time to have occupied the entire re¬ 
gion from the Caucasus to the Indian Ocean, 
and from the Mediterranean to the delta of the 
Ganges. The ancient Assyrians, therefore, were 
of the same stock as that from which the Finns, 
Turks, and Magyars have descended; and their 
language, which has been preserved to us in 
inscriptions, and is known by the name of Ac- 
cadian, is allied to the Ugro-Bulgaric division 
of the Finnic group of languages. The Akkadai 
or Accad race descended from the mountainous 
region of Elam on the east, and the origin of 
Chaldsean civilization and writing was due to 
them. In course of time, however, a Semitic 
race of people spread themselves over the coun¬ 
try, and mingled with or supplanted the original 
inhabitants, while their language took the place 
of the Accadian, the latter becoming a dead lan¬ 
guage. Belonging to the Semitic family, these 
later Assyrians were thus members of the same 
great division of the human race as the Hebrews, 
Syrians, Phoenicians, and modern Arabians. 
The language differed little from the Babylonian, 
which was characterized by a preference for the 
softer sounds and a fuller use of the vowels. 
Both languages retained traces of the influence 
of the earlier Accadian. Assyrian is closely al¬ 
lied to Hebrew and Phoenician; it has their pecu¬ 
liarities of phonology, vocabulary, and grammar, 
and some obscure points in Hebrew etymology 
have been cleared up by its aid. The language 
changed little throughout the 1,500 years during 
which we can trace its career in the recently de¬ 
ciphered inscriptions. It continued to be writ¬ 
ten with the cuneiform character down to the 
3d century b.c. Assyria could boast of but little 
native literature; it was a land of warriors, and 
the peaceful arts had their home in Babylonia. 
It was not until the time of Assur-bani-pal that 
any attempt was made to rival Babylon in learn¬ 
ing. Their original works were for the first time 
composed, and treaties were composed even, in 
the dead Accad language. The greater part of 
the literature was stamped in minute characters 
on baked bricks, but papyrus was also used, al¬ 
though no books in this form have come down 
to us. The subjects of the Assyrian literature 
comprise hymns to the gods, mythological and 
epic poems, and works on history, chronology, 
astrology, law, etc. (See Babylonian Litera¬ 
ture.) The Assyrian religion, like the language 
and arts, was in most essential points derived 
from Babylonia. There were the same gods, 
the same ceremonials and prayers, and even the 
temples had the same names. There is, however, 
in one point a notable difference. In addition 
to the worship of the Babvlonian deities the As¬ 
syrians adored their national deity Assur, plac¬ 


ing him at the head of the Pantheon. He was 
called king of all the chief gods, the god who 
created himself, it being supposed that he was 
self-existent and the creator of all things. After 
Assur come the 12 chief deities, Anu, god of 
heaven, ruler of angels and spirits; Bel, the 
father of the gods; Hea, king of the sea ; Sin, or 
the Moon, lord of crowns; Shamas, or the Sun, 
judge of heaven and earth; Ninip, god of hunt¬ 
ing; Nergal, god of war; Nusku, bestower of 
sceptres; Beltis, mother of the gods; Ishtar, 
leader of heaven and earth; and Bel, or Mero- 
dach, lord of Babylon. Most of those divinities 
had consorts, who were not, however, admitted 
to the first rank of the gods. Below this first 
rank were a number of spirits, good and evil, 
who presided over the minor operations of na¬ 
ture. There were set forms regulating the 
worship of all the gods and spirits, and prayers 
to each were inscribed on clay tablets with blanks 
for the names of the persons using them. 

Art and Science, etc .—Although in art, as in 
other things, Assyria was the pupil of Babylon, 
there was yet a notable difference between its 
development in the two countries, due parti}' to 
two causes. The alabaster quarries scattered 
over the country supplied the Assyrians with 
a material unknown to their southern neighbors, 
on which they could represent, far better than 
the Babylonians on their enamelled bricks, the 
scenes which interested them. Sculpture was 
naturally developed by the one, just as painting 
was by the other, and the ornamentation which 
could be lavished on the exterior of buildings 
in Assyria had to be confined to the interior in 
Babylonia. The Assyrian artists, faithful and 
indefatigable, acquired a considerable power in 
representing the forms of men and animals, 
and produced vivid and striking scenes of the 
chief occupations of human life. If they did 
not strive greatly after the ideal, and never in 
this direction reached a very exalted rank, yet 
even here their emblematic figures of the gods 
have a dignity and grandeur which implies the 
possession of some elevated feelings. But their 
grand merit is in the representation of the real. 
Their scenes of war and of the chase, and even 
sometimes of the morp peaceful incidents of life, 
have a fidelity, boldness, and lifelike appearance 
which place them high among the realistic 
schools. Unlike that of the Egyptians, which 
remained comparatively stationary from the ear¬ 
liest to the latest ages, the art of the Assyrians 
is plainly progressive, becoming gradually more 
natural and less uncouth, more lifelike and less 
stiff, more varied and less conventional. It may 
be said to have reached its highest stage of de¬ 
velopment in the reign of Assur-bani-pal, when 
it was characterized by great chasteness and 
softness, delicacy and finish. The beginning of 
Greek art coincides with the decadence of the 
Assyrian, and there can be no doubt that the 
Hellenic artists owe much to their Assyrian pre¬ 
decessors. The advanced condition of the As¬ 
syrians in various other respects is sufficiently 
evidenced by the representations on the sculp¬ 
tures, and by the remains discovered among their 
ruined buildings. We now know that they un¬ 
derstood and applied the arch; that they con¬ 
structed tunnels, aqueducts, and drains; that 
they used the lever and the roller; that they 
engraved gems in a highly artistic way; that they 
understood the arts of inlaying, enamelling, and 


ASSYRIOLOGY 


overlaying with metals; that they manufactured 
porcelain, and transparent and colored glass, and 
were acquainted with the lens; that they pos¬ 
sessed vases, jars, and other dishes, bronze and 
ivory ornaments, bells, gold earrings and brace¬ 
lets of excellent design and workmanship. Their 
household furniture also gives us a high idea of 
their skill, taste, minuteness, and accuracy. The 
cities of Nineveh, Assur, and Arbela had each 
their royal observatories, superintended by as- 
tronomers-royal, who had to send in their re¬ 
ports to the king twice a month. At an early 
date the stars were numbered and named; a 
calendar was formed, in which the year was di¬ 
vided into 12 months (of 30 days each) called 
after the zodiacal signs, but as this division was 
found to be inaccurate an intercalary month was 
added every six years. The week was divided 
into seven days, the seventh being a day of rest; 
the day was divided into 12 casbu of two hours 
each, each casbu being subdivided into 60 min¬ 
utes, and these again into 60 seconds. Eclipses 
were recorded from a very remote epoch, and 
their recurrence roughly determined. The prin¬ 
cipal astronomical work, called the Illumination 
of Bel, was compiled for the library of Sargon 
of Agane; it was inscribed on 70 tablets, and 
went through numerous editions, one of the lat¬ 
est being in the British Museum. It treats, 
among other things, on observations of comets, 
the polar star, the conjunction of the sun and 
moon, and motions of Venus and Mars. The 
study of mathematics was fairly advanced, and 
the people who were acquainted with the sun¬ 
dial, the clepsydra, the pulley, and the lever 
must have had considerable knowledge of me¬ 
chanics. See Assyriology. 

Government. —Like all the ancient monar¬ 
chies which attained to any considerable extent, 
Assyria was composed of a number of separate 
kingdoms. In the East conquest has very sel¬ 
dom led to amalgamation, and in the primitive 
empires there was not even any attempt at that 
governmental centralization which we find at a 
later period in the satrapial system of Persia. 
The Assyrian monarchs reigned over a number 
of petty kings, the native rulers of the several 
countries, over the whole extent of their domin¬ 
ions. These native princes were feudatories of 
the Great Monarch, holding their crowns from 
him by the double tenure of homage and tribute. 
This system naturally led to the frequent out¬ 
break of troubles. See Cuneiform Writing; 
Nineveh ; Nippur. 

Bibliography. —Botta and Flandin, ( Monu¬ 
ments de Ninive 5 (1847-50); Layard, ( Nineveh 
and its Remains ) (1849) ; Oppert, ‘Histoire des 
Empires de Chaldee et d’Assyrie 5 (1866) ; Raw- 
linson, ( Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient 
World ) (second edition, 1871) ; Lenormant. ( Let- 
tres Assyriologiques 5 (1871-3) ; George Smith, 
( Assyrian Discoveries 5 ; Assyria, 5 and .‘The 
Assyrian Eponyrn 5 (1875) ; Duncker’s ( History 
of Antiquity 5 (1882); Sayce, <Ancient Empires 
of the East 5 (1884): his <Assyria: its Princes, 
Priests, and People 5 (1885), and his ( Fresh 
Light from the Ancient Monuments 5 (1886) ; 
Jastrow, ( Religion of Babylonia and Assyria 5 
(1898); Maspero, ( The Dawn of Civilization 5 
(1894). 

Assyriology. Assyriology may be defined 
as that department of study and investigation 
which embraces within its realm the country, peo¬ 


ple, languages, literature, and history of ancient 
Mesopotamia, Babylonia, and so much of adjoin¬ 
ing countries as shared in the life of the Semitic 
valley-peoples prior to 538 b.c. The term is 
often popularly employed to cover a study of 
those languages written in the cuneiform script, 
or its immediate antecedents, the linear and 
picture methods of writing, current in primaeval 
times in this great river valley. Such a delim¬ 
itation of our theme would include a study of 
early Babylonia, Assyria, somewhat of Elam, 
and a mention of later Persia. Assyriology, 
therefore, deals with an antiquity which was 
centred in the great Babylonian valley, and em¬ 
bodied in the cuneiform languages. 

Age .—This is a comparatively new depart¬ 
ment of research. It has been built up upon 
the basis of the discoveries of antiquities which 
have been made during the last three quarters 
of a century in the countries tributary to the 
Persian Gulf. The tentacles of this department 
reach out into every phase of ancient Oriental 
life and knowledge, and require of the modern 
investigator a comparatively comprehensive 
understanding of the complexities of that prim¬ 
itive life. This department includes in its 
sphere some of the most important of all 
branches of ancient lore. Among these we note 
especially Semitic philology, general archaeology, 
architecture, sculpture, history, legend, so-called 
science, and religion. Assyriology has already 
taken its place as one of the great departments 
of human knowledge and research. The results 
of its investigations must now be reckoned with 
in any estimate of early Semitic legends, tradi¬ 
tions, or history. Its importance to the student 
of the Old Testament is assuming greater pro¬ 
portions with each old site overturned by the 
spade of the excavator. The great museums of 
Europe and America count among their chief 
treasures the magnificent colossi, bas-reliefs, 
slabs, statues, and tablets that belong to the 
department of Assyriology. 

Names .—The oldest of the governments rep¬ 
resented in Assyriology is that centred in the 
Babylonian valley. Its earliest known mention 
at the beginning of the last century was that 
found in Genesis x. 10, where the beginning of 
the kingdom of. Nimrod is said to have been 
Babel (Hebrew, 233 ), probably the city of Baby¬ 
lon, <( in the land of Shinar 55 (Hebrew 3 yjt^), a 
name for lower Babylonia. In post-exilic times 
the country was designated Chaldea, or Hand of 
the Chaldeans 55 (Hebrew,DHfeO ^“lK),Ezek i. 3. 
Classical writers named this country after Baby¬ 
lon, that metropolitan city of their day, Baby¬ 
lonia, and this name is attached to it to the 
present time. 

The next great country covered by Assyri¬ 
ology is Assyria. The Hebrews called it (Gen. 
x. 11) A'sshur either the name of a per¬ 

sonage or of a country, probably the latter. The 
translators of the Septuagint called it a.<r<rovp and 
aaavpios, while Josephus, a couple of centuries 
later, refers to it as Aaavpia. The Aramaeans 
named it Athur , or Athuriya. 

Boundaries .—The territory covered by an¬ 
cient Babylonia was delimited on the west by 
the Arabian Desert, on the south by the Persian 
Gulf and Arabian Desert, on the ea'st by Elamite 
territory backed up by the Zagros Mountains, 
and on the north by the uplands of Assyria. 
Assyria proper, in its early unexpansive period, 
was delimited on the east by the mountains of 


ASSYRIOLOGY 


Kurdistan, on the north by those of Armenia, 
on the south by Babylonia, with an ever-shifting 
boundary line, and on the west by the western 
limits of the Tigris valley and plain. In a word, 
Assyria was anciently seated in the upper Tigris 
valley, in possession of several great city-centres. 

These two important countries were thus 
largely guarded by nature from foes on the 
south and southwest, but were always open to 
the intrigues of invaders from the east, north, 
or northwest. The historical records of these 
lands confirm this statement. 

Description. —The great valley of Babylonia 
derives its marvelous fertility from its two 
notable rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates. Both 
have their rise in the mountains of Armenia, 
and both have their debouchement in the Per¬ 
sian Gulf. The Tigris, from its source, flows 
directly in a southeasterly and southerly course, 
cutting through the uplands of Assyria, and 
along the eastern side of the Babylonian valley, 
until, mingling with the waters of the Euphrates, 
it falls into the Gulf. The Euphrates, from its 
source, flows toward the southwest and bends 
southward within ioo miles of the Mediter¬ 
ranean Sea, and thence in general toward the 
southeast and south until, in union with the 
Tigris, it pours into the Gulf. These two 
arterial streams are the life of this great lower 
valley. By irrigation they were made to fertilize 
all their adjacent lands, and thus placed these 
among the richest countries on earth. In addi¬ 
tion to water these streams bring annually from 
the mountains of Armenia great quantities of 
alluvia and deposit it in the lower valley. Geol¬ 
ogists estimate that the shores of the Persian 
Gulf have been pushed southward, by deposits 
of this alluvia, fully 125 miles since the earliest 
periods of Babylonian history. In other words, 
the Tigris and Euphrates rivers that now enter 
the Gulf as one stream forming a vast morass, 
formerly had separate mouths, about 125 miles 
north of their present outlet. If this estimation 
be correct, the ancient Ur of the Chaldees 
(modern Mugheir ) was practically a seaport city. 
The Tigris, being the shorter river, has a very 
swift current, and is less valuable for navigation 
than the Euphrates. Upon this latter stream 
vessels of profitable draft may ride to a distance 
of 800 miles above its mouth. The territory of 
Mesopotamia proper is watered by the Balikh and 
Khabur, two rivers that flow southward, empty¬ 
ing into the Euphrates. The region of Baby¬ 
lonia proper, though a waste to-day, shows 
marks of having supported a dense population 
in antiquity. 

References to Ancient Peoples. —Present day 
students and scholars inferred from frequent 
references in the Old Testament and in the 
compiled works of Berosus, Manetho, Josephus, 
and others that this valley had been the head¬ 
quarter’s of mighty nations. Classical writers 
carry echoes of an ancient glory won by great 
armies and powerful monarchs from the East, 
whose records were otherwise unknown, and 
whose mighty deeds seemed as unreal as fiction. 
The rise, conquest, and reign of these giant 
figures aroused the enthusiasm of every student 
of ancient history. The far-reaching influence 
and power over neighboring kings of these mon¬ 
archs, dimly outlined in the vague second-hand 
records, set scholars to work. It drove them to 
search far and wide for other traces of peoples 
who had completely perished from the face of 


the earth, and who had, so far as they could see, 
left no story of their achievements. The reports 
of travelers who had passed through and spent 
some time in those countries attracted their 
attention. 

Ancient Remains. —The entire territory 
drained by the two great rivers, Tigris and Eu¬ 
phrates, was found to be dotted by extensive 
mounds, ruins of ancient walls, piles of disin¬ 
tegrating towers, beds of ancient irrigating 
canals, and other marks of a once elaborate 
civilization. Travelers had often picked up near 
these mounds little bits of antiquities, bricks, 
tablets, and cylinder seals, that carried on their 
surfaces many curious wedge-shaped characters, 
which they regarded either as writing or orna¬ 
mentation. These miscellaneous curios were 
thought to represent the civilizations of an un¬ 
known past, of peoples who occupied this terri¬ 
tory in the days when prosperous cities and 
fruitful fields filled this great valley. 

Earliest Excavations. —The first persons to 
take an active interest in the ruins of Babylonia 
and Assyria were Englishmen resident in some 
one of the chief cities of the country. C. J. 
Rich, a resident at Bagdad (1808-21), carefully 
examined and described several mounds, and 
some inscriptions, in small works published 
during his residence. The first systematic ex¬ 
cavations within thi's valley were undertaken by 
P. E. Botta, French consul at the time in Mosul, 
a modern city of some commercial and polit¬ 
ical importance on the upper Tigris River, 
in 1842-5. He began work on the colossal 
mounds opposite Mosul on the east bank of the 
Tigris River; but he had little success until he 
transferred his force to the mound Khorsabad, 
about 14 miles north-northeast of the first site. 
Khorsabad proved to be an immense treasure- 
house of antiquities. Here he uncovered the 
stupendous royal palace of Sargon II. (722-705 
b.c.), with a mass of inscriptions and antiquities 
of various kinds. This splendid find was greeted 
with enthusiasm by the scholarly world, and set 
minds to thinking and wills to acting to uncover 
other antiquities representing such a marvelous 
past. In 1845-7, A. H. Layard, an Englishman, 
began to dig at Nimroud, the ancient Calah, 
a mound about 20 miles south of Mosul, on the 
east bank of the Tigris. Persevering through 
almost indescribable difficulties, Layard finally 
succeeded in bringing to light the palaces of 
Assurnatsirpal (884-860 b.c.), Shalmaneser 

II. (860-825 b.c. ), and Esarhaddon (681-668 
b.c.). In 1849-51 this same intrepid excavator 
burrowed into the mound Kouyunjik, one of the 
mounds of ancient Nineveh, and lay bare two 
more great palaces, that of Sennacherib (705- 
681 b.c. ), and that of Assurbanipal (668-626 
b.c.). Botta’s finds, so far as transportable, 
were taken to Paris and deposited in the Mu¬ 
seum of the Louvre; those of Layard to the 
British Museum in London. 

In this same period, Rassam, trained under 
Layard, made some valuable discoveries (1851-4) 
at Kouyunjik for the English; and Place at 
Khorsabad and Fresnel and Oppert at Hillah 
for the French. In most of the work under¬ 
taken by the English, Henry C. Rawlinson was a 
close adviser and an enthusiastic promoter. 

Later Excavations. —The next 20 years 
(1854-73) were a period of cessation of exca¬ 
vations of any note. An occasional traveler or 
explorer found a few specimens of antiquities and 



RELIEFS ON THE BLACK OBELISK OF SHALMANESER II. (860-825 b. c.) 

(found BY LAYARD AT NIMROUD, NOW IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM) 

SECOND TIER REPRESENTS JEHU, KING OF ISRAEL, RENDERING SUBMISSION TO SHALMANESER II. (ABOUT 842 B. C.) 























































































































































ASSYRIOLOGY 


did a little desultory work. This 20 years, how¬ 
ever, saw the publication of many notable works 
by Botta, Layard, Place, Oppert, and Rawlinson 
on the results of the active work of excavating 
and of inscriptions previously gathered out of 
the mounds. The second period of excavations 
began in 1873, when George Smith, of the Brit¬ 
ish Museum, was sent by the London Daily 
Telegraph to the site of ancient Nineveh to 
find other fragments of the famous deluge tab¬ 
let. Smith’s phenomenal success in finding 
Assurbanipal’s 30,000-tablet-library gave new life 
to archeological research, and sent him alto¬ 
gether on three expeditions, on the last of which 
he succumbed to a fever at Aleppo, 19 Aug. 
1875. Smith’s genius had presented to the world 
such representations of the important discov¬ 
eries made by himself and others that the con¬ 
tagion spread, and other centres of scholarship 
turned their eyes toward the mounds of Baby¬ 
lonia and Assyria. Rassam was again called 
into requisition, and in 1877-8 gathered rich 
spoils on the site of old Nineveh, at Nimroud, 
and at Balawat, where he found the remains of 
the bronze doors of Shalmaneser II. (860-825 
B.c.). In 1878-9 and 1880-1 he also found valu¬ 
able relics on Babylonian ground. 

From 1878 to the present day the French 
government has conducted excavations inter¬ 
mittently at Telloh, in lower Babylonia, for 
more than 20 years under the superintendence 
of E. de Sarzec, and recently under Capt. Cros- 
man. This mound has yielded a rich store 
of antiquities, consisting of many thousands of 
tablets, of ’several beautiful diorite statues, of 
friezes, of palace plans, and of cylinders, many 
of which are deposited and mounted in the su¬ 
perb collection in the Louvre in Paris. The 
accompanying illustration presents two views of 
a part of the mound Telloh, where such notable 
discoveries have been made. The same govern¬ 
ment inaugurated and carried on excavations 
at Susa under M. and Mme. Dieulafoy (1884-6) ; 
and latterly under M. J. de Morgan, and has 
thus opened up new volumes on the history of 
ancient Elam, and its relations with adjoining 
countries. 

A few broad-minded gentlemen, under the 
leadership of E. W. Clark, of Philadelphia, 
provided the means for the organization and 
prosecution of an expedition to Babylonia under 
the auspices of the University of Pennsylvania. 
This expedition was duly organized and 
equipped, and prosecuted work under the direc¬ 
tion of John P. Peters, during 1888-90 at the 
mound Niffer, about 30 miles southeast of 
Babylon. Since that time the same institution 
has carried on work intermittently on this site, 
under supervision of H. V. Hilprecht, and, for 
the most part, under the field directorship of 
J. H. Haynes, has brought to light thousands of 
inscriptions and other antiquities. _ These _ have 
made the University of Pennsylvania the richest 
Babylonian-Assyrian museum in America. 

Within the last decade German archaeologists 
have joined the ranks of excavators, and have 
done some thorough work on several sites 111 
the Babylonian valley, but chiefly at Babylon. 
The full results of their activity are still un¬ 
known to the public, as little has been published. 

In 1904, the Oriental Exploration Fund of 
the University of Chicago was organized, and 
an expedition sent out under the direction ot 


Robert Francis Harper, to excavate on the old 
site Bismya, in lower Babylonia. The first 
season’s work justifies the hope that this may 
prove to be a fruitful mound, belonging to a 
high antiquity. 

Outside of Babylonia proper, some notable 
discoveries of cuneiform inscriptions have been 
made by explorers. A stele of Sargon II. was 
found in the island of Cyprus in 1845. There 
were found at Tel-el-Amarna, in Egypt, in 1887, 
more than 300 cuneiform tablets, which proved 
to be correspondence between the kings of 
Egypt and their Asiatic underlords and rulers 
in the 15th century b.c. Even Palestine has pro¬ 
duced a couple of tablets in its excavated cities. 
Luschan found at Zinjirli, Asia Minor, among 
a host of Hittite antiquities, a statue and inscrip¬ 
tion of Esarhaddon (681-668 b.c.). 

Decipherment of Inscriptions .—The neat lit¬ 
tle wedge-shaped characters, put together in so 
many combinations to form individual signs, 
very early attracted the genius of the linguist. 
As early as 1801, Grotefend, a German, discov¬ 
ered the significance of some of the old Persian 
cuneiform characters; and other scholars, fol¬ 
lowing in his wake, likewise made some advance 
in identification of those old characters. But 
the long and sure step ahead was not made 
until Henry C. Rawlinson took up the problem. 
As an officer in the Persian army about 1835, he 
had unusual facilities for examining ancient 
ruins in that country. He observed at Behistun, 
in the Zagros Mountains, a rock stretching up 
almost 1,700 feet above the plain, and at about 
350 feet above its base a large space carefully 
smoothed off. Upon this space was inscribed 
a mass of writing, distributed in several col¬ 
umns of varying length. After years of toil 
at intervals, he succeeded in copying the en¬ 
tire set. In a study of them he soon found 
that they contained three languages. The first, 
the Old Persian, through his knowledge of 
modern Persian and other related tongues, after 
years of study, he was able to decipher, and sent 
his translation to London, where, in 1847, it 
was published in the ( Journal 0 f the Royal 
Asiatic Society.* Rawlinson’s success was 
epochal, for it broke the seal into the hidden 
treasures of the cuneiform languages of Baby¬ 
lonia. His decipherment of one of the tri¬ 
lingual inscriptions opened the door into the 
next, the Susian. These two deciphered, schol¬ 
ars were soon able to penetrate the mysteries of 
the third language, the Babylonian-Assyrian. 

These triumphs extended, roughly, over the 
years 1845-55. In 1857 the British Museum 
made a test of scholars’ ability to decipher the 
Assyrian tongue. Four men, H. C. Rawlinson, 
Edward Hincks, Jules Oppert, and H. F. Tal¬ 
bot, were given a fine copy of a long historical 
inscription of Tiglathpileser I. (1120-1100 b.c.), 
and were requested to make each an independent 
translation of the text and report on their re¬ 
sults. At a given time these scholars reported; 
and to the amazement, one should say, of all 
concerned, their translations were in substantial 
agreement from first to last. This was the 
crowning triumph of all in the eyes of other 
departments of learning. It showed that the 
riddle had been solved, that the Babylonian 
valley would henceforth speak for itself through 
its multitudes of ancient records. 

Furthermore, this triumph of philology sue- 


ASSYRIOLOGY 


ceeded in placing in the galaxy of ancient na¬ 
tions some of the most powerful of peoples. 
Babylonia, Assyria, and Elam henceforth became 
the early home of vigorous nations, well-organ¬ 
ized governments, conquering armies, and world¬ 
wide rulers. The ruin-covered wastes were 
suddenly transformed into fertile fields and 
prosperous cities, occupied by peoples whose 
influence touched the horizon of civilization 
in every direction. In short, this triumph of 
philology opened a door to a new world in 
southwestern Asia, prior to, and contemporane¬ 
ous with, the times of the Hebrew kingdom. 

Language .—The language in which this new- 
old material is preserved is the so-called Baby- 
lonian-Assyrian wedge-writing. Although the 
Old Persian is alphabetic, the Babylonian-As- 
syrian is a sign and syllable tongue. Each sep¬ 
arate wedge ( 7 ), or each combination of wedges 

constitutes a sign. This language was 

written by pressing the wedges with an 
instrument into clay or cutting them into 
stone or metal, for they never appear in 
relief. The primitive signs were probably 
rude pictures, which gradually grew through 
use into the form of curved and straight lines ; 
these lines soon took on the artistic form of 
wedges. This evolution is seen in the fact 
that a large number of the signs possess merely 
an ideographic value; for example, we find a 

sign for the idea Hand® ( ), ^sun® ( )» 

<( male w ( 7 ), (( female ):> (|^-)> <( make, )) ^fish,® 

<( king, ):> etc. Some of these signs possess a 
syllabic value, as da, ra, la, mat, lak, rid, sun, 
pad, etc. Quite a number possess several sylla¬ 
bic values, the context being the reader’s only 
guide as to which should be used in any given 
case. The reader’s trouble's are still more 
aggravated by the fact that the same sign some¬ 
times has both ideographic and syllabic values. 
In this, as in the preceding case, the reader’s 
tact must find in the context the reason for the 
reading which he should adopt. 

There are about 600 independent and entirely 
distinct signs formed by combinations of any¬ 
where from 2 to 30 wedges set together at dif¬ 
ferent angles, or paralleled, or inserted within 
other combinations. But the great difficulties 
arise when we find that there were almost num¬ 
berless combinations of anywhere from two to 
six different ideographic signs to express other 
and often compound ideas. There are nearly 
20,000 such combinations known to-day to As- 
syriologists. 

This Babylonian-Assyrian language is Se¬ 
mitic in character, though its soil is thought, by 
a large group of English, German, and French 
scholars, to be a non-Semitic tongue, the so- 
called Accadian or Sumerian. This ’ question 
is prominently in the foreground to-day, 
due to the large accession of new material 
gathered at Telloh and Nippur, written in 
this ideographic tongue. The Babylonian-As¬ 
syrian tongue is a half-sister to the Hebrew 
of the Old Testament, and has already proved 
its real value in the interpretation of that book. 

The People .—The peoples best known to 
Assyriology are Semites. The primitive inhab¬ 
itants of Babylonia, the predecessors of the 
Semitic population of Babylonia and Assyria, 
were probably a mixture of various nationalities, 


with Semites in the lead. The group of schol¬ 
ars referred to in the preceding paragraph main¬ 
tain that the predecessors of the Semites were 
Sumerians or Accadians, the inventors of the 
ideographic cuneiform language of those coun¬ 
tries. We know, at least, from inscriptions 
found at Nippur, that the Semitic language was 
in use in Babylonia as early as the fourth 
millennium b.c. The population of Babylonia 
and Assyria in historic times was Semitic. Their 
location made them warriors, for they had to be 
perpetually on the defense. The Babylonians 
cultivated the peaceful arts and were wide 
awake to the best things of life in their time 
and day. The Assyrians, on the other hand, 
built up an engine of warfare, a tremendous 
military machine, that, under powerful leaders, 
beat down and overthrew nations on everv hand. 
Some one has compared Babylonia and Assyria 
to Greece and Rome respectively, as fostering 
and furthering different elements of national 
life and character. 

The Civilisation .—One of the marvels of 
these ancient peoples was their advancement in 
all that counts for civilization. Their govern¬ 
ments were monarchical and well organized, 
with standing armies for their immediate pro¬ 
tection. Their civil courts were provided with 
ample laws for the regulation of ’society and of 
trade. Their cities were advantageously built, and 
surrounded with walls of a magnitude sufficient 
to withstand any ordinary attack. Their schools 
were carefully fostered and occupied a first 
place in their peaceful life. They cultivated the 
arts with assiduity and attained a notable degree 
of perfection in some lines. Their architecture 
and 'sculpture, their language and literature, are 
marks of a people high in the scale of Oriental 
civilization. Of religious ritual and all its ac¬ 
companiments and organization, we have a de¬ 
tailed description, which exhibits this as a 
favorite side of that early Semitic life. Their 
industry and trade activities were such as to 
place them in the front rank of commercial peo¬ 
ples. Their amusements and sports were of 
that adventurous and daring kind that bespeak 
the virility and strength of character found only 
among a hardy and vigorous people. Their 
political and commercial relations with their 
neighbors were such as mark an advanced stage 
in cordial international affairs. Their methods 
of warfare, and their treatment of their subjects, 
while often cruel and inhuman, were distin¬ 
guished by a high grade of intelligence, and 
more than ordinary genius. 

Natural Resources .—The wasteness and bar¬ 
renness of modern Babylonia give little intima¬ 
tion of its early resources. Its flora was quite 
varied and useful. Its plains were plentifully 
supplied with fruit trees of various kinds, such 
as fig-, olive-, date-palm-, vine-, and various 
nut-trees. On the mountain sides were found 
the oak, plane, and pine trees of different vari¬ 
eties. By cultivation the land produced wheat, 
barley, sesame, millet, hemp, and other cereals 
and articles of commerce. The date-palm was 
their universal utility article, for from it they 
seem to have manufactured honey, flour, vinegar, 
wine, and raw material for wickerwork. The 
reed that grew with such luxuriance on the 
hanks of the rivers and canals was utilized for 
a number of purposes. It served for building 
huts, weaving mats, and for boat-building, and 



EXCAVATIONS BY THE FRENCH AT TELLOH (after de Sarzec) 


THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE PALACE OF KING UR-NINA 

(Abo'-ve ) THE south angle; ( Below ) THE southeast facade 












ASSYRIOLOGY 


for layering mortar in the construction of walls. 

1 he absence of stone and minerals in the 
asm of the valley was partially compensated 
tor by their proximity to the mountains on the 
north and east, though clay bricks, sun-dried 
and burnt, were always their chief building ma¬ 
terial. When marble, alabaster, diorite, or any 
of the precious metals were used they were 
brought either from their mountain borders or 
from distant lands. Stone was used for colossi, 
statues, wall decorations, bas-reliefs, and some 
inscriptions. The precious metals were em¬ 
ployed for making jewelry, ornaments, service¬ 
able utensils, decorations on buildings and gates, 
and for tablets upon which inscriptions were 
engraved. 

The list of the fauna of the country is made 
quite complete by the pictures found on the 
walls of the old palaces and temples, and by the 
catalogues of names preserved in their litera¬ 
ture. These reveal to us a great variety of 
valuable animals. Among them we find the'lion, 
the favorite game hunted by kings, the panther’ 
the wild ox, the fox, the wild boar, wild asses, 
and camels — especially in later periods of his¬ 
tory. There were also several kinds of gazelles 
and antelopes that played about on the border 
hills and mountains. Of domestic animals, there 
were the horse in later time's, the ass, the camel, 
the cow, sheep, goat, and dog. Of wild birds, 
the inscriptions mention most frequently the 
eagle and the owl; also the swallow, dove, 
raven, geese, and other waterfowls. 

Cities. —There is no more notable index of a 
great people than the number and magnitude 
of its great cities. Babylonia-Assyria, through 
the decipherment of the monuments, is seen to 
have been well dotted over with prosperous 
cities. Beginning in the south and proceeding 
northward, we find in that ancient day, Eridu, 
Ur, Erech, Larsa, Laga'sh, Nisin, Nippur, Bor- 
sippa, Babylon, Cutha, Sippar, and Agade (!) — 
all famous cities in the Babylonian kingdoms and 
empires of four millenniums ago. The earliest 
civilization of that valley was centred in these 
cities, most of which seem to have been orig¬ 
inally capitals of districts. There are other 
mounds in considerable quantity that have not 
been identified, but which doubtless cover still 
other cities that played an important role in the 
life of early Babylonia. 

As we advance into the territory occupied 
by Assyria great cities present themselves in a 
formidable array. The ancient mother city of 
Assyria was Ashur, located on the right bank 
of the Tigris, near the modern Kaldt Sherkdt, 
now being excavated by a German expedition. 
As we pass up the Tigris River of that day the 
next city of importance that one meets is Calah, 
or Nimroud, on the left bank of the river, just 
above the junction with the Tigris of the Upper 
Zab River. This was a palatial city, first un¬ 
earthed by Layard, and then by Rassam, contain¬ 
ing at least three royal palaces already men¬ 
tioned. Off to the east of Calah, on the east 
bank of the Upper Zab, was Arbela, a minor city 
of importance. Nineveh, whose mounds stand 
on the eastern bank of the Tigris opposite the 
modern Mosul, was a very ancient city. The 
small stream or river Khosr, passing between 
the two great mounds Kouyunjik and Nebi 
Yunus, that represent the remains of Nineveh, 
empties into the Tigris. Sargon II. (722-705 


b.c.) built for himself at Khorsabad, north of 
Nineveh, a veritable royal city, the most mag¬ 
nificent building of which was his palace, un¬ 
covered by Botta and Place. Its name, Dur- 
Sargina, <( the wall or fortress of Sargon,^ 
designates sufficiently its significance for his 
reign. To the southeast of Nineveh we find 
another city of especial significance in the reign 
of Shalmaneser II. (860-825 b.c.), Imgur-Bel, on 
the site of the modern Balaivat. 

Adjacent to this valley were such mighty 
cities and. fortresses as Susa in Elam, Harran 
and Reshini in upper Mesopotamia, and Car- 
chemish, with other cities on its western frontier 
' ‘all evidence of the thrift and permanency of 
the civilization of 3>ooo and 4,000 years ago. 

Architecture. —The buildings of Babylonia- 
Assyria were modified architecturally, no doubt, 
by the character of the material accessible for 
their construction. Throughout this entire val¬ 
ley the absence of stone led to the use of clay 
bricks, sun- and kiln-dried, for building ma¬ 
terial. This, of course, necessitated a plainness 
of form that admitted of little exterior decora¬ 
tion. The walls were often built very thick, 
of sun-dried, with a veneer of kiln-dried, bricks. 

1 hi's veneer was a protection against the ravages 
of the weather, and the depredations of rob¬ 
bers, who could readily dig through a thick 
wall of merely sun-dried bricks. The strength 
of a sun-dried brick wall was sometimes in¬ 
creased by inserting between the courses of 
bricks layers of reeds. The entire ’structure was 
built on an artificially raised mound, primarily 
to lift the building above the danger of the 
overflowings of the rivers, but later apparently 
because of the age-long custom of placing it on 
an eminence. The entrances to the palaces and 
temples were usually guarded by great mono¬ 
lithic colossi, human-headed bulls or lion's, 
standing on each side and facing outward. 
Within were courts of different sizes that served 
the royal personages or their attendants. In 
immediate connection with each palace or group 
of royal buildings, particularly in Babylonia, 
was the tower or temple. It was a structure that 
towered above everything else, and rose from 
its base to its summit in a series of stages, 
sometimes seven, or steps, by which one 
ascended. On the top of this massive pile one 
would find the image of the god held in partic¬ 
ular reverence, or to whom the tower was dedi¬ 
cated. There are several remains of these 
sacred structures found in Babylonia to-day. 

Their ability to withstand the ravages of time 
is due to the hard burnt bricks with which 
they were constructed. The remains of the 

tower at Mugheir, the ancient (( Ur of the 

Chaldees,® was built, according to its present 
indication, upon a platform 20 feet above the 
plain; its base was a parallelogram about 200 
feet by 135 feet. 

One of the niceties of these constructions 
was their adaptation to the necessities and com¬ 
forts of the people. There was an admirable 
system of drainage, of hydraulics in general, 

that embodied some of the best principles of 
modern sanitation. The arch contributed no 
little to the construction of some of the prim¬ 
itive royal buildings of the 20th century b.c. 

Sculpture, Engraving, etc. —The most ore- 
cions contents of the temples and palaces were 
the statues of the gods and kings, respectively. 





ASSYRIOLOGY 


They are the best specimens of the sculpture of 
the Babylonian-Assyrian peoples. These works 
of art were often chiseled out of diorite, as those 
found by the French at Telloh, out of alabaster, 
as many of the giant colossi, or out of a basaltic 
rock, or black marble. The sculptors, even as 
far back as 3000 b.c., executed some wonderful 
work. Even more striking and complicated 
were their bas-relief's, found so numerously on 
the walls of the palaces of the Assyrian kings. 
In this species of art there is often superb 
genius displayed in the introduction of many 
figures, of warriors, war-chariots, cavalry 
charges, battle scenes, sieges and captures of 
cities, and divinities of various grades. But in 
all these representations the modern student 
must not be disconcerted because of the lack 
of perspective. This is one of the charac¬ 
teristics of all early relief work and painting, 
and must be reckoned with in our study of those 
times. 

Besides the large and imposing works of art, 
there were numerous small objects that occu¬ 
pied large attention and revealed some real 
artistic skill. There were the silver vases of 
the time of Entimena (about 3800 b.c.), ivory 
objects showing exquisite workmanship, gold 
ornaments, cylinder seals reaching back to 4000 
b.c., of many precious stones whose intaglio 
work would be a credit to this day. The method 
of executing such fine work on the hardest of 
precious stones is still a puzzle to modern en¬ 
gravers. The decorations of Assyrian and Per¬ 
sian palaces include also painting, though of a 
kind that reveals more crudeness than the speci¬ 
mens of the engraver’s art. 

Literature .—The discoveries of the last three 
quarters of a century have opened for us the 
doors to a new library of ancient Oriental 
literature. These clay and alabaster volumes 
cover a large range of subjects, and treat them 
in a manner entirely unique. The first that 
attracted attention was, of course, the immense 
amount of historical matter, found mainly in 
the ruins of Assyria. Another large element in 
these tablets, particularly in Babylonia, is the 
poetry, pure Semitic poetry, or interlineated with 
so-called Sumerian poetry, whose character is 
determined by the presence of parallel members. 
This poetry contains hymns to the gods, peni¬ 
tential psalms, incantations, magical formulae, 
and even epics of surprising strength. Exam¬ 
ples of this poetry in Assyria were copied from 
Babylonian originals, as Assyria was notably 
weak in its literary ability. Then there are 
legends, mythology, and popular treatments of 
technical subjects. We find also treatises that 
are geographical, biological, geological; tablets 
that are commercial in character, recording 
loans, deeds, rent's, and trades; long lists of 
matter that is purely linguistic, for it deals with 
signs and their values'; a codified system of laws 
that touched almost every complication in the 
complexities of Babylonian life; letters, domestic 
and international, that reveal both the home cus¬ 
toms of the nation and their foreign relation¬ 
ships and authority. 

Myth and Legend .—The poems that are some¬ 
times called epic, in the literature of Babylonia, 
are based upon events that are usually termed 
mythical. The epic and mythical elements are 
so thoroughly commingled that the entire narra¬ 
tive may be termed mythological. The scenes 


depicted are those between gods and gods, and 
between gods and men, and other creatures. 
The most famous stories classified as mythology 
are the so-called creation epic, the epic of Gil- 
gamesh, of which the eleventh tablet or poem 
is the Babylonian story of the deluge. There 
are several legends and fragments of legends 
which have received careful study in recen* 
years, whose matter is arranged on the custom¬ 
ary Babylonian poetical plan. Some of these 
are, the descent of Ishtar into the world of de¬ 
parted spirits, the Namtar legend, the Adapa and 
Etana legends, and legends of various gods*. 
Some of these entertaining literary stories take 
their place for real merit and interest beside the 
best legendary lore of ancient Greece. Their 
archaeological value is often considerable, and 
their relation to the religious life of Babylonia- 
Assyria immeasurable. 

Religion .—The primitive religion of Baby¬ 
lonia was doubtless the worship of the different 
powers of nature. These became personified 
and everything that took place in the world was 
simply the result of the action of some particular 
god, who stood above man in the scale of being, 
and executed all movements in the especial 
sphere where he was supreme. The representa¬ 
tives of these divinities on the monuments are 
seen sometimes to be men, and at other times 
to be part man and part beast and bird. Those 
in the form of men possessed attributes like, but 
far superior to, man. Since they represented 
different powers in nature, none of them was all- 
powerful. Their functions lay in special lines, 
and for these they were worshipped. In Assyria, 
the gods as a whole were practically bor¬ 
rowed from Babylonia. But Asshur, the great 
divinity of Assyria, stood alone, unique in all 
the Mesopotamian pantheon, and supreme in 
Assyria. The chief gods of Babylonia, those 
that were supreme in its pantheon, were three, 
Anu, the god of heaven, Bel, the god of the 
earth, and Ea, the god of the abyss and of secret 
knowledge. These great three were followed 
by another triad, who regulated light and the 
weather, namely, Shamash, the sun-god, Sin, 
the moon-god, and Ramman, the weather-god. 
These six divinities were localized, in that each 
was the patron deity of some city. For example, 
Anu was the patron deity of Erech, Bel of Nip¬ 
pur, Ea of Eridu, Shamash of Larsa and Sippar, 
and Sin of Ur (of the Chaldees). There is a 
long list of other gods and goddesses, who were 
doubtless related to the two chief triads, but up 
to the present time this relationship in all cases 
cannot be determined. Slightly aside from the 
lists already named we find the great goddess 
Ishtar, one of whose feats is described in the 
legend, ( Descent of Ishtar.* 

Worship .—The cities of Babylonia-Assyria 
were well supplied with temples, in which the 
gods were devotedly and assiduously worshipped. 
Indeed, this worship was an essential element 
in the life of the Babylonians, to a greater ex¬ 
tent than among the Assyrians. The temples 
were the most elaborate buildings of Babylonia, 
and were under the immediate direction of the 
priesthood, the most powerful class of men, next 
to the king, in the nation. Babylonian inscrip¬ 
tions, particularly, enumerate many temples in 
the chief cities that were dedicated to the patron 
deity of each several city. Each temple had an 
organization of official priests, whose duties 



h o m 9 3 . 


BLACK DIORITE STATUE OF GUDEA FROM TELLOH {after de Sarzec) 


(about 2800 B.C.) 
(now in the louvre, Paris) 


























ASSYRIOLOGY 


were the preservation and propagation of the 
worship of the god of that temple, and the ritual 
and traditions thereof. The king was the great 
overlord or guardian of the temple, and spared 
no means to keep it in a thoroughly good state 
of preservation, and to increase its popularity 
among his subjects. The support of the priest¬ 
hood was provided for by revenues produced 
by the lands attached to the temple, or belonging 
thereto, supplemented by regular offerings. 
These priests, as those in Egypt, were the most 
influential men in the kingdom, for they con¬ 
trolled the religious life of the community, and 
had no small part in the affairs of political and 
civil life. They were probably the best educated 
men in the nation, and by their learning filled 
the offices that required a somewhat broad train¬ 
ing, such as scribes, historians, and librarians. 

The regular duties of the priests in connec¬ 
tion with the temple service were (i) to offi¬ 
ciate at all the regularly appointed services of 
the temple, including the monthly and annual 
set feasts, and (2) to carry out the worshipful 
desires of any individual worshipper. The 
minutiae of conditions regnant in temple service 
are voluminous, and touch almost every condi¬ 
tion of life. Some of the incantations and 
psalms, already referred to, preserve the peti¬ 
tions that must be recited by the suppliant. 
Other tablets enumerate the great variety of 
offerings that must be presented to the gods 
to secure their good-will and blessings. The 
multiplicity of such requirements easily kept 
an army of priests busy in the great temples of 
the principal cities of Babylonia-Assyria. 

Sources of Babylonian-Assyrian History .— 
Before the excavations of the last 75 years in 
the ruins of Babylonia-Assyria, the two main 
sources of the history of the peoples and coun¬ 
try in our theme were (1) the books of the Old 
Testament, and (2) the second-hand narratives 
of Berosus, Manetho, and Josephus, with a few 
scattered statements and some questionable nar¬ 
rative in Greek and Roman writers. The dis¬ 
coveries in the ruins of Mesopotamia have now- 
given us first-hand information of the best 
kind, narratives just as they were written down 
by the original scribes, and not copies made 
from age to age, as are the works above referred 
to. These clay, stone, and metal records stretch 
not continuously as yet, but with breaks here 
and there, from at least 4000 b.c. down through 
the fall of Babylon before the army of Cyrus 538 
B.c. Of course, they cannot be regarded as in¬ 
fallible, but are still for our purpose reasonably 
reliable. They give us, at least, a new pano¬ 
rama, of the most vivid kind, of the great na¬ 
tions that moved down the avenue of time in 
Babylonia for nearly 4,000 years. 

Chronology. —The chronology of Babylonia 
must be described in part separately from that 
of Assyria. The early Babylonians reckoned 
events from some great calamity or occurrence, 
such as the destruction of a city, the dedication 
of a temple, or the opening of a new irrigating 
canal. Later down in the history they counted 
time by the years of a reigning king. The a List 
of Kings,» a list of the kings (not complete) of 
Babylon from about 2400 b.c. to 625 b.c., by 
dynasties, with the length of reign of each king 
and of each dynasty, and the so-called Baby- 
Ionian Chronicle, w consisting of a record of 
events in Babylonia and Assyria from about 745 


b.c., early in the reign of Nabonassar, to 669 b.c., 
the beginning year of the reign of Shamash- 
shum-ukin are valuable documents. The Ptol¬ 
emaic Canon, which has some reliable fea¬ 
tures, also begins with Nabonassar’s reign. 
Besides these guides there are references 
here and there that both serve as checks and 
give us fixed points from which and toward 
which we may figure. One of the most 
striking is that mentioned by Nabonidus (555- 
538 b.c.) on one of his cylinder inscriptions. 
He there states that an inscription of Sargon 
which he found in the corner-stone of a 
temple had been deposited in its hiding place 
3,200 years before his day, or about 3750 
b.c. The mere we find of ancient Babylonian 
facts the more probable the correctness of this 
date seems to be. Then there are chronological 
notes and hints, such as the statement that 
Burna-buriash lived 700 years after Ham¬ 
murabi, that Marduk-nadin-akhe defeated Tig- 
lathpileser I. 418 years before Sennacherib 
conquered Babylon. Each such hint furnishes 
a valuable check on the whole chronological 
scheme, and aids the scholar in his construc¬ 
tion of a valid and reliable list of rulers and 
events, even though for the present there are 
some wide and embarrassing gaps in the period 
covered by Babylonian history. 

Assyrian chronology follows a unique plan. 
It names the years after certain officers, termed 
eponyms, whose term of office extended over 
but one year. Lists of these eponyms have 
been found stretching from 893 b.c., during the 
reign of Adad-nirari II. (911-890 b.c.) down 
to Assurbanipal (668-626 b.c.). On some of 
these lists we find merely the name of the 
eponym, on others there is found the name of 
the king in authority, in fact he usually was an 
eponym at some time during his reign, and some 
of the chief events of each year. The succes¬ 
sion of events between the limit years mentioned 
above is now positively known. To verify our 
calculation that these Assyrian records are cor¬ 
rectly poised in time, we find that in the month 
of Sivan, year of eponymy of Pur-Shagalti, 
there was a total eclipse of the sun in Nineveh. 
Astronomers have located this same eclipse on 
15 June 763 b.c., thus giving us a fixed point 
for our calculations, and for settling specifically 
the dates of the entire Assyrian eponym lists. 

Historical Periods — Babylonia. —The history 
of Babylonia may be roughly divided into three 
periods: (1) That stretch of time reaching 
from the remotest recorded events down to the 
time of the consolidation of the kingdoms of 
Babylonia under Hammurabi at Babylon, about 
2250 b.c. ; (2) the time included between Ham¬ 
murabi’s supremacy and 626 b.c., the death of 
Assurbanipal, last great king of Assyria, and 
the rise of Nabopolassar, first king of the new 
Babylonian kingdom; (3) beginning of Nabo- 
polassar’s reign (625 b.c.) to the fall of Babylon 
before Cyrus (538 b.c.). 

First Period — Babylonia.— The beginnings 
of this period are enveloped in fog. Scattered 
fragments of antiquities and archaic inscriptions 
tell a broken tale of a very remote antiquity. 
Telloh, Nippur, Babylon, and Susa have yielded 
to the excavator many evidences of an extreme 
antiquity, and have put into our hands materia* 
for beginning to estimate some of the element? 
of such early civilizations. Some of the earliest 


ASSYRIOLOGY 


kings were those who ruled over Erech and 
Lagash, which occupied territory apparently on 
the north and south side, respectively, of the 
irrigating canal, Shatt-el-Hai, connecting the 
Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Other kingdoms 
in "this early period, apparently earlier than 4000 
b.c., were Kish and Ur. The formal name of 
a governor in this earliest age was patesi. 
Lugal-zag-gi-si, however, king of Erech, appar¬ 
ently a Semitic name, designates himself (< king 
of Erech, king of the world,® but calls his 
father Ukush, ^patesi of Gishban.® Other kings 
of this very early period were Ur-Nina, the 
foundations of whose palace at Telloh are to 
be seen in the first illustration, and E-dingirrana- 
du. E-dingirrana-du was a patesi of Lagash 
and a victorious ruler, who seized and main¬ 
tained authority, among others, over Gishban, 
Kish, Erech, Ur, and Larsa. These events 
must have occurred about 4000 b.c. 

About 3750 b.c., according to the reckoning 
of Nabonidus, already mentioned, we find Sar- 
gon I. in power, swaying his sceptre to the 
westward as far as the shores of the Med¬ 
iterranean Sea. His son, Naram-Sin, carried 
on the extensions of his father’s kingdom 
until he included in his realm northern Syria, 
northern Arabia, Mesopotamia, and Elam. 
He designates himself, therefore, (( king of the 
four quarters of the world.® There is a break 
in the records at this point. The next ruler, 
rather patesi, of Lagash apparently inaugurates 
a new reign, that enfolds within its borders the 
sway of all ‘ southeastern Babylonia, including 
also Elam. This patesi was Gudea, one of the 
most famous rulers of this valley, at about 
2800 b.c. The accompanying cut represents one 
of his inscribed statues of block diorite found 
at Telloh, around which we find 366 lines of 
writing very artistically cut into this hard stone. 
On the lap of the statue there is a plan of a 
building, designed in exact proportions, reveal¬ 
ing the measurements current in Gudea’s 
day. His numerous inscriptions tell us of 
his world-wide commercial activity, though his 
political power may not have included more 
than Elam outside of Babylonian territory. The 
power of the patesis of Lagash stretched over 
some time, and was a distinct force in the civil¬ 
ization of lower Babylonia. We have also the 
names of several kings of Ur, of Nisin, of 
Erech, of Larsa, and of some smaller cities, 
whose exact location in the chain of history is 
not as yet fixed. 

Second Period — Babylonia: First to Third 
Dynasties. Beginning of Assyria. —The isolated 
kingdoms of Babylonia had already existed for 
centuries, with here and there a ruler who 
had been able to gain the supremacy over 
one or more of his neighbors for a time. 
But the man above all others who unified these 
scattered realms under his own sceptre, with 
Babylon as a centre, was Hammurabi, whose 
long reign of 55 years began about 2285 b.c. 
He greatly improved the internal condition of 
his own country, both materially and politically, 
and carried his conquests to Elam, as had Sar- 
gon I., his predecessor by 1500 years. Ham¬ 
murabi’s influence and power for the welfare 
of his subjects have been brought out anew by 
the discovery at Susa, in December 1901-Jan- 
uary 1902, by M. J. de Morgan at the head of 
the French expedition, of a code of laws which 


had been compiled under his direction and or¬ 
ders. This remarkable document shows that 
Hammurabi’s government was thoroughly reg¬ 
ulated, for it provides laws now intact to the 
number of 243 to govern the complexities 
of commercial, social, and official life. Succes¬ 
sive kings of this first dynasty, founded about 
2400 b.c. by Sumuabi, are known as yet but 
slightly, though many contract tablets belonging 
to this period have been found. 

The second dynasty in the (( List of Kings® 
consists of 11 rulers, about whom we know 
nothing. It is thought that during their reign 
the K&ssites made their way into Babylonia 
from the countries of Media and Elam and 
secured a hold on the throne. 

The third dynasty in the <( List of Kings® is 
made up of 36 kings, but only a few names at 
the beginning and at the close are preserved. 
The Synchronous History,® however, supple¬ 
ments this lacuna in some respects, and gives 
us an idea of the relations of this dynasty to 
Assyria. In fact, early in this dynasty the 
former little colony of Assyria, which had mi¬ 
grated from Babylon some time about 2500-2300 
b.c., rebelled against its mother-country, Baby¬ 
lon, and secured its independence. Its first king 
of whom we know the name was Bel-Kapkapu, 
mentioned by Adad-nirari III. as an early king 
on the Assyrian throne. Ashur-bel-nishishu is 
the first king about whom we know anything 
of value. He ruled about 1480 b.c. and was on 
friendly terms with Kara-indash, a king of the 
third Babylonian dynasty. Several successive 
Assyrian kings seem to have perpetuated this 
friendship, but jealousy and hostility sprung up 
and there were, repeatedly, clashes of arms, in 
which, on the whole, the young and vigorous 
Assyrian kingdom was victorious. One of the 
notable Assyrian kings of this period was Shal¬ 
maneser I., who ruled about 1330 b.c. His 
great campaigns against the territory northwest 
of Assyria are celebrated in the records of 
Assurnatsirpal (884-860 b.c.). 

Second Period — Babylonia: Fourth to Sev¬ 
enth Dynasties. Assyria, 1120-107 5.—The fourth 
Babylonian dynasty is called the dynasty of 
Pashe. We are not aware of the name of its 
founder. The (< List of Kings® is, unfortunately, 
mutilated so that we have only portions of the 
names of the last three kings. The ^Synchronous 
History® fills part of the gap by giving some 
of the relations between Babylonia and Assyria 
during the life of this dynasty. These rela¬ 
tions were hostile in some of its earlier years, 
when Nebuchadrezzar I. was on the throne, and 
the battle went against the Babylonians. Then 
Marduk-nadin-akhe, a Babylonian king, wrested 
victory from the Assyrians. Tiglathpileser I. 
(1120 b.c. ), king of Assyria, on the other hand, 
completely routed the same Babylonian king, 
captured a number of cities in North Babylonia, 
and even Babylon itself. Succeeding kings of 
this Babylonian dynasty and of Assyria made 
treaties of peace, and for the time being ceased 
their wasteful warfare. Of all the Assyrian 
kings who reigned in the time of this Babylonian 
dynasty, Tiglathpileser I. was the most vigor¬ 
ous, aggressive, and successful. His example 
furnished an inspiration for all succeeding As¬ 
syrian rulers, and his conquests, related in full 
in his cylinder inscription, give us a fine speci¬ 
men of early Assyrian historical writing. 


ASSYRIOLOGY 


The fifth Babylonian dynasty (about 1050 
B.c.) consisted of three kings and was very short. 
It has been called the <( Sea-land® dynasty, be¬ 
cause it is thought probable that the Chaldeans 
about the head of the Persian Gulf were the 
occupants of the throne. At least, it is probable 
that the country was in political confusion dur¬ 
ing the life of this dynasty. 

The sixth dynasty (about 1025 b.c.) was that 
of Bazi, and, like its predecessor, had just three 
kings, of whose acts very little is known. 

A gap of about 100 years is found at this 
place in our sources, a part of which is attrib¬ 
uted to the unknown seventh dynasty — possibly 
an Elamite, which is said to have ruled six 
years. 

Assyrian history likewise has a gap of more 
than 100 years (1070-950 b.c.). The <( Synchro- 
nous History® leaves us in the dark in this 
period. 

Second Period — Babylonia: Eighth Dy¬ 
nasty. Assyria about 930-783 B. C. —The eighth 
dynasty of Babylon is supposed to have been 
native Babylonian, and occupied the throne 
from about 1000 to 800 b.c. The kings who 
ruled in Babylon during these 200 years fought a 
losing battle with the Assyrians, for in al¬ 
most every clash the Assyrian was victorious. 
Though the names of the early kings of this 
dynasty are lost, we know those of the kings 
who waged war with Assyria during the larger 
portion of the life of the dynasty. With this 
dynasty the ^Synchronous History® closes. 

The Assyrian records, the <( Eponym Canon,® 
begin in this period, at 893 b.c., and give us 
a continuous annual list down to 666 b.c. 
One of the most notable Assyrian kings of 
this period who have left us their records was 
Assurnatsirpal (884-860 b.c.). This king was 
one of the most energetic and aggressive mon- 
archs of Assyria. He established Assyria’s au¬ 
thority in every direction, even to the coasts of 
the far-off Mediterranean Sea. His reign was 
vigorous, cruel, and even barbaric. Locally, he 
built a great palace at Calah, and one at Nin¬ 
eveh, and restored the temple of Ishtar at the 
latter place. His son, Shalmaneser II. (860- 
825 b.c.) , still further extended the limits of 
his paternal realm by including lakes Van and 
Urumiyeh, in Armenia, and becoming protector 
of Babylon. To students of the Old Testament 
his reign assumes more than ordinary impor¬ 
tance, for he was the first Assyrian king to 
come into contact with the Hebrew nation of 
Palestine. He mentions (( Ahab of Israel” and 
«Jehu, son of Omri,» both of whom became his 
subjects in the Westland. The accompanying 
illustration presents four of the five reliefs on 
one of the four sides of the famous Black Obe¬ 
lisk of Shalmaneser II. These four represent 
the tribute paid by four foreign countries to the 
Assyrian king. The inscription over the first 
relief reads: <( Tribute of Sua of the land of 
Guzan, silver, gold® ; over the second : <( Tribute 
of Jehu, son of Omri, silver®; over tie third: 
“Tribute of the land of Mutsri, double-humped 
dromedaries®; over the fourth: (< Tribute of 

Merodach-abil-utsur of the land of the Sukhites. 
These four reliefs and inscriptions are only the 
first of four, the other three being found on 
the other three sides of the obelisk. Shalman¬ 
eser’s son, Shamshi-Adad II. (824-812 b.c.), 
succeeded him on the throne, and rescued the 
Vol. 1—55 


kingdom from a rebellion which had been stirred 
up by a brother. His only notable conquest was 
over Babylon under command of King Marduk- 
balatsu-ikbi. 

The next king of Assyria was Adad-nirari 
III. (812-783 b.c.), son and successor of his 
father. His was a prosperous reign, reaching 
to Tyre, Sidon, Palestine, and Philistia. Even 
Mari’, king of Damascus, yielded submission to 
his sway. 

As in Babylonia, so the next rulers in As¬ 
syria, three in number, amounted to little. 

Assyrian Supremacy: Tiglathpileser III. 
Babylonian Subjection. —Assyria’s three lethar¬ 
gic rulers between 783 and 745 left no records 
that deserve mention. But their great suc¬ 
cessor, Tiglathpileser III. (745-727 b.c.), re¬ 
deemed the ancient reputation of the empire. 
This new king, although a usurper, revolution¬ 
ized the policy and methods of the Assyrian 
empire. He pushed out the boundaries of As¬ 
syria farther than any predecessor on the throne. 
He completely subdued Syria, Palestine, and 
Philistia. According to his own records, he, 
more than any other Assyrian monarch, came 
into close contact with the Hebrews. He men¬ 
tions Menahem, Pekah, and Hoshea, kings of 
the northern kingdom, and Uzziah and Ahaz, 
kings of the southern kingdom. To him also 
is to be attributed the policy of deportation of 
captives from a given district, and importation 
into that same district of peoples from distant 
districts, in order thereby to prevent the possi¬ 
bility of uprisings and rebellion. He also in¬ 
augurated a kind of local self-government, or 
provincial districts, as parts of his adminis¬ 
trative policy, thus making a decided advance 
over the reign of his predecessors. 

The next Babylonian king of whom we know 
anything of consequence is Nabonassar (747 
b.c.) , mentioned in the Canon of Ptolemy, as 
well as in the (( List of Kings® and the <( Baby- 
lonian Chronicle.® But from this time down 
to the rise of the new Babylonian empire, Baby¬ 
lon was everywhere practically in the hands 
of Assyria, though there were some sanguinary 
struggles for the supremacy. 

Sargon II. (722-705 B. C.).— Tiglathpileser’s 
successor was Shalmaneser IV. (727-722 b.c.), 
about whom we know little, as none of his in¬ 
scriptions have been found. His one act of 
note was the siege of Samaria in 724 b.c. His 
successor was Sargon II., whose first act was 
the capture of Samaria in 722 and the deporta¬ 
tion of the Jews to various parts of his empire. 
This Sargon was a master ruler, who not only 
subdued and held in subjection the peoples on 
the east coast of the Mediterranean Sea, but 
also with indefatigable skill put down Mero- 
dach Baladan of Babylon and his attempted 
conspiracy (cf. Isa. xxxix.). Sargon’s great 
home achievement was the construction of that 
colossal palace at Khorsabad, just north of 
Nineveh, that was first discovered by Botta in 
1842, as already described. 

Sennacherib, 705-681 B. C— Sargon II. was 
assassinated in his new palace at Khorsabad in 
705 b.c. and was succeeded by Sennacherib, his 
son. This vigorous ruler conducted at least 
three successful campaigns: (1) against the 
Westland: Syria, Phoenicia, and Palestine (701 
b.c.) , when he overran Judah, carried off 200,150 
captives, threatened Jerusalem, making Heze- 


ASSYRIOLOGY 


kiah his subject, and met and, according to his 
own records, defeated an Egyptian army at 
Elteku; (2) in an expedition against Elam 

(693 b.c.) he was only partially successful, not 
quite reaching the capital, Susa; (3) in 689, 
he sacked, burnt, and practically destroyed 
the city of Babylon, in revenge for the 
rebellious acts of its former ruler and inhab¬ 
itants. Sennacherib removed the capital from 
Calah to Nineveh, and erected for himself a 
magnificent palace in that newly made capital 
of the unified Assyrian-Babylonian empire. 
Other public works of an extensive nature, such 
as arsenals and water supply, were the objects 
of his energy. Sennacherib was murdered by 
one of his sons, according to the (( Babylonian 
Chronicle,® and was succeeded by Esarhaddon, 
his son, who was not engaged in the conspiracy. 

Esarhaddon, 681-668 B. C.; Assurbanipal, 
668-626 B. C. —Sennacherib’s son, Esarhaddon, 
carried on a successful warfare against the 
mountaineers to the north and northeast, and 
w T as the first Assyrian ruler to carry his con¬ 
quests into Egypt. In 671 b.c. he crossed the 
frontier of that age-old land, took Memphis, 
and carried his arms as far as Thebes, driving 
the Ethiopian monarch of Egypt, Tirhakah, 
back into his homeland. He was the first king 
of Assyria who could add to his title, Egypt, 
Paturisi (biblical, <( Pathros®) and Kus (biblical, 
<( Cush,® <( Ethiopia®). In his list of 22 tribute¬ 
paying kings of the Westland, we find c Manas- 
seh of Judah.® He was succeeded by his son, 
Assurbanipal (the <( Sardanapalus® of the Greeks, 
and (( Osnappar® of Ezra iv. 10). Egypt had 
revolted about the time of the death of Esar¬ 
haddon, and thus necessitated the early attention 
of Assurbanipal to hold it. He was completely 
successful, driving back the rebel Tirhakah, and 
re-establishing his authority over the whole 
land. A second expedition was required again 
in 663 b.c., when the land was completely re¬ 
conquered and Assyrian authority re-established. 
Very soon, however, Psamtik of Egypt, with the 
help of foreign troops, threw off the yoke of 
Assyria. Assurbanipal’s great work was the 
conquest of Babylon and his rebellious brother 
Shamash-shum-ukin in 647 b.c. ; and, after sev¬ 
eral terrific battles, the crushing of the power 
of the Elamites in 640 b.c., by the capture and 
destruction of their great capital, Susa. These 
colossal military achievements marked the cul¬ 
mination of Assyria’s career, for henceforth 
there was a rapid decline. Assurbanipal’s nota¬ 
ble contribution to the history of literature was 
his causing to be collected and copied for his 
royal library at Nineveh many of the most fa¬ 
mous pieces of literature found in the libraries 
of Babylon. The last years of his reign are 
wrapped in obscurity. 

Third Period — Babylonia: Rise of Baby¬ 
lon, 625 B. C. Fall of Assyria, 606 B. C. —Al¬ 
most simultaneously with the death of Assur¬ 
banipal (626 b.c.) we find one of his former 
generals, Nabopolassar, a Chaldean by de¬ 
scent, securing the throne of Babylon for 
himself (625-605 b.c.).. While he was develop¬ 
ing and extending his influence and grasp over 
the territory that was naturally tributary to 
Babylon, momentous events were occurring in 
the north country, in and about Assyria. The 
growing Median power threatened its very life. 
Two sons of Assurbanipal, Assur-etil-ilani and 


Sin-shar-ishkun, occupied the Assyrian throne, 
the former about four and the latter about 
seven years. The waves of the Umman-Manda, 
peoples to the north and northeast of Nineveh, 
were rolling over the mountains of eastern 
Armenia and northern Media. According to 
an inscription of Nabonidus, written about 553 
b.c., these mountaineers finally succeeded in 
overwhelming Nineveh, the last hiding-place of 
the Assyrian tyrant and oppressor, in 6c6 b.c. ; 
this was done probably with the direct or indi¬ 
rect support of Nabopolassar of Babylon. 

Nebuchadrezzar II. 604-561 B. C. —Simul¬ 
taneously with the fall of Nineveh we find an 
Egyptian army under Necho encamped in north¬ 
ern Syria, in full possession of the eastern 
coast of the Mediterranean Sea. In a crushing 
defeat Nebuchadrezzar overthrew and pursued 
the Egyptian invaders, and secured that terri¬ 
tory for the new Babylonian empire. Within 
the 44 years of his reign, Nebuchadrezzar made 
Babylon the up-to-that-time greatest of em¬ 
pires. His authority extended, on biblical evi¬ 
dence, even into Egypt, and his activities were 
something phenomenal. In fact, the larger part 
of his inscriptions already found are devoted 
to his immense building projects, including 
temples, palaces, streets, embankments, and walls. 
Babylon was built in great magnificence, and in 
every important aspect did credit to the enter¬ 
prise and genius of Babylonia’s greatest monarch. 
His own records thus far found do not give us 
any account of his dealings with the Jews, 
either at Jerusalem or those in exile,— de¬ 
scribed in the Old Testament. After a long 
and prosperous reign he was succeeded on the 
throne by his son, Evil-Merodach. This king 
was assassinated after a reign of two years 
(561-560 b.c. ), by Neriglissar, his brother-in- 
law. This usurper ruled four years (559-556 
b.c.) , and spent most of his time, according to 
his inscriptions, in building operations. At his 
death, his son, Labashi-Marduk, not yet of age, 
succeeded him, but fell under the assassin’s 
knife within nine months. 

Nabonidus, 555-538 B. C. —By some mach¬ 
inations of the priesthood, apparently, the new 
king, Nabonidus, was a native Babylonian and 
not a Chaldean as was the dynasty of Nabo¬ 
polassar. He was an enthusiastic religionist 
and antiquarian. He built and rebuilt many 
temples in the principal cities of his kingdom. 
He was the discoverer, in the foundations of a 
temple, as already stated, of an inscription 
of Sargon I., which had been placed there 
3,200 years before his day, making the date 
of said Sargon about 3750 b.c. Nabonidus’ 
enthusiasm carried him too far, for he 
attempted to centralize in Babylon the re¬ 
ligion of the kingdom. In doing this he 
alienated the priesthood, and even aroused 
their active opposition. For throughout the 
history of Babylonia each city had had its own 
patron deity, to whom its temple was dedicated 
and its people devoted. The images and shrines 
of these various divinities were collected in 
Babylon. This act, with others of similar of¬ 
fense to the priests paved the way for his down¬ 
fall before a mightier power. 

Cyrus, 538-529 B. C— Cyrus, an Elamite 
and Persian by descent, began an active career 
as a conqueror in 558 b.c. He conquered suc¬ 
cessively the Medes under Astyages (550 b.c.), 


ASSYRIOLOGY 


Croesus and Asia Minor (547 b.c.), and then 
moved against Nabonidus, who had allied him¬ 
self against this new conqueror. The Babylonian 
army was probably under the command of Na- 
bonidus’ son, Belshazzar. Suffering a defeat at 
Opis, the army of Babylon later scarcely offered 
resistance. Cyrus marched, almost without fur¬ 
ther opposition, to the gates of the capital city. 
The outraged priesthood and citizens, in open 
defiance of their own king, flung open the gates 
and welcomed the new and liberal conqueror to 
authority over them. Cyrus restored the gods 
to their cities and shrines, and permitted en¬ 
forced exiles to return to their native places 
and lands. Besides, he became one of the 
ardent worshippers of the gods of the land, 
and established himself as a liberty-loving, peo¬ 
ple-serving potentate. 

The fall of Babylon before the advance of 
Cyrus meant the fall of Semitic sway in Baby¬ 
lonia, and the rise of Aryan power. The cunei¬ 
form tongue served the purpose of a language 
in Babylonia for long years after this revolu¬ 
tion. In fact, throughout the Persian and 
Greek periods, this same language was used in 
Babylonia, particularly in writing contract tab¬ 
lets. There are some inscriptions dating from 
the Parthian era, due doubtless to the enthusi¬ 
astic support of the priesthood of those times. 
Thus for nearly or quite 4,000 years the cunei¬ 
form language was the vehicle of expression 
for the peoples of Babylonia. 

Bibliography. —The literature on Babylonia- 
Assyria has already become voluminous. Con¬ 
sequently, in a limited bibliography, only selec¬ 
tions will be given. These will cover the 
following departments of study: 

(1) Explorations and Discoveries. —These 
include the early works of C. J. Rich, J. E. 
Taylor, A. H. Layard, P. E. Botta, Felix Jones, 
W. K. Loftus, and J. Oppert. Since 1870 the 
most important works are those of Geo. Smith, 
H. Rassam, E. de Sarzec, John P. Peters, H. V. 
Hilprecht, and M. J. de Morgan, freely cited 
in all works on discoveries in those lands. 

(2) Inscriptions and Texts. —Cuneiform 
texts began very early to be published. The 
first notable publication was Rawlinson’s text 
and translation of the Behistun Inscription in 
the journal of the Royal Asiatic Society* 
(Vol. X., 1847). Botta, Layard, and Oppert also 
published inscriptions as a result of their explor¬ 
ations and excavations. H. C. Rawlinson edited 
(1861-84) for the trustees of the British Mu¬ 
seum five standard volumes of texts under the 
title Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western Asia.* 
Many minor series have appeared since 
that date, such as ( Assyriologische Bibliothek* 
(1881—), edited by Delitzsch and Haupt; 
Babylonian Expedition of the University of 
Pennsylvania,* by H. V. Hilprecht (1893—) ; 
Cuneiform Texts in the British Museum* 
(1896—), by officials of that museum; <De- 
couvertes en Chaldee* (1884—), by E. de 
Sarzec; eight volumes of ( Assyrian-Babylonian 
Letters* (1892—), by R. F. Harper, and 
( Memoires de M. J. de Morgan* at Susa, in 
which V. Scheil has edited notable Susian texts, 
and the Code of Hammurabi. In addition to 
these there are scores of lesser texts of value 
to the student. 

(3) Equipment for Study of the Language. 

■—The former dearth in this field has been 


largely supplied by Frdr. Delitzsch. His ( As- 
syrische Lesestiicke,* 4th edition; his ( Assyrian 
Grammar* (1889), ( Assyrisches Worterbuch* 
(1887—), and ( Assyrisches Handworterbuch* 
(1896), constitute a fairly good outfit. Other 
works helpful in the same line are D. G. Lyon’s 
( Assyrian Manual* (1886), Briinnow’s Classi¬ 
fied List of Cuneiform Ideographs* (1889), 
Muss-Arnolt’s Concise Dictionary of the As¬ 
syrian Language* (1894—); L. W. King and 
H. Winckler have likewise contributed liberally 
to this department of work. 

(4) Translations, Commentaries, etc. —There 
is a long list of this material, but some of the 
most useful for modern students are ( Records 
of the Past* (1888-92), new series, edited by 
A. H. Sayce; ( Keilinschriftliche Bibliothek* 
(1889—), edited by E. Schrader; ( Assyrian 
and Babylonian Literature* (1901), edited by 
R. F. Harper; ( Zeitschrift fiir Assyriologie* 
(1886—), edited by C. Bezold; several volumes 
in Delitzsch and Haupt’s ( Assyriologische Bib¬ 
liothek,* already referred to; ( Kosmologie der 
Babylonier,* by P. Jensen; and several admirable 
series just issued by L. W. King and R. C. 
Thompson of the British Museum, and by 
C. H. W. Johns of Cambridge. 

(5) Learning, Religion, Art. —Selections 
only: Fr. Lenormant, ( Le Magie chez les Chal- 

deens* (1874) 5 -« ( La divination et la 

science des presages chez les Chaldeens* 
O875) ; F. Hommel, ( Die Vorsemitische Kul- 
turen in .TEgypten und Babylonien* (1883) ; 
A. H. Sayce, ( Religion of the Ancient Baby¬ 
lonians* (Hibbert Lectures, 1887) ; ‘Higher 
Criticism and the Monuments* (1st ed. 1893, 
several later editions) ; A. Jeremias, ‘Babylon- 
ische-assyrische Vorstellungen vom Leben nach 
dem Tode* (1887) ; C. P. Tiele, Ceschichte 
d. segyptische u. d. babyl.-assyr. Religion* 
(1895) J M. Jastrow, Jr., ‘Religion of Babylonia 
and Assyria* (1898, new revised ed., 1905, 
appearing in German) ; H. Zimmern, ‘Beitrage 
zur Kenntniss der Babylonischen Religion* 
(1901); Perrot and Chipiez, ‘Histoire de l’art 
dans l’antiquite,* Vol. II.; Chaldee et As- 
syrie* (1884) ; older works, such as those of 
Botta, Layard, and Place, are of value chiefly 
for their illustrations. 

(6) History and Archceology. —Some of the 
most recent works superseding the large work 
of George Rawlinson are G. Smith, ( History 
of Babylonia,* edited by Sayce (1877) ; G. 
Smith, ( Assyria from the Earliest Times to the 
Fall of Nineveh* (1875) 1 F. Hommel, Ce¬ 
schichte Babyloniens u. Assyriens* (1885-9) ; 
C. P. Tiele, ( Babyl.-Assyrische Geschichte* 
(1886-8); H. Winckler, Ceschichte Babyl. u. 
Assyriens* (1892) ; J. F. McCurdy, ‘History, 
Prophecy and the Monuments* (1894-1901); 
R. W. Rogers, ‘History of Babylonia and As¬ 
syria* (1900) ; G. S. Goodspeed, ‘History of 
the Babylonians and Assyrians* (1902) ; Schra- 
der-Whitehouse, Cuneiform Inscriptions and 
the Old Testament* (1889) ; Schrader-Winck- 
ler-Zimmern, ( Die Keilinschriften und das Alte 
Testament* (3te auflage, 1901-3) ; Ira M. Price, 
‘The Monuments and the Old Testament* (4th 
ed. 1905) ; A. Jeremias, ( Das Alte Testament 
im Lichte des alten Orients* (1904). 

Further bibliographical material may be found 
in the periodicals devoted to Assyriology, ‘Zeit- 
schrift fiir Assyriologie,> the ( American Journal 



AST —ASTER 


of Semitic Languages and Literatures,> and 
Erientalische Bibliography ; also in the com¬ 
prehensive articles on ^Assyria® and (< Babylonia® 
by Hommel and King in Hastings’ dictionary 
of the Bible, } and Cheyne’s Encyclopaedia Bib¬ 
lical respectively. 

Ira Maurice Price, 

Professor of Semitic Languages and Literatures , 
The University of Chicago. 

Ast, ast, Georg Anton Friedrich, German 
scholar and philosophical writer: b. Gotha 29 
Dec. 1778; d. Munich 31 Oct. 1841. In 1805 he 
was appointed to the chair of Classical Liter¬ 
ature at Landshut, and in 1826 accepted an 
appointment to the same chair in the University 
of Munich. Among his best known publications 
are: ( Handbuch der Aesthetik > (1805); ( Grun- 
driss der Geschichte der Philosophy (1807) ; 
( Wissenschaftliche Darstellung der Grammatik, 
Hermeneutik und Kritik ) (1808) ; ( Platos Leben 
und Schriften ) (1816). He also published an 
edition of the works of Plato in eleven volumes 
with a Latin translation and a commentary 
(1810-32). 

Astacus (Ital., astaco, Lat., astacus, Gr., 
da-TaKds), a genus of decapod Crustaceans of 
the family Astacidce, including the A. marinus, 
or lobster, and the A. duviatilis, or crayfish. 
The species A. duviatilis contain the crayfishes of 
Europe, and also those of the Pacific States of 
the United States, while those found along the 
Atlantic coast belong to the species Cambarus. 

Astarte, as-tar'te, a character in Byron’s 
play, ( Manfred . y The hero guiltily falls in love 
with her, and in the second act her shadow 
appears to him in a denunciatory attitude. 

Astar'te, a genus of bivalve mollusks be¬ 
longing to the family Cyprinidce. They have 
2-2 hinge teeth, and are suborbicular, com¬ 
pressed, thick, smooth, or concentrically fur¬ 
rowed shells. Tate estimated the recent species 
known at 20 and the fossil at 285. The former 
belong to the Temperate and Arctic zones, and 
the latter to the rocks from the carboniferous 
formation upward. 

Astarte, as-tar-te, or Ashtoreth, a Syrian 
goddess, probably identical with the Semele of 
the Greeks, and the Ashtaroth of the Hebrews, 
and worshipped also by the Phoenicians, and 
Carthaginians, being regarded by some as the 
original of the Greek goddess Aphrodite 
(Venus). She was the moon-goddess, or god¬ 
dess of the heavens, and appears also to have 
been worshipped as the goddess of fruitfulness. 
In the Old Testament, Astarte is frequently 
mentioned as the goddess of the Sidonians (see 
1 Kings xi. 5-33; 2 Kings xxiii. 13), but the 
form of her name seems to have been perverted, 
to her original name of Ashtart being infixed 
the vowels of Bosheth, or <( shame,® and we find 
her there called Ashtorath. In 1 Samuel xxxi. 
10, Astarte is again mentioned, as is also the 
fact that a temple was built to her at Ashkelon. 
There were also temples at Citium in Cyprus, 
at Eryx in Sicily, and in Carthage. The Syrians 
also built a famous temple to her at Hierapolis, 
at Tyre, and at Sidon. She is probably identical 
with the Assyrian goddess Ishtar, or Istar, the 
<( Lady,® the <( Queen of the Gods® or the virgin 
goddess of death and war, who enforces strict 


chastity upon her priests and priestesses. Astarte 
is represented in various forms, but more usually 
with four wings, the two uppermost representing 
the horns of the moon, and having on her head a 
pointed cap, and a white dove in her hand. 
Others represent her as a naked female figure, 
short and stout, and the hands holding the 
breasts. She is also represented in Phoenicia 
as a cow. 

Astatic (as-tat'ik) Needle (Greek, (( un- 
stable®), in physics, a magnetic needle whose 
tendency to set itself in the magnetic meridian 
has been nearly or quite neutralized in some 
way, so that while the needle retains its full 
magnetic power, it will remain indifferently in 
any position, even when quite free to turn. 
A magnetic needle may be made astatic in 
various ways; for example, by disposing mag¬ 
nets in the vicinity of the needle in such a 
way that their field of force opposes and neu¬ 
tralizes the earth’s field. A commoner method 
is to make use of a pair of needles of equal 
size and equal magnetic strength, securing them 
together, one above the other, by a light, rigid 
connection, so that their lengths shall be par¬ 
allel, and their poles turned in opposite di¬ 
rections. If the conditions here assumed are 
fulfilled rigorously, the system will have no di¬ 
rective tendency whatever. In practice it is 
quite possible to secure an adjustment so good 
that, the directive tendency is masked by the 
torsional force of the suspending fibre. Astatic 
needles are used in the construction of deli¬ 
cate galvanometers, the coil conveying the cur¬ 
rent passing around only one of the needles of 
the system, or around both of them, in oppo¬ 
site directions. The full magnetic moment of 
the current is thus obtained, while the directive 
action of the earth’s field remains practically 
zero, and the motion of the needle is opposed 
only by the torsion of the suspension. See 
Galvanometer. 

Asten, as'ten, Friedrich Emil von, Ger¬ 
man astronomer: b. Koln 1842; d. 1878. 
From 1870 he was employed at the Imperial 
Russian Observatory at Pulkowa. He will be 
best remembered for his work upon Encke’s 
comet, the results of which were published in 
1877, and included an elaborate discussion of 
all the appearances of this interesting body 
from 1819 to 1875. 

Aster, as'ter, Ernst Ludwig von, Ger¬ 
man military engineer: b. Dresden 5 Oct. 
1778; d. Berlin 10 Feb. 1855. His first ser¬ 
vice was in the Saxon army. It was in 1810, as 
an officer in this army, that he submitted his 
plans, subsequently accepted, for the fortifica¬ 
tion of Torgau to Napoleon. Subsequently he 
entered the Russian service, and, soon after 
1815, the Prussian. While in the last service he 
undertook the fortification of Coblentz and 
Ehrenbreitstein, and in 1842 was appointed gen¬ 
eral and inspector of all the Prussian fortresses. 

As'ter, a genus of plants belonging to the 
natural order Composite, and comprehending 
several hundred species, mostly natives of North 
America, although some of the species are 
found over most regions of the globe. The 
name is derived from the Greek aster, a star, 
and is due to the fact that the flowers ( capitula ) 
bear some resemblance to stars. The species 
are herbaceous plants, or more commonly 


ASTERISK — ASTEROIDS 


shrubs. On account of the large number of 
species composing this genus it is divided into 
six or seven groups, regarded by some bota¬ 
nists as forming distinct genera. Large as the 
genus is, it contains no species of any great 
utility in the arts, but many are cultivated as 
ornamental plants. The most beautiful species 
among those which are natives of Europe are 
the A. alpinus, amellns, and pyreneus, and 
among those of America, A. grandiHorus, 
punic aeus, eminens, multidorus, horizontalis, 
thyrsidorus, roseus, and Nova Anglia. The 
China aster ( A . chinensis), introduced from 
China upward of a hundred years ago, is a 
well-known annual, growing to a height of 
from 12 to 18 inches, and bearing an abundance 
of large and beautiful flowers, exhibiting in the 
numerous varieties every hue except yellow, 
and a great diversity of marking. This plant 
lends itself readily to culture and florists are 
constantly adding new varieties to a stock that 
already numbers nearly 300. The French call 
this species Reine Marguerite. Some bota¬ 
nists refer it to a separate genus which they call 
Callistephns. The chrysanthemum and peony 
flowered varieties are particularly worthy of 
cultivation for the size, color, and abundance 
of their flowers. From the lateness of the sea¬ 
son in which they bloom some species of aster 
have obtained the name in England of Christ¬ 
mas daisy. Of the species commonly cultivated 
in gardens, several bloom in July, and a few 
continue in flower from November until killed 
by frost, or the beatings of violent storms. 

Asterisk ( (< a little star®), a sign or sym¬ 
bol (*) used in writing and printing, as a refer¬ 
ence to a note at the bottom or on the margin 
of the page. The obelisk, or dagger (f), and 
many other marks, are similarly employed; but 
when there are several references on the same 
page, it is now common to use the numerals 1, 
2, 3, etc. The asterisk often marks the omission 
of words or sentences, or it distinguishes words 
as conjectural or obscure, or it may be used 
merely as a typographical mark for any specified 
purpose. 

Asterism, a property possessed by a few 
minerals of exhibiting star-like rays. It is due 
either to reflection of light from twinning 
lamellae or minute enclosed tubes, as in the case 
of star-sapphire (q.v.), star-ruby, and star- 
quartz (q.v.), or to the regular arrangement of 
minute enclosed crystals as seen by transmitted 
light, in the case of some phlogopite or star- 
mica. 

Asteroidea, an order of echinoderms, the 
starfishes, so called because of their star-like 
shape. They are characterized by five or more 
arms, which they have the power to reproduce 
if broken off. Should one of these arms be en¬ 
tirely detached, taking a small portion of the 
body with it, a new fish will result. 

Asteroids, a group of small planetary 
bodies, known also as minor planets, which re¬ 
volve round the sun between the orbits of Mars 
and Jupiter. The most remarkable feature of these 
bodies is that they occupy a vacant place in the 
solar system in which a planet would naturally 
belong. Between the orbit of Mars, the fourth 
planet in order, and that of Jupiter the fifth, 
there is a space more than double the radius of 
the orbit of Mars itself. This gap was noticed 
from the time that the distances of the planets 


were laid down by Kepler. It was long sus¬ 
pected that a planet would be found occupying 
it and an organized effort was made to discover 
it. The discovery of a planet which was sup¬ 
posed to be the long sought body was made by 
Piazzi, at Palermo, on the first day of the 19th 
century. To the great surprise of astronomers 
three other planets were found in the course of 
the next six years to be revolving in the same 
region. The smallness of the four bodies gave 
rise to the celebrated hypothesis of Olbers, that 
these bodies were the fragments of a single 
planet which had been disrupted by some cat¬ 
aclysm. Some 40 years elapsed when in 1846 
a fifth asteroid was discovered. Others soon 
followed. More powerful telescopes were ap¬ 
plied to the search, a thorough system was in¬ 
troduced, and in this way the number known 
went on increasing until it mounted into the 
hundreds and now a dozen or more are fre¬ 
quently added to the list in a single year. 

When photography was applied to form a 
permanent picture of the stars in the sky, it was 
found that this method was the easiest by which 
discoveries of these objects could be made. 
Whatever method may be used, the difficulty of 
discovering an asteroid arises from the fact that 
it is impossible to distinguish such a body from 
a fixed star by its mere aspect. It can be de¬ 
tected only by its motion among the stars, and 
therefore requires that the same body should be 
observed at different times. But a photograph 
enables the motion to be detected in a very sim¬ 
ple way, as follows: 

If a telescope, mounted so as to serve as a 
camera, is pointed at a given region of the sky 
for half an hour or more, the images of the 
stars which fall on the plate remain immovable, 
and these bodies are photographed as simple 
points of light. But if an asteroid is in the field, 
its motion during the exposure is quite appre¬ 
ciable; and its picture appears as a short line, 
equal in length to the amount of motion during 
the exposure of the plate, which can be detected 
at sight. During the last ten years the number 
thus discovered has carried the total list up to 
more than 500, a number So great that it is 
almost impossible to compute the orbits or mo¬ 
tions or even to find separate and appropriate 
names for the bodies. 

The asteroids are distinguished from the 
major planets by several distinct and interesting 
features. One of these concerns their orbits. 
While the major planets, with the exception of 
Mercury, all move in nearly circular orbits, the 
orbits of the asteroids are, in the general average 
markedly eccentric. In some cases the asteroid 
is twice as far from the sun at aphelion as at 
perihelion. One result of this is that they ap¬ 
pear several times brighter when seen in oppo¬ 
sition at perihelion than at aphelion. The in¬ 
clination of the orbits is also frequently very 
large. That of Pallas, one of the original four, 
is inclined no less than 34 0 to the elliptic. The 
result of this is that many of these bodies wander 
far outside of the limits of the Zodiac; indeed, 
in many cases they are seen north of the zenith 
in our latitudes when nearest the earth. 

The size and mass of the asteroids do not 
admit of very accurate definition, for the reason 
that, with rare exceptions, they are seen in the 
telescopes only as points of light. Barnard, has, 
however, succeeded in measuring the apparent 
diameter of the first four, three of which are 


ASTEROLEPIS 


probably the largest of the group, with the 
great Lick telescope. The results are: 

Miles 


Diameter of Ceres. 485 

Diameter of Pallas. 304 

Diameter of Vesta. 243 

Diameter of Juno. 118 


Only the largest shows a diameter exceed¬ 
ing one twentieth that of the earth, and all the 
others are much smaller than this. Judging 
from the amount of light they reflect very few 
of them are 100 miles in diameter and most of 
those known may not exceed 10 or 12 miles 
in extent. Indeed, we have reason to believe 
that as we take smaller diameters the number 
increases without any unit. The same remark 
might apply in a still greater extent to the 
masses. The latter are so small that the attrac¬ 
tion of the whole mass of all the asteroids does 
not produce any effect that has yet been observed 
upon any planet or comet. 

Of the total number of these bodies it is 
hardly possible to form any estimate, because 
the more powerful the means of research the 
more are found. We can hardly be astray in 
supposing that thousands exist, and if we in¬ 
clude those that must forever remain invisible 
to us, the number must be countless. Yet they 
are all so minute that the total mass cannot 
be as great as that of the planet Mercury. 

The hypothesis already mentioned, that these 
bodies are fragments of a great planet, has been 
effectually disproved by modern research. Apart 
from the impossibility of an explosion which 
would rend a planet, we have the fact that in the 
event of a disruption all the orbits would pass 
through a single point. It is true that this coin¬ 
cidence would not continue indefinitely, because 
the orbits would change their positions by the 
attraction of the other planets; but their sizes 
are found to be such that they could not originally 
have passed through any single point. The view 
now prevalent is suggested by the nebular hy¬ 
pothesis, which assumes that all the planets were 
at some remote epoch in the past spread out into 
rings of matter circulating around the sun. 
In the case of the eight major planets each ring 
condensed into a single body, but in the case 
of the asteroid ring it separated into countless 
small bodies instead of condensing into one. 
There is a curious grouping of the orbits which 
seems to have some connection with the origin 
of the whole collection. Thirty years ago it was 
noticed by Kirkwood that, if the orbits were 
arranged according to their mean distance from 
the sun, _ there would be gaps in the series at 
those points where the time of revolution was 
commensurable with the period of Jupiter. For 
example, there are no known asteroids having a 
period one third that of Jupiter, or one half or 
two fifths, although there are plenty of orbits 
within and outside these peculiar limiting values. 
The subsequent discovery of hundreds of these 
bodies has led to a slight modification of this 
law. The orbits not only seem to avoid these 
peculiar values, but to accumulate midway be¬ 
tween them. To get an idea of the results sup¬ 
pose that every orbit stretched into a circle of a 
radius equal to its mean distance. Then treat¬ 
ing these orbits as hoops, suppose that we ar¬ 
range them all round on one centre. We should 
then find that the rings are divisible into four, 
five or six nearly distinct groups with vacant 
spaces between them. The most probable ex¬ 
planation seems to be that there were originally 


five or six different rings of matter from which 
these bodies condensed, instead of a single ring 
as in the case of the larger planets. 

Perhaps the most remarkable of the asteroids 
was one discovered in 1898. Some of its pecu¬ 
liarities have excited great attention on the part 
of the astronomical world. The orbits of all 
the other known asteroids are contained between 
the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, no known orbits 
approaching very near either of these planets. 
But, in the summer of 1898, Witt, of Berlin, 
found an asteroid which at perihelion came far 
inside the orbit of Mars, indeed within 14,000,000 
miles of the orbit of the Earth. Its orbit was 
found to be extremely eccentric and, which was 
more curious, it was interlinked with that of 
Mars, so that if the orbits were rings, they would 
have passed through each other and hung to¬ 
gether like two links. What gives this planet 
especial interest is that on these rare occasions 
when it comes nearest to the earth its parallax 
can be measured with greater precision than 
that of any of the other planets. It therefore 
affords us the best possible method of directly 
measuring the Solar system; but, most unfor¬ 
tunately, it is only once or twice in a century 
that the nearest approach will occur. What is 
most tantalizing, is that only six years before 
it was discovered, it is known to have passed 
at nearly the least distance from the earth, but it 
was then unseen by human eye. It was found 
to have been photographed a great number of 
times at the Harvard Observatory; but among 
the hundreds of stars whose images were found 
on the plate, its image was completely lost after 
the discovery in 1898. It was recognized through 
the determination of its orbit which made pos¬ 
sible the computation of its position in the 
heavens at former positions. It was by scru¬ 
tinizing the photographic plates that the images 
were found upon them. 

In the winter of 1900-1 there was as close 
an approach to the earth as will occur during the 
next 30 years, although the distance was more 
than double the least possible distance. A co¬ 
operative effort was made to measure the paral¬ 
lax on this occasion. The results are not com¬ 
pletely worked out, owing to the immense 
amount of labor which is required for the re¬ 
duction of the observations. 

A curious property of this most remarkable 
body is a periodical variation in its light which 
was noticed during the opposition of 1900-1. It 
was found to go through a series of changes in 
the course of five hours quite similar to those 
of a variable star. The period was found to be 
2 j 4 hours, but possibly the same brightness 
was not reproduced except in a period of 5 hours. 
It was yet more curious that these variations 
seemed to have nearly or quite ceased at the next 
opposition. Simon Newcomb, LL.D. 

Asterolepis, a genus of ganoid fishes 
named on account of the starry color of its 
scales. A bone of a species belonging to this 
genus, found at Stromness, the capital of Ork¬ 
ney, suggested to Hugh Miller the writing of 
his beautiful volume entitled footprints of the 
Creator; or, the Asterolepis of Stromness^ It 
was an elaborate argument against the develop¬ 
ment hypothesis. According to that hypothesis, 
the first species of any class appearing on the 
scene should be low in organization, and prob¬ 
ably small in size. Mr. Miller showed that the 
asterolepis was large in size and high in organ- 






ASTHENIA — ASTOR 


ization, and yet it was at that time believed to blurred vision and fatigue after protracted near 
be the oldest fossil vertebrate found in Scot- work, but even slight amounts may in some 

land. His argument was subsequently weak- cases cause serious disturbances of the general 

ened by the discovery that the Stromness rocks health by the constant headache and reflex 

were less ancient than the Forfarshire beds, symptoms, such as nausea and vomiting, dizzi- 
containing cephalaspis and other fish genera ness, etc., that result. The difficulties com- 

subsequently discovered, mostly of small size, plained of are usually, at least partly, relieved 


though not of low organization. 


by resting the eyes. Numerous methods of ex- 


Asthe'nia, a disease of poultry, known in the am ! natio !' are employed by oculists to detect 
United States as “going light.® The treatment astigmatism, one of the simplest being the use 


is purgation and tonics. 

As'theno'pia. See Eye. 


of test diagrams representing radiating lines or 
sectors, rows of dots, etc., which, to the astig¬ 
matic eye, appear more or less blurred in cer- 


Asthma, as'ma, or az'ma, a disturbance of tain meridians. The treatment consists, in the 
the function of breathing, sometimes due to use of glasses which are ground so as to corn- 
heart or kidney disease, but properly an af- pensate for the variations in refracting power 
fection of the bronchi of a spasmodic character, of the optic media in the different meridians. 

It is regarded as a neurotic affection, character- This correction is accomplished by using cylin- 
ized by turgor and hyperemia of the mucous drical lenses, which are segments of cylinders 
membranes of the smaller bronchi and a pecu- and refract only at right angles to their axis, 
liar mucus exudate. The causes of the attacks combined, if necessary, with the appropriate 
are many, but a nervous element seems to enter spherical lenses. See Eye; Vision, Defects of. 
into most of them. The symptoms are those of As'ton, William George, Irish philologist: 
tightness in the chest, depression, and followed b. near Londonderry in 1841. He became in- 
by an attack of shortness of breath, attended terpreter and translator to the British Legation 
with violent coughing. This may be very short at Yedo, in 1870; assistant Japanese secretary at 
in duration or the coughing may continue with Yedo, in 1875-82; consul-general for Korea, in 
great violence. The expression is anxious, the 1884; Japanese secretary at Tokio, in 1886; and 
face pale, or cyanosed, as though choking was was retired in 1889. He published ( A Grammar 
taking place; the patient cannot speak, inspira- of the Japanese Spoken Language 5 ; ( A Gram- 
tion does not aerate the blood, and expiration is mar of the Japanese Written Language 5 ; ( A 
long and wheezy. The treatment is individual. Translation of the Nihongi; or, Annals of An- 
the usual lines of dietetics, hygiene, training, cient Japan 5 ; ( History of Japanese Literature, 5 
with a few drugs. Iodide of potash is one of etc. 

the most valuable of the remedies used. See As'tor, John Jacob, American merchant: 

<Diseases of the Bronchi, Nothnagel’s System 5 b. Waldorf, Baden, near Heidelberg, 17 July 
(1902). 1763; d. 29 March 1848. He came to America 

Astig'matism a defect of vision in which in 1783, where his elder brother had settled and 
the rays of light do not converge to a single invested his savings in the fur trade In 1784 
point on the retina. It is usuallv due to irreg- he went with a cargo of furs to London ; sold 
ularities in the curvature of either the cornea them and formed connection with fur houses 
or the crystalline lens, or of both, so that rays there, and as his capital increased, made annual 
refracted in one meridian are brought to a focus trips to Montreal, buying furs there and shipping 
at a point in advance of or behind those re- them direct to London, as Canada was allowed 
fracted in the meridian at right angles to the to trade only with the mother country. In 1794 
first. A slio-ht degree of astigmatism is present Jays treaty removed this embargo; and Astor, 
in all eves ^because neither the cornea nor the then in London, at once made a contract with 
anterior or posterior lens surface is part of a the Northwest Company or Montreal ;and Que- 
perfect sphere- but normally the defect is so bee (then the magnate of the Canadian N t 
slight as not to be noticeable The conventional west fur trade) imported furs from Montreal to 

AC. shaped appearance assumed by very distant New York, and shipped them to all parts of 
star-shaped appear; a U~e , , stars them- Europe and China. The surrender of the lake 

se/ves i due to this universal defect. If. how- posts under the treaty also greatly extended the 
ever the radii of curvature are markedly un- trading limits, and Astor in a few years be- 
equal in the different meridians, a more or less came one of the leading merchants anc capi- 
equal in ne ’ formed on the talists of the country, having a quarter of a 

serious blurring 01 t Vwo main varieties million in 1798, and double that a few years 

retina by all objects results J W °The comSonS later. In 18^7 he embarked in direct trade with 
of astigmatism J re a d if- the Indians by way of the Mohawk, and with 

is regular astigmat , meridians usually the English fur companies; but found the 

ference of curvature , n _ wthe refraction American trade chiefly monopolized by the 
at right angles to each ot , Meridian In Mackinaw Company, and knowing our govern- 

*. s the same throughout ay g ^ yari _ ment > s desire to keep its home trade in home 

irregular astigmatism, how , . f h hands, proposed with its protection to accom- 

ations of curvature along the length ot tne ^ g imgelf> In i8o9 he secured a New 

different meridians themselv.,^^^ ’ represent York charter for the “American Fur Company, 55 
does not, as m regu a £ is q SU ally the but the War of 1812 suspended operations, and 
a segment of a cncle. - r i ens after it a government prohibition of British 

result of injury or disease o R ]a ; f ur trade in the United States broke up the com- 

and is difficult to coriect ) g ■. . , • pany Meantime a grander scheme had been mi- 

astigmatism is neaily always 8 tlie tiated. Sir Alexander Mackenzie, after crossing 

frequently present in several member 1 scDime ^ Continent far nort h in i 7 93, had suggested 

le family. The sympto ^ ^ °£ mpri f e establishing a line of trading posts from ocean to 


same 

matism may 


ASTOR 


ocean, with terminal, coast, and island stations, to 
draw all except the Russian fur trade into one 
channel. Lewis and Clarke’s transcontinental 
American expedition in 1804 proved its practi¬ 
cability on American soil; and Mr. Astor evolved 
the plan of distributing such posts along the 
Missouri and Columbia Rivers, with a central 
station at the mouth of the latter, where all the 
peltries from the interior posts and those gath¬ 
ered by coasting vessels were to be collected, 
and taken by a yearly ship to Canton, loading in 
return with Chinese goods. A later develop¬ 
ment was to operate a line of ships from the 
Pacific coast to the Chinese and East Indian 
ports, with a Hawaiian island for an interme¬ 
diate port. The Russian fur company had al¬ 
ready complained to the United States of the 
casual American trading vessels selling liquor 
and firearms to their Indians; our government 
had consulted Astor for a remedy, and his 
idea was to abolish this irresponsible trading by 
making his yearly supply ship take its place. 
To prevent ruinous competition, he offered the 
Northwest Company a one third interest in the 
enterprise; but they declined it, and sent a com¬ 
pany to seize the mouth of the Columbia before 
his party could arrive. He succeeded in spite of 
them, however, in planting a settlement, which 
was named Astoria; but on the breaking out of 
the War of 1812 the English seized it. It revert¬ 
ed to the United States by the Treaty of Ghent, 
and Astor wished to revive the project, but the 
government was cool, and he dropped it; still, 
however, buying his furs direct and trading 
with many countries, more particularly China, 
at that time the best fur mart in the world. 
He also made large amounts by buying de¬ 
preciated government securities, which after¬ 
ward commanded a considerable premium. But 
his chief investment was the one which has 
founded the family greatness on a rock. Fore¬ 
seeing the immense growth of New York city, he 
bought large tracts on Manhattan Island far 
beyond the then city limits, taught his son to 
invest his accumulations in the same way, and 
established the system of handling them de¬ 
scribed under Astor Family. In 1827 he and 
his son William, who had been his partner 
since 1815, withdrew from the China trade and 
formed the American Fur Company, chiefly man¬ 
aged by the great expert; but a few years later 
he retired from business altogether, thenceforth 
devoting himself to his investments, and de¬ 
vising, in consultation with' others, plans for a 
public library suggested by Washington Irving, 
— afterward the Astor Library, for which he left 
$400,000 in his will. He made gifts and be¬ 
quests to other objects; among them $50,000 for 
a school for poor children and a home for the 
indigent aged in his birthplace, Waldorf, called 
the Astor House. He was much more than a 
great trader: he had a breadth of conception, 
a combined energy and patience of execution, a 
mastery of detail, a retentiveness of memory, 
and a sagacity of judgment, which in the judg¬ 
ment of his intimates would have raised him to 
greatness in any line. He left two sons, William 
B. and John Jacob, and three daughters. 

As'tor, John Jacob, an American capitalist 
and soldier, son of William B.: b. New York, 10 
June 1822; d. 22 Feb. 1890. He was educated at 
Columbia University and at Gottingen; he then 


took the full course at the Harvard Law School, 
and practised law for a year, solely to qualify 
himself for assisting in the management of 
the immense estate, one half of which later 
descended to him. In the Civil War he served 
on McClellan’s staff, with the rank of colonel; 
and was a devoted and hard-working military 
student. He always regarded this period as the 
best of his life, and attended the reunions of the 
Loyal Legion with zeal. Not only was he al¬ 
ways a liberal giver to public institutions and 
charities, but he gave much personal time and 
devotion to them, especially to the Astor Library 
and Trinity Church; but he shrank from public 
notice. On his father’s death in 1875 he received 
half of the estate, estimated at considerably over 
$100,000,000; all which, with accumulations be¬ 
lieved to have swollen it to some $200,000,000, he 
left to his only son, William Waldorf Astor. 
His wife, Charlotte Augusta Gibbs, was an ac¬ 
tive assistant in his charitable work, taking part 
in personal service as (( Sister Augusta,® incog¬ 
nito. 

As'tor, John Jacob, American capitalist 
and inventor, fourth of the name, nephew of 
John Jacob the third, and son of William: b. 
Rhinebeck, N. Y., 13 July 1864. He graduated 
from Harvard in 1888, and for the next three 
years traveled abroad. He is the manager of 
the Astor properties in America; a director in 
many banking, insurance, and railroad com¬ 
panies, and member of various clubs and social 
organizations. He built in 1897 a very costly 
hotel, the Astoria (named after the famous fur 
settlement of 1811), on Fifth Avenue, New 
York, adjoining the Waldorf built by his cous¬ 
in, William Waldorf, the two being now joined 
as the Waldorf-Astoria. Besides his business 
activities, however, he has strong individual fac¬ 
ulties. He is an expert in marine mechanics, 
inventor of a bicycle brake, and a pneumatic 
road improver; and is a member of scientific 
and other intellectual societies. He has written 
( A Journey in Other Worlds: a Romance of the 
Future ) (1894). He was on Gov. Morton’s staff 
1894-6, and in the Spanish-American war of 
1898, was commissioned lieutenant-colonel of 
United States Volunteers, and served in the 
Santiago campaign. 

Astor, William Backhouse, American 
merchant and capitalist, eldest son of John Jacob 
Astor: b. New York, 19 Sept. 1792: d. 24 Nov. 
1875. He was trained in his father’s business in 
the intervals of public school education; and 
the father is said to have remarked that <( Wil- 
liam would never make money, but would keep 
what he had.® At 16 he was sent to Heidelberg 
University, and at 18 went to Gottingen, where 
he was tutored by Bunsen, afterward the great 
chevalier. Returning to New York in 1815, he 
was made a partner in his father’s foreign ship¬ 
ping trade, especially cultivating the Chinese 
field. The firm was John Jacob Astor & Son till 
1827, when it dissolved and both partners gave 
up the China trade to form the American Fur 
Company, of which William was president, but 
John Jacob the head manager till he withdrew 
from active business life a few years later. He 
was shortly followed into retirement by his son. 
By 1848 he had amassed a fortune of his own; 
besides receiving a legacy of half a million from 
his uncle Henry, and a gift of the Astor House 


ASTOR —ASTORIA 


from his father; the latter on his death in 
that year leaving him sole legatee save for mi¬ 
nor bequests, the property being estimated at 
$20,000,000 to $30,000,000. His life thenceforth 
was spent in conserving and developing this. He 
built nearly a thousand houses on his uptown 
lots, and was currently termed (( the landlord of 
New York.® He was also a heavy investor in 
other lines, notably coal and railroad stocks. 
He founded the Astor Library under his father’s 
bequest, adding by gifts and bequests over 
$600,000 to his father’s gift, giving much time to 
its administration from the completion of the 
building in 1853 on his plans. His wife was the 
daughter of Madison’s second secretary of war; 
his sons were John Jacob and William, and the 
estate was shared between them. 

Astor, William Waldorf, an American 
capitalist, son of John Jacob the third: b. New 
York, 31 March 1848. He is the head of the 
chief Astor estate. He was educated by private 
tutors; studied law to qualify himself for the 
management of his estates, and assumed it in 
1871. He was elected to the New York State 
lower legislative chamber in 1877, and to its Sen¬ 
ate in 1879; and was an unsuccessful candidate 
for Congress in 1881. In 1882 he was appointed 
minister to Italy by President Arthur, and re¬ 
mained such till 1 March 1885. He made 
literary capital out of this in < Valentino > (1885) 
and ( Sforza ) (1889). He succeeded by his fath¬ 
er’s death in 1890 to a fortune estimated at some 
$200,000,000, and the same year removed to Lon¬ 
don. Shortly afterward he built the famous and 
costly New York hotels, the New Netherland 
and the Waldorf. In 1893 he bought the ( Pall 
Mall Gazette ) and founded the ( Pall Mall Maga¬ 
zine^ and in 1899 took the oath of allegiance as 
an English subject. 

As'tor Family, a famous American family 
representing one of the three or four greatest 
private properties in the world. A family in 
the Old World sense,— a territorial aristocracy, 
impossible to destroy, and fortified with legal 
immunities and privileges,— can hardly be 
founded in America; but the Astors have ap¬ 
proached it as nearly as our institutions will 
admit. They form a group of immense hered¬ 
itary real-estate owners, with holdings so solid¬ 
ly based and well distributed in the metropolis 
of America that no apparent catastrophe save 
a failure of heirs could extinguish it; and 
though originally springing from mercantile 
business, removed by some three quarters of a 
century from its actual conduct. For many 
years they were known as (< the landlords of 
New York,® and the best of landlords, prompt, 
just, and courteous; still probably form the 
largest set of individual real-estate holders. 
The family is also connected with notable mu¬ 
nicipal charities and public foundations. See 
Astor, John Jacob (1763-1848) ; Astor, John 
Jacob (1822-90), Astor, John Jacob (1864-); 
Astor, William. 

Astor Library. See New York Public Li¬ 
brary. 

Astor Place Riot, in American history: a 
riot on the evening of 10 May 1849, in Astor 
Place, New York. It was an attempt to drive 
the English actor, William Charles Macready 
(q.v.) from the stage, and grew out of a London 
tour of Edwin Forrest (q.v.), in which he 


played Virginius and Richelieu with great suc¬ 
cess till Macready bought the acting rights for 
himself, though he had personally treated For¬ 
rest with kindness. Forrest then essayed Mac¬ 
beth, but it was unsuited to his style and pres¬ 
ence, and he was hissed. He attributed this to 
Macready’s machinations, and when Macready 
four years later announced < Macbeth ) in the 
Astor Place Opera House, a crowd of Forrest’s 
partisans gathered early in the evening before 
the theatre, and waiting till the performance had 
begun, attempted to force a way inside and put a 
stop to it. The police were powerless and sent 
for the military; the Seventh Regiment (New 
York militia) came up, and was assailed by the 
mob with showers of brickbats and stones. Be¬ 
fore the fray was ended, 34 rioters were killed, 
a great number wounded, and 141 of the regi¬ 
ment injured by the missiles. The mob was 
successful in its purpose, however: Macready 
had to cancel his engagement, conceal himself 
in a private house for a couple of days, and then 
travel secretly to Boston, whence he sailed for 
England. See Barrett, ( Edwin Forrest > (1882). 

Astor'ga, Emanuele d’, an Italian com¬ 
poser: b. Palermo, 11 Dec. 1681; d. 21 Aug. 
1736. He was educated in a monastery in As- 
torga in Spain, from which he afterward took 
his name. A ( Stabat Mater, J which he is said 
to have written in London, is considered the 
best of his works, and is still highly regarded. 

Astorga, as-tor'ga, a city in Spain, the 
Asturica Augusta of the Romans. It figured 
prominently during the Peninsular war; was 
taken by the French after an obstinate defense, 
1810; and retaken by the Spaniards, 1812. It 
is the see of a bishop. Pop. 5,000. 

Astoria, Or., a city, port of entry, and seat 
of Clatsop County: on the Columbia River, nine 
miles from its mouth, and 101 miles by the As¬ 
toria & C. R. R.R. from Portland. Several 
foreign steamship lines touch here, the larg¬ 
est vessels coming up to its five miles of water 
frontage through the deep, broad channel scoured 
in the bar at the river mouth by a jetty. Its 
salmon fishing and canning industries are among 
the greatest in the world: several hundred boats 
go out to the fishing grounds on the bar every 
afternoon during the season of about 100 days, 
some 1,500 in all being employed; and the can¬ 
neries utilize some $2,000,000 capital, and turn 
out about 15,000,000 cans a year. It has also 
subsidiary can manufactories and iron works, 
great lumber works from the vast forests of the 
Pacific slope, flouring mills, breweries, etc.; and 
has a very large export trade in the special pro¬ 
ducts of Oregon and Washington — lumber, 
wheat, oats, live stock, wool, potatoes, apples, 
etc. Among its buildings, the most notable are 
the United States custom-house, the post-office, 
and St. Mary’s Hospital (R. C.). For the 
founding of Astoria in 1811, see Astor, John 
Jacob. On its seizure by the English in the 
War of 1812, they renamed it Fort St. George; 
in 1818 it was restored to the United States, 
though occupied till 1845 by the fur stations first 
of the Northwest Company, then of the Hud¬ 
son Bay Company with which the former con¬ 
solidated. It received a city charter in 1876. 
Pop. (1900) 8,381. 

AstoYia, or Anecdotes of an Enterprise 
Beyond the Rocky Mountains, a rambling 


ASTRABAD — ASTRO-PHOTOGRAPHY 


work by Washington Irving (1836). It com¬ 
prises stories of expeditions by land and sea, 
and as a chapter of Far West history, does not 
lose its value by the lapse of time. 

Astrabad, as'tra-bad', a town of Persia, 
about 30 miles east of the Caspian Sea. It car¬ 
ries on a trade in horses, sheep, cotton, silk, 
woolen fabrics, etc., and is connected by cara¬ 
van with Afghanistan and is the seat of a Rus¬ 
sian consulate. Pop. estimated at from 4,000 to 
10,000. 

Astrae'a, in mythology, the daughter of 
Zeus and Themis, and goddess of justice. In 
the age of gold she was a regular inhabitant of 
this world; in the age of silver an occasional vis¬ 
itor ; and in the age of brass, when men began to 
forge weapons of war, fled to the skies, where 
she is seen in the zodiac, forming the constella¬ 
tion Virgo. She is usually represented with 
scales in her hand and a crown of stars on her 
head. 

Astrae, The Divine, a name applied to 
the English novelist and dramatist, Mrs. Aphra 
Behre, who was noted for the coarseness of her 
plays. <( The stage how loosely doth Astraea 
tread.® 

As'tragal, in architecture, a small semi¬ 
circular molding, with a fillet beneath it, encir¬ 
cling a column and separating the shaft from 
the capital. 

As'tragaloman'cy (Greek astragalos, in the 
plural = dice, and manteia = divination), a pre¬ 
tended divination performed by casting down 
dice with marks corresponding to letters of the 
alphabet, and observing words thus formed. It 
was practised in the temple of Hercules, in 
Achaia. 

Astragalus. See Foot. 

Astrag'alus, Milk Vetch, a genus of more 
than 1,000 species of hardy leguminous herbs and 
under shrubs which, except in Australia where 
they have not been found, are of world-wide 
distribution on dry soils. A. gummifer and oth¬ 
er species yield tragacanth (q.v.) gum. Certain 
species native to the western United States 
called crazy weeds (q.v.) are considered re¬ 
sponsible for crazy disease of stock. The leaves 
are usually pinnate; the flowers arranged in 
racemes, white or purple. A few native and 
foreign species are grown from seed for orna¬ 
mental purposes. They succeed best on dry, 
porous soil in sunny situations. 

Astrakhan, as'trakhan', a government in 
the southeast of European Russia, on the Cas¬ 
pian ; with an area of about 92,000 square miles. 
It consists almost entirely of two vast steppes, 
separated from each other by the Volga, and 
forming for the most part arid sterile deserts. 
The live stock consist chiefly of sheep of the 
broad-tailed species. The chief employments are 
pasturage and fishing — the former occupying 
the rural and nomadic tribes, and the latter the 
tribes on the Caspian coast and the banks of the 
Volga. Pop, (1897) 994,775- 

As'trakhan', the capital of the Russian 
government of the same name. It is situated on 
an elevated island in the Volga, about 30 miles 
above its mouth, and consists of crooked, dirty, 
but broad streets, with irregular lines of houses. 
The communication with the opposite banks of 
the river is maintained by numerous bridges. 


The most important edifice is the cathedral, of s 
rectangular form, with four small gilt and paint¬ 
ed cupolas on the roof, and a large one in the 
centre. The manufactures, consisting of silks, 
cottons, woolens, shagreen skins, morocco leath¬ 
er, and soap, are increasing in extent. The fish¬ 
eries furnish the staple articles of trade. Im¬ 
mense quantities of fish, caviar, and isinglass 
are exported to foreign countries. In the fish¬ 
ing season from 20,000 to 30,000 persons con¬ 
nected with the fisheries frequent the city. It is 
the naval station of the Caspian fleet; is the 
most important port of the Caspian, and has 
regular steam communication with the principal 
towns on the shores of that sea. Pop. (1897) 
113,001. 

As'trakhan', a name given to sheep-skins 
with a curled wooly surface obtained from a va¬ 
riety of sheep found in Bokhara, Persia, and 
Syria, and also to a rough fabric with a pile in 
imitation of this. 

As'tral Spir'its, spirits believed by The 
Greeks and Orientals to inhabit the heavenly 
bodies or the aerial regions. In the Middle Ages 
they were variously conceived as fallen angels, 
souls of departed men, or spirits originating in 
fire, and belonging neither to heaven, earth, nor 
hell. Paracelsus regarded them as demoniacal 
in character. 

As'trapothe'rium, an extinct hoofed ani¬ 
mal found in the Mioc'ene formations of Pata¬ 
gonia. It is unlike any modern animal, but is 
distantly related to the extinct Toxodonts of 
South America. It was as large as a rhinoceros, 
had large tusks opposing each other in the upper 
and lower jaws, and a broad flexible muzzle like 
that of the hippopotamus, or possibly a short 
proboscis like that of the tapir. 

Astringents. Substances that have the 
property of precipitating albumin and other pro- 
teids act as astringents. When used on mucous 
membranes they contract the tissues, diminish 
the blood supply, decrease the mucus and modi¬ 
fy the sense perceptions in the part. In the 
mouth they cause the well-known sensation of 
puckering. Their action is purely local. Vege¬ 
table astringents all contain tannic acid, to which 
substance their action, is due. Nearly all of the 
mineral salts are astringent when used well di¬ 
luted with water. In concentrated solution their 
coagulant action is so pronounced as to cause 
death of the tissue (caustic). The astringents 
are particularly serviceable in stimulating atomic 
mucous membranes, causing them to secrete less 
mucus. . They are thus useful in chronic diar¬ 
rhoeas, in leucorrhoea and in mucous discharges 
from other parts of the body. The most service¬ 
able of the vegetable astringents is tannic acid, 
or its compounds, tannalbin. tannigen, and re¬ 
lated bodies. Of the mineral salts, solutions of 
copper sulphate, zinc sulphate, lead acetate and 
the aluminum salts are the most useful. 

As'tro-photog'raphy. It seems likely that 

attempts to photograph the moon were made by 
Daguerre in the course of the experiments which 
led to the first successful method for making 
optical images permanent. Certainly in 1840 
Draper, of New York, obtained a crude and im¬ 
perfect picture of the moon, after a prolonged 
exposure of the Daguerreotype silver plate. In 
1851, and the years immediately following, the 
collodion wet-plate process was introduced and 


ASTRO-PHOTOGRAPHY 


developed. By this method De la Rue, Draper, 
and Rutherford were enabled to produce pleas¬ 
ing photographs of the moon. Much advance 
was made, during the same period, in the ap¬ 
plication of photography to other celestial ob¬ 
jects, but it cannot be said that the results, on the 
whole, were other than interesting and sugges¬ 
tive. Obviously, however, the work was full 
of promise of better things, and the modern de¬ 
velopments along this line afford an impressive 
illustration of the growth of a scientific toy into 
a potent instrument of research. In the early 
seventies the gelatine dry-plate became generally 
available, and from that time astronomical pho¬ 
tography has steadily grown in effectiveness and 
applicability. In outline, astronomical photogra¬ 
phy is like any other photography. By means of 
a suitable lens an optical image of whatever is 
to be photographed is thrown upon the sensitive 
plate. It is immaterial whether the object be a 
landscape, the moon, an animal, or a constella¬ 
tion. After an exposure whose duration is de¬ 
termined by experience, the plate is removed and 
^developed® by any of the well-known processes. 
The result is a reproduction, in light and shade, 
of the optical image. From this plate, called a 
^negative,® may be made prints, transparencies, 
etc. The obstacles met with, however, in carry¬ 
ing out this apparently simple process when 
applied to celestial objects, are many and great. 
On account of the rotation of the earth, the 
heavenly bodies are seemingly in motion from 
east to west. Some of them, moreover, have 
sensible motions of their own. Thus it is neces¬ 
sary to provide compensating motions for the 
camera or photographic telescope so that 
the image shall remain in the same place on the 
plate during exposure. This is a mechanical 
problem of great difficulty. Again, the camera 
must be used from the bottom of a deep at¬ 
mospheric ocean turbid with smoke, dust, ice- 
crystals, and vapors, and swirling with currents 
and eddies. This obstacle is the most serious 
one in all astronomical work. It becomes more 
and more disastrous as the magnifying power of 
instruments is increased, and is but imperfectly 
overcome by careful selections of sites for ob¬ 
servatories, and of times for work when the 
air is relatively quiet. There are many other 
difficulties which attend the processes of prac¬ 
tical astronomical photography, but these two 
are fundamental. On the other hand, there are 
at least two fundamental advantages in the pho¬ 
tographic method as compared with the direct 
visual method of studying the sky. When 
measurements are to be made — such as, for ex¬ 
ample, the measurement of the angular distance 
between two neighboring stars — the direct 
method often calls for careful, accurate work 
under trying conditions. The observer may be 
hurried, in a constrained attitude, or shivering 
with cold. Checks by a second observer may be 
of doubtful value on account of personal equa¬ 
tion or changed conditions. If, however, the 
two stars be photographed on the same plate, 
the measurements may be made at leisure, in 
physical comfort, and with every precaution for 
insuring accuracy. In the second place, the ef¬ 
fect of light-vibrations upon the sensitive sub¬ 
stance of the photographic plate is cumulative. 
That is the longer the plate is exposed the great¬ 
er the effect of the light.upon it. (There is, no 
doubt, a maximum, but it lies outside the range 


of photography.) Upon the retina of the human 
eye, however, or upon the optic nerve, there is 
no such cumulative result. We gain nothing by 
looking for a long time toward an object whose 
light is too feeble to affect the sense of vision. 
When, after a while, we see an object not pre¬ 
viously discerned, it is because the attention is 
directed to it, not because the retina is more 
affected. 

It is on account of this property of the pho¬ 
tographic plate that prolonged exposures have 
revealed faint objects or peculiarities of struc¬ 
ture, not visible to the keenest eyes aided by the 
most powerful telescopes. As an important 
though subsidiary advantage of the photograph, 
may be mentioned the possibility of presenting 
to the sight enlarged representations of rela¬ 
tively extensive celestial areas. The field of 
vision of a great telescope is very small. A pho¬ 
tograph of a nebula or of a star-cluster, 
projected by a fine lantern, at once exhibits a 
convincing general view, revealing things in 
structure and arrangement which might long 
escape the notice of one studying the object 
with a telescope. The difference is much the 
same as that between a broad view of a land¬ 
scape and the same examined through a long 
tube of small diameter. Photography is at pres¬ 
ent employed in almost every line of astronomi¬ 
cal research. The general divisions of the sub¬ 
ject are, however, indicated in what follows. 

Star Charts .— By agreement among the au¬ 
thorities of some score of observatories in dif¬ 
ferent parts of the world, there has been under¬ 
taken the enterprise of photographing the entire 
heavens. The plates are of uniform size, and 
the lenses used are as nearly as possible identical 
in figure. One set of photographs is to include 
stars down to the eleventh magnitude, while a 
second set is to include everything that can be 
secured by the longest practicable exposure. 
The value of the resulting charts to the astron¬ 
omy of the future can scarcely be overestimated. 
Had such a map been constructed a few centuries 
ago it would now throw great light on problems 
relating to the structure of the universe. Mean¬ 
time the study of the photographs already se¬ 
cured has been of importance in modifying 
theories as to the distribution of the stars, in re¬ 
vealing asteroids, new stars (so called), and 
variable stars. 

Photographs for Detail .— Up to the present 
time the greatest success in this line of endeavor 
has been attained in photographing the moon, 
the sun, and nebulae. The superb lunar photo¬ 
graphs produced at the Lick Observatory and at 
the Observatory in Paris leave little to be de¬ 
sired, although they are inferior to the best views 
obtained by the direct use of the telescope. 
These wonderful pictures cannot fail to be of 
great future value in showing to what extent, 
if at all, changes take place on the surface of our 
satellite. The photographs of the sun are, thus 
far, somewhat less satisfactory as to minute de¬ 
tails. The air between the observer and the 
sun is almost constantly disturbed, and it is not 
easy to take advantage of instants of (( good see¬ 
ing® for securing the pictures. Nevertheless the 
accumulations of' solar photographs, taken as 
they are every day, constitute a most admirable 
history of what goes on in the sun’s surface and 
help toward a correct understanding of solar 
physics. At recent total solar eclipses many 


ASTRO-PHOTOGRAPHY 


thousands of photographs of the corona have 
been secured. These naturally differ widely in 
scientific value, but it must be admitted that the 
best of them fall short of revealing all that is 
seen by the eye. The <( fogging® of the plates 
from the light in the atmosphere in the solar 
direction obscures the image of the outer corona. 
The eye recognizes this faint extension rather 
by its tint than by its luminosity as compared 
with that of the sky. Photographs of the nebulae, 
on the other hand, taken by prolonged exposures 
on moonless nights, have greatly advanced our 
knowledge of the structure of these objects, and 
have led to modifications in the statement of the 
nebular hypothesis. Photographs of the planets 
have thus far failed to give satisfactory results 
in exhibiting surface markings. 

Photographs for Measurement. — Aside from 
the construction of star-charts as described 
above, the photographic method is used in an in¬ 
creasing number of cases in which the most ac¬ 
curate angular measurements are desired, and 
is now fairly comparable with the heliometer 
method. Among the more important applica¬ 
tions of the new process is the determination of 
parallax by photographing Mars when near the 
eastern horizon and again when near setting; 
the rotation of the earth, meantime, having car¬ 
ried the observer from one end to the other of 
a base-line whose length depends upon the lati¬ 
tude of the station and the time between the 
exposures. Precisely the same method was ap- 
plid to the newly discovered asteroid Eros dur¬ 
ing the latter part of the year 1900. It is clear 
that the difference in place of the planet among 
the stars, when the eastward picture is com¬ 
pared with the westward, is due to parallax, 
allowance being made for the movements of the 
planet and the earth during the interval between 
the observations. A similar method may be used 
in investigations of stellar parallax, the photo¬ 
graphs being taken at half-yearly intervals, thus 
securing a base-line nearly or quite equal to the 
diameter of the earth’s orbit. Photographs of 
stellar spectra afford a means for detecting and 
measuring the motion of stars in the line of 
sight by noting the displacement of the lines 
toward either end of the spectrum. Through 
investigations of this sort it has come to be be¬ 
lieved that there are many large, dark stars as¬ 
sociated with visible stars, constituting, in some 
cases, systems of great complexity. The exist¬ 
ence of such a dark body is inferred from the 
alternate approach and retreat of the visible star, 
relatively to the earth, this motion being ap¬ 
parently due to a revolution of the bright star 
about, or with, an invisible companion. In some 
cases, also, the periodic duplication of the spec¬ 
tral lines seems to indicate that a star is double, 
both components giving out light, while the 
largest telescopes fail to resolve the pair to the 
vision. 

Photometry. — With a given time of exposure 
the size and blackness of the stellar images are 
proportioned to the brightness of the stars. This 
fact renders it easy to prepare lists of stars in 
order of brightness or ^magnitude.® The method 
is the less valuable, however, for the reason that 
the color of a star influences the chemical effect 
of its light upon the plate. A bright red star 
gives a smaller image in a given time than a 
fainter white or blue star. A complete photo¬ 


metric classification of the stars should be based 
upon measurements of the intensity of several 
portions of their spectra. 

Transits, etc., by Photography. — By mechan¬ 
ical means it has been sought to eliminate the 
personal equation by photographing a star and 
the reticle of a transit or similar instrument at 
intervals automatically measured and recorded 
by clockwork. This must be taken as a very 
general statement of a method which, in a variety 
of forms, may yet be developed to a high degree 
of usefulness. 

Instruments for Astronomical Photography. 
— It is well known that the lens of a visual tele¬ 
scope is quite unfit for photographic work. 
Those portions or components of white light 
that are best for seeing are not the components 
most effective in producing the negative. The 
blue and violet rays, left outstanding in the 
chromatic correction of the ordinary telescope, 
are precisely the ones wanted in photography, 
and they confuse and spoil the negative when 
the visual lens is tried as a photographic lens. 
Hence there must be a special objective for use 
in photographing, or an auxiliary lens for trans¬ 
forming the visual objective for its new work. 
So-called (( portrait® lenses are much in use when 
a short focus, with large field and small images, 
is required. Lately much progress has been 
made in the use of mono-chromatic plates cov¬ 
ered by colored glass screens, for absorbing the 
light that is not wanted. In this way it is possi¬ 
ble to do good work in certain lines without a 
special lens. The accurate pointing of the tele¬ 
scope or camera is a matter of extreme difficulty, 
especially during long exposures. No driving 
clock yet produced, even when controlled, 
through electric devices, by the standard time¬ 
piece, is quite satisfactory. Therefore, it is 
necessary, in very many cases, that two tele¬ 
scopes, one visual and one photographic, should 
be bound together, and that an observer should 
keep the pair accurately pointed by hand. This 
is a most delicate operation, calling for great 
pcwer of concentration, and for special deftness 
of touch. The observer, with eye at the visual 
telescope, keeps the cross-hairs of the eyepiece 
precisely upon a selected star. He watches and 
modifies the rate of the driving clock, moves 
the telescope as atmospheric refraction varies, 
and seeks in general to prevent all motion of the 
image on the plate. Upon the successful accom¬ 
plishment of this difficult undertaking depends 
the final value of the photograph, in certain 
classes of work, however, the stars are allowed 
to <( trail® a little, so that their images may 
readily be distinguished from specks and imper¬ 
fections in the plate. The (( coude® telescope is 
much favored in Europe for photography, on ac¬ 
count of the great steadiness of the eye-end and 
the comfort afforded the operator. In this coun¬ 
try, when long-focus lenses are to be used, the 
tendency is toward the fixed horizontal telescope, 
a detached siderostat reflecting the light from 
the object into the telescope. 

Among the more important adjuncts in in¬ 
strumental devices should be mentioned the 
beautiful machines for measuring distances on 
the photographic negatives, this apparatus taking 
the place of the micrometer eyepieces used for 
direct measurements with the telescope. 

F. S. Luther. 


ASTROCARYUM — ASTRONOMY 


As'trocar'yum, a genus of about thirty 
species of tropical American pinnate-leaved 
palms noted for their profuse sharp spines 
sometimes a foot long. A. murumuru, the 
murumuru palm, a common species in the lower 
Amazon region, seldom attains a height of more 
than 20 feet. It bears an edible, melon- 
flavored, musky-scented ovate fruit about an 
inch long, the pulp of which is highly prized as 
food for man and cattle. Hogs crush the seeds, 
which are almost as hard as vegetable ivory, 
and fatten well upon them. A. tecuma, the 
tecuma palm, reaches a height of 30 to 40 feet, 
and has very regularly arranged spines, bears an 
edible, globular fruit, and is native of the same 
region as the preceding species. A. vulgare is a 
taller-growing palm than the above. The unex¬ 
panded leaves furnish a strong fibre, for which 
the tree is often cultivated where it is not native. 
To obtain this fibre the terminal bud is cut and 
the epidermis of the delicate leaves carefully 
peeled in ribbon-like strips that when dry are 
twisted into fine, strong durable threads used for 
making twine, bowstrings, hammocks, fish-nets, 
etc. The fibre of older leaves is coarser, tougher, 
and stronger, and is used for cordage; the peti¬ 
oles of the young leaves are used for making 
into baskets and hats. This species, commonly 
known as the tecum palm, is distinct from the 
tecuma palm noted above, but was confounded 
with it by Maritius, who pictured the tecuma as 
the fibre-bearing species. Consult: Wallace, 
( Palm Trees of the Amazon ) (1853). Several 
species are cultivated in greenhouses for orna¬ 
mental purposes and specimens as large as 10 
feet tall often bear fruit. For culture, consult: 
Bailey and Miller, ( Cyclopedia of American 
Horticulture ) (1900-2). 

As'trolabe (from Greek astron, a star, and 
lambano, I take), the name given by the Greeks 
to any circular instrument having one or more 
graduated circles. In modern astronomy this in¬ 
strument is no longer used, because wholly 
superseded by the sextant. The first application 
of the astrolabe to navigation was made by the 
physicians, Roderich and Joseph and Martin 
Behaim of Niirnberg, when John II., king of 
Portugal, desired them to invent a method of 
preserving a certain course at sea. Angles 
of altitude were found by suspending the astro¬ 
labe perpendicularly. 

Astrology, the science which pretends to 
foretell future events, especially the fate of men, 
from the position of the stars. Originally, that 
is, among the Greeks and Romans, the word 
had the meaning of “astronomy,® and, as in the 
case of alchemy and chemistry, the pseudo¬ 
science and the real science had the same origin. 
In early times, when the earth was regarded 
as the centre of the universe and as that to which 
all else was somehow tributary, it was a not 
unnatural hypothesis that the changing configu¬ 
rations of the heavenly bodies might be indica¬ 
tive of human destiny, or might influence human 
character. Hence, the Chinese, the Egyptians, 
the Chaldseans, the Romans, and most other an¬ 
cient nations, with the honorable exception of 
the Greeks, became implicit believers in astrol¬ 
ogy. It was partly the cause and partly the ef¬ 
fect of the prevalent worship of the heavenly 
bodies. The “star-gazers,® sarcastically re¬ 
ferred to in Isa. xlvii. 13, were perhaps astrolo¬ 


gers ; so also may have been what are called in 
the margin “viewers of the heavens®; but the 
Hebrew word rendered “astrologers® in Dan. i. 
20; ii. 2, 27; iv. 7; v. 7, is a much vaguer one, 
meaning those who practise incantations, with¬ 
out indicating what the character of these in¬ 
cantations may be. The later Jews, the Arabs, 
with other Mohammedan races, and the Chris¬ 
tians in mediaeval Europe were all great culti¬ 
vators of astrology. Some of the greatest as¬ 
tronomers, among whom was John Kepler, who 
knew very much better, were accustomed to 
“cast horoscopes,® and to receive large fees for 
so doing. The ordinary method of procedure 
in the Middle Ages was to divide a globe or a 
planisphere into 12 portions by circles running 
from Pole to Pole, like those which now mark 
meridians of longitude. Each of the 12 
spaces or intervals between these circles was 
called a “house® of heaven. The sun, the moon, 
and the stars all pass once in 24 hours through 
the portion of heavens represented by the 12 
“houses.® Every house has one of the heavenly 
bodies ruling over it as its lord. 

The houses symbolize different advantages 
or disadvantages. The first is the house of life; 
the second, of riches; the third, of brethren; the 
fourth, of parents ; the fifth, of children ; the 
sixth, of health; the seventh, of marriage; the 
eighth, of death; the ninth, of religion; the tenth, 
of dignities; the eleventh, of friends; and 
the twelfth, of enemies. The houses vary in 
strength, the first one, that containing the part 
of the heavens about to rise, being the most 
powerful of all; it is called the ascendant, while 
the point of the ecliptic just rising is termed the 
horoscope. The important matter was to ascer¬ 
tain what house and star was in the as¬ 
cendant at the moment of a person’s birth, from 
which it was deemed possible to augur his for¬ 
tune. It followed that all people born in the 
same part of the world at the same time ought 
to have had the same future, an allegation 
which experience decisively contradicted. Even 
apart from this, astrological predictions of all 
kinds had a fatal tendency to pass away with¬ 
out being fulfilled; and when, finally, it was dis¬ 
covered that the earth was not the centre of the 
universe, but only a planet revolving around an¬ 
other body, and itself much exceeded in size by 
several of its compeers, every scientific mind in 
Europe felt itself unable any longer to believe 
in astrology, which has been in an increasingly 
languishing state since the middle of the 17th 
century. It still flourishes, however, in Asia 
and Africa, and is a means of livelihood to many 
charlatans who prey upon the ignorant classes 
in all countries. 

As'tronom'ical and As'trophysi'cal Soci¬ 
ety of America, a national society whose mem¬ 
bers must possess technical knowledge of astro¬ 
nomical and astrophysical science. Membership 
(1903) 180. 

Astronomy. Astronomy is that branch 
of science which treats of the heavenly bodies 
— including practically all the bodies of the uni¬ 
verse. The great advance which our times have 
witnessed in the methods of research has made it 
one of the most progressive of the sciences, 
while it is, at the same time, the oldest of all. 
The vast extent of its field, including the entire 
universe within its bounds, leads to its having 


ASTRONOMY 


a number of different branches. There is, first, 
a branch which embraces our general know¬ 
ledge of the heavenly bodies, their motions, 
aspects, and physical constitution. This branch 
is commonly termed descriptive or general as¬ 
tronomy. It is now recognized as having two 
divisions, one relating principally to the mo¬ 
tions, mutual relations, and general aspects of 
the heavenly bodies; the other to their physical 
Constitution, considered individually. The for¬ 
mer division is sometimes termed astrometry, 
because it is principally concerned with mea¬ 
surements of position, motion, mass, etc. The 
other branch is termed astrophysics, and is that 
which has received its greatest development in 
recent times. There is also a branch which 
teaches the methods of observing the heavenly 
bodies, including the instruments used in ob¬ 
servation and measurement, and the principles 
governing their use, as well as the practical 
computations incident thereto. This branch is 
termed practical astronomy. Another branch is 
the mathematical one, which determines the 
orbits and motions of the heavenly bodies by 
deductive methods, taking as a basis the facts 
of observation and the laws of motion, espe¬ 
cially that of gravitation. This branch treats 
of the orbits of the heavenly bodies and of the 
methods of computing the effects of their mu¬ 
tual attraction. It is commonly termed theo¬ 
retical astronomy, while the more purely mathe¬ 
matical theory is known as celestial mechanics. 

The subject of astronomy is treated in the 
present work on the following plan: We begin 
with a brief but comprehensive survey of the 
universe, referring to special articles — Stars, 
Universe, Nebulae, Solar System, etc., for de¬ 
tails. This survey will be followed by reviews 
of Practical Astronomy, Theoretical Astron¬ 
omy, and of the historical development of the 
science. 

Descriptive Astronomy .— Considered as to 
their nature, the heavenly bodies may be divided 
into two great classes; the one, incandescent 
bodies which shine by their own light; the other, 
opaque bodies which are visible only by re¬ 
flecting the light of some incandescent body 
in their neighborhood. Examples of the first 
class are the stars which stud the heavens at 
night; examples of the second are the planets, 
of which our earth is one. From the very na¬ 
ture of the case, little can be learned of the 
possible number of opaque bodies which may 
exist in the universe. There may be some 
rather uncertain ground for inferring that they 
are less massive, and less numerous than the 
incandescent bodies; but it is sometimes sup¬ 
posed that they may far outnumber the latter 
without our being aware of the fact. The 
stars are scattered through the wilderness of 
space at distances which baffle all our powers of 
conception. Light moves with such speed that 
it would make the circuit of the earth seven 
times in a single second. But the cases are 
rather exceptional when a star is so near one 
of its neighbors that light would not take years 
to travel over the distance which separates them. 
Indeed, the only known exceptions belong to 
the class of double or multiple stars — two or 
more such bodies forming a system by them¬ 
selves. There is only one star so near us that 
its light would reach us in four years, and the 
same is probably true of most other stars. 
That the universe of stars extends to distances 


which light would require several thousand 
years to travel is certain; but no well-defined 
limit has yet been set to its extent. Our sun 
is one of the stars, and is the one of which 
we know most because of our proximity to 
it. It is the centre around which eight great 
planets and a number of other bodies perform 
their revolutions. On one of these great plan¬ 
ets, the third in the order of distance, we dwell. 
Our knowledge of the heavens is largely con¬ 
ditioned by our residence on this planet. We 
see the other planets by the light of the sun, 
which they reflect. They present to the naked 
eye the appearance of stars; and it is only 
when scrutinized with the telescope that they 
are found to have a measurable apparent size. 
Vast indeed is their distance from the sun 
when measured by our standards. Yet, the 
dimensions of our solar system are very small 
when compared with the distance which sepa¬ 
rates the stars. Light passes from the sun to 
the outer planet, Neptune, in about four hours, 
while, as we have said, it requires years to 
reach any star. The nearest star is therefore 
thousands of times farther than the most distant 
planet. A most interesting question is whether 
other stars have systems of planets revolving 
round them, as our sun has. This is a question 
which it is impossible to answer conclusively. 
Planets revolving round the stars would be ab¬ 
solutely invisible through the most powerful 
telescope that man can ever hope to construct. 
In special cases, how r ever, evidence on the sub¬ 
ject is afforded by the spectroscope, which 
shows that great numbers of stars really have 
one or more dark bodies revolving around them. 
But, in order to be observable with the spectro¬ 
scope, these bodies must be vastly larger than 
the planets which revolve round our sun. The 
existence of a planet like that on which we 
dwell could not be determined even with the 
best spectroscope. 

The bodies of the solar system are bound 
together by the law of gravitation. Were it 
not for the attraction of the sun each planet 
would fly off in a straight line through space. 
Through the attraction of the sun all the planets 
are kept in their several orbits. Every con¬ 
sideration leads us to believe that gravitation 
extends from one star to all the others, but 
diminishing as the inverse square of the dis¬ 
tance. But its effect on bodies so distant as 
the stars is too minute to be observed. Re¬ 
volving double stars, however, show that in 
these exceptional cases, systems of two stars in 
proximity to each other are subject to the 
law of mutual attraction. 

t The three fundamental facts which deter¬ 
mine the great phenomena of astronomy, as we 
observe them in the course of our lives are (i) 
the globular form of the earth on which we 
dwell; (2) its diurnal rotation on its axis; (3) 
its annual revolution round the sun. The first 
of these facts is so familiar to all that we need 
not di c cuss it. Out of it grow the general 
phenomena of the sky. The heavenly bodies 
surround us in every direction. They are 
really as numerous by day as by night, only in 
the former case they are blotted out by the 
brightness of the sky. To imagine the heavens 
as they, really are we must fancy stars as al¬ 
ways visible in every part of the sky. Then, 
by day, we should see the sun among the stars, 
and perhaps the moon also. Mere observation 


ASTRONOMY 


of a heavenly body gives us no idea of its dis¬ 
tance. By looking at a star we cannot tell 
whether its distance is to be measured by hun¬ 
dreds of miles, by millions, or by thousands 
of millions, which it actually is. Hence, all 
the heavenly bodies appear to us to be at the 
same distance, as if they were set upon the 
interior surface of a stupendous sphere in 
the centre of which we seem to be placed. This 
imaginary form is called the celestial sphere; 
it is one of the most ancient conceptions of 
astronomy, and it is used in the science to the 
present day to represent the appearance of 
the heavens. It is divided into two hemi¬ 
spheres, a visible and an invisible one. The 
visible hemisphere is the half which is above 
the horizon, which we call the sky and can 
always see, except so far as obstructions or 
inequalities of the ground may prevent. The 
other half is below the horizon, and is hidden 
from our view because the earth is opaque. 
Were the latter transparent, we should see the 
heavenly bodies in every possible direction. 
The revolution of the earth on its axis pro¬ 
duces the phenomena of day and night, and 
the apparent rising and setting of the heavenly 
bodies. This is known as the diurnal motion. 
The latter may be considered in two aspects, 
either as the real revolution of the earth on 
its axis, in a direction always toward the East, 
or as an apparent revolution of the heavens in 
the opposite direction, due to our being uncon¬ 
scious of the motion of the earth. In conse¬ 
quence of the diurnal motion the celestial 
sphere, seeming to our eyes to carry the heav¬ 
enly bodies on its interior surface, appears 
to us to make a daily revolution on its axis. 
The two opposite points of the celestial sphere 
situated on the prolongation of the earth’s 
axis are called the celestial poles. On these 
poles as pivots the celestial sphere seems to 
turn. They are called north or south ac¬ 
cording to the direction. Their apparent po¬ 
sition in the sky depends on the latitude of the 
place where the observer is situated. A 
heavenly body situated at either pole does not 
seem to have any diurnal motion. This is 
nearly the case with the pole star, which dwell¬ 
ers north of the equator can always see at an 
altitude above the northern horizon equal to 
their latitude. A voyager into the southern 
hemisphere sees the pole star set when he 
crosses the equator. Then, the south polar 
star would be visible if there were one. But 
it happens there is no bright star very near 
the southern prolongation of the axis. In the 
United States, say from 30° to 45 °. of latitude, 
the pole star is at a corresponding altitude 
above the horizon, and all the stars in its neigh¬ 
borhood appear to make a diurnal rotation 
round it, without changing their form or posi¬ 
tion, and without ever setting. Any one who 
chooses can verify this fact by noting the ap¬ 
pearance of the northern sky about the end 01 
twilight, and then looking at it again two or 
three hours later. He will then see that stars 
below the pole have moved toward the east, 
those on the east side of it have risen higher, 
and those on the west side are lower, while 
those above have moved over toward the west. 
For us, therefore, the sphere of the heavens 
may be divided into three parts; a circle round 
the north celestial pole within which stars never 
set; a corresponding circle round the south 


pole, the stars in which never rise above our 
horizon, and a broad middle region where they 
rise and set. 

To represent the positions of the stars, as¬ 
tronomers imagine circles on the celestial sphere 
corresponding to the circles of longitude and 
latitude on the earth. As we imagine north 
and south meridians drawn on the earth from 
one pole to another, to measure terrestrial 
longitudes, so we imagine in the heavens cir¬ 
cles drawn on the sphere from the north celes¬ 
tial pole to the south one. As the longitude 
of a place on the earth is expressed by the 
angle which its meridian makes with the meri¬ 
dian of Greenwich, so the corresponding quan¬ 
tity for a star is the angle which the circle 
through it makes with a certain prime merid¬ 
ian on the celestial sphere. This quantity 
for the stars is not called longitude, but right 
ascension, and the celestial meridians which de¬ 
termine it may be called hour circles. 

In the same way as we have on the earth 
a great circle spanning it, everywhere equally 
distant from the two poles, and called the equa¬ 
tor, so we imagine a circle spanning the 
heavens, everywhere equally distant from the 
north and south celestial poles, which is called 
the celestial equator, or the equinoctial. At any 
one place this circle will be apparently fixed 
in its position, always intersecting the horizon 
at its east and west points, and, in our lati¬ 
tudes, intersecting the meridian south of the 
zenith by a distance equal to our distance from 
the equator. For example, to a dweller in 
latitude 40^, the highest point of the celestial 
equator will be 40° from the zenith, and 50° 
above the horizon. From this point it spreads 
toward the east and west until it intersects the 
horizon as just stated. As a traveler journeys 
south, the position of the celestial equator be¬ 
comes more and more nearly vertical; at the 
equator it rises vertically and passes through the 
zenith; south of the equator it passes north of 
the zenith. 

As the latitude of a place is measured by 
its angular distance from the equator north or 
south, so the corresponding number for a star 
is measured by its mean angular distance from 
the celestial equator, whether north or south. 
This is called the star’s declination. Thus the 
right ascension and declination of a star deter¬ 
mines its position on the celestial sphere just 
as longitude and latitude determine the position 
of a city on the earth. 

We now have to consider the effect of the 
annual motion of the earth round the sun. If 
we watch the heavens at a certain hour every 
evening, say eight o’clock p.m., we shall find 
that the stars are every night a little farther 
advanced in their diurnal motion then they were 
the night before. If they are in a certain posi¬ 
tion at eight o’clock on one evening, they will 
pass the same position four minutes before 

eight on the next night, eight minutes before 

eight on the next night, and so on. In the 

course of a year these continually accumulat¬ 
ing changes make up the whole 24 hours,, so that 
a star which is in the zenith this evening will 
be on the meridian at eight o’clock in the 

morning six months hence, while at eight in 
the evening it will be at its greatest distance 
below the horizon. If we could see the sun 
among the stars, what we should notice would 
be that our luminary always forges a little 


ASTRONOMY 


farther east day after day, and in the course 
of a year seems to make a complete revolution 
among the stars. The result is that while the 
sun rises and sets 365 times, the stars rise and 
set 366 times. Since the latter are always in 
the same absolute direction, and seem to rise 
and set in consequence of the earth’s rotation 
on its axis, we infer that the direction of the 
sun from the earth goes through a complete 
revolution in the course of a year. In other 
words, the sun appears to us to make an annual 
revolution around the celestial sphere among 
the stars. Since the time of Copernicus it has 
been known that this appearance is due to the 
actual revolution of the earth around the sun. 

The apparent path of the sun among the 
stars can be mapped out by astronomical ob¬ 
servation. When carefully observed, it is found 
to be a great circle of the sphere, called the 
ecliptic. We thus have two imaginary cir¬ 
cles of fundamental importance spanning the 
heavens. One is the celestial equator, the other 
the ecliptic in which the sun seems to travel. 
These circles do not coincide, but intersect each 
other at two opposite points at an angle of 
23 ^ 4 °. This is called the obliquity of the eclip¬ 
tic. The result of it is that during one half 
the year the sun is south of the celestial equa¬ 
tor, and during the other half is north of it. 
In the northern half of its course we have 
summer in the northern hemisphere and winter 
in the southern; in the southern half we have 
summer in the southern hemisphere and winter 
in the northern. Thus the changing seasons 
are due to the obliquity of the ecliptic. If the 
latter coincided with the equator, we should 
have no such annual round of seasons as that 
with which we are familiar. 

There are two opposite points on the celes¬ 
tial sphere at which the equator and the eclip¬ 
tic intersect. These are called equinoxes be¬ 
cause, when the sun crosses them, the days and 
nights are equal all over the earth. That equinox 
which the sun passes toward the north is called 
the vernal equinox, because the crossing marks 
spring in the northern hemisphere. The other 
is called the autumnal equinox for a similar 
reason. Observations continued through many 
centuries show that the equinoxes are not fixed, 
but travel slowly along the ecliptic at such a 
rate that they make a complete revolution from 
the east toward the west in about 26,000 years. 
This motion is called the precession of the 
equinoxes. Its existence shows that the direc¬ 
tion of the earth’s axis is slowly changing, and 
hence the position of the celestial pole is chang¬ 
ing also. Since the equator is defined by the 
condition that it spans the heavens midway 
between the celestial poles, this change in the 
poles causes a corresponding change in the 
equator. 

The actual motion of the pole is at the rate 
of about 20" per year. The smallest visible 
object that can be seen to be anything else than 
a point of light subtends an angle of about 
T or 60". _ It follows that the pole moves 
through this smallest visible space in three 
years. In a long life of 90 years the change 
would be about equal to the diameter of the 
sun or moon. The centre of the motion is 
the pole of the ecliptic which is distant from 
that of the equator by about 23^4°. Owing to 
the smallness of the obliquity, the equinox 
travels along the ecliptic at more than twice 
the rate of the pole, or about 50" per year. It 


has therefore changed about 30° since its motion 
was first noticed, about 2,000 years ago. It is 
found that the planets describe their course 
around the sphere in circles which do not de¬ 
viate greatly from the ecliptic. A belt of the 
heavens extending n° on each side of the eclip¬ 
tic will include all the planets visible to the 
naked eye. This belt is called the zodiac. Be¬ 
ginning at the vernal equinox it is divided into 
12 portions, of 30° each, known as the signs 
of the zodiac. In former times great stress was 
laid upon the entrance of the sun into these 
several signs, which entrances occurred about 
a month apart. They now occur about the 20th 
of every month. In our times, when the super¬ 
stitions connected with this subject have van¬ 
ished, the entrance of the sun into the signs is 
no longer of importance. (See Zodiac.) There 
are also 12 constellations, beginning with 
Aries, and ending with Pisces, which have the 
same names as the signs of the zodiac, and are 
scattered along its course. _ Two thousand years 
ago these constellations coincided pretty closely 
with the signs. But now, in consequence of 
the precession of the equinoxes, the two no 
longer correspond. The sign Aries is now lo¬ 
cated in the constellation Pisces; the sign Tau¬ 
rus in the constellation Aries, etc. 

The Time of Day. — It is in its relations to 
times and seasons that the results of astro¬ 
nomical science come into every household. 
Our daily round of activity and rest is deter¬ 
mined by the earth’s rotation on its axis, alter- 
natingly bringing us under the sun, and then 
carrying us around until it is hidden from our 
sight. A century ago people used to set their 
clocks at 12 when the sun crossed the merid¬ 
ian. This moment, being the middle of the 
day, is noon properly so-called. But if a good 
clock is exactly regulated, and kept going all 
the time, it will not show noon at the true 
time. The reason is that the intervals of time 
between one noon and the next are not exactly 
the same. See Time. 

Bibliography. — The most extended general 
treatise on astronomy for the use of the general 
reader is Chambers’ Astronomy ) (3 vols., 8 vo., 
London) ; briefer is Newcomb’s ( Astronomy 
for Everybody >; Ball, ( Story of the Heavens > ; 
Flammarion, ( Popular Astronomy> ; etc. 

Simon Newcomb, LL.D., 

Washington, D. C. 

Astronomy, History of. We may recog¬ 
nize four great periods in the history of as¬ 
tronomical knowledge. The first and most an¬ 
cient is that in which no accurate observations 
were made, but in which men had a general 
knowledge of the apparent annual revolution 
of the sun, of the constellations, and of the re¬ 
lation of the sun’s annual course to the changes 
of the seasons. The next period was that of the 
celebrated Alexandrian school, so-called because 
Alexandria was the principal seat of its activ¬ 
ity. This period was distinguished as that at 
which the first attempts were made at precise 
observation and measurement. It began three 
or four centuries before Christ. It is very re¬ 
markable that, at so early a period as this, 
men to whom all our modern science was com¬ 
pletely unknown, had so far advanced in as¬ 
tronomical observation as to measure the ob¬ 
liquity of the ecliptic, determine the times of 
the equinoxes, and detect their precession. The 
latter was done by a comparison of two meth- 


ASTRONOMY 


ods of determining the length of the year, as 
measured by the sun’s apparent revolution 
around the celestial sphere. Timocharis, who 
flourished about 300 b.c., determined the mo¬ 
ment at which the sun crossed the equinox by 
means of an east and west line on the level 
sandy plains of Egypt, showing exactly where 
the sun rose or set. The day on which the 
point of settting in the west was exactly oppo¬ 
site that of its rising in the east marked the 
equinox, which could thus be determined within 
a few hours. The annual course of the sun 
can also be determined by the time which it 
takes to return to the same position among the 
stars after an annual apparent revolution. As 
the stars and sun cannot be seen at the same 
time, the adopted plan was to measure the dis¬ 
tance of the sun from the moon before sunset, 
and after dark to measure the distance from 
the moon to some bright star. Allowing for the 
motion of the moon during the interval, the 
distance of the sun from the star would be 
known. In this way the curious discovery 
was made that the year as determined from 
the equinoxes was several minutes shorter than, 
that determined from the stars. This discov¬ 
ery was made by Hipparchus through a com¬ 
parison of his observations with those of Ti¬ 
mocharis about 150 years before. 

Erastothenes, who flourished just before 
Timocharis, was enabled to estimate the size 
of the earth. This he did by noting that at 
the ancient town of Syene, in central Egypt, the 
sun was exactly in the zenith at the time of the 
summer solstice, so that it illuminated the bot¬ 
tom of a well, while at Alexandria it was 1/50 
of a circumference south of the zenith. He 
therefore concluded that the circumference of 
the earth was 50 times the distance between 
Alexandria and Syene. The latter being 50,000 
stadia, it followed that the circumference of the 
earth was 250,000 stadia. 

Hipparchus was considered as the greatest 
astronomer of antiquity. He made more ac¬ 
curate observations than any of his predeces¬ 
sors upon the courses of the sun, moon, and 
planets, determining their times of revolution 
with extraordinary exactness. Unfortunately 
none of his works survive, and our knowledge 
of them is derived mainly from Ptolemy’s ( Al¬ 
magest. } 

Ptolemaic System .—Ptolemy (130-150 a.d.), 
besides being a practical astronomer, was ac¬ 
complished as a musician, a geographer, and a 
mathematician. His most important discovery 
in astronomy was the evection of the moon. He 
also was the first to point out the effect of re¬ 
fraction. He was the founder of the false 
system known by his name, and which was 
universally accepted as the true theory of the 
universe until the researches of Copernicus ex¬ 
ploded it. The Ptolemaic system placed the 
earth, immovable, in the centre of the universe, 
making the entire heavens revolve round it in 
the course of 24 hours. The work by which he 
is best known, however, is the collection and 
systematic arrangement of the ancient observa¬ 
tions in his great work, the < Megale Syntaxis,> 
which gives a complete resume of the astronom¬ 
ical knowledge of the day. This work was 
translated into Arabic in the first part of the 
9th century and was called by the Arabs the 
(< Almagest, # and by this name it is known to¬ 
day in its various translations into Greek and 
Vol. 1—56 


Latin. The most important part of it is the 
seventh and eighth books, which contain the 
catalogue of stars which bears Ptolemy’s name, 
though it is only a compilation of the catalogue 
of Hipparchus with the positions brought up to 
the time of Ptolemy. The advance of astron¬ 
omy almost ceased, after the death of Ptolemy, 
and his ( Almagest^ together with the false sys¬ 
tem of the universe which it taught, continued 
to be the recognized authority in Europe for 
the next 14 centuries. 

With the death of Ptolemy, everything in 
the way of actual progress in astronomical 
theory appeared to cease. The Arabians con¬ 
tinued astronomical observations from time to 
time, and made or proposed many improvements 
in the ancient astronomical instruments, but 
they slavishly followed the system of Ptolemy, 
and made no attempts to penetrate the mystery 
of the celestial motions. They had little ca¬ 
pacity for speculation, and throughout held the 
Greek theories in superstitious reverence. The 
most illustrious of the Arabian school were 
Albategnus, or A 1 Batani (880 a.d.), who dis¬ 
covered the motion of the solar apogee, and 
who was also the first to make use of sines 
and versed sines instead of chords; and Ibn- 
Junis (1000 a.d. ), an excellent mathematician!, 
who made observations of great importance on 
eclipses of the sun and moon and the motions 
of Jupiter and Saturn, and who was the first 
to use cotangents and secants. Likewise, at 
about the same time, Abul Wefa discovered the 
third inequality in the moon’s motion, the vari¬ 
ation, and determined its amount. About four 
centuries later, in the first half of the 15th 
century, lived Ulugh Beigh, a Tartar prince, 
who made important additions to astronomical 
knowledge. 

The third period commenced when Coper¬ 
nicus, in 1543, first demonstrated the true theory 
of the universe to his fellow men in his great 
work ( De Revolutionibus Orbium CoelestiumP 
His two fundamental principles were that, in¬ 
stead of the diurnal motion of the heavens 
being real, it was only apparent, being due to 
the revolution of the earth on its own axis; 
and that the apparent revolution of the sun 
around the sky was, in the same way, due to 
the actual revolution of the earth around the 
sun, which latter remained at rest. Centuries 
of observation have shown that these two prin¬ 
ciples explain so exactly every detail of celes¬ 
tial phenomena that they are subject to no 
more doubt than our conclusions as to the 
arrangement of streets and houses in a city 
which we see every day of our lives. Half a 
century after the death of Copernicus flour¬ 
ished Galileo and Kepler, of whom the first 
invented the telescope, while the second demon¬ 
strated the correctness of the Copernican the¬ 
ory, and also showed that the planet Mars 
revolved around the sun in an ellipse with the 
sun in its focus. 

The invention of the telescope added another 
proof to the Copernican theory, and also en¬ 
larged our views of the universe by showing 
that Jupiter and his satellites formed a minia¬ 
ture solar system on the Copernican plan; that 
the planet Venus had phases like the moon; 
that the moon itself had a variegated surface 
apparently similar to that of our globe, and 
that the wonderful Milky Way was composed 
of innumerable stars too faint to be seen sep- 


ASTRONOMY 


arately by the naked eye. The spots on the 
sun were also discovered, and the rotation of 
our central luminary on its axis made known. 
Such enormous advances were too great for 
the human mind at once to grasp, and the 
generation in which Galileo lived had to pass 
away before the Copernican theory was uni¬ 
versally accepted by the learned world. To 
this same period belong the observations of 
Tycho Brahe on the motions of the sun, moon, 
and planets, which were, most unfortunately, 
made just before the invention of the tele¬ 
scope, and so failed of the precision which 
would have been gained by the use of that 
instrument. But, as it was, they were the basis 
on which Kepler founded his celebrated laws of 
planetary motion. 

The fourth and last period began when 
Newton showed that all the complicated phe¬ 
nomena of the celestial motions — the revolu¬ 
tion of the planets in elliptic orbits, and the 
revolution of the satellites around their pri¬ 
maries, were all due to the mutual gravitation 
of these bodies, and took place according to 
the same laws which govern the motion of 
matter around us on the earth. As in the 
case of the Copernican theory, it took the learn¬ 
ed world a whole generation to grasp the 
idea of Newton as to the theory of gravitation. 
The progress made in our knowledge of the 
celestial motions during the two centuries since 
Newton’s time have all rested on the principle 
which he discovered. 

Toward the end of the 18th century, Sir 
William Herschel, then in the zenith of his 
fame, was interesting the whole world by his 
wonderful discoveries. With his great reflec¬ 
tors he made a step forward in the size and 
power of the telescope greater than any before 
or since. Although his greatest and best in¬ 
strument would be considered extremely imper¬ 
fect at the present time, those which it super¬ 
seded were hardly more than what we should 
now call spy glasses. Herschel was so far 
the greatest figure of the time in astronomical 
science, and his work so overshadowed that of 
his contemporaries on the continent, that the 
work of everyone else at the time seems unim¬ 
portant in comparison. Yet not only were great 
successors of Herschel coming on the stage, 
but important additions to our knowledge of 
the heavens were being made outside of Eng¬ 
land. William Herschel’s son, John, was a 
lad of eight years. In France, Arago, a boy of 
14, was fitting himself for the Lcole Polytech¬ 
nique. At Paris, Lalande, the leading astrono¬ 
mer of France, was actively preparing a cata¬ 
logue of the fainter stars with an instrument 
which would now be consigned to the junkshop. 
But it was the first attempt that had ever been 
made to determine accurately the positions of 
the many thousand telescopic stars invisible to 
the naked eye, and in consequence the ( Histoire 
Celeste* is still one of the classics of the astro¬ 
nomical investigator. In Germany, Olbers com¬ 
bined the professions of physician and astron¬ 
omer, and Bessel, a youth of 16, was clerk in a 
mercantile house. 

The first day of the century was marked by 
a discovery of capital interest and importance. 
The wide gap between the planets Mars and 
Jupiter had been a source of wonder, and the 
conviction that there must be a planet in it had 
become so strong that an association of astron¬ 


omers was formed to search for it. But, on 
1 Jan. 1801, before they got to work, Piazzi, the 
Italian astronomer of Palermo, found Ceres. 
The year following Olbers discovered Pallas, 
and propounded his celebrated theory that the 
newly formed bodies were fragments of a shat¬ 
tered planet, more of which might be found. 
This anticipation was amply justified by the 
result, though the theory of a shattered planet 
has long been rejected. By 1868 the number 
reached 100. When the sky was systematically 
watched 100 more were found. When the 
process of photographing the stars was perfect¬ 
ed, so many new ones were found on the photo¬ 
graphic plates that it is almost impossible to 
follow them up. About 450 have had their 
orbits mapped out. See Asteroids. 

In this country, David Rittenhouse, almost 
the only American of Revolutionary times who 
has a place in scientific history, had been dead 
four years when the century began, and there 
was no one to take his place. He was one of 
the committee of the American Philosophical So¬ 
ciety that made an extensive and well-planned 
set of observations on the transit of Venus 
in 1769. The first American after the Revolu¬ 
tion to acquire eminence in any department of 
astronomical science was Nathaniel Bowditch. 
A Boston ship-captain by profession, he first 
prepared his * Navigator,* the standard work 
of the sailor through most of the century. He 
mastered the great work of Laplace, and made 
it accessible to students by a translation and 
commentary explaining the processes in detail. 
So far as practical astronomy was concerned, 
it might be regarded as non-existent among us 
during at least the first third of the century. 
We know little more of it than that Robert 
Treat Paine, grandson of the signer of the 
Declaration of Independence, used to compute 
eclipses and publish the results in the Amer¬ 
ican Almanac,* and the Boston Advertiser. 
About 1840, Dr. Lardner paid a visit to this 
country and remained several years, delivering 
public lectures, which, though not of a high 
order when measured by the standard of to-day, 
were much above any which Americans had 
then heard. 

During the first half of the century, the ad¬ 
vance of astronomical science consisted princi¬ 
pally in a form of development which goes on 
without any striking discovery, and has there¬ 
fore little interest for the general public. When 
bright comets appeared they were carefully 
studied by observers, at the head of whom were 
Bessel and Olbers. It was thus found that the 
tail of a comet was not an appendage carried 
along with it, like the tail of an animal, but 
merely a stream of vapor arising from it and 
repelled by a force residing in the sun. The 
discovery of telescopic comets by observers, 
here and there, continually added to the num¬ 
ber of these bodies known. Most of them were 
found to be moving in such orbits that they 
would require thousands of years, perhaps tens 
of thousands, to return to the sun, if, indeed, 
they ever reappeared. But this, though the 
general rule, is far from being universal. From 
time to time comets were found moving in 
closed orbits and performing their revolution 
in periods of a few years, mostly between 3 
years and 10. 

One of the noteworthy discoveries of the 
third quarter of the century was that of the 


ASTRONOMY 


lotion between comets and shooting stars. The 
first discovery of this relation came about in a 
curious way. The researches of H. A. Newton 
and others had made it quite clear that shooting 
stars were due to the impact of countless minute 
bodies revolving around the sun in various or¬ 
bits and now and then encountering our at¬ 
mosphere. It was also known that the great 
November meteoric showers must be due to a 
stream of such bodies. One astronomer com¬ 
puted the orbit of the November meteors; and 
another quite independently published the orbit 
of a comet which appeared in 1866. A third 
astronomer, Schiaparelli, noticed that the two 
orbits were practically the same. The conclu¬ 
sion was obvious. The minute bodies which 
caused the shower moved in the path of the 
comet and were portions of its substance which 
had from time to time separated from it. The 
disappointing failure of the shower in 1899 and 
1900 can have but one cause — a small change 
in the orbit of the meteoric swarm caused by 
the attraction of the planets. Nor has the comet 
associated with them shown itself; it was per¬ 
haps dissipated like that of Biela’s. Apart from 
this, the question of the constitution of comets 
is still an unsolved mystery. Their spectrum is 
that of a body which shines by its own light. 
But no one can explain how a body in the cold 
and vacuous celestial spaces can so shine. The 
brighter comets may have a more or less mass¬ 
ive nucleus. Yet it is not certain that the nu¬ 
cleus is entirely opaque. In 1882, the astrono¬ 
mers at the Cape of Good Hope enjoyed an 
opportunity which no one of their brethren 
ever enjoyed before or since; that of seeing a 
comet enter on the disk of the sun. Unfor¬ 
tunately, the sun disappeared from view a very 
few minutes afterward. But not a trace of 
the comet could be seen on the sun as a spot. 
It was seemingly quite transparent to the solar 
rays. That the fainter comets have no nucleus 
and are merely composed of a collection of 
foggy particles seems certain. How are these 
particles kept together through so many revo- 
tions? This question has not yet been satis¬ 
factorily answered. See Comet. 

The Greenwich Observatory was taken in 
charge by Airy in 1834. He immediately insti¬ 
tuted a great improvement in its organization 
and work, but it was not till 1850 that he ac¬ 
quired for it new instruments of great impor¬ 
tance. He was the founder of what has some¬ 
times been called the Greenwich system: the 
astronomers of an institution taking a part like 
those of soldiers in an army, making all their 
observations on a plan prescribed by the author¬ 
ity and rarely using their own discretion in any 
way. The mathematical theory of the motions 
of the planets, and especially the moon, re¬ 
ceived its greatest improvement from the hands 
of Hensen, born about 1795 - He may fairly 
rank as the greatest of celestial mechanicians 
since the time of Laplace. Toward the middle 
of the century, he prepared the first tables of 
the moon which could satisfy the requirements 
of modern astronomic theory. 1 hese were 
published by the British government in 1857* 
and have now formed the basis of astronomical 
ephemerides for nearly half _ a century. The 
most striking event of the mid-century period, 
and one which in the popular mind must long 
hold its place as among the greatest of intel¬ 
lectual achievements, was the computation by 


Leverrier of the position of an unknown planet 
from its attraction on Uranus. The . speedy 
discovery of the planet on the very night it 
was first looked for was, for the public, a 
proof of the absolute correctness of gravita¬ 
tional theories that surpassed all others. It 
was as a first and bold attempt to sail into 
an unknown sea; yet, as in the case of Colum¬ 
bus and the Atlantic, its repetition would not 
now be generally considered a difficult mat¬ 
ter. With the discovery of Neptune and with 
the advance in the art of astronomical observa¬ 
tion, improvements in the theories of the move¬ 
ments of the planets were necessary. The 
greatest step forward in this direction was 
taken by Leverrier. Among the results of his 
work was the discovery that the perihelion of 
Mercury moves more rapidly than it should 
under the influence of gravitation. This excess 
of movement has been abundantly proved by 
observation since his time, but its cause is 
still one of the greatest mysteries of gravita¬ 
tional astronomy. As a general rule, it may be 
said that during the last half century the Ger¬ 
mans have been the leaders in astronomical re¬ 
search. Their work on the subject has been 
more voluminous than that of any other nation. 
The leading astronomical journal of the world 
is still that of Germany. But when we consider 
not quantity of work, but the special impor¬ 
tance of particular works, precedence has, from 
one point of view, passed to America. While, 
perhaps, we still have fewer students pursuing 
astronomy in the United States than in Ger¬ 
many, the number of men among us who have 
acquired the highest distinction and most skil¬ 
fully made applications of this science is greater 
than in any other country. The rapidity of 
progress from small beginnings is very remark¬ 
able. 

In 1832, Professor Airy delivered, before the 
British Association for the Advancement of 
Science, an address on the progress of astron¬ 
omy, which soon acquired celebrity. The state 
of astronomy in different countries was re¬ 
viewed. America was dismissed with the re¬ 
mark that he was not aware of any observatory 
existing in that country. In the revival of as¬ 
tronomy among us and its advance to its present 
position in popular favor, one agency has not 
been esteemed so highly as it deserves. Con¬ 
temporaneous with the visit of Dr. Lardner 
were the lectures of Prof. Ormsby M. Mitchel. 
With unsurpassed eloquence he explained the 
wonders of astronomy to audiences intensely in¬ 
terested in the novelties of the subject. From 
a scientific point of view the lectures were 
probably not of a high order, nor could it be 
said that Mitchel himself, active and enthusias¬ 
tic though he was, was a profound astronomer. 
Yet it may well be said that to him is due the 
ability of our astronomers since that time to 
secure the public support necessary to the erec¬ 
tion of the fabric of their science. A few years 
after Airy’s address small college observatories 
were founded at Williams College and at the 
Western Reserve College, Ohio. These were 
doubtless a stimulus to students, but can hardly 
have added to astronomical science. When the 
Wilkes Exploring Expedition was being organ¬ 
ized, it was found necessary to have a contin¬ 
uous series of observations made at home during 
the absence of the expedition which, com¬ 
pared with those made on the ships, would en- 


ASTRONOMY 


able the navigators to determine the longitudes 
of the lands they discovered. A little wooden 
structure, erected by Captain Gilliss for this 
purpose, on Capitol Hill, Washington city, was 
in some sort the beginning of our National 
Observatory. The actual foundation of the lat¬ 
ter was almost contemporaneous with that of 
the Harvard Observatory, both being com¬ 
menced about the year 1843. The Harvard 
Observatory was placed under the direction of 
William C. Bond, who had, for many years, 
made observations, first at his own house in 
Dorchester, and then on top of a house at 
Cambridge. At Washington the Naval Observ¬ 
atory was placed under the charge of Lieut. 
Maury. After getting its instruments in opera¬ 
tion, he devoted himself almost entirely to 
those researches on ocean currents, which, so 
long as the commerce of the world was carried 
on mostly in sailing vessels, were of the first 
importance. But the institution soon acquired 
astronomical celebrity in other ways. Here 
Sears Cook Walker made the first thorough in¬ 
vestigation of the orbit of Leverrier’s newly 
discovered planet, and showed that it had been 
twice observed by Lalande as far back as 1795, 
but without its character being suspected. Here 
also the device of recording the transits of stars 
by means of the chronograph and determining 
the longitude of places by telegraph found their 
first application. New observatories, some 
founded in connection with colleges, others by 
private individuals, now sprang up rapidly 
among us in every quarter. Twenty-four were 
enumerated by Loomis in 1856. What figure 
the number has now reached it is impossible to 
say. Whatever it may be, it marks rather the 
interest taken by the intelligent public in as¬ 
tronomical science than the actual progress of 
knowledge. The number of these institutions 
which have actually made important contribu¬ 
tions to astronomical knowledge is naturally 
very small. It is to a few leading ones that 
most of the progress is due. 

Two of these have put almost a new face 
upon astronomical science. These are the 
Harvard Observatory at Cambridge and the 
Lick Observatory of California. The former, 
while a respectable institution from its founda¬ 
tion, and made famous by the works of the 
Bonds, had never commanded the means neces¬ 
sary to prosecute astronomical research on a 
large scale. When Pickering assumed the di¬ 
rectorship in 1875, he devoted his energies to 
those branches of research which are now 
known under the general term of astro-physics, 
being concerned with the physical constitutions 
of the heavenly bodies rather than with their 
motions. The extension of his work was made 
possible by very large additions to the endow¬ 
ment of the observatory. It thus became one 
of the best-supported institutions of the kind in 
the world. Photometry and spectroscopy have 
been its main subjects. With the aid of a 
branch established in Arequipa, Peru, the mag¬ 
nitudes of all the stars in the heavens visible 
to the naked eyes, as well as many fainter ones, 
have been determined. Among its remarkable 
discoveries have been those of new stars. It 
was formerly known that at long intervals, 
sometimes more than a century, sometimes less, 
stars apparently new blazed out in the sky. 
Really the star was not new, but was an old and 
very small one of which the light was tem¬ 


porarily multiplied hundreds of thousands of 
times. A system of constantly photographing 
the heavens showed that such objects appear 
every few years, only they do not generally at¬ 
tain such brilliancy as to be noticed by the un¬ 
assisted eye. The success of the Lick Observa¬ 
tory in a different, yet not wholly dissimilar, 
direction must be regarded as one of the most 
extraordinary developments of our time. Com¬ 
mencing work about the beginning of 1888, 
under the direction of Holden, and supplied 
with the greatest telescope that human art had 
then produced, the observations of Burnham 
and Barnard excited universal interest, both 
among astronomers and the public. The dis¬ 
covery of a fifth satellite of Jupiter, perhaps the 
most difficult object in the heavens, was made 
there by Barnard in 1892. Later, the optical 
discovery of the companion of Procyon, an 
object known to exist from its attraction on that 
star, was made by Schaeberle. But its most 
epoch-making work is due in still more recent 
years to Campbell, by measurements of the mo¬ 
tion of stars in the line of sight with the spec¬ 
troscope. The possibility of measuring such 
motions was first demonstrated by Huggins, 
some thirty years ago, and was applied both by 
him and by the observers at Greenwich. Then 
a great step forward was made by photographing 
the spectrum instead of depending on visible 
observation. This step was mostly developed 
by Vogel, at the Potsdam Observatory, near 
Berlin. In the case of the variable star, Algol, 
Vogel was thus enabled to show that the fad¬ 
ing away of its light at regular intervals of 
something less than three days was really a 
partial eclipse of the star by a dark body re¬ 
volving around it. He also showed that three 
other bright stars varied in their motions to 
and from the earth in a way that could arise only 
from the revolution of massive but invisible 
bodies around them. Now, at the Lick Ob¬ 
servatory, Campbell, armed with the best spec¬ 
trograph that human art could make, the gift 
of D. O. Mills, has, by the introduction of every 
refinement of his method, brought into these 
measures a. degree of precision never before 
reached. The cases of variable motion, as found 
by him, are so numerous as to indicate that iso¬ 
lated stars may be the exception rather than 
the rule. It is true that up to the present time 
he detects variation in only about one star out 
of thirteen which he observes. But it is only 
in the exceptional cases, where the planet is al¬ 
most as massive as the star itself, that the mo¬ 
tion can be detected. It is not at all unlikely 
that, for every spectroscopic binary system (as 
these pairs of objects are now called) we can 
detect, quite a number may exist in which the 
revolving planet is too small to affect the mo¬ 
tion of the star. With the beginning of a new 
century, astronomy, the oldest of the sciences, 
seems to be entering upon a new career, with 
a prospect of a life before it the end of which 
no man can foresee. 

Bibliography .—In French, we have the monu¬ 
mental works of Delambre; in English, Agnes 
M. Clerke., ( History of Astronomy in the 19th 
Century ) ; Berry, < History of Astronomy.> 

Simon Newcomb, LL.D., 
Washington, D. C. 

Astronomy, Practical. The instruments 
of observation used by the working astronomer 
are made up mainly of various combinations 


ASTRONOMY 


of three appliances. These are the telescope, 
the graduated circle, and the clock. (For the 
principles of the first see Telescope.) With 
the clock is associated the chronograph as part 
of a combination for measuring time. Many 
auxiliary appliances are also brought into use 
of which the micrometer and the spirit level 
are the most important. The usefulness of the 
telescope in measurement does not arise solely 
from its enabling the observer to see objects 



use of the telescope is that when this occurs, 
the star is apparently situated exactly on a 
straight line passing through the cross threads, 
and the centre of the object glass. This line is 
called the line of sight of the telescope. 

Now, let the observer move the telescope 
until he finds another star, whose image he 
brings upon the cross threads. The angle 
through which he has moved the telescope from 
one star to the other, supposing the two stars 
to be at rest, will then be precisely the angle 
between the rays of light coming from the two 
stars. If, then, any system is adopted of de¬ 
termining through how many degrees, minutes. 


-\L. 


otherwise invisible. A telescope with no mag¬ 
nifying power at all would still enable him to 
determine the directions of the heavenly bodies 
at any moment with greater accuracy than 
would otherwise be attainable. The principle 
on which the telescope is used in celestial mea¬ 
surement will first be explained. Let Fig. i 
represent the section of a telescope; A B being 
the object glass, and C the eye-end, where the 
rays from a star are brought to a focus. The 
lines converging to the plane E F represent 
the rays of light from a star reaching the 
focus. Here they form an image of the star, 
which the observer sees by looking into the 
eye-piece at C. The plane, of which the dotted 
line E F is a section, passing through the 
focus at right angles to the telescope, is called 
the focal plane. By changing slightly the di¬ 
rection in which the telescope is pointed, the 
rays may come to a focus on any point in this 
plane not too far from the axis or central line 
of the telescope. In the focal plane is placed 
a system of very fine threads which the ob¬ 
server sees when he looks into the eye-piece. 
These threads are generally made of fibres of 
spider-web, a substance so well adapted to this 
purpose that nothing better has yet come into 
use. To fix the ideas we shall suppose several 
cross threads; then the observer by looking 
into the telescope may see the stars and the 



Fig. 2 . 


cross-threads as represented in Fig. 2. Here we 
have the images of two stars quite near the 
crossing point of the threads. The observer 
moves the telescope until one of the stars is 
seen exactly at the point of intersection of the 
two threads. The fundamental principle in the 



etc., the telescope has moved, the angular dis¬ 
tance between the stars is known. The studious 
reader will remark that, owing to the rotation 
of the earth, the image of a star seen in a fixed 
telescope is continually moving across the field 
of view. To explain the principle we must, 
however, leave this motion out of account, or 
suppose it allowed for. 

We have next to show how a large angle 
through which the telescope may be moved is 
measured. This is done by means of the grad¬ 
uated circle, a representation of which is shown 
in Fig. 3. It will be seen that the rim of the 

































ASTRONOMY 


circle is divided up into degrees by fine lines 
as represented in the figure, where, however, 
only every fifth degree is marked. In the in¬ 
struments actually used in astronomy, not only 
is every degree marked, but in the circles for 
the finest observations, the degrees are still 
farther sub-divided into spaces of 5', 3', or even 
2'. Since there are 360° in a circumference, it 
follows that in a division to 2' there will be 
10,800 of these graduations, or fine marks, on 
the circle. These marks must all be as nearly 
equi-distant as human art can make them, and 
the problem of doing this, together with that 
of making them so fine and sharp that they 



Fig. 4. 


can be used in the most precise measurement, 
is one of the most difficult with which the in¬ 
strument maker has to deal. The way in which 
the divided circle is used to measure the angu¬ 
lar motion of the telescope is shown by the 
dotted outline of the latter. The circle is at¬ 
tached to it so that both move on an axis con¬ 
centric with the circle and perpendicular to its 
plane. Then, when the telescope is turned on 
this axis, the circle turns with it as a grindstone 
does on its axis. The distance through which 
telescope and circle are turned is then measured 
by means of the graduations. To show how 
this is done, other appliances must be described. 

Instead of two stars being far apart, so that 
the telescope has to be moved, they may be 


The Filar Micrometer .— This adjunct is so 
called because an essential part of it consists in 
fine threads of spider lines stretched across the 
field of view, as already described. I he aim 
of its construction is to admit of these threads 
being moved in a direction at right angles to 
their length, by a very fine screw, so that the 
space over which they pass may be measured by 
the turns of the screw. The principal appliances 
for effecting this are a fixed frame, A B C D, 
Fig. 4, in which slides another frame, E F G, 
moved by a fine screw at S. Across this inner 
frame is stretched the spider line J, and across 
the fixed one the spider line H. To the head 
of the screw is attached a cylindrical rim, 
which has 100 or some other number of divi¬ 
sions cut upon it. An index mark serves to show 
how far the screw is turned. An apparatus for 
measuring the number of turns of the screw is 
attached, but need not be described here. Then 
when the observer turns the screw, the mov¬ 
able frame of the spider lines is slowly carried 
along with it. The position of the spider lines 
as they move is then shown at every moment 
by the number of turns of the screw and the 
fractions of a turn. To show the accuracy with 
which this can be done, we remark that the 
screws used by astronomers may have 100 or 
even 125 turns to the inch. Then, each revolu¬ 
tion of the screw, as read off on the head, 
measures to a motion through this space. There 
being 100 graduations on the head, each grad¬ 
uation may measure the motion of 1-10,000 of an 
inch. But the observer may estimate the tenths 
between the divisions, thus carrying his mea¬ 
surements down to the 1-100,000 of an inch. 
Beside the movable spider line across the frame, 
fixed spider lines may also be stretched across 
the fixed frame. Then we shall have two sys¬ 
tems of spider lines, one movable and the other 
fixed. The relation of each to the other is mea¬ 
sured by the turns of the screw. 

To determine the exact position of the grad¬ 
uated circle, a filar micrometer O is attached 
to a microscope of the form shown in Fig. 
5, and the latter is finally fastened to a fixed 
frame in such a position that, when the ob- 



alongside of each other, as in Fig. 2; then, the 
observer, by moving the cross-threads from one 
star to the other, and measuring the amount of 
the motion, can determine the angular distance 
between the stars, and their relation to each 
other. This is done by a micrometer, one kind 
of which will now be described. 


server looks into the microscope, he sees the 
graduations on the circle magnified as many 
times as necessary, and also the threads of the 
micrometer. The microscope being fixed re¬ 
mains at rest while the circle turns. If the 
instrument were geometrically perfect in every 
respect, one reading microscope would answer 






































ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS. 



Six-inch steel Meridian Circle, U. S. Naval Observatory, Washington, 






















































* 
























. 



■ 




















































ASTRONOMY 


the purpose; but, as the circle cannot be cen¬ 
tred with mathematical exactness, pairs of mi¬ 
croscopes are used which are at opposite ends 
of diameters of the circle. For example, when 
the graduation 15 0 20' is brought under one 
microscope, the graduation 195 0 15' would be 
under the opposite one. It is customary, for 
greater precision, to have two such pairs at 
right angles to each other, or four microscopes 
in all. 

To determine the position of the circle, and 
hence the direction in which the telescope at¬ 
tached to it points, the observer looks into one 
of the microscopes and fixes upon some grad¬ 
uation of the circle, turns the micrometer screw 
till a spider line, or the middle of a pair of 
lines is central on the graduation, and then 
reads the indication of the head of the screw. 
It will be noticed that in Fig. 5 the mark 
21 0 is central under the microscope. By point¬ 
ing his telescope on one star after another and 
reading the microscope in this way, noting on 
each occasion what graduation is read, the dis¬ 
tance through which the telescope is moved, 
and therefore the angles between the stars, are 
measured with the highest precision. 

The Clock .— The astronomical clock does 
not differ greatly in its construction from the 
ordinary clock. Its arrangement and the num¬ 
bers on its face are, however, adapted to the 
measures of time used by astronomers. Mean 
solar time, which is the time we make use of in 
the affairs of daily life, is also used by the 
astronomer with a slightly different arrange¬ 
ment. Instead of the hours being designated 
as a.m. and p.m., the astronomer counts through 
the whole 24 hours. Moreover, the count does 
not begin at midnight, but at noon, which is 
therefore the commencement of the astronom¬ 
ical day. For purely scientific purposes this is 
the natural time to begin the day, because it is 
determined by the passage of the sun across 
the meridian. Therefore, any day of the month, 
as used by the astronomer, continues until noon 
of the following day, when a new day begins. 
For this reason the hour hand of his clock 
only makes one revolution in the 24 hours, the 
hours being numbered from o to 23. The as¬ 
tronomer makes use of a second system of time, 
entirely different from that used in daily life, 
being based on the apparent diurnal movement 
of the stars. We have explained, in the pre¬ 
ceding article (Astronomy) that the time be¬ 
tween two passages of the same star over the 
meridian of a place is not quite 24 hours, but 
nearly four minutes less. This is the true time 
of rotation of the earth on its axis, because, in 
consequence of the advance of the earth in its 
orbit it must go through a little more than its, 
true revolution in order that the meridian of 
any place on its surface — that of Washington 
for example — may again pass directly under 
the sun. The astronomer therefore uses a 
<( sidereal day,® which is shorter than the day 
determined by the sun in the proportion 
365.241366.24. This day is divided into 24 
sidereal hours, and each hour into sidereal min¬ 
utes and seconds, according to the usual system. 
A sidereal clock is regulated so as to gain 
about 3 m. 56 s. every day on our ordinary 
clocks and, in this way, keep time with the 
apparent diurnal movement of the fixed stars. 
It is so set that it shall read 0 h., 0 m., o s. 
at the moment when the vernal equinox crosses 
the meridian. As any of us, by looking at the 


clock, can tell, by the time of day, whether 
the sun is in the east, south, or west, so the 
astronomer, by his sidereal clock, can tell in 
what part of its apparent diurnal course any 
star may be situated. For examples, at 5 h. he 
knows that the constellation Auriga is on the 
meridian, and at 18 h. 30 m. that the beautiful 
Lyra is crossing the meridian. 

The Chronograph .— There are two systems 
by which the astronomer notes the time of oc¬ 
currence of an instantaneous phenomenon to a 
fraction of a second. On the older system, 
which is not without its advantages, the ob¬ 
server, looking at his clock, counts its beats 
until the occurrence of the phenomenon he is to 
observe. We may take, as an example, the oc- 
cultation of a star by the moon. He sees the 
limb of the moon approaching the star until it 
is clear that, in a few seconds, it is going to 
pass over it and hide it from view. Then, 
looking at the clock, he listens to the seconds, 
mentally counting the number of each beat. At 
length, there is a certain beat of the clock 
when the star is not yet hidden, while before 
the next beat the star has disappeared from 
view. He estimates how many tenths of the 
interval between the beats of the clock had 
elapsed when the star disappeared, and records 
the hours, minutes, seconds, and tenths in his 
note-book. The skilled observer will seldom 
be more than a few tenths of a second in error 
in this estimate. It requires long practice, and 
much natural aptitude, to be able to make an 
accurate observation in this way. The method 
has also the inconvenience that there is no per¬ 
manent record except that which is written 
down at the moment, so that, if the observer 
has made an error of any kind, he has no direct 
way of detecting it except by subsequently dis¬ 
covering that something must be wrong. This 
difficulty is avoided by means of a chronograph. 
In the form commonly used, the chronograph 
consists essentially of a cylinder, generally about 
eight inches in diameter and one or two feet in 
length, revolving on its axis by clock work at 
the rate of one turn a minute. Around the 
cylinder is stretched a sheet of paper, which 
is carried with it in its- motion. The sheet is 
pressed by a pen, pencil, or other point, so as 
to leave a mark on the paper as the cylinder 
revolves. The pen is carried by a little carriage 
moving slowly forward from one end of the 
cylinder to the other at a rate of about one 
tenth of an inch, or a little more, in a minute. 
Consequently, the point describes a spiral line 
on the paper as the chronograph goes through 
its successive revolutions, until the pen arrives 
at the farther end of the cylinder. This may 
take a period of two, three, or four hours, ac¬ 
cording to the adjustments. The pen is con¬ 
nected with an electro-magnet, the current 
around which passes through the works of the 
clock. The arrangement is such that at every 
beat of the clock, or sometimes at every alter¬ 
nate beat, the electric current is either closed 
or broken. With each closing or breaking of 
the current a slight motion is given to the pen 
so that the seconds are marked on the paper on 
the revolving cylinder. The same or another 
current also passes through a key held in the 
hand of the observer. When the latter sees 
the moment of the phenomenon he is to note 
approaching, he holds the key in his hand, and 
presses it at the exact moment to be recorded. 
A motion is thus given to the pen, and the posi- 


ASTRONOMY 


tion of the signal on the paper among the 
signals given by the clock shows the moment 
to a fraction of a second at which the signal 
was given. 

m OSec. IS. 2 S. 

,I._A_ A _A_ 

12. ^- A - / V 

13. -A- A -A- 

14 _A_A-A_ 

15-A-^-A_ 

Fig. 6 . 

Different systems are used based on this gen¬ 
eral principle. There are various ways in which 
the pen marks the clock beats on the paper. 
In that mostly used in this country the pen is 
not raised from the paper, but is given a sud¬ 
den lateral jerk, producing a notch in the line, 
as shown in Fig. 6, which is a copy of a small 
portion of a chronograph record. On another 
system the pen simply makes dots on the paper 
at each beat of the clock. Sometimes the cur¬ 
rent passes around the electric magnet all the 
time except at the instant a signal is made. 
Then one and the same electric circuit is used 
for both the clock and the observer. Some¬ 
times the clock only makes the circuit at the 
moment of its beat; then the circuit at the com¬ 
mand of the observer is a second one, which he 
makes by pressing the key. The main point in 
all systems is that the beginnings of the minutes 
all come under each other so that, by taking the 
sheet off of the cylinder, and spreading it out, 
writing in the minutes and the lines of seconds, 
the observer can determine the exact moments at 
which every one of any number of signals were 
made while the chronograph was running. For 
example, in Fig. 6 it will be seen that the ob¬ 
server pressed the key at 12 m. 3.5 s. and again 
at 13 m. 2.4 s. 

The Spirit Level .— Another appliance much 
used in astronomy is the spirit level. It serves 
to set the axis of an instrument exactly hori¬ 
zontal. It consists of a glass tube, generally 
six or eight inches long, of which the rounded 
surface is not a perfect cylinder, but is formed 
by the revolution of the arc of a very large cir¬ 
cle around its chord. The tube is therefore of 
the shape shown in Fig. 7, slightly larger in 
the middle part than at the two ends. The 
amount of bulging is, however, so slight that 
the eye cannot perceive it. In the most delicate 
levels, a section of the curved surface is an 
arc of a circle perhaps half a mile, more or 
less, in diameter. The tube is nearly filled with 
chloroform or ether. Water, or even alcohol, 

A Q 



is not liquid enough for the purpose. A small 
vacant bubble is left at the top of the cylinder, 
as shown at A B in Fig. 7. When this bubble 
is in the middle of the tube, the axis of the 
level is perfectly horizontal. The remainder of 
the level is sketched in Fig. 8, which shows the 
•level completely mounted, so that it can be set 


on the horizontal pivots of the instrument of 
observation. The true horizontality of the 
pivots is tested by reversing the level end for 
end, reading the position of the bubble at each 



setting. Details need not be entered into at' 
present, as we only wish to make the principle 
of the instrument clear. Nearly all instruments 
for astronomical measurement are made by 
putting together some combination of the de¬ 
vices we have described. The two combina¬ 
tions most used in astronomical observatories 
are the Meridian Circle or Transit Circle, which 
are the same in principle, and the Equatorial 
Telescope. 

The Meridian Circle .— This instrument is 
used for two distinct purposes. One is the de¬ 
termination of the right ascensions of the 
heavenly bodies; the other the determination of 
their declinations. It will conduce to clearness 
to consider these two functions separately and 
begin with the instrument as adapted to the 
first purpose. In this form it is called the tran¬ 
sit instrument and is shown in Fig. 9. It con¬ 
sists essentially of a telescope, mounted on a 



horizontal east and west axis P Q, the hori¬ 
zontality of which is tested from time to time 
by a spirit level. As thus mounted it will be 
seen that the telescope cannot move out of the 
meridian; by turning it on its axis, its line of 
sight marks out the meridian. Consequently, 
if an observer looking into it sees a star, or 





























































ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS. 



Equatorial in the Observatory at Pultowa. 2. Photographic Refractor. 3. Eye Piece of No. 4. 4. lleliometer. 
















































































































































































































ASTRONOMY 


other heavenly body, he knows that the star 
must be near the meridian. To make the ob¬ 
servation more exact, a system of spider lines, 
shown in Fig. io, is stretched across the focal 



Fig. io. 


plane, as already described. The middle line is 
so adjusted as to mark the meridian with the 
greatest possible exactness. The result is that 
the observer, looking into the instrument, sees 
these spider lines, and he may also see a star 
moving toward the meridian by virtue of its 
apparent diurnal motion as shown in the figure, 
where it is about to cross the meridian line. 
Watching it with a key connected with the 
electric circuit of the chronograph in his hand, 
he taps the key at the moment the image of the 
star crosses each of the lines. The middle line 
marks the passage across the meridian. The 
other lines are used in order to secure greater 
exactness by taking the mean of all the transits 
across the separate lines. Thus, by pointing his 
instrument into any part of the meridian, the 
observer may determine the times by his sidereal 
clock at which any number of stars crossed the 
meridian of his place. 

In order that the line of sight of the in¬ 
strument may describe the true meridian, it is 
necessary that, when the instrument is turned 
in the proper direction, the line shall pass 



through the celestial pole. This is effected by 
the following arrangement: In the course of 
its apparent diurnal motion, a star near the pole 
will cross the meridian of any place twice in the 


course of a sidereal day, first above the pole and 
then below it. Let the dotted circle in Fig. n 
be its apparent diurnal circuit around the pole 
P. Let the vertical line M R be the true merid¬ 
ian passing through the pole, and the other line 
A B that marked out by the line of sight of the 
transit instrument, supposed not to be exactly 
in the meridian. Then the star will take a 
less time in passing around from A to B on 
the left than in the other part of its course 
from B to A. Therefore by observing the tran¬ 
sit both above and below the pole, across the 
middle thread of the instrument, the observer 
determines whether the line of sight of the in¬ 
strument passes east or west of the pole and 
may adjust it accordingly. It may be said that, 
in astronomical practice, no instrument is ever 
assumed to be perfectly adjusted. The clock of 
the astronomer is never assumed to be correct, 
nor his transit instrument to be in the true 
meridian. What he does is, assuming them 
wrong, to make his observations, determine the 
errors, and correct his observations accordingly. 
This is called ^reducing® the observation. We 
have already explained that, when a star is ex¬ 
actly in the same hour circle with the vernal 
equinox, its right ascension is o h., o m., o s. 
Since the clock, assumed to be correct, then 
reads exactly o h., it follows that the star in 
question will cross the meridian at this time 
by the clock. Then, as the sphere revolves, the 
right ascensions of the stars are all equal to 
the sidereal time at which they cross the merid¬ 
ian. Thus the observer by noting these times, 
measures the right ascensions of the heavenly 
bodies. This system of using the clock instead 
of a divided circle for determining right ascen¬ 
sions constitutes one of the greatest advances 
ever made in astronomical measurement. It de¬ 
pends upon the perfect uniformity of the earth’s 
rotation and the excellence with which a clock 
can be made. 

The Meridian Circle is the transit instru¬ 
ment, just described, with one or two graduated 
circles on its axis of rotation. The method of 
using it, and determining the arc through which 
the circle has moved at any time has already 
been explained. The inquiring reader may wish 
to know how, by such readings, the astronomer 
can determine the declination of stars. If the 
celestial pole were a visible point in the heav¬ 
ens, this would be very simple; the observer 
would turn his instrument until it pointed exact¬ 
ly at the pole, and then read his microscopes. 
Then as one star after another crossed the 
meridian, he would make a similar pointing, 
reading his microscope for the transit of each 
star. The difference between the reading on the 
pole and that on the different stars, would 
show their distances from the pole. Subtract¬ 
ing each of these from 90° would giye the 
declination of the stars as seen in the instru- 
ment. 

But, unfortunately, the pole is not a visible 
point. The observer has therefore to refer his 
position to the direction of gravity, which is 
done by a very ingenious use of a basin of 
quicksilver. The basin is set on a firm sup¬ 
port on the ground under the telescope, and 
the latter is pointed directly downward. The 
observer, by mounting up to the eye-piece and 
looking down, is looking perpendicularly into 
the basin of mercury. A combination of reflec¬ 
tors is then arranged in the eye-piece of the 
















ASTRONOMY 


telescope so that he can, at the same time, 
see the threads in his eye-piece and the images 
of these threads as reflected from the basin of 
mercury. When a telescope is so adjusted that 
the image and the thread coincide, he knows 
that the line of sight of his telescope is truly 
vertical. He then reads the microscope of his 
circle and so determines what the reading of his 
circle is for the vertical position. He knows 
that if the telescope is pointed at the zenith, the 
reading will be different by exactly i8o°. He 
thus determines the exact distance at which the 
heavenly bodies crossed the meridian north or 
south of his zenith. From this, the determina¬ 
tion of the declination is, in principle, a simple 
matter. 

The Equatorial .— One of the most impor¬ 
tant arrangements of nature with which the 
astronomer has to deal is the diurnal motion. 
This takes place so slowly that, in looking at 
the stars, we do not notice it unless we watch 
for some time. But, if we point a telescope at 
a heavenly body, it magnifies the diurnal mo¬ 
tion as much as it does the object. The result 
is that such a body, seen in a fixed telescope, 
is continually traveling across the field of view, 
and the instrument has to be continually moved 
to keep up with it. ... 

In order to avoid this inconvenience, it is 
necessary that, if measures are to be made upon 
the body, or if it is to be continuously studied, 
the telescope must move to correspond. This 
is brought about by mounting it upon an axis 
parallel to that of the earth, and therefore ob¬ 
lique to the horizon, called the polar axis, fl he 
inclination to the horizon must be equal to the 
latitude of the place. All great telescopes are 
thus mounted. The way in which this is done 
will be seen by the accompanying picture of 
the great telescope mounted at Pulkova, Russia. 
In order to keep the telescope pointed at the 
object, it must be turned upon the polar axis 
by clock work, moving it steadily at a rate 
equal to the diurnal motion of the object ob¬ 
served. In reality, the telescope is then pointed 
in a fixed direction, the motion of the earth 
being simply neutralized by the clock work of 
the telescope carrying the latter in the opposite 
direction. The Equatorial telescope must also 
have a second axis, called the declination axis, 
in order that it may be pointed at stars in differ¬ 
ent declinations. The direction is determined 
by circles attached to the telescope, which show, 
at any time, to what declination on the celestial 
sphere the instrument is pointed. By a com¬ 
bination of contrivances, the astronomer can 
point his telescope by day at any star bright 
enough to be visible in it; or, by night, at any 
object invisible to the naked eye, of which he 
knows the right ascension and declination. He 
first turns his telescope until one divided circle 
corresponds to the declination of the star, and 
then clamps it in that position. Then, looking 
at his sidereal clock, and taking the difference 
between the sidereal time and the right as¬ 
cension of the star, he turns his telescope on 
the polar axis until the other circle shows 
the correct pointing. Then he starts the clock 
work which sets the telescope in motion, and 
looking into the eye-piece, sees the required 
object. Every large telescope is also supplied 
with a finder. This consists of a smaller tele¬ 
scope fastened to the larger one in such a way 
that the centre of the field of view is the 
same in both. But the finder has a lower mag¬ 


nifying power, and therefore a much larger field. 
Looking into it, and recognizing the object he 
wishes to observe, the observer moves the tele¬ 
scope until the object is seen on the cross 
threads of the finder. Then he knows that it 
is in the field of view of the large telescope. 

Application of Photography to Astronomy .— 
From the time that photographic methods were 
introduced, the idea of taking pictures of the 
heavenly bodies by such methods must have 
occurred to astronomers. About the year 1849, 
Prof. J. W. Draper of New York put this 
method into practice by taking a daguerreotype 
of the moon. Shortly after our present system 
of photography was devised, several American 
astronomers carried the experiment yet farther. 
Notable among these were G. P. Bond, first as¬ 
sistant and afterward director of the Harvard 
Observatory; and L. M. Rutherfurd of New 
York, who was the possessor of an excellent 
telescope, and brought the method to a high 
state of perfection. 

The principle on which a photograph of a 
heavenly body is taken is extremely simple. A 
telescope is pointed at the body so that the 
image of the latter is formed in its focus. A 
sensitized plate is placed in the focus and ex¬ 
posed for the necessary time. This may be 
only a fraction of a second, or it may be sev¬ 
eral hours. Unless the exposure is very brief, 
it is necessary that the telescope shall be kept 
in motion, so as to follow the object in its 
apparent diurnal course. When the exposure 
is completed, the image is developed in the us¬ 
ual way. In photographing, the ordinary tele¬ 
scope, as used for eye observations, is not well 
suited to the purpose, for the reason that the 
chromatic aberration is not the same for the 
visual and for the photographic rays. It is nec¬ 
essary to have a somewhat stronger crown lens, 
or a weaker flint lens, if a telescope is to be 
used in photographing, than if it is to be used 
by the eye. But the necessity of having tele¬ 
scopes of the two kinds is now, to a certain 
extent, done away with by the use of sensitized 
plates which are especially sensitive to the 
visual rays. By putting in an absorbing screen, 
through which the rays must pass before they 
reach the focus, and which allows only the 
visual rays to pass, very accurate photographs 
can be taken by the plates. This defect is felt 
only in the refracting telescope. A reflecting 
telescope brings all the rays, of whatever color, 
to one and the same focus, and therefore may 
be used either for photographing or for seeing. 
Improvements made in recent times in the sen¬ 
sitiveness of photographic plates have given an 
enormous extension to this method in astron¬ 
omy. It is now found that celestial objects 
completely invisible to ordinary vision can be 
photographed. While only a few thousand neb¬ 
ulae have been catalogued as visible to the naked 
eye, it is found that there are hundreds of 
thousands which admit of being determined by 
photography. 

The latter is now employed for two distinct 
purposes. The first is simply that of forming a 
picture of the sky, or rather of the stars in 
the sky. For this purpose the best telescope is 
one as large as can conveniently be obtained, 
but of short focal length. A great enterprise 
in this direction was started in 1887 by an 
association of astronomers who met at the Paris 
Observatory, and put into operation a plan of 
photographing the entire heavens on from 10,000 


ASTRONOMY 


to 20,000 plates, each two degrees square. This 
work is now approaching completion, and is in¬ 
tended to form a permanent record of the 
starry heavens, as they are seen in our times. 
A similar object is reached on a different system 
at the Harvard Observatory. I here photographs 
are being constantly taken with telescopes much 
shorter than those used for the international 
chart. In this way new stars are from time 
to time discovered, and variations in the light 
of different stars are brought out. The other 
purpose is that of exact measurement. When 
the astronomer had to determine the respective 
distances of stars in the same field of view, 
he has hitherto generally depended on the filar 
or other micrometer. The use of this instru¬ 
ment is laborious. When the photographic 
method is used, he simply takes a picture of 
the stars he wishes to measure, and, at any 
convenient time, places it under a measuring 
engine supplied with sliding microscopes, and 
measures off the distance on his negative. The 
result of these two applications is that pho¬ 
tography is now slowly supplanting eye ob¬ 
servations in an important fraction of the as¬ 
tronomical work of the world. 

Simon Newcomb, LL.D., 
Washington, D. C. 

Astronomy, Theoretical. This branch of 
the science grows out of the great discovery 
of Newton, that the motions of the heavenly 
bodies, especially those of the solar system, are 
determined by their mutual gravitation. The re¬ 
sults of this theory are now worked out by 
purely mathematical methods with a degree of 
precision scarcely attainable in any other branch 
of science. The adopted method consists first in 
expressing the attraction or pull experienced 
by each body from all the others in the form 
of differential equations. These equations ex¬ 
press, in the most general way, the acceleration 
which the planets experience at every moment 
from the attraction of the other bodies. We do 
not write them because they would be under¬ 
stood only by a reader expert in the calculus, 
who, if he desires to be acquainted with them, 
will consult special treatises. It will suffice to 
say that there are three differential equations 
for each planet, which express the attraction, 
and its effect on the motion of the planet at 
any instant, in the direction of three co-ordi¬ 
nates. The problem then becomes the purely 
algebraic one of integrating these equations. The 
result of this process is that the effect of the 
attraction or pull upon the body, through a pe¬ 
riod of days, years, or even centuries, is summed 
up with great exactness, so that the motion 
of the body through the whole period can be 
expressed by algebraic equations. The simplest 
case occurs when there are only two bodies. 
The integration shows that, in this case, the 
bodies revolve round their common centre of 
gravity in orbits each of which is an ellipse. 
Commonly it is necessary to consider only the 
motion of the smaller of the two bodies, the mo¬ 
tion being defined as if the larger were at rest. 
This is the case of a planet revolving round the 
sun, or of a satellite round its primary. It is 
then found that the orbit described by the revolv¬ 
ing body round the great central body is an 
ellipse having the latter in one.of its foci. The 
motion is also found to be subject to two other 
laws which bear the name of Kepler, their first 
discoverer. One of these is that the radius vector, 


that is to say, the line drawn from the central 
body to the other sweeps over equal areas in 
equal times. The result of this is that if 
A B be the orbit having the sun, S, in the 



Fig. 12. 


focus; and if we mark on the orbit the points a, 
b, c, etc., which the planet passes through at any 
equal intervals of time, and then draw lines 
from each of these points to the sun, the areas 
included between these lines will all be equal 
to each other. A glance is sufficient to show 
that the nearer the body is to the sun the more 
rapidly it must move. 

The position of the orbit and the place of the 
body in it are determined by six quantities called 
elements. Two of these elements express the 
position of the plane in which the ellipse lies, 
and therefore in which the planet moves. These 
are the inclination of the plane of the orbit to 
some other plane taken as that of reference. 
For the latter is commonly adopted the plane 
of the ecliptic, in which the earth revolves round 
the sun. When the inclination of the orbit of 
any other planet is spoken of, the astronomer 
means the angle which the plane of its orbit 
makes with the plane of the ecliptic. The other 
of the two elements expresses the line passing 
through the sun along which the two planes 
intersect. This is called the Line of Nodes. 
The position of the node is defined by the 
angle, as seen from the sun, between the ver¬ 
nal equinox and that node where the planet 
crosses from the south to the north side of the 
ecliptic. Three other elements determine the 
size and form of the elliptic orbit, and its posi¬ 
tion in its plane. The semi-major axis, A B, 
of the ellipse is called the mean distance 
of the planet from the sun, it being half the 
sum of the greatest and least distances. The 
other of these elements is the eccentricity of 
the orbit, which is equal to the quotient ob¬ 
tained by dividing the distance of the sun, O S, 
from the centre of the orbit by O A, the semi¬ 
major axis. These two elements completely de¬ 
termine the ellipse. The exact position of the 
ellipse in the plane may then be defined by the 
angle which the semi-major axis, O B, makes 
with the line of the nodes. It will be seen that 
the point B is that at which the planet is 




ASTRONOMY 


nearest to the sun. This is called the perihe¬ 
lion of the orbit if the central body is the sun; 
if the earth is the centre, the perigee. The 
opposite point, A, where the planet is most dis- ; 
tant, is called the aphelion, or apogee. Finally, 
the sixth element defines the position of the 
planet at some given moment of time. 

The time of revolution of the planet is given 
by Kepler’s third law, which is that the squares 
of these times are proportional to the cubes of 
of the major axes of their orbits. For example, 
let one planet be four times as far as another 
from the sun. The cube of 4 is 64. The 
square root of this is 8. It follows that the 
planet which is four times as far will be eight 
times as long in completing its circuit. If the 
outer planet went as rapidly as the other, it 
would be only four times as long. Its orbital 
motion is therefore, on the average, only about 
half as rapid. 

In theoretical astronomy a unit of distance 
is necessary. Our ordinary units do not well 
serve the purpose of the astronomer for two 
reasons. They are too short for the great 
distances he has to measure, and the mag¬ 
nitude of the heavens in terms of miles is not 
known with sufficient exactness to make that 
measure convenient. What the astronomer does 
therefore is to take the mean distance of the 
earth from the sun as his yardstick, and to 
express the distance of all the bodies of the 
solar system, both from the earth and from 
each other, the moon sometimes excepted, in 
terms of this unit. 

From the laws of motion based on gravita¬ 
tion may be derived several interesting theo¬ 
rems. Finally, suppose, that at some point in 
the solar system,— we may take, to fix the 
ideas, a point at the mean distance of the earth 
from the sun,— a number of bodies are pro¬ 
jected in different directions, but all with the 
same velocity. Then, the equations of motion 
show that the major axes of the orbits which 
these bodies describe will all be equal. Then, 
from Kepler’s third law it follows that the 
times of revolution will also be equal. Con¬ 
sequently, at the end of a certain period the 
bodies will all return at the same moment to 
the point from which they started. This period 
will depend only on the velocity with which the 
body is projected. There is a certain velocity, 
called the circular velocity, which is such that 
if the bodies are projected in a direction at 
right angles to that of the sun, they will de¬ 
scribe circular orbits. If all the bodies are pro¬ 
jected in different directions with this same 
velocity, they will all be exactly one year in 
getting around and returning to the starting 
point. Now suppose that, instead of the bodies 
being projected with this circular velocity, which 
is very nearly that of the earth in its orbit, 
they are projected with a somewhat smaller,, 
velocity. Then, the less the velocity the less 
the major axis of the orbit, and the greater 
the velocity the greater the major axis. A body 
projected with a speed one-third greater than 
that of the earth would fly out beyond the orbit 
of Jupiter. A slightly greater speed would 
carry it beyond the orbit of Neptune, the reason 
being that, as the body recedes, the attraction 
of the sun diminishes at so rapid a rate that 
the weak attraction left is not sufficient to 
overcome the slight surplus velocity. Finally, 
if the speed is equal to that of the earth mul¬ 


tiplied by the square root of 2, that is to say, 
about 26 miles per second, the body will never 
return. The ellipse in which it should move 
is stretched out into a parabola, still having 
the sun in its focus. If the velocity is greater 
than this, the parabola will be still farther 
changed into a hyperbola. Then the body would 
fly out into the stellar spaces, perhaps in the 
course of millions of years reaching some other 
sun, but would certainly never return to our 
system. Another theorem is that the velocity, 
no matter what the form of the orbit, dimin¬ 
ishes as we go out from the sun in proportion 
to the square root of the distance. This we 
have already seen by Kepler’s third law, when 
we found from that law that a planet four times 
as far from the sun would move only half as 
fast. Thus the parabolic velocity is less the 
farther a body is from the sun. At the planet 
Uranus it is less than six miles per second; 
at that of Neptune, about five miles per sec¬ 
ond. Still another theorem is that if a planet 
moving in a circular orbit were stopped at any 
point of its motion, and then were allowed to 
drop toward the sun, the time of reaching the 
sun would be equal to that of revolution divided 
by the square root of 32. It follows that if 
the earth should be stopped in its motion, it 
would drop to the sun in a number of days 
found by dividing 362.24 by the square root of 
32. This would be nearly 64 days. 

The orbits of most of the large planets are 
nearly circular. For particulars relating to them 
see Solar System. The orbits of comets are,, 
however, mostly parabolas, or ellipses which 
cannot be distinguished from parabolas when 
the comet is near enough to the sun to be 
visible. It is probable that many of those orbits 
which are ellipses have become so through the 
comet at some time in its history passing very 
near a planet. (See Comet.) One of the prob¬ 
lems of theoretical astronomy which the astron¬ 
omer often meets with is that of determining the 
orbit of a newly discovered body of the solar 
system. Three complete observations of such 
a body, that is to say, three observations each 
of which determines exactly the apparent posi¬ 
tion of the body on the celestial sphere, enable 
the. astronomer to determine the orbit in which 
it is moving round the sun. The calculation 
requires from five to ten hours’ work by an 
expert calculator having at his command the 
necessary tables. The first orbit thus com¬ 
puted may be considerably in error, because the 
effect of errors of observation is multiplied 
many fold, unless the planet has moved through 
a considerable arc of its orbit between the times 
of observation. But the longer the planet is 
observed, the more exactly the elements of its 
orbit can be determined. It is found that when 
two stars are so near each other as to be kept 
together by their mutual attraction, they revolve 
around each other in an elliptic orbit. It fol¬ 
lows that the law of gravitation extends to these 
systems. Thus the calculations of the theoret¬ 
ical astronomer are not confined to the solar 
system, but may be extended to the fixed 
stars. 

In all that precedes we have considered only 
the motion of two bodies, the smaller of which 
moves around the larger in an elliptic orbit. 
But, as a matter of fact, every planet of the 
solar system is acted upon not only by the great 
central body, but by every one of the other 


ASTRONOMY 


planets. The result is that the actual orbit, 
although very nearly an ellipse, deviates slightly 
from it, and the motion is not exactly in 
accordance with Kepler’s laws. The problem 
of taking account of these additional forces is 
an extremely complicated one, in which success 
has been reached only by successive generations 
of the ablest mathematicians devoting long 
years of study and calculation to the subject. 
While the solution, even to-day, is far from 
complete, it has been so far advanced that it is 
possible to prepare tables of the motions of 
the planets which shall hold good for genera¬ 
tions, and even for centuries. The method in 
which the problem can best be solved was 
devised by Lagrange, who flourished in France 
toward the latter part of the 18th century. The 
fundamental idea of his method was that the 
motion of the planet at every instant should be 
represented by an ellipse, but this ellipse con¬ 
tinually changes its form and dimensions so 
as to fit in with the actual motion of the 
planet under the influence of the attraction of 
all the other planets. Some idea of the case 
may be imagined by supposing a cord of some 
light material made into an ellipse very nearly 
a circle, and left to float on the waves of the 
ocean. Then we should see the cord, while 
still remaining almost in its original shape, 
continually bending and twisting as it was 
moved by the waves. So does the variable 
ellipse in which the planet moves. It is exactly 
defined by supposing that, at any one instant, 
the attraction of all the other bodies, the sun 
excepted, ceases. Then the planet would move 
in a fixed and unchangeable ellipse. This ellipse 
is taken as that which corresponds with the 
motion of the planet at the instant. At a sec¬ 
ond instant the planet would actually have 
deviated slightly in consequence of the attrac¬ 
tion of the other planets, but there would still 
be a corresponding ellipse, but somewhat differ¬ 
ent. So the ellipse goes on changing contin¬ 
ually. 

When these changes are subjected to the 
rigor of mathematical formula, it is found that 
they nearly, but not quite, compensate each other 
in the long run. Let us take, for example, the 
eccentricity of any one orbit. This will vary 
in the course of every revolution of the planet, 
and may come back to its original amount any 
number of times. But, if we watch it revolution 
after revolution, we shall find that, in the long 
run, it continually increases or diminishes. 
It is thus found that the eccentricity of 
the earth’s orbit has been diminishing through 
all historic times, and this diminution will 
go on for 43,000 years to come. More¬ 
over, the general rule is that the peri¬ 
helion of the planet is gradually moving 
forward. In the case of the earth’s orbit the 
motion is such as would carry it all the way 
round the circle in 200,000 years. The inclina¬ 
tions and longitudes of the nodes are also 
varying in the same way. These variations, 
which go on century after century, are called 
secular variations, while those which are com¬ 
pensated from time to time are called periodic. 
Now, the most interesting and important ques¬ 
tion of celestial mechanics is whether the secu¬ 
lar variations will continue forever in the same 
direction. The profound analysis of Laplace 
and Lagrange shows that such will not be the 
case so far as the eccentricities are concerned. 


At the end of immense periods the direction will 
be reversed. It is now known that the diminu¬ 
tion of the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit after 
continuing for about 43,000 years will change to 
an increase for a certain period. It is thus 
with all the orbits; the motions go through a 
series of oscillations having periods of hun¬ 
dreds of thousands of years — like <( great clocks 
of eternity which beat ages as ours beat seconds. )} 
The precision with which the astronomer is now 
able to predict the motions of the heavenly 
bodies is reached by a combination of mathe¬ 
matical computations of the most difficult and 
complicated character, with the most refined 
observations upon the positions of the moon 
and planets, year after year. 

The most complex of all the problems is that 
of the moon’s motion around the earth, of 
which we shall mention some features. In this 
case the central body, the earth, is vastly smaller 
than the sun. But, owing to the great distance 
from the sun and the consequent small difference 
in the force of its attraction upon the earth 
and moon, it happens that the moon revolves 
around the earth in an orbit which approximates 
to an ellipse. But the changes and motions in 
this ellipse are much larger and more rapid 
than in the case of the planets. For example, 
the perigee of the moon’s orbit makes a revolu¬ 
tion round the earth in eight years, while the 
node on the ecliptic makes a revolution in 18.6 
years. The moon also makes two swings back 
and forth during the space between two full 
moons, and the eccentricity and perigee both 
make an annual swing, all owing to the action 
of the sun. See Moon. 

The principles of theoretical astronomy, and 
the operations of practical astronomy are com¬ 
bined in one of the greatest achievements of the 
human intellect — that of measuring the heav¬ 
ens and weighing the planets, and, in a few 
cases, even the fixed stars. 

The distance of the moon is determined in 
two ways, the results of which agree within 
the necessary range of uncertainty of the meth¬ 
ods. One is by the measurement of the moon’s 
parallax, taking as the base line two distant 
observatories, Greenwich and the Cape of Good 
Hope. (See Parallax.) The other method 
consists in determining exactly what ought to 
be the size of the moon’s orbit in order that she 
may make her revolution around the earth in 
the time that she actually does. The probable 
error of the distance of the moon at any time, 
as determined in this way, is not more than 40 
or 50 miles. 

The proportions between the orbits of the 
several planets are known with the greatest ex¬ 
actness from their observed times of revolution, 
and from Kepler’s third law. It follows that if 
we can get the exact distance of any one planet 
at any one time, all the other distances in the 
solar system may be derived by the known pro¬ 
portion. The fundamental quantity which is 
used as a unit of measure is the distance of the 
sun. This distance has been determined by four 
completely separate and independent methods, 
the agreement between which illustrates the 
great exactness of astronomical theory. 

The first method is by measures of parallax. 
The application of this method is fully described 
in the article Parallax. It requires that the 
apparent direction of a planet among the stars 


ASTRONOMY 


be observed with great exactness from two far 
distant points of the earth’s surface, or at two 
times of day during the interval between which 
the observer is carried around by the rotation 
of the earth. These observations have to be on 
a planet and not on the sun, because the latter, 
owing to the brilliancy of its light, cannot be 
measured with the necessary precision. The 
most celebrated way of determining parallax 
has been by observing transits of Venus (q.v.). 
But these occur at such rare intervals, the last 
having been in 1882, and there being no other to 
occur during the 20th century, that the meas¬ 
ures have to be made on other planets which 
approach nearest to the earth. For this pur¬ 
pose Mars has sometimes been used, because it 
occasionally approaches us within less than half 
the distance of the sun. But the most exact 
observations can be made on some of the minor 
planets at the time of their nearest approach. 

The second method is by the velocity of 
light. This method is, in principle, the most 
simple and elegant of all. It rests on the fact 
that it is possible, by two kinds of observation, 
to determine how long it takes light to pass 
from the sun to the earth, or to cross the earth’s 
orbit. If then we can determine by measures 
on the earth’s surface how fast light travels, 
it follows that by multiplying this velocity by 
the time it takes to travel from the earth to the 
sun, we shall have the distance of the sun. The 
velocity of light has actually been determined 
with great precision by means of the revolving 
mirror. (See Light, Velocity of.) The result 
is a speed of 186,300 miles per second. The 
time required for light to cross the earth’s orbit 
is much more difficult to determine. The only 
way in which a direct determination can be 
made is through observations of the eclipses of 
Jupiter’s first satellite. By comparing the times 
of these eclipses through a long series of years 
when Jupiter is at various distances from the 
earth, it is found that the eclipses are seen later, 
the farther Jupiter is from the earth at the 
time. This is because light requires time to 
travel over the different distances. But the 
determinations made in this way are not very 
exact, because such eclipses take place so grad¬ 
ually that it is impossible to fix upon a precise 
phase without a possible error of several sec¬ 
onds. All we can say as a result of this method 
is that it takes about 4 m. 20 s. for light to pass 
from the sun to the earth. 

A more exact result is reached by measuring 
the displacement of the fixed stars produced by 
aberration. As the earth makes its annual 
course around the sun, the position of every 
star in the heavens is, at every moment, slightly 
displaced toward the direction in which the 
earth is, at the moment, moving. This is due to 
the proportion between the velocity of light and 
the speed of the earth in its orbit. Unfor¬ 
tunately, the speed is so great that the displace¬ 
ment in question is only about 20.5"; an arc 
too small to be determined with the precision 
that is desirable. Still, the observations avail¬ 
able are so numerous that the result, 20.525", 
found by Chandler, is probably within one, or, at 
most, two hundredths of a second of the truth. 
Accepting Chandler’s number, light requires 500 
seconds to pass over the distance which sepa¬ 
rates the sun from the earth. Multiplying this 
by the speed of light, we have, for the distance 


of the sun 186,300 X 500 = 93,150,000 miles as 
the distance of the sun. 

The third method is a very recondite one, 
because it rests on the mathematical principles 
of celestial mechanics, applied to the case: of 
the earth’s motion around the sun. It requires, 
in advance, an exact determination of the ratio 
of the mass of the sun to that of the earth. 
This is best found by observations of Venus, 
which now extend through more than a century 
and a half, by which the motion of the node 
of Venus on the ecliptic is determined. This 
motion is due principally to the attraction of the 
earth; and from it the proportion between the 
mass of the earth, and that of the sun is deter¬ 
mined. The next step requires a comparison 
between the distance which a body falls at the 
surface of the earth from its own gravitation, 
and the fall of the earth toward the sun 
as shown by the curvature of its orbit. By 
combining these various ratios, the distance of 
the sun is calculated. The fourth method also 
rests the theory of gravitation. One conse¬ 
quence of the sun’s action on the moon is that 
the latter falls bdiind about two minutes in 
its monthly course near the time of the first 
quarter, and is ahead by the same amount near 
the last quarter. Knowing the exact amount 
of this swing, the distance at which the sun 
must be placed in order to produce it is deter¬ 
mined. Each of these four methods has its 
strong and its weak points; and there is no one 
of them so much better than all the others that 
we can rely upon it exclusively. Still, their 
agreement affords a remarkable proof of the ac¬ 
curacy of astronomical theory, and of the pre¬ 
cision with which astronomical measures are 
made under such difficulties as the observer and 
computer have to encounter. The astronomer 
does not use the distance of the sun in his 
computations, because, as already remarked, this 
is simply his unit of length. What he actually 
uses is the sun’s parallax; this is equal to the 
angle which the equatorial radius of the earth 
subtends when seen at a distance equal to that 
of the sun. The latest results for this parallax 
from the four methods are the following. 

First method, parallax, 8.802". 

Second method, light, 8.779". 

Third method, mass earth, 8.762". 

Fourth method, moon, 8.773". 

The general conclusion which we reach is 
that the distance of the sun is very nearly 93,- 
000,000 miles, probably a little more, rather than 
a little less. 

What may seem a yet more wonderful result 
of celestial measurement is the weighing of the 
planets and other heavenly bodies. This re¬ 
quires very complex mathematics. But, after 
all, the principles on which the method rests 
can readily be made clear. In the case of the 
planets, there are two methods, one of which 
can be applied only when a planet has a satellite 
moving around it. We have already seen that 
the motion of every planet which, were there 
no other planet, would take place in an ellipse 
having the sun in a focus, is changed by the 
attraction of the other planets. The observa¬ 
tion of the deviations, when carefully measured 
through many_ revolutions of a planet, enable 
the mathematical astronomer to compute the 
ratio of the mass of each attracting planet to 
that of the sun. This ratio is all that the 
astronomer requires for his ordinary work. 


ASTROPHYSICS 


When the planet has a satellite, its mass can 
be determined with much more ease and sim¬ 
plicity. The measurement of the distance of the 
satellite from the planet, carried through a great 
number of revolutions of the former, enable 
the astronomer to determine the ratio between 
the distance of the satellite from the planet, 
and that of the earth from the sun. Combining 
this with the time of revolution of the planet, 
a proportion is shown between the mass of the 
planet and that of the sun by a law of the same 
form as the third law of Kepler. The masses 
determined by astronomical methods are all ex¬ 
pressed by taking the mass of the sun as the 
unit. To translate the result into our ordinary 
measures of weight, we must know the mass 
of some one body, say the earth, in pounds or 
kilograms. How this is done is set forth in the 
article Gravitation. 

Simon Newcomb, LL.D. 

Astrophysics, or the new astronomy, has 
revealed in a remarkable manner, through its 
discoveries during the past quarter of a century, 
the wonderful ability and resourcefulness of the 
human mind, making evident that man is almost 
an infinite being. From this earth of ours, 
which astronomy teaches is such an insignificant 
speck among the countless orbs of the universe, 
we have been able by means of the spectroscope 
to investigate the physical constitution of the 
sun, planets, comets and far-off stars; it has be¬ 
come possible to measure motions, not athwart 
the sky as the older astronomy was able to do, 
but in the line of sight; and it has been possible 
to arrange the stars in orderly series, tracing 
their evolution from the primeval nebula, till 
now we are well on our way toward the solu¬ 
tion of the grandest problem of human investi¬ 
gation, whence came we and whither are we 
going. Since its birth in 1859, when Kirchhoff 
discovered the principles of spectrum analysis, 
astrophysics has advanced by leaps and bounds. 
This rapid progress was due in a large measure 
to the improvement of instruments and to the 
photographic plate. This important acquisition 
has a two-fold advantage over the human eye: 
the eye can receive and retain an impression for 
a small fraction of a second, the photographic 
plate accumulates impressions, no matter how 
faint, with the result that by long exposures 
there is brought to view objects the eye could 
never hope to see, and secondly, the photograph 
gives a permanent record that can be examined 
and studied at leisure. These improved methods 
of research have made possible a great increase 
in precision till at the present time, astrophysics 
is no whit less precise than its older sister, 
astronomy, the (< most exact of all the sciences.® 
A great change has come over our ideas of 
wave-length. Formerly, the wave-length was 
looked upon as an invariable property of a line 
in the spectrum, unalterably fixed by nature, 
and consequently it was thought that a wave¬ 
length determination would give a standard 
measure of distance more reliable even than 
that obtained by the use of the International 
Meter (Michelson, <Astronomy and Astro¬ 
physics,' ) XIII., 92, 1894). But we now know 
that the position of the lines in the spectrum may 
vary with the pressure of the gas in which 
they are produced, and, moreover, single lines, 
by the action of a magnetic field, have been sep¬ 
arated into as many as nine different com¬ 


ponents. There seems to be some law regulat¬ 
ing the orderly arrangement of the lines in the 
spectrum in series, and the complete under¬ 
standing of this law will be one of the impor¬ 
tant discoveries of the future. The shift of the 
lines of the spectrum due to motion in the line 
of sight, which has been shown experimentally 
in the laboratory, has given rise to many inter¬ 
esting developments in astrophysics, the discov¬ 
ery of an entirely new class of bodies called 
spectroscopic binaries, the measurement of the 
axial rotation of the sun and Jupiter, and has 
confirmed in a magnificent manner the meteoric 
constitution of Saturn’s rings. 

Instruments .— The vast increase in accuracy 
of spectroscopic work was rendered possible by 
the manufacture of Rowland gratings. Gratings 
were used as early as 1815 by Fraunhofer and 
were made by winding fine wire over two ex¬ 
actly similar screws. Rutherfurd of New York 
ruled some very satisfactory gratings on specu¬ 
lum metal, but these were surpassed in perfec¬ 
tion by Rowland’s. The invention of the con¬ 
cave grating gave a spectroscope without 
collimator or objective, thereby eliminating the 
aberrations brought in by these two lenses. The 
formula for resolving power which is defined as 
X 

f — -, where d\ is the difference of wave- 

d\ 

length of two lines of mean wave-length X 
which can just be divided, can be easily ex¬ 
pressed for gratings, and is the product of the 
total number of lines of the grating and the 
order of the spectrum. Ordinary six-inch Row¬ 
land gratings have a resolving power of about 
400,000. This vast increase in accuracy, coupled 
with other properties of the grating, namely, 
normal spectrum, overlapping spectra and astig¬ 
matism, whereby comparisons are rendered 
easy by coincidences, have wonderfully aug¬ 
mented the power of the astrophysicist to de¬ 
termine accurate wave-lengths. The precision 
of wave-lengths has been still further increased 
by the use of interferometers. Four different 
kinds have been invented by Michelson, Perot 
and Fabry, Hamy, and Lummer. Michelson has 
been able with his interferometer to compare 
directly the wave-lengths of the prominent cad¬ 
mium lines with the International Meter, and 
has separated lines less than 0.1 tenth-meter 
apart which appear single with the most power¬ 
ful gratings, while Perot and Fabry have ob¬ 
served interference with the green mercury line 
at a difference of path of 790,000 wave-lengths. 

Spectra of the Elements .— The invention of 
the concave grating and the manufacture of 
nearly perfect gratings, plane and concave, by 
Rowland enormously increased the accuracy of 
the wave-lengths, in the spectra of the elements. 
The. chief investigations in this field have been 
carried on by Rowland and his assistants, by 
Kayser, Runge, Paschen, Hasselberg, Liveing 
and Dewar, Eder and Valenta, Exner and Has- 
chek, Hartley and Adeney, Trowbridge, Ames, 
Lockyer, Deslandres, Lohse and others, most of 
the wave-lengths for which may be found in 
Watt’s ( Index of Spectra.* Accurate measures 
were made possible by the use of concave grat¬ 
ings and photographic plates. Rowland’s ( Table 
of Solar Spectrum Wave-Lengths ) is based on 
Bell’s determination of absolute wave-length 
( ( American Jour. Sci.,* XXXIII., March 1887). 


ASTROPHYSICS 


For a discussion of methods of determining 
wave-lengths, see Perot and Fabry, ( Ann. Chim. 
et Phys.P ser. 7, XV., 1899, also XXV., 1902 and 
Bell, ( Astroph. Jour.,> XV., 157, 1902. The in¬ 
fra-red spectrum of the elements has been inves¬ 
tigated by prism and concave grating with the 
help of bolometer and radiomicrometer by 
Snow, Lewis, Rubens, Paschen, Julius, Nichols, 
and others. Short wave-lengths are absorbed 
by even a few centimeters of air, but Schumann 
( ( Sitz. Akad. d. Wissens. in Wien,* CII., Abth. 
2a, 1893), has greatly increased our informa¬ 
tion of this region of the spectrum. By means 
of a spectroscopic apparatus in a vacuum with 
lenses and prisms of fluorite, and photographic 
plates prepared by himself, a wave-length of 
Xi.ooo was supposed to be reached. More ac¬ 
curate wave-lengths have been determined by 
Lyman using a concave grating ( ( Astroph. 
Jour.,* XIX., 263, 1904), who measured lines in 
the ultra-violet as far as X 1,033. 

Line Series .— That there is some orderly 
arrangement in the lines of a spectrum was 
shown by Balmer’s law for the hydrogen lines 
in 1885, and by the presence of numerous trip¬ 
lets in the spectra of magnesium, calcium, and 
zinc. Further researches by Kay ser and Runge, 
Rydberg, and Schuster with the development by 
them of empirical mathematical formulae, have 
led to a great deal of interesting information 
regarding these series of lines. The interde¬ 
pendence of astronomy and physics was clearly 
demonstrated, when Pickering in 1897 discov¬ 
ered a new series of lines in the spectrum of the 
star f Puppis. This was found to be one of 
the series due to hydrogen produced under con¬ 
ditions not realized in the physical laboratory. 
However, in a great majority of the elements, 
the series already discovered comprise only a 
small percentage of the total number of lines. 
The exact meaning of these series is as yet 
unknown, although several very promising at¬ 
tempts have been made to explain them from 
theoretical considerations. The chief among 
them may be mentioned those of Julius, Ames, 
Kovesligethy, and Stoney. Stoney ( ( Trans. 
Roy. SocP Dublin, 1891) has sought to explain 
multiple lines from dynamical considerations, 
comparing the motions of the molecule with 
those of the bodies of the solar system whose 
motions in ellipses are perturbed by the pres¬ 
ence of other bodies. Stoney, moreover, shows 
that the conclusions drawn by these dynamical 
methods may also be considered valid under the 
electromagnetic theory of light, a statement 
which receives support from Preston’s observa¬ 
tions of the Zeeman effect ( ( Phil. Mag.,* 
XLVII., 176, 1899). For detailed information 
on spectral series, see Kayser’s ( Handbuch der 
SpectroscopieB Vol. II. 

Change in Physical Conditions .— The early 
idea that the position of a line of a spectrum was 
the result of chance is still further modified by 
the change of the wave-length of a line resulting 
from a change in the physical conditions. 
Jewell noticed while measuring solar spectrum 
photographs that the arc lines of the compari¬ 
son spectrum did not in many cases exactly 
correspond with the lines in the sun. This led 
to the investigations of Jewell, Humphreys, and 
Mohler ( ( Astroph. Jour., } VI., 169, 1897), on 
the spectra of an arc under pressure of from one 
to 15 atmospheres. From measurements of the 


spectra of 53 elements, it was shown that the 
lines are shifted by pressure toward the red 
end of the spectrum, the amount of the shift 
being directly proportional to the increase of 
pressure, but being independent of the tempera¬ 
ture. For a given element, the shifts of similar 
lines are proportional to their wave-length, but 
lines of different series, principal, first and sec¬ 
ond subordinate, are shifted in the ratios of 
1 \ 2 :4. 

The appearances of lines in a spectrum are 
greatly altered by other physical conditions. 
Eder and Valenta have found that argon gives 
three distinct spectra under different electrical 
conditions, Schenck that the spark line of Mg 
at X4481, which has so often been considered 
as a sure sign of a high temperature, vanishes 
if the electrodes become so hot that they glow 
and begin to melt. Locker has made a great 
number of investigations on ^enhanced® lines, 
or those which are brighter in the spark than 
in the arc. He explains their meaning on the 
assumption that the spark is hotter than the 
arc, an assumption which is hard to reconcile 
with other observed phenomena. In this con¬ 
nection, Kayser, in his excellent ( Handbuch der 
Spectroscopies Vol. II., p. 181, says: <( We can¬ 
not assume any connection between the spectrum 
and the temperature of the body producing it, 
and all conclusions which are based on the tem¬ 
perature at which a line or band will appear 
are quite unsound.® Enhanced lines are found 
in the spectrum of certain stars like « Cygni, 
and also in the flash spectrum taken at the time 
of a total solar eclipse of the sun. The pres¬ 
ence of these lines is important, but it is difficult 
at the present time to tell their exact meaning. 

Solar Spectrum .— The infra-red solar spec¬ 
trum has been investigated by Becquerel and 
Lommel to X9500 by using phosphorescent 
screens, by Abney to ^27,000, who photographed 
with a special emulsion of silver bromide 
and collodion, and by Langley by the use of 
the bolometer to X.53,386. Rowland’s ( Photo¬ 
graphic Map of the Normal Solar Spectrum* 
(Baltimore, 1888), made with a powerful con¬ 
cave grating extending from X 3,000 to X 6,950, 
and his ( Table of Solar Spectrum Wave- 
Lengths ) (Chicago, 1898), which contain ac¬ 
curate measures of some twenty thousand lines, 
give the most accurate information we possess 
of the solar spectrum, and have been accepted 
by all astrophysicists as the common standard of 
reference. Rowland’s determination of relative 
wave-lengths leave little to be desired in ac¬ 
curacy. Measures were made by the method of 
coincidences which is rendered possible by the 
use of concave grating which permit two over¬ 
lapping spectra to be photographed on the same 
plate without change of focus. However, the 
standard lines of the spectrum have not had 
their wave-lengths determined with equal ac¬ 
curacy, and they have not been quite properly 
spaced throughout the spectrum, with the result 
that at the Saint Louis Conference, 1905, a 
redetermination of Rowland’s standards was re¬ 
garded as one of the present greatest needs in 
astrophysics. 

Eclipses have furnished interesting develop¬ 
ments in the history of spectrum analysis. The 
spectroscope was first used at the eclipse of 
1868 by Janssen in India, when it was shown 
that the prominences give bright line spectra, 


ASTROPHYSICS 


thus showing they are masses of hydrogen gas. 
The lines were so bright that Janssen looked for 
them the next day without an eclipse, and found 
them readily enough. In 1869, the green 
<( coronium 55 line was discovered; in 1870, Young 
discovered the (< flash spectrum, 55 which was 
photographed for the first time by Shackleton in 
1896. At the eclipses of 1898, 1900, and 1901, 
Evershed, Lockyer, and Mitchell gave accurate 
determinations of wave-lengths from these re¬ 
versed spectra, those of Mitchell being obtained 
by the use of a grating. 

Stellar Spectra .— Modern stellar spectro¬ 
scopes are best represented by the Mills spec¬ 
trograph of the Lick Observatory (Campbell, 
( Astroph, Jour., 5 VIII., 123, 1898), by the Bruce 
spectrograph of the Yerkes observatory (Frost, 
( Astroph. Jour., 5 XV., 1, 1902), and that of the 
Astrophysical Observatory of Potsdam (Hart¬ 
mann, ( Zeitsch. fiir Instrum., 5 December 1901). 
The spectrographs are similar in having the slit 
placed at the focus of the great telescope, and 
a dispersion of three prisms giving a total devi¬ 
ation of 180 0 . By means of a guiding eye-piece, 
it is possible to keep the star’s light centrally 
on the slit during the exposure. Since this ex¬ 
posure may last for four or five hours, it is 
necessary, in order to have perfect definition, 
to keep the temperature constant. This is ac¬ 
complished by means of an automatic tempera¬ 
ture control which will keep the prisms of the 
spectrograph within o.i° C. during an exposure, 
when outside in the dome the temperature may 
change by several degrees. A stellar spectrum 
is photographed alongside a comparison spec¬ 
trum in order to determine wave-lengths more 
accurately, and to give measures of the motion 
in the line of sight, the most important work of 
stellar spectroscopy. The spectrograms are 
most readily reduced by the Hartmann-Cornu 
formula : 


c 



where X 0 , c, and s 0 are constants and .? is 
the scale reading of the line whose wave-length 
is desired. The motion in the line of sight in 
kilometers per second corresponding to the 
displacement AX is given by 

V L A\ 

X 

where Vs is the desired velocity of the star, 
and Vl the velocity of light in kilometers. The 
most prominent workers in radial velocity have 
been Campbell, Vogel, Duner, Frost, Keeler, 
Hartmann, and Belopolsky, who have pretty 
thoroughly surveyed the northern hemisphere. 
Wright of the Lick Observatory has gone to 
Santiago, Chile, for similar work in the southern 
heavens. The observers in this field have en¬ 
tered into co-operation in order to observe the 
same stars at certain times for the purpose of 
determining thoroughly the constants of the 
spectrographs used. Campbell has discovered 
many stars with variable radial velocities, thus 
showing they are accompanied by one or more 
companions. At the present time there are 
nearly a hundred spectroscopic binaries known 
with periods which range from a few days to 
two and a half years. 

According to Doppler’s principle of motion 
in the line of sight, the lines will be shifted 

V°I. 1—57 


toward the red end of the spectrum if the dis¬ 
tance between the source of light and the ob¬ 
server is increasing, but toward the violet end 
if this distance is decreasing. The grandest ap¬ 
plication is seen in Keeler’s proof ( ( Astroph. 
Jour., 5 I., 416, 1895) of the meteoric constitution 
of Saturn’s rings. If meteoric, the linear mo¬ 
tion of the rings will be greatest nearest the 
planet and decrease outward, if solid the rings 
will rotate as a whole, all particles having the 
same angular motion, the linear speed increas¬ 
ing from centre to circumference. With solid 
rings, and a slit placed across the planet’s equa¬ 
tor, the lines on the side moving toward us 
would be shifted toward the region of short 
wave-lengths, the shift being proportional to 
the linear motion. While for the side moving 
away from us the lines would be shifted in the 
opposite direction. Thus, on account of the 
gradual increase in linear motion from centre 
to circumference, the lines would be gradually 
shifted, in the complete spectrum having the 
effect of lines slightly inclined. Such, however, 
is not the appearance of the lines photographed 
by Keeler, and these can be explained only un¬ 
der the assumption that the rings are a collec¬ 
tion of small satellites, giving, therefore, a di¬ 
rect confirmation of the mathematical theory of 
Maxwell. 

An important application of line of sight 
measurements is in determining the motion of 
the solar system through space. The <( apex of 
the sun’s way 55 ' may be found from proper mo¬ 
tion determinations, or from line of sight meas¬ 
urement used separately, but in a more satisfac¬ 
tory way by applying both methods of research. 
The right ascension and declination of the point 
toward which the sun is moving is found from 
recent measures to be a = 280°, 5 = 35 0 north. 
This point is situated in the constellation Lyra 
about 4 0 from the first-magnitude star Vega. 
Campbell’s determination of the velocity is 
19.89 ±z 1.52 kilometres per second, a speed 
which would carry our system over almost ex¬ 
actly four radii of the earth’s orbit in a year. 
When more information is received from the 
line of sight measurement of the southern hemis¬ 
phere, a better redetermination of this problem 
will be possible. 

The spectra of stars naturally fall into sev¬ 
eral types. Secchi’s classification is as follows: 

Type I.— White or blue stars, the spectrum 
characterized by the breadth and intensity of 
the hydrogen lines with metallic lines very 
faint. This type includes more than half the 
stars. 

Type II.— Yellow stars like our sun, with 
spectra resembling that of the sun very closely, 
consisting of a great number of fine dark lines. 

Type III.— Red and orange stars, including 
most of the variables. The spectrum is crossed 
by numerous dark bands or flutings, which are 
sharply defined on the blue side and shade off 
toward the red. a Orionis, Antares, and 0 
Ceti are good examples. 

Type IV.— Deep reddish stars, all faint. The 
spectrum resembles that of Type III., but the 
flutings are reversed in direction, being sharply 
defined on the red side. 152 Schjellerup is the 
best example. 

Pickering has suggested a fifth type to in¬ 
clude many stars having bright lines in their 
spectra, and the planetary nebulae. 


ASTROPHYSICS 


Other classifications are due to Vogel, Lock- 
yer, and Miss Maury of the Harvard College 
Observatory. 

One of the grandest problems of scientific 
research is undoubtedly the question of stellar 
evolution. By common consent the nebula is 
regarded as being the primordial matter. The 
first stage of development is represented, ac¬ 
cording to Huggins, ( Atlas of Representative 
Stellar Spectra ) (London, 1899), a masterpiece 
with superb illustrations, by a star like A of 0 
Orionis, one of the stars of the great nebula. 
Orion and helium stars are followed in devel¬ 
opment by the white stars of Secchi’s first type. 
Evolution can be traced step by step, through 
stages like those represented by the stars a 
Lyrae, Sirius, Castor (fainter star), a Aquilae, 
Procyon, 7 Cygni, till we come to the fully 
developed second type star like Capella and the 
sun. Increased absorption at the violet end of 
the spectrum give the red stars of Secchi’s third 
and fourth types, which, according to Huggins, 
develop in parallel lines. The period of increas¬ 
ing old age is evident from the carbon absorp¬ 
tion bands, and it is easy to imagine this ab¬ 
sorption increasing in amount till the whole 
light of the star is cut off. But even at this 
stage, when the star gives no light, the spectro¬ 
scope is not powerless to follow, for if the dark 
star accompanies a bright one, its presence is 
revealed through a change in the motion of the 
line of sight. There has been quite consider¬ 
able discussion as to which star, Sirius or the 
sun, is in the hotter stage of development. The 
color of Sirius, and the maximum in its spec¬ 
trum being more toward the violent end than 
in the case of the sun, would seem to indicate 
a higher temperature. Huggins and a great 
many astronomers think that the sun is in the 
hottest state, but that the great absorption in its 
atmosphere compared with that of Sirius, makes 
the color of the sun yellow The spectrum of 
the sun is almost identical with that of Capella, 
which shows that the sun is a star, rendered 
brighter and bigger on account of its nearness. 
The stellar magnitude of the sun is —26.4 on 
the same scale that Sirius is a star of magnitude 
— 1.4. Thus, according to Newcomb, ( Stars,> 
p. 27, the sun gives us: 

10,000,000,000 times the light of Sirius. 

91,000,000,000 times the light of a star of 
magnitude 1. 

9,100,000,000,000 times the light of a star of 
magnitude 6. 

The square roots of these numbers show the 
number of times we should increase the actual 
distance of the sun in order that it might shine 
as a star of the corresponding magnitude. Un¬ 
der these conditions, the distance and parallax 
of the sun would be: 

Sirius; Distance, 100,000: Parallax, 2 ". 06 
Mag. 1; Distance, 302,000: Parallax, o".68 
Mag. 6; Distance, 3,020,000: Parallax, o".o7 

Prom the large size of the parallaxes, it is 
evident *hat the sun must be a very small star 
in the h, vens. But its nearness renders it a 
very important star, one in which we can study 
the second stage of stellar development in all its 
details. 

Interesting work has been done by Hale in 
this field by the application of the spectro- 
heliograph invented by himself. With the 12- 
inch telescope of the Kenwood Observatory, the 
prominences and the surface of the sun have 


been photographed in monochromatic light. 
More remarkable results have been obtained 
with the spectrohel.iograph and Yerkes’ tele¬ 
scope ( ( Astroph.' Jour.,* XIX., 41, 1904). Its 
great focal length of over sixty feet gives a 
solar image about seven inches in diameter, an 
increase in size which permits a more detailed 
study of the sun’s surface. A photograph can 
be taken with the slit of the spe'ctroheliograph 
at the centre of the K line at \3933-8, another 
with the slit moved a trifle to \3932, and still 
others with th e slit at X3929 and * 39 ^ 4 - 
These photographs show bright calcium patches 
on the face of the sun which Hale has called 
^flocculi,® and the four of them not only differ 
from photographs taken with the calcium H and 
hydrogen F lines, but differ materially among 
themselves. These photographs are explained 
as being due to a difference in level of the gases, 
and from these and other results it seems prob¬ 
able that the calcium flocculi are in general 
made up of a series of columns, which expand 
as they reach higher levels, and in many cases 
overhang laterally. 

Astrophysical work along entirely different 
lines has been carried out at the Astrophysical 
Observatory of the Smithsonian Institution. 
Langley’s bolometer used in connection with a 
sensitive galvanometer, perfected in the hands 
of Abbot, can give an automatic record of the 
energy received from the sun. These holo¬ 
grams and simultaneous observations made with 
the actinometer or pyrheliometer, permit an 
elimination of the variable absorbing effect of 
the earth’s atmosphere, thus giving a measure 
of the energy from the sun that reaches the 
outside of the earth’s atmosphere, or in other 
words, the <( solar constant.® Langley’s deter¬ 
mination made on the top of Mt. Whitney 
placed the value of the solar constant at 3.0 
calories. Recent observations at Washington 
( ( Astroph. Jour.,* XIX., 305, 1904) show that 
this number is probably too high, and also that 
the value is not a constant, but varies alto¬ 
gether about 10 per cent. Another research 
carried on at the Smithsonian, has been for the 
purpose of investigating the absorption of the 
solar envelope, by means of a long focus tele¬ 
scope and bolometer, with the result that it has 
been shown that likewise this absorption varies 
in amount. The most interesting part of the 
whole work has been the comparison with ter¬ 
restrial temperatures rendered possible by the 
International Dekadenberichte. With tempera¬ 
ture records from 85 localities in the north tem¬ 
perate zone, it has been unmistakably demon¬ 
strated that when the solar constant has a very 
low value terrestrial temperatures are below 
their average, and at the same time absorp¬ 
tion in the solar envelope is large in amount. 
The interdependence of these variations brings 
to view one of the most important developments 
of astrophysics. That terrestrial temperatures 
should be shown to be closely connected with 
variations in the sun’s heat is very remarkable; 
it would be still more startling if it should fol¬ 
low that we can forecast great temperature 
changes — a result which is not impossible. 

Literature .—The best books on this subject 
are Kayser’s ( Handbuch der Spectroscopie ) 
and Schemer’s ( Astronomical Spectroscopy ) 
(Frost’s translation). S. A. Mitchell. 

Department of Astronor Colu.nbL Jn-.v'.r- 
sity. 


ASTRUC — ASYMPTOTE 


Asiruc as'truk', Jean, French physician: 
> Mar i 1684; d. Paris, 5 March 1766. He 
•'KVjrircd ' :.gh reputation as an anatomist, and 
ihe author of ( Venereal Diseases ) (1736), 
other medical works. The work, however, 
ha ; immortalized him is purely theological 

ids e»'Med Conjectures as to the Original 
ia’s of Which Moses Seems to Have 
. Mi 1 Himself in Composing the Book of 
<iene> ;C ( 753)- In this he divides the book of 
■’’'‘sis into two parts, on the ground of the use 
m (God) or Yahveh (Jehovah). He 
mat these two names for the Deity point 
ct that Genesis was compiled from two 
■ i independent documents. His memoir 
xms the origin of modern criticism on the 
Pentateuch. 

up, Eivind, Norwegian explorer: b. 
ia, 1870; d. 1896. He was a member 
rst. and second Peary expeditions, 1891 
')3, and made the first survey of the 
* coast of Melville Bay. He perished 
n a snowshoe expedition from Dovre, 

lira, as-too'ra, a maritime village of 
.? miles from Rome. In its little harbor 
ower is said to stand on the site of the 
Kfcero, where Cicero was slain by order 
43 b.c. 

Astunas (as-too'ria), The, a former princi¬ 
pality of : Spain. To this mountainous country 
of the north of Spain the Goths retreated in the 
8th century before the sword of the Sara¬ 
cens The inhabitants of Asturia are said to be 
less industrious than the Galicians, and less so¬ 
ciable than the Biscayans. The hereditary 
prince oi Spain has borne since 1388 the title of 
Prince of Asturia, or of the Asturians, accord¬ 
ing to the obsolete division into Asturia de 
Oviedo and Asturia de Santillana, Oviedo and 
Santillana being the two chief cities of the prin¬ 
cipality. -Since 1838 the principality has been 
officially known as the province of Oviedo. See 
Oviedo. 

Asty'ages, the last' king of Media, reigned 
594 559 B. r . In the latter year he was dethroned 
bv Cyrus, who, according to Herodotus, was his 
grandspn. Cyrus revolted in 559, and defeated 
Astyages, whom he took prisoner, but after¬ 
ward appointed governor of Hyrcania. 

Astyanax, sometimes known as Scamandrius. 
A Greek legendary character, the son of Hector 
and Andromache. 

Asuncion, a-soon'the-on, or Nuestra Se- 
de a Asuncion (in English, Assump¬ 
tive capital of Paraguay, on the river 
tav The principal edifices are the cathe- 
everal other churches and convents, the 
tit's palace, house of congress, arsenal, 
house, a college, hospital, railway sta- 
The trade of the town is in Paraguay 
jacco, fruits, hides, timber, provisions, 
ctured goods, etc. Steamers and sailing 
ply on the river. The town was founded 
feast of the Assumption in "537, hence 
e. Pop. (1900) $1,700- 

a zirpal, a'soor-na'zer-pal, a king of 
m 881 b.c. to 860. He was one of the 
. ke of Assyrian kmgs, and in numer¬ 
ic . w. rt*d> bfS empire, especially 



toward the westward, extending it from Leba¬ 
non to the Tigris. He also rebuilt Calah, his 
capital, and left a record of his achievements in 
the so-called ( Standard Inscription.> 

Aswal, as'wal, a Hindu name of the sloth- 
bear. See Bears. 

Asy'lum, a place where persons flee for 
protection. Under the Mosaic dispensation cities 
of refuge were set apart to which the slayer 
might flee so that innocent blood should not be 
shed, in case the person was not worthy of 
death—that is, in case the act was accidental and 
not malicious. But among the ancients, outside 
of the Jews, it seems that temples, statues to the 
gods, and altars particularly consecrated for such 
purposes, constituted places of refuge for per¬ 
sons generally, and it was deemed an act of im¬ 
piety to remove, forcibly, one who had fled to 
such an asylum for protection. However, Tibe¬ 
rius abolished all asylums except the temples of 
Juno and Aesculapius. These asylums finally 
passed over to the Christian world, and under 
Constantine the Great, all Christian churches 
were made asylums for all those who were pur¬ 
sued by officers of justice or the violence of their 
enemies, and the younger Theodosius, in the 
year 431, extended these privileges to all court's, 
gardens, walks, and houses belonging to the 
Church. In the year 631 the Synod of Toledo 
extended the limits of asylums 30 paces from 
every church, and this privilege afterward pre¬ 
vailed in Catholic countries, and it is said to 
have been a strong armor of defense against 
the wild spirit of the Middle Ages, and not 
without good consequences at the time when 
force often prevailed against justice. But in 
later times as other and better systems of pro¬ 
cedure in the administration of justice became 
adopted, asylums were abolished in most coun¬ 
tries. This seems to have been the origin, na¬ 
ture, and object of asylums, and such the com¬ 
mon acceptation of the term, but more recently 
in some countries, the name has been given to 
institutions for the protection and care of the 
poor, blind, deaf and dumb, and lunatics who 
are incapable of taking care of themselves. 

Asy'lum, Right of, in international law, 
the right which forbids one government to ap¬ 
ply its laws to its own or its enemy's subjects 
when they are within the jurisdiction of an¬ 
other government. Most commonly this right 
is accorded to a foreign legation to she •* per¬ 
sons subject to the jurisdiction of ' . ■ State 
where the legation is situated. It is universally 
conceded that the right of asylum is not to be 
applied in the case of ordinary criminals, but it 
is usually made use of for the protection of 
political offenders. 

Asymmet'ric (as-i-met'rik) System, in 
crystallography, the crystal form now ore 
commonly called Mriclinic.® It was 
asymmetric because it has no plan of 
try. See Crystal. 

Asymptote, as'im-tot (from 
words, meaning (< not to fall with® 
a term used in geometry to des g 
which continually approaches anc 
never meets it, however far either 
be prolonged. At least one of the int in: b* 
a curve. Though the very exist* .ce cJ 
line seems paradoxical, it can be :emc *'aU c 


* ne- 

?ek 
uae), 
line 
, but 
. may 


v 


AT ODDS — ATACAMITE 


on the strictest mathematical principles, as in 
the case of the hyperbola and its directrix. The 
term first occurs in the conic sections of Apol¬ 
lonius. 

At Odds, the title of a novel by the Baron¬ 
ess Tautphoeus (1863), dealing with the vicis¬ 
situdes of a Bavarian family during a stormy 
epoch from Hohenlinden to Wagram. It is 
told with a happy ease and directness; and 
if it has not the brilliancy of ( The Initials,* is 
not less clever as a study of character. 

Atacama, a'ta-ka'ma, the name, formerly, 
of two South American provinces: (1) A 
northern province of Chile^ with an area of 28,- 
380 square miles, and a population (1895) of 
59,713. About 1,000 silver and 250 copper 
mines are worked, and gold is also found in 
considerable quantities. Salt’ deposits cover 
sometimes 50 stmare miles. Copper, to the 
value of 'over f $7 K 00,000 annually, is the chief 
export to England. Capital, Copiapo. (2) A 
Bolivian Department, which formerly extended 
as far north as Peru, and east to Argentina. All 
that part’ of the district west of the Andes was 
ceded, in 1884, to the Chileans, and formed into 
the Department of Antofagasta, with an area 
of 60,770 square miles. The recently discov¬ 
ered mines of Caracoles are said to be the most 
productive silver mines in the world. The 
former capital, Cobija (pop. 2,380), was long the 
only port in the district; but the rival port of 
Antofagasta, founded in 1870, had by 1894 at¬ 
tained a population of 7,946. 


A sf * 

A'taca'ma, a desert region on the w|it 
coast of South America, formed} bclongv 
partly to Bolivia, partly to Chile, but now 
longing wholly to the latter. It lies ^etweenJpft 
Andes and the sea and much of it at tl : he?§|iT 
of 3,000 to 5,000 feet above the sea. The ins¬ 
ert of Atacama proper, a tract' almost etui^iy 
destitute of water and vegetation, lies pa tjy' in 
the Antofagasta territory of Chile, part y rathe 
province of Atacama. The soil consist^ of 
stones and gravel, and the surface is diversified 
with many mountains. The Salina of AtaJirua, 
a salt morass, mostly dried up, has a - surface 
of 1,084 square mijes, and lies at the heigSt of 
over 7,000 feet. 

Atacamite, -tak'-, a mineral, originally 
found as sand in the Atacama province, in 
northern Chile. It Ip .essentially a hydroxy 
chlorid of copper, having the 
CuC 1 2 . 3 Cu(OH) 2 . It crystallizes in .iWOrtho¬ 
rhombic system,'and has a hardness ot yfrorn 5 
to 3.5, and a specific gravity of 3.76. AtTcnmite 
is green in color, and commonly occurs either 
massive or in the form of sand. A fcoating 
having the same chemical composition *is 'formed 
on metallic copper, as the result of pr^ f *-><- 
exposure to sea-water or air. Ataca 
ists in considerable quantity in var 
of South America, and in Australia 
been used to some extent as a source of copper 
In the United States it is found at Jerome, 
Arizona. 






























































